Demography, Migration, and the Labour Market in the UAE
MIGRATION
POLICY CENTRE
Demography, Migration, and the
Labour Market in the UAE
Gulf Labour Markets and Migration
GLMM - EN - No. 7/2015
Explanatory Note No. 7/2015
EXPLANATORY NOTE
Françoise De Bel-Air
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Gulf Labour Markets and Migration
Demography, Migration, and the Labour Market in the UAE
Demography, Migration, and the
Labour Market in the UAE
Françoise De Bel-Air
Abstract: he objective of the paper is to draw a sketch of UAE’s population and migration dynamics,
using the scarce data available from the federal and emirate-level statistical bureaus. In 2010, expatriates
in the UAE were estimated to number 7,316,073 persons, twenty times the 1975’s igure of 356,343. Foreign nationals thus made up 88.5 per cent of the country’s total population; most were believed to come
from Asia and especially from India. In the employed population, foreign nationals accounted for an even
larger share (96 per cent of the Dubai’s employed population in 2011). Non-Emiratis comprised 40 per
cent of the UAE’s public sector’s workforce in 2013, but as much as 99.5 per cent of those employed in
the private sector. Unlike in other GCC states, a quarter of working expatriates were in managerial posts,
employed across all activities’ spectrum. Expatriates’ demographic expansion mounted during the 2000s,
a period of spectacular economic growth fuelled by soaring oil prices. Since 2008’s inancial downturn,
however, the economy recovered and the hiring of foreign workers has resumed, stimulated by large-scale
projects such as Dubai’s Expo 2020. Nonetheless, reforms in immigration policies are now undertaken,
fuelled by security concerns and pressures from human rights’ protection bodies. he reality of some expatriates’ settlement is also witnessed in numbers (expatriate children aged 0-14 outnumbered Emirati
children already in 2005), while mixed marriages are acknowledged in policies: some naturalisations of
children of Emirati mothers have been performed since 2011.
Keywords: United Arab Emirates; Foreign Population; National Population; National and Foreign
Labour; Migration Policy; Statistics; Human Rights; Family Reuniication; Second Generation.
B
efore oil was irst discovered in the late 1950s in Abu Dhabi, and in 1966 in Dubai, the then Trucial States under British rule had attracted various lows of migrants: merchants from the Indian
subcontinent, Baluchi families, and seasonal workers and traders from neighbouring Persia, among
whom were the Ajamis, a class of merchants mostly settled in Dubai since the mid-nineteenth century.
Abu Dhabi was the irst of the emirates to begin exporting oil in 1962. hat same year, expatriates were
Explanatory Note No. 7/2015
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estimated to half of its population.1 After the 1973 oil boom, large streams of foreign workers continued
entering the newly formed United Arab Emirates (UAE), a federation of seven emirates created in 1971
under the leadership of Abu Dhabi and Dubai.
In these two emirates, as well as in Sharjah, the population soared dramatically between the late
1960s and 1980: from 44,000 to 420,000 in Abu Dhabi and from 59,000 to 279,000 in Dubai. Expatriates, who made up 72 per cent of the total population that year, comprised mainly European and Arab
workers, as well as Asians due to the historical ties between the territory and the subcontinent. However,
like elsewhere in the Middle East, the fear of “revolutionary” ideologies supposedly held by Arabs (Nasserism, Baathism) and of labour-led claims led to their progressive replacement by Asian workers, who
were also deemed cheaper to employ. hese new labourers from the Philippines, Bangladesh, and Sri
Lanka, for instance, swelled the ranks of formerly established communities from Pakistan and India, of
whom Keralites (people from the Indian state of Kerala) made up the bulk. he Iranian revolution in
1979, and the First Gulf War of 1990-1991 that forced Yemenis, Jordanians, and Palestinians out of the
country, put a halt to the recruitment of an Arab workforce.
