Fallada's modernist characters

Reinhard Zachau Fallada’s Modernist Characters in his Berlin Novels Little Man, What Now?, Wolf Among Wolves and Every Man Dies Alone Most of Hans Fallada’s novels, whether written during or after the Weimar period, reflect the tension between tradition and modernity that would eventually destroy Weimar society. Fallada had encountered this dichotomy as a journalist for the Neumünster General-Anzeiger covering the Landvolkprozess of 1929 in which the Prussian state was determined to punish the most radical farmers for their violent revolt against state institutions (cf. Crepon 1993). Fallada was familiar with the destructive effects of overtaxing farms from an earlier job at an estate in Pomerania. The contrast between the city where political decisions were made and North Germany’s often still pastoral country life became the topic of his most successful novels. As these novels would show again and again, this stark contrast between the decadent city and traditional provincial life which Ernst Bloch called Germany’s asynchronic perspective or »Ungleichzeitigkeit« represents the fatal flaw in Weimar’s political fabric (Bloch 1962: 113). In this paper I focus on Fallada’s evolving narrative technique from his first great Weimar novel, Little Man, What Now?, conceived and written in the midst of Germany’s Great Depression in 1932, to Wolf unter Wölfen, his second Weimar novel about the inflation of 1923 written during the Nazi period in 1937. In their attempt to alleviate the underlying social tensions by offering solutions based on the characters, Fallada’s novels transcend Neue Sachlichkeit with its claim to be objective and neutral. The reader, Fallada proclaimed in his introduction to his first successful novel Bauern, Bonzen und Bomben (1931), should form his own opinion, as he himself had needed time to sort things out. Fallada’s mission then, became the creation of a literary style that lets readers choose their side in the difficult issues at stake. In both novels, Fallada uses the contrast between city and country to refine his skills of creating opposite character types. In establishing scenic  Despite its intended claim of neutrality the Neue Sachlichkeit has been labeled (by Karl Prümm) a counter-expressionist writing strategy that was primarily used by leftist authors. Fallada Tagung 2009.indb 201 04.08.2011 09:28:06 202 Reinhard K. Zachau contexts with fictional characters Fallada’s texts resemble film scripts where the tension between the environment and the character creates a subtext, which offers each character an individual way to resolve his conflict. The term »Neue Sachlichkeit« originates in art history where it was used to liberate the »objectified« world from its traditional idealist meaning. Walter Benjamin had described modern art as »objectified and free of any notion of an aura« (his term for a religious dimension), and thereby as liberating it from the weight of history (cf. Benjamin 1972). By focusing on the object and its connection to its surroundings, the viewer discovers new relationships and contexts. Thus, Neue Sachlichkeit constitutes a synchronic way of seeing, while the traditional way could be called diachronic in its attempt to understand objects in their historical context. Little Man, What Now? shows everyday life as interaction with objects of daily use, which gives the novel its surface structure. Since Fallada resisted John Dos Passos’ and Alfred Döblin’s radical avant-garde techniques, where people are presented in their existential loneliness and an ice-cold atmosphere (cf. Ulrich 1995), his novels offers a mix of modern and conventional narratives that seem to hide their modernism within a traditional narrative. Fallada’s precise surface descriptions of narrative scenes are never self-supporting, but are always an expression of the interior state of the characters. Tucholsky wrote that Fallada has the proper distance to his characters, close, but never too close; – evidence of his precise training as a journalist where the author disappears behind his story (cf. Tucholsky 1931). Fallada’s dependency on his model Hemingway is evident in his masterful use of mirrors that reflect the psyche of the characters (cf. Zachau 2003). The novel Little Man, What Now? contains several examples of objectifying the experience of the protagonists. How much these interior rooms determined the characters’ lifestyles becomes obvious in looking at a few examples. The gradual decline of Pinneberg and his wife in their rapid descent into poverty is reflected in rooms that are barely habitable. As in Hemingway’s novels, the living quarters