Soaring oil prices during the 2000s gave a new impetus to the hiring of large numbers of foreign
workers from everywhere in the world, including the Arab states. Two-digit rates of economic and
demographic growth during the decade propelled this new phase of development, characterised by attempts to reduce the country’s dependency on oil exports and diversify the economy. Every emirate designed a master plan to monitor its development process, which pointed to the huge manpower needed
to perform such labour-intensive activities as construction and infrastructure development. Yet, development of the business, tourism, inancial, and education sectors is also high on the agenda, and these
sectors mostly attract highly skilled professionals in a wide range of specialisations. For instance,2 the
Vision 2020 Plan outlined in 2003 by the Emirate of Sharjah focussed on improving urban and community developments, as well as boosting tourism, developing academic institutions, and promoting trade
and investment. Dubai embarked on early diversiication of its economy toward developing the ports,
trade, services, and inance sectors. he emirate’s Strategic Plan 2015, unveiled in 2007, touched on urban
planning, energy, roads and transportation, and the environment. Owing to the credit boom that built up
after 2000, Dubai also turned itself into the inancial gateway and cosmopolitan hub of the Middle East.
Between 1995 and 2005, Dubai city’s size quadrupled and its population doubled. he 2030 roadmap for
the Emirate of Abu Dhabi was announced in April 2009. he vision laid out for the development of Al
Ain, the second biggest city in the emirate, focused on the provision of better transportation and housing
for UAE nationals, as well as on environmental protection. Abu Dhabi’s development plan included new
industries, cultural attractions, hotels, schools, and hospitals. Yet, maintaining a balance between managing population growth (it is forecasted that the population of the capital could treble in the coming two
decades) on the one hand, and fostering tourism and trade while preserving the city’s cultural heritage
and natural environment on the other, was deemed a priority.
his development phase enhanced the distinct characteristics of each of the seven Emirates, and
especially, the diferent development paths chosen by Abu Dhabi and Dubai. he UAE’s oil reserves are
the fourth largest in the world; however, 95 per cent of these resources as well as 92 per cent of the gas
reserves accrue to Abu Dhabi. It funds much of the federal budget from the huge revenues generated
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Gulf Labour Markets and Migration
Demography, Migration, and the Labour Market in the UAE
by its hydrocarbons as well as by the Abu Dhabi Investment Authority (ADIA), believed to be one of
the largest sovereign wealth funds worldwide. By contrast, Dubai’s dependency on foreign direct investments (FDI), particularly in “mega real estate projects,” explains why the emirate was hard hit by 2008’s
inancial crisis. he global rate of growth of GDP fell from 5.2 per cent in 2007 to -2.2 per cent in 2009.3
Projects were put on hold, companies went bankrupt, and many expatriates (exact numbers unknown)
left Dubai, some of them relocating to Abu Dhabi and others leaving the UAE. Abu Dhabi’s inancial
assistance to Dubai during the crisis solidiied the economic and socio-political power of the capital
city. Abu Dhabi’s more “conservative” visions of social structure and migrants’ incorporation, especially,
can be witnessed in the recent responses given to burning issues such as long-term migrants’ naturalisation. he enduring pre-eminence of blood descent (nasab, genealogy)4 in granting citizenship over jus
solis and services rendered is a marked feature of the UAE naturalisation process under the rule of the
Al-Nahyan, which runs against the more inclusive perception of former Dubai ruler Shaikh Rashid bin
Saeed Al-Maktoum.5
From the early 2010s, the UAE signiicantly reformed its migration policies for a number of reasons. First is the emergence of nationals’ unemployment (9.2 per cent in the total population, 17.2 per
cent for the 15-29 age group)6 a politically sensitive issue7 which called for improving the monitoring of
labour migration to the UAE. Security concerns also led to tightened control over migrants suspected
of political activities. Several waves of Lebanese expatriates have been expelled since 2009, some under
the accusation of sympathy with Hezbollah;8 Syrian and Palestinian families were also asked to leave
the country.9 Since 2011, hiring workers from Tunisia, Egypt, and other countries afected by the Arab
uprisings has become more diicult too.10 Irregular migrants were also targeted by rounding up operations and amnesty campaigns. Several of the latter took place in 2012-2013 and the two-month amnesty
ending February 4, 2013 led to the exit of 62,000 irregulars.11 More recently, a six-month amnesty starting on January 4 and due to run until June 2015 was granted to irms to adjust their employees’ labour
cards with reduced ines.12 he Foreigners and Illegals Sector of the General Directorate of Residency
and Foreigners Afairs (GDRFA) in Dubai conducted a total number of 224,548 transactions. he number of sponsor complaints the GDRFA received in 2014 about matters such as employees leaving work
decreased by six per cent when compared with 2013.13
Furthermore, the creation of the Emirates Identity Authority (EIDA) tasked with identifying and
cataloguing all residents (they are now required to obtain personal identiication cards [Emirates ID],
and be incorporated in the population registry) signiicantly enhanced the monitoring of expatriate
populations.14 By the end of 2013 (last data available at the time of writing), EIDA stated that 95.22
per cent of Emiratis and 95.33 per cent of foreign residents were enrolled in the population register.15
Lastly, the call by various international human rights organizations as well as sending countries
for the protection of migrants’ rights, especially after several demonstrations by Asian workers claiming
appalling work and salary conditions on construction sites in the mid-2000s, has led to the introduction
of a number of new measures. A speciic action plan to raise awareness on human rights-related labour
issues was outlined by the Labour Ministry at the beginning of 2009, coordinated by 17 government departments and including the private sector. A newly-established facility at Dubai Police which monitors
human traicking also has the mandate to address workers’ complaints. A Wage Protection System was
Explanatory Note No. 7/2015
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established by the Ministry of Labour, besides a Decent Work Programme in coordination with the ILO.