in Little Man, What Now? externalize the biographies of the acting novel figures in their belongings and surroundings. Another example is the Pinneberg’s encounter with their first landlady, Frau Scharrenhöfer. Bunny (Lämmchen) Pinneberg, who wants to raise their baby in the room, recognizes the unpractical nature of the old pre-Weimar apartment, where the only mechanical piece is a clock which tells the wrong time. Another example of objectification is the bedroom the elder Mrs Pinneberg wants to rent to the younger Pinnebergs, which contains a huge Rococo style bed whose presence reveals the older Mrs Pinneberg’s yearning for an aristocratic lifestyle. The much-needed clock is missing here, as well as a mirror, to maintain a false sense of security and to show a disdain for history. Another example is the dresser that Pinneberg buys for his wife. Fallada Tagung 2009.indb 202 04.08.2011 09:28:06 Fallada’s Modernist Characters in his Berlin Novels 203 Critics generally described it as celebratory purchase and an expression of his petit bourgeois mentality (cf. Gessler 1976). Pinneberg’s second rental apartment above a movie theater in Berlin is likewise a reminder of the family’s financial situation. The apartment’s proximity to the movie theater opens their private quarters to the public. Pinneberg’s attempt to take back their private sphere by using the ladder instead of the normal staircase echoes the Romantic withdrawal in Ludwig Tieck’s Des Lebens Überfluss (1838) where the stairs are removed to isolate the loving couple from society. The Pinneberg’s apartment next to a movie theater that broadcasts narratives about the lives of little men serves as an amplification of their inability to withdraw from society. The Pinnebergs themselves watched such a movie and, after later meeting the actor who played the little man, Pinneberg realizes the significant difference between life and reality. The actor shows no sympathy towards his plight and is responsible for Pinneberg’s dismissal from his job. The final scene showing Pinneberg reflected in a shopping window in the famous Friedrichstraße reveals his situation: There was a big delicatessen, brilliantly illuminated. Pinneberg pressed his nose flat against the window, perhaps there was someone still there whose attention he could attract by knocking. He had to get his butter and bananas! A voice beside him said, in a low tone: »Move along there!« … [R]eflected in the window as another figure: a pale outline without a collar, in a shabby coat, with trouser besmirched with tar. And suddenly Pinneberg understood everything. Faced with this policeman, these respectable people, the bright shop window he understood that he was on the outside now, that he didn’t belong here any more, and that it was perfectly correct to chase him away. Down the slippery slope, sunk without trace, utterly destroyed. (Little Man, What Now, 314) Pinneberg, who can no longer afford proper business attire, sees himself in front of several well-dressed evening strollers in Berlin’s luxury shopping district for what he really is: A run-down unemployed bum, useless to society, pushed around by the police as an undesirable element. The contrast in appearance in the shopping window is so great that he immediately ac-  »Da ist eine große Delikatessenhandlung, strahlend erleuchtet. Pinneberg drückt sich die Nase platt an der Scheibe, vielleicht ist hinten jemand im Verkaufsraum, dem er klopfen könnte. [...] Eine Stimme sagt halblaut neben ihm: ›Gehen Sie weiter.‹ [...] [I]n der spiegelnden Scheibe des Fensters steht noch einer, ein blasser Schemen, ohne Kragen, mit schäbigem Ulster, mit teerbeschmierter Hose. Und plötzlich begreift Pinneberg alles, angesichts dieses Schupo, dieser ordentlichen Leute, dieser blanken Scheibe begreift er, dass er draußen ist, dass er hier nicht mehr hergehört, dass man ihn zu Recht wegjagt: ausgerutscht, versunken, erledigt.« (Fallada 1950: 301) Fallada Tagung 2009.indb 203 04.08.2011 09:28:06 204 Reinhard K. Zachau cepts the policeman’s authority and disappears to run back to his suburban squatter’s shack. In his inflation novel Wolf Among Wolves Fallada replicates this scene of a person in front of a delicatessen with the cavalry captain von Prackwitz parading down Friedrichstraße. However, with the introduction of the estate owner von Prackwitz as protagonist, the scene loses the transformative centrality it had in Little Man, What Now? When the Rittmeister visited Berlin one of his chief amusements was to stroll along Friedrichstrasse and a stretch of the Leipziger, and look at the shops. Not that he made large purchases, or intended to – no, the show windows amused him. […] [O]r he entered a delicatessen shop. However worthless money might have become, here all the showcases were bursting: green asparagus from Italy, artichokes from France […]. Life went on in Friedrichstrasse rather as one imagined it must in an Oriental bazaar. […] A policeman came in sight, looking peevish beneath his lacquered military shako. […] But the girls were the worst. […] The Rittmeister felt as if he heard them all running and shouting: »Nothing has any value but money.