Labour inspections and settlement of labour disputes were signiicantly enhanced. Since 2009, a pilot
project to survey and document best practices in the management of the temporary contractual employment cycle is run within the realm of the Abu Dhabi Declaration group, which includes Middle East
receiving and Asian manpower sending countries.16 he UAE also reformed its sponsorship system by
abolishing the no-objection certiicates (NOC) (that prevented workers from moving jobs without their
employer’s consent), for employees who have been in a job for two years.17 Lastly, permitting some categories of expatriate professionals to work in Dubai without the need for a sponsor was under discussion
as of early 2015.18 Regarding domestic workers, the UAE Federal National Council in 2012 approved
legislation to address the protection of their rights. In 2013, the UAE government amended a federal law
to better safeguard victims of human traicking and launched an awareness-raising campaign targeting
those who may be in a position to combat traicking, such as airport security personnel.19
he UAE has now entered a new phase of post-crisis booming development, for instance with the
successful bid for Expo 2020 won by Dubai. In spite of the extraordinary rates of population growth
and demographic imbalance characterising the country today, the enhancement of political control and
management of resources, natural and human, seems to be the most striking trend in the new migration
policies in the UAE, characterising the post-inancial crisis era.
Inward Migration
Stocks
Data Issues
In contrast to other GCC countries which have set up a population registry like Kuwait and Oman, in
the UAE population igures and demographic characteristics of the resident population (Emiratis and
foreigners) are not yet disclosed to the public in real time. Since 1971, ive censuses have been conducted
at the federal level: in 1975; 1980; 1985; 1995; and 2005. As of April 2015, the last comprehensive population census available was that of 2005. he federal census originally due to be carried out in April 2010
under the supervision of the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS, the federal entity in charge of statistical
research) was eventually cancelled.20 Only Abu Dhabi and Fujairah conducted an emirate-level census
in 2011.21 Sharjah oicially announced it would organise its population census by the end of 2015 and
Ajman in 2016.22
herefore, intercensal population data as well as post-2005 igures are estimates, underlining the
fragility of UAE’s population statistics as also pointed out by some international agencies.23 Population
projections and estimates in the UAE have to be taken with caution, for two sets of reasons. First, the
scale of irregular sojourn and labour cannot be overlooked, given the speed of population growth in the
country, and especially in Dubai, partly due to the dependency of UAE’s economy on labour-intensive
sectors such as the construction sector. Second, the methodology used to project population igures since
2010 was recently questioned, as it led to the release of extraordinary rates of demographic growth, for
example in Ras Al-Khaimah where the population was said to have jumped from 267,000 inhabitants in
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Gulf Labour Markets and Migration
Demography, Migration, and the Labour Market in the UAE
2009 to 413,000 in 2010.24 Consequently, the population igures for the UAE at every geographic level
have to be considered with caution.
Figure 1: Evolution of UAE’s total population and growth rate (1975-2010)
9,000
25.0
20.0
7,000
6,000
15.0
5,000
4,000
10.0
3,000
2,000
5.0
Annual growth rate (%)
Total popula on (in 1000s)
8,000
1,000
Males
Source: NBS.