« (Wolf Among Wolves, 63–65) In a previous scene the novel had portrayed Berlin as a place of broken windows mirroring its desolate economic condition after the Versailles treaty, where dreams are no longer possible. Like Pinneberg, von Prackwitz recognizes the allure of the delicatessen store behind the window reflection. But now the black market and the prostitutes are a stronger reality than in Little Man, What Now? since economic conditions have been far worse. The rundown appearance of the hagglers and the worn-out women where even the policeman so powerful in Little Man, What Now? had to step aside to contribute to the portrait of an exhausted city. Street haggling has replaced the opulence behind the shopping windows. The scene ends with the existential bleakness of a Hemingway scenario, »Seize the day, we may be dead tomorrow!«. This scene is important to build up the protagonist von Prackwitz, a Prussian estate owner, who is disillusioned by the city and the economic  »Sooft der Rittmeister von Prackwitz auch nach Berlin kam, zu seinen Hauptvergnügungen gehörte es, einmal die Friedrichstraße und ein Stück Leipziger entlangzuschlendern und in die Läden zu schauen. Nicht etwa, daß er große Einkäufe machte oder auch nur beabsichtigte, nein, die Schaufenster freuten ihn. [...] [D]er Rittmeister ging in ein Delikatessengeschäft – und das Geld mochte noch so wertlos geworden sein, hier standen alle Fächer brechend voll: grüner Spargel aus Italien, Artischocken aus Frankreich [...]. [E]s ging auf der Friedrichstraße zu, wie man sich etwa einen morgenländischen Basar vorstellte. [...] Ein Schupo kam in Sicht, verdrossen ausschauend unter seinem lackierten Landwehrtschako. [...] Aber am schlimmsten waren die Mädchen. Überall strichen sie herum, riefen, flüsterten, hängten sich bei jedem ein, liefen mit, lachten. [...] Dem Rittmeister war es, als höre er sie alle rufen, schreien, jagen: nichts gilt außer Geld! Geld!!« (Wolf unter Wölfen, vol. I, 62 f.) Fallada Tagung 2009.indb 204 04.08.2011 09:28:06 Fallada’s Modernist Characters in his Berlin Novels 205 collapse he blames on Germany’s incompetent government. For the country nobleman Friedrichstraße becomes the space where the disaster manifests itself which he vows to fight to the bitter end. The jobless urban middle class citizen Pinneberg has no energy for resistance and immediately gives in to social rules. As von Prackwitz is not directly affected by the Friedrichstraße shopping experience, but rather observes with flaneur-like interest, he can begin a strategy throughout the novel that eventually results in his participation in counter-revolutionary activities. The changed narrative strategy is also apparent in Fallada’s introduction of the novel characters in each novel. While Little Man, What Now? introduces a deceptively simple story along the lines of Hollywood movies with Bunny finding out at the doctor’s office she is pregnant while Pinneberg tries to persuade the doctor to do an abortion, Wolf Among Wolves starts with a desolate scene that seems directly modeled after Hemingway’s novels: A man and a woman sleep in a miserable backyard apartment in one of Berlin’s tenements buildings near Alexanderplatz. The precise and unemotional description of a man and woman from an outsider perspective shows the two bodies as objects placed in their historical context: »This is Berlin, Georgenkirchstrasse, third courtyard, fourth floor. July 1923, at six o’clock in the morning. The dollar stands for the moment at 414,000 marks.« (Wolf Among Wolves, 3–4) By including the space around the two sleepers the text gives an impression of Germany’s misery: Out of the dark well of the courtyard the smells from a hundred lodgings drifted into their sleep. […] In spite of the early hours and the clear sky, a dull vapor hung over the city. […] In the neglected parks the trees let fall faded leaves. | An early main-line train from the east approached Schlesischer Bahnhof – the wreck of a train, with rattling windows broken panes and torn cushions. (Wolf Among Wolves, 3 f.) Like Döblin, Fallada combines random collage elements to give a quick preview, similar to film with wide-angle, medium and close-up shots focusing    This is at almost the same location as Franz Biberkopf ’s living quarters in Alfred Döblin‘s Berlin Alexanderplatz. »Es ist Berlin, Georgenkirchstraße, dritter Hinterhof, vier Treppen, Juli 1923, der Dollar steht jetzt – um 6 Uhr morgens – vorläufig noch auf 141 Tausend Mark.« (Fallada 1952: 9) »In den Schlaf der beiden sandte der dunkle Schacht des Hinterhofs die flauen Gerüche aus hundert Wohnungen. [...] Über der Stadt lag – trotz früher Stunde und klaren Himmels – ein trüber Dunst. [...] Die Bäume in den verwahrlosten Anlagen ließen fahl die Blätter hängen. | Dem Schlesischen Bahnhof näherte sich, aus dem Osten des Reiches kommend, ein früher Fernzug, mit klappernden Fenstern, zerbrochenen Scheiben, zerschnittenen Polstern – die Ruine eines Zuges.« (Fallada 1952: 9) Fallada Tagung 2009.indb 205 04.08.2011 09:28:06 206 Reinhard K. Zachau on different layers of reality. With its quickly changing perspectives, Wolf Among Wolves presents an aesthetic progression from Little Man’s mostly close-up perspectives of the Pinneberg’s struggles with Weimar’s unemployment during the Great Depression. In this second Weimar novel, Fallada gradually abandoned his original journalistic »close-up« perspective and employed a more balanced multifaceted approach to include larger parts of German society. By limiting the first part of Wolf Among Wolves to one day and one night Fallada can show the hectic atmosphere of the time exacerbated by the continuously rising dollar exchange rate and the frantic search for money. In a scene that shows Fallada’s intention of building up his female protagonist Petra Ledig, the shabbiness of the tenement building is contrasted with her attempt to escape the environment. Although Petra had worked as a prostitute, she realizes that the time has come to establish her independence. In confronting her landlady and coworker she insists on acting sophisticated and not as downtrodden and cheap as was expected. Although both coworkers challenge her attitude as arrogant and ridicule her belief that she can free herself from her current situation she rejects her status as a prostitute and begins the first step towards her independence. Eventually, she manages a life as a reputable middle-class citizen, although her story would not be completed until the end of the novel. As a climactic scene Petra’s beginning to take control of her life in this key scene reverses Pinneberg’s anticlimactic realization in Little Man of having dropped out of his class. Andrea Rudolph considers this change in the development of Fallada’s novel characters a decisive moment in his writing. Labeling Fallada’s later Weimar characters »habitus«-oriented with a preconditioned personality structure that cannot be altered by social conditions they are able to transcend class borders (cf. Rudolph 2003: 114 f.), which Rudolph considers the major reason for their lasting popularity. Fallada’s characters are, Rudolph writes, predetermined by their biographies, but are able to step out of their predetermined biography. With his shift from socially dependent characters in Little Man, What Now? to independently acting individuals in Wolf Among Wolves Fallada created a world similar to the one French social novels of the nineteenth century presented with their focus on the powers of the individual (cf. Rudolph 2006: 52). R. L. Tinsley had maintained a similar idea when he asserted that Fallada’s writing focused on autonomous individuals under difficult conditions who maintained their individuality against the hostile environment (cf. Tinsley 1965). Hermann Broch described these characters as developed »aus dem Eigen-Sein« (from the individual’s properties), but also criticized Fallada’s novels for their individual solutions (Müller-Waldeck 1995). To Broch individual solutions during the times of Nazi oppression seemed an Fallada Tagung 2009.indb 206 04.08.2011 09:28:06 Fallada’s Modernist Characters in his Berlin Novels 207 escape. But as Broch also attests, Fallada had found his own writing style in his later novels where characters are still described in the matter-of-fact way of Neue Sachlichkeit, but are increasingly able to overcome the limitations of their bleak surroundings. Thus Fallada offers his readers a two-step approach by presenting characters whose inner powers he gradually develops in increasingly difficult situations. The change from Hans Pinneberg to Petra Ledig represents a concept that he completed in his last work, the influential anti-war novel Jeder stirbt für sich allein, published in 1947 (Fallada 2009). After returning from