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1990
1989
1988
1987
1986
1985
1984
1983
1982
1981
1980
1979
1978
1977
1976
1975
0
Females
Total
0.0
Annual growth rates (total populaon)
Table 1: Evolution of population and demographic growth rates in
Abu Dhabi and Dubai (selected years, 1968-2013)
Abu Dhabi
Total
populaon
1968
1975
1980
1985
1995
2000
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
44,552
196,539
420,455
553,668
920,271
1,112,716
1,374,169
1,461,478
1,574,281
1,695,788
1,826,674
1,967,659
2,161,619
2,334,570
2,453,100
Dubai
Av. annual growth
rate per period (%)
21
15
6
5
4
4
6
7
7
7
7
9
8
5
Total
populaon
59,000
183,187
276,301
370,788
689,420
862,387
1,321,453
1,421,812
1,529,792
1,645,973
1,770,978
1,905,476
2,003,170
2,105,875
2,213,845
Av. annual growth
rate per period (%)
16
8
6
6
4
9
7
7
7
7
7
5
5
5
Source: SCAD, Abu Dhabi and DSC, Dubai.
Explanatory Note No. 7/2015
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Population and Immigration
At the end of the year 2010 (last available data), estimates of UAE total population stood at 8,064,270
persons.25 his would signify that UAE’s resident population has multiplied by 28 since 1971, the year
the country was established, at a stunning average growth rate of 8.4 per cent annually. he hike in
population numbers was particularly pronounced from 2000 until 2008, the onset of the world inancial
crisis. Annual demographic growth rates peaked at more than 20 per cent in this period,26 before collapsing below 2 per cent per annum in 2009-2010 (Fig. 1). More recent time-series, only available for
the emirates of Dubai and Abu Dhabi (Tab. 1), conirm the relative slowdown in annual demographic
growth rates: 4.5 per cent in Dubai as of mid-2013, 5 per cent in Abu Dhabi (5.2 per cent for the nonEmirati residents of Abu Dhabi alone). Yet, the igures show that the two economic heavyweights were
afected diferently by the crisis: Abu Dhabi’s rising rates of demographic growth in 2010-2012 suggest
that some of the population moved from Dubai to Abu Dhabi.27
High levels of immigration explain the UAE’s high demographic growth rates. Non-Emiratis were
356,343 in 1975 after the irst oil boom, thus accounting for 64 per cent of the resident population.
hirty-ive years later, in 2010, according to NBS’s estimate, their number had multiplied by twenty to
an estimated 7,316,073 persons, or 88.5 per cent of the resident population as a whole. As noticed earlier,
demographic expansion was particularly high during the 2000s: Between 2005 and 2010, nationals grew
by 2.8 per cent annually on average, while foreign residents’ rates of growth reached 16 per cent, which
is a very high igure.28
Figure 2: UAE’s total population and estimates of the proportion of non-nationals
in census years (1975; 1980; 1985; 1995; 2005 and 2010)
9,000,000
8,000,000
88.5%
Total UAE populaon
7,000,000
6,000,000
5,000,000
4,000,000
3,000,000
79.9%
2,000,000
1,000,000
75.6%
63.9%
72.1%
0
1975
* mid-year esmate
Source: NBS.
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Gulf Labour Markets and Migration
1980
Emiras
71.3%
1985
1995
Non-Emiras
2005
2010*
Demography, Migration, and the Labour Market in the UAE
Each of the seven emirates of the Federation displays a diferent demographic situation, partly due
to the diversity of economic paths chosen by each of them, as was described in the introductory section.
he most populated regions, Abu Dhabi and Dubai, hosted two-thirds of the total as well as foreign
populations in the UAE in 2005. However, the share of non-nationals ranged from 55 per cent in the
small Emirate of Ajman to 90 per cent of all residents in Dubai that same year. As of 2011, census results for Fujairah showed 61 per cent expatriates in the emirate’s population.29 A 2013 estimate for Abu
Dhabi was 495,368 Emiratis and 1,957,728 expatriates, or a proportion of 79.8 per cent expatriates.30
In Dubai, the results of the 2011 Labour Force Survey revealed a proportion of 92.6 per cent expatriates
in the emirate’s population (aged 15 and above).