Moscow in 1945 the expressionist poet and eventual cultural secretary of the GDR, Johannes R. Becher, persuaded Fallada, who he considered one of the greatest realists to write about recent German history (cf. Becher 1947). As a member of the provisional Soviet government in Germany Becher had access to the Gestapo files. Among them he found the case of Elise and Otto Hampel, who had been executed for distributing anti-Nazi material. Fallada changed their names to Anna and Otto Quangel and changed the death of Anna’s brother who had been killed in the French campaign in 1940 to the death of their son Otto Jr., or Ottochen. Based on the Hampel file Fallada’s assignment was to submit an antiwar novel by the end of 1946 from the DEFA would produce a movie. The assignment challenged Fallada’s creativity to expand his previous experience with film scripts. The resulting novel Jeder stirbt für sich allein is arguably Fallada’s most film-oriented text in which he was able to expand his concept of showing fictional characters in spaces that provoke action. For the novel Fallada invented realistic characters that give an insider perspective of wartime-Berlin, according to James Buchan »a staff of vivid low-life characters, stoolies, thieves and whores, Nazi veterans in a haze of drink, as well as ordinary working-people trying to put food on the table. Here is the resistance of the small man, perilous, disorganized, irresponsible, perverse, brave and almost wholly futile.« (Buchan 2009) How does Fallada achieve this powerful degree of realism in his last novel? In one of his few self-reflective analyses of his writing he described his approach. Because he had been afraid the gloomy subject would upset readers,   Manfred Kuhnke maintains that Becher deliberately withheld the fourth volume of the Gestapo files from Fallada because they show how Elise Hampel betrayed her husband under pressure from the Gestapo. According to Kuhnke, by hiding the fourth volume Becher wanted to influence Fallada’s portrayal of the Hampels/ Quangels to a more heroic resistance fight. Cf. Kuhnke 1991 and Kuhnke 2011, 25–47. Like Jeder stirbt für sich allein, the 1938 novel Der eiserne Gustav had also been commissioned for a movie. Fallada Tagung 2009.indb 207 04.08.2011 09:28:06 208 Reinhard K. Zachau he needed to counter-balance the eventual execution of the poor Quangels with »some color« only a detective story could provide. The first chapter, according to Fallada, should set the tone for the story as the entry door does for a house. In Jeder stirbt für sich allein the author leads us into his novel with the mail-carrier Eva Kluge delivering the mail door to door in the tenement building, first to the stanch Nazi family Persicke, who used to own a Berlin pub, but have risen to prominence in the Nazi hierarchy. Kluge, who has kind words for all her letter recipients, then rings the Quangels’ door, aware of the fateful content of her letter, their son’s official death notice. Otto Quangel, who had been a middle-class craftsman, was now working for a company manufacturing mortar shell boxes and coffins. Other tenants are introduced, among them the retired state prosecutor Fromm and the Jewish widow Rosenthal. Along with the main characters in this apartment building we encounter Eva Kluge’s husband Enno, an occasional petty criminal who is connected to wartime Berlin’s underworld. The critic Adam Soboczynski sees this social mixture of the tenement building setup as the main reason for the novel’s attraction since it allows the reader a glimpse into the secretive goings-on in the closed-off world of a country at war. Soboczynski describes the overarching atmosphere during Berlin’s wartime shortages as one of corruption and greed (cf. Soboczynski 2011).10 Fallada’s kaleidoscopic narrative with its focus on petty fortune seekers underscores Otto Quangel’s noble character, gradually developed throughout the story. Obviously, the Soviet financed DEFA was not interested in a blatant anti-fascist propaganda story, but wanted to appeal to the »average« German who had become increasingly disenchanted with the Nazi government and needed to be won over by the Russian authorities. Otto Quangel sees the basic principle of fairness and justice (Gerechtigkeit) violated by the Nazis. Quangel’s character undergoes a major change in a key scene, Quangel and his son’s girlfriend Trudel Baumann meeting in Quangel’s workplace in front of a Gestapo poster that displays resistance fighters who had been executed: And a vision appears before him of how one day a poster with his own name and Anna’s and Trudel’s might be put up on the wall … He shakes his head unhappily. He is a simple worker, he just wants peace and quiet, nothing to do with politics, and Anna just attends to the household and a lovely girl like Trudel will surely have Angelika Kieser-Reinke’s study is documents Fallada’s narrative strategy in greater detail (Kieser-Reinke 1979). 