Total populaon (in 1000s)
Figure 3: UAE population by nationality and proportion of non-Emiratis,
by Emirate (2005)
1,600
1,400
1,200
1,000
800
600
400
200
0
75%
90%
83%
58%
Abu
Dhabi
Dubai
Al
Sharjah
Emiras
81%
Ras Al
Ajman
Khaima
non-Emiras
55%
Al
Fujairah
68%
Umm Al
- Quwain
Source: Census 2005.
Population Structure
he UAE resident foreign population is imbalanced demographically like in all other GCC states. Men
outnumbered women by 1 to 3.5 in 2010 in the total population aged 15 and above. Within the foreign
population alone, there were four men for every woman.31 In Dubai, the sex ratio is 308 men for 100
women and in Abu Dhabi, 380 men for 100 women, in the non-national population.32 hose in working age groups made up as much as 85 per cent of foreign residents in 2005 (88 per cent in Abu Dhabi
in 2013). Concerning education, 55.8 per cent of non-Emiratis held below-secondary education in 2005
(a level similar to that of Emiratis). However, the share of tertiary educated (holding university degrees)
was higher among foreign nationals (15 per cent), than among Emiratis that year (11.8 per cent).
Indeed, the spectacular levels of economic growth experienced by the UAE over the 2000s gave
an impetus to the settlement of a very diverse foreign population. No recent demographic data on
non-national residents disaggregated by nationality is available in the UAE. Estimates published in the
media, retrieved from embassy sources, suggest that the top-ranking nationalities in the UAE were Indians, by far the largest national community with 2.6 million; Pakistanis (1.2 million); and Bangladeshis
Explanatory Note No. 7/2015
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(700,000). Emiratis would thus be ranking third in numbers with 1.085 million nationals.33 he expatriates-to-nationals’ demographic gap is even larger among the working population. In 2011, in the emirate
of Dubai, non-nationals made up 96 per cent of the estimated 1,325,949 employed residents.34 heir
distribution by nationality group emphasises the clear numeric domination of Asians in the emirate:
Table 2: Dubai: Employed population by nationality group (2011)
Number
%
52,783
4.0
314
0.0
75,280
5.7
1,152,366
86.9
Africa
23,125
1.7
Europe
16,951
1.3
3,524
0.3
Caribbean & Central America
381
0.0
South America
379
0.0
Oceania (Australia, New Zealand, etc.)
846
0.1
Total non-Emiras
1,273,166
96.0
Grand total
1,325,949
100.0
UAE
GCC countries
Other Arab countries
Asia
North America
Source: Labour Force Survey 2011, DSC.
hese results even suggest the reinforcement of Asian nationalities’ numeric pre-eminence. According to data from the 2005 census,35 expatriates from Asians countries made around 85 per cent of
all expats at that time in Dubai. Arabs constituted around 8 per cent and Americans and Europeans
together around 4 per cent.36
Foreign Workers in UAE’s Economy
In 2009, the public sector (federal and local) employed 90 per cent of the working nationals and 15 per
cent of the foreign employees. Another 15 per cent of the foreign workers worked in the domestic sector
but most of them (65 per cent) were in the private sector.37 Emiratis comprised 60 per cent of the total
workforce in the public sector in 2013, but only 0.5 per cent of the private sector’s workforce, a matter of
great policy concern in the country.38
Due to the “demographic imbalance” characterising the country, and especially its workforce, foreign workers indeed dominate numerically at every occupational level. A 2008 survey of establishments
indicated that foreign employees made up 89 per cent of all managers and 99 per cent of those in
unskilled positions.39 In the UAE, unlike in other GCC states where they are massively clustered in
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Gulf Labour Markets and Migration
Demography, Migration, and the Labour Market in the UAE
semi- and low-skilled occupations, foreign workers display a relatively diverse proile: the “blue-collar”
categories (from “craft and related trade workers” to “elementary occupations”, in blue colours in Fig. 4)
employed a third of them (72 per cent in Qatar by comparison) and another 22 per cent were in “trade
and services” occupations (Fig. 4).40 On average, 24 per cent of foreign workers are in managerial and
professional positions. hese igures also cover up for important variations between nationality groups.
As emphasised in the example of Dubai (Fig. 5), “Western” nationalities are overwhelmingly in the upper echelons of occupations. By contrast, 61 per cent of Asians are “blue collar,” even though around 15
per cent of them also perform managerial and professional occupations. Arab workers, like elsewhere in
the Gulf, are more evenly distributed across the occupation scale.
Figure 4: Employed population by nationality
(Emirati/non-Emirati) and occupation category (2009)
100%
9.0
7.8
14.9
16.1
90%
Legislators, senior officials
& managers
Professionals
80%
12.1
70%
18.1
Clerks
6.6
60%
50%
Technicians and associate
professionals
Service workers & shop &
market sales workers
14.4
21.6
40%
19.8
2.1
30%
10.1
20%
10.1
Skilled agricultural and
fishery workers
Cra and related trades
workers
Plant and machine
operators & assemblers
Elementary occupaons
Armed Forces
10%
19.6
13.3
0%
Emiras
Non-Emiras
Source: LFS 2009, NBS.
Explanatory Note No. 7/2015
11
Françoise De Bel-Air
Figure 5: Employed population by nationality group and occupation category
(Dubai, 2011)
100%
5.1
8.0
90%
80%
9.6
12.2
18.7
4.3
3.6
10.5
5.2
33.4
8.1
8.8
4.9
70%
33.7
4.9
10.4
60%
11.2
29.1
50%
75.3
15.7
31.4
37.6
28.9
40%
6.2
20.4
30%
20%
7.9
14.2
8.0
15.2
23.1
12.5
6.8
10%
14.2
10.2
0%
Emiras
10.8
Non-Emiras Arab countries
14.8
Asia
11.2
3.7
Africa
Europe,
America and
Oceania
Source: LFS 2011, DSC.
As of 2009, Emirati nationals were also mostly concentrated in the “Public Administration, Defence and Social Security” sector of activity (61 per cent of them, males and females together), and in
Education to a much lesser extent (9 per cent). As for non-Emiratis, their activity sectors were rather
diverse (there again, unlike other GCC states like Qatar). hey were found in retail trade (17 per cent),
in construction (14 per cent), in the domestic services sector (15 per cent) and in manufacturing as well
as transport sectors (9 per cent each). he “real estate and business” as well as the “public administration”
sectors each also employed 7 per cent of foreign labourers. his further highlights the scale of expatriates’
participation in the UAE economy in the private and public sectors, as well as the diversity of the nonnational population, in terms of skills and areas of specialisation.
Most recent data from 2014 on the labour force’s stocks in the private sector show that the UAE
economy has progressively overcome the efects of the 2008 inancial crisis. Decreasing in size until 2011
to reach a low of 3,886,165 active persons, in 2014 the overall size of the labour force reached 4.417
million, a 10 per cent growth from 2013 and “the strongest growth rate in 44 years,” according to the
Ministry of Labour. In the private sector, “[t]he construction industry topped the list of the three major
employers, where the number of workers reached over 1.50 million or 34 percent of the total workforce;
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Gulf Labour Markets and Migration
Demography, Migration, and the Labour Market in the UAE
the services sector followed it with 1.050 million workers or 24 percent of the total workforce; and the
industries sector with 500,000 workers or 12 percent, accounting for about 70 percent of total jobs in
the country.” 41
Resident Family Dependents
Beside workers, the UAE also hosts a sizeable population of family dependents. he Indian Embassy
in Abu Dhabi estimated, for instance, that 10 per cent of Indian nationals residing in the UAE in 2015
were dependent family members.42 Among the non-Emirati residents of Dubai, 16 per cent were out
of the labour force in 2012.43 By comparison, this is double the proportion of the non-economically actives in Qatar during the same period.44 Sixty-six per cent of these non-economically active residents
of Dubai were homemakers and 24 per cent were students. Interestingly, foreign housewives displayed
a very highly-educated proile: more than half of them (52 per cent) were tertiary-educated. he rule
governing family reunion in the UAE, Article 31(D) of Ministerial Decision No. 360/1997, may be
part of the explanation. It states that “family reuniication may be granted to the wife of a sponsored
foreigner if his monthly salary is Dh3,000 or more and accommodation is provided by the employer,
or if his monthly salary is Dh4,000 (excluding accommodation).”45 Even though the scale of monthly
wages by nationality group ranges between Dh3,000 and 43,000 in Dubai,46 this law de facto excludes
more than half of Dubai’s workers from bringing their family over to the emirate. Indeed, 55 per cent of
all labourers there earned less than Dh3,000 per month in 2012.47 For the high salaries, on the contrary,
it is also possible for the wife to sponsor her husband, providing she is employed as a doctor, engineer
or teacher, and that she earns a minimum salary of Dh3,000 (inclusive of accommodation) or Dh4,000
(excluding accommodation).48
Nonetheless, the 2005 census showed that expatriates stay in the UAE for a long time. he weighted average of stay for all expatriates in the country was around 8.7 years49 and almost one-third (31 per
cent) of the foreign population aged 10 and above had been residing in the country for ten years and
more.50 By comparison, only 14 per cent of the foreign residents in Qatar surveyed during the 2010 census were recorded as having stayed as long in the country.51 he sizeable proportion of young age groups
(aged 0-14) among non-national residents, 15 per cent, also suggests some degree of family reunion.
Everywhere else in the GCC (except in Saudi Arabia), the igure is lower: from 5 per cent in Oman to 14
per cent in Kuwait (around 2010).52 Interestingly, in 2005 the non-nationals were already the majority
(61 percent), among the 0-14 year-olds. 53
Apart from workers and families, the UAE also attracts growing numbers of foreign university
students. Latest higher education statistics for the academic year 2013-2014 indicate that 50,882 foreign students were enrolled in Higher Education Establishments (HEI) in the UAE that year, a 10 per
cent (and growing) increase from the previous academic year. Of these students, 47,202 were in private
education, which comprise the 25 to 30 branches of Western HEI opened in the country over the last
decade, and local private universities applying foreign curricula (such as American University of Sharjah;
American University of Dubai; INSEAD- Abu Dhabi; Paris-Sorbonne University Abu Dhabi; University of Strathclyde Business School; and Dubai Harvard Foundation for Medical Research, for instance).
Explanatory Note No. 7/2015
13
Françoise De Bel-Air
Inward Migration
Flows
Resumption of Sustained Inlows
Since 2008, data on labour permits are not systematically published in the UAE. Nevertheless, statements from the Labour Minister in the press conirmed the return of growth to the country and the
resumption of large-scale hiring from abroad: the ministry announced in April 2015 that 1.2 million
new labour permits had been issued in 2014. In 2012, this igure amounted to 945,460 and topped up
a further 658,422 renewed permits. As a point of comparison, the last available igure of irst permitsdelivery for 2008, before the inancial crisis, was 1.51 million.54 he igures of workers deployed to the
UAE, released by Bangladeshi, Filipino, and Indian sources55 clearly illustrate the efect of the global
economic downturn on the UAE economy and, consequently, on foreign workers’ hiring policies. Filipinos seem relatively less afected, probably because a large share of females among them often work in
the domestic and health sectors, which are less sensitive to economic luctuations. As for Indians and
Bangladeshi labourers, a vast proportion among them is employed in the construction sector, which was
hit hard by the crisis. he fall in Bangladeshis’ deployment igures stems from the UAE government’s
decision to suspend the issuance of new visas to these workers in 2012.56
Figure 6: Deployed overseas workers from Bangladesh,
Philippines and India to the UAE (2005-2014)
450,000
Workers per year
400,000
350,000
300,000
250,000
India
200,000
Philippines
150,000
Bangladesh
100,000
2014
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
0
2005
50,000
Source: Sending countries’ overseas employment agencies.
As regards movements for the purpose of residency, which pertain to workers and to family dependents, time-series data available for Abu Dhabi suggest that they have not been afected by the
economic downturn, in contrary to workers’ movements. he number of entry visas for the purpose of
14
Gulf Labour Markets and Migration
Demography, Migration, and the Labour Market in the UAE
residency increased steadily over the decade.57 his conirms the hypothesis of a trend, noticed earlier,
towards the settlement or long-term stay of certain foreign families in the Gulf state.
800,000
700,000
600,000
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
80,000
70,000
60,000
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
Work
Residence visas
Labour visas
Figure 7: Entry visas issued by purpose of entry (Abu Dhabi, 2000 - 2010)
Residence
Source: SCAD.
More recently, the Director of the Ministry of Interior’s General Directorate of Residency and Foreigners Afairs (GDRFA) in Dubai stated in the press that the irst half of 2014 had seen a 30 percent
increase in the number of residency visas issued compared with the same period in 2013. here were
570,917 new residency visas issued in the irst half of 2014 as opposed to 436,993 in 2013.58
Policy Changes
Foreign migrants indeed sustain UAE’s demographic and economic growth rates, and some families
may settle for years, and even for generations. An (unknown) share of non-nationals are born in the
UAE as second or even third-generation descendants of migrants, yet with no right so far to naturalisation and no protection against expulsion by authorities. he three-year horizon of the labour contract
compels the residents to a transient and insecure life. he complex mosaic of origins, lifestyles, skills and
income levels, create a multiplicity of diferent situations among expatriates in the UAE, of perceptions
of one’s agency and resources, of transnational connections, and sense of permanency in the UAE.59
his is further complicated by the “tiering of citizenship and residency and hierarchisation of migrant
communities” performed by Emirati authorities, especially since 2004 and the start of the process of ID
cards’ delivery.60
Such policies did not, however, isolate expatriates from locals. As shown in igure 8, the proportion
of Emiratis, males and females, marrying a non-national has increased throughout the decade 20032013. One out of ive Emirati males marries a foreign bride; Emirati women are less prone to such
unions but these increased by 5 percent over the decade. No data is available regarding the citizenship or
nationality group of the foreign spouses.
Explanatory Note No. 7/2015
15
Françoise De Bel-Air
Figure 8: Marriages with a foreign spouse by sex (2003; 2005-2013)
% of marriages with foreign spouse
25
20
15
10
5
0
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
year
UAE males
UAE females
Source: NBS.
A Presidential decree was passed in 2011, which grants children of Emirati women married to
non-nationals the right to apply for citizenship after reaching the age of 18. In 2012, 1,117 children of
Emirati mothers were subsequently naturalised,61 and 500 more were granted citizenship in 2013.62 In
late 2013, a decree by the Ruler of Sharjah, Dr Shaikh Sultan bin Mohammed Al-Qasimi, granted children of Emirati mothers and foreign fathers equal pay and beneits in government jobs in the emirate.
hey were also given access to other beneits such as allocated land and housing, scholarships, medical
care, and child support for the mothers.63 hese measures privilege the rule of the pre-eminence of blood
descent (nasab) over that of patriarchal lineage. his seems to relect the “Abu Dhabi view” on nationality. It is also a political move that enhances the feeling of citizenship and sense of belonging of Emirati
females. Yet, beyond such concerns, this move is also a way to cope with the expansion of the country’s
resident population in line with Abu Dhabi 2030 and similar development targets. Yet, this very slow
and selective way of expanding the citizenry is an indication of the enduring domestic socio-political
tensions incurred by the extraordinary population growth patterns of the UAE.
16
Gulf Labour Markets and Migration
Demography, Migration, and the Labour Market in the UAE
Sources
Al Awad, Mouawiya. “he Population of Dubai”, WP: 16-08, Dubai: Dubai Economic Council, 2008.
Ali, Syed. “Going and Coming and Going Again: Second-Generation Migrants in Dubai.” Mobilities 6,
4 (2011): 553-568, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17450101.2011.603947.
Dresch, Paul. “Debates on Marriage and Nationality in the United Arab Emirates.” In: Monarchies and
Nations. Globalization and Identity in the Arab States of the Gulf, eds. Paul Dresch and John Esposito. London, New York: IB Tauris, 2005.
Forstenlechner, Ingo, and Emilie Rutledge. “Unemployment in the Gulf: Time to Update the ‘Social
Contract’,” Middle East Policy XVII, no. 2 (Summer 2010): 38-51.
Gallacher, David. he Emirati Workforce. Abu Dhabi: Zayed University, 2009.
Gueraiche, William. «Emirats Arabes Unis ,», In Dictionnaire des migrations internationales : approche
géohistorique, ed. Gildas Simon. Paris : Armand Colin, 2015.
Jamal, Manal A. “he “Tiering” of Citizenship and Residency and the ‘Hierarchization’ of Migrant
Communities: he United Arab Emirates in Historical Context.” International Migration Review, Fall 2015, doi: 10.1111/imre.12132.
Longva, A. N. “Neither Autocracy nor Democracy but Ethnocracy: Citizens, Expatriates and the Sociopolitical System in Kuwait.” In Monarchies and Nations. Globalization and Identity in the Arab
States of the Gulf, eds. Paul Dresch and John Esposito. London, New York: IB Tauris, 2005.
Lori, Noora. “National Security and the Management of Migrant Labor: A