10 Soboczynski considers Fallada’s book as confirming Götz Aly’s theory that the Nazi government survived by exploitation of the weak (cf. Aly 2005).  Fallada Tagung 2009.indb 208 04.08.2011 09:28:06 Fallada’s Modernist Characters in his Berlin Novels 209 found herself a new boyfriend before long …  But the vision won’t go away. Our names on the walls, he thinks, completely confused now. And why not? Hanging on the gallows is no worse than being ripped apart by a shell, or dying from a bullet in the guts. All that doesn’t matter. The only thing that matter is this: I must find out what it is with Hitler. Suddenly all I see is oppression and hate and suffering, so much suffering …  »Papa,« she says, »I will never forget that when I stood crying over Otto, it was in front of a poster like this. Perhaps – I don’t want it to be – but perhaps it’ll be my name on a poster like that one day.« (Fallada 2009: 32)11 The gruesome posters in the background represents the brutal Nazi reality Quangel had blocked out so long, but which he is now forced to confront. It is these posters that have a profound effect on him as he is looking at the wall and talking to Trudel. As Quangel quickly finds out, the girl has already gone much further in her resistance to the Nazis and had joined an underground group. In this single scene Fallada shows how Quangel’s simple character is changed into a political being and into an eventual resistance fighter. An encounter with Mrs Rosenthal who his wife has been hiding in their apartment further hardens his resolve to act against the Nazis, but to act alone: »I don’t want to be dragged into other people’s funny business. If it is to be my head on the block, I want to know what it’s doing there, and not that it’s some stupid things that other people have done.« (ebd.: 69) He is a loner, who wants to take on the Nazis »Alone in Berlin«, as the title of the new British translation suggests (32). Even the apolitical Fallada would have recognized this approach as utterly un-Marxist with its rejection of any solidarity and party affiliation, which fit his own cautious agenda during the Nazi time. »Going it alone« follows Fallada’s aesthetic principle with the environment triggering a reaction in his character through which it will eventually be 11 »Und wie eine Vision steigt es vor ihm auf, dass eines Tages solch ein Plakat mit den Namen von ihm und Anna und Trudel an den Wänden kleben könnte. Er schüttelt unmutig den Kopf. Er ist ein einfacher Handarbeiter, der nur seine Ruhe haben und nichts von Politik wissen will, Anna kümmert sich nur um ihren Haushalt, und solch ein bildhübsches Mädel wie die Trudel dort wird bald einen neuen Freund gefunden haben … | Aber die Vision ist hartnäckig, sie bleibt. Unsere Namen an der Wand, denkt er, nun völlig verwirrt. Und warum eigentlich nicht? Am Galgen hängen ist auch nicht schlimmer, als von einer Granate zerrissen zu werden oder am Bauchschuss krepieren! Das alles ist nicht wichtig. Was allein wichtig ist, das ist: Ich muss rauskriegen, was das mit dem Hitler ist. Erst schien doch alles gut zu sein, und nun plötzlich ist alles schlimm. Plötzlich sehe ich nur Unterdrückung und Hass und Zwang und Leid, so viel Leid […]. | ›Ich werd nie vergessen, Vater‹, sagt sie, ›dass ich grade vor so einem Plakat wegen Otto geheult habe. Vielleicht – ich möcht’s nicht –, aber vielleicht wird auch mal mein Name auf so einem Wisch stehen.‹« (Fallada 2011: 37 f.) Fallada Tagung 2009.indb 209 04.08.2011 09:28:06 210 Reinhard K. Zachau transformed. The contact with the environment awakens their unconscious thoughts and feelings that will help them become autonomous human beings. As Otto Quangel came to be at ease with himself in Jeder stirbt für sich allein because he did the right thing, so did Petra Ledig who found her dignity in all her despondency in Weimar Germany, as did Hans Pinneberg who came to live in peace with the idea of unemployment. Fallada’s protagonists began their journey on their own, after their despair and loneliness have been revealed in a confrontational scene with the authorities. Literatur Aly, Götz (2005): Hitler’s Beneficiaries: Plunder, Racial War, and the Nazi Welfare State. New York: Henry Holt. Becher, Johannes R. (1947): Was nun? Zu Hans Falladas Tod. In: Aufbau 2, H. 3, 97–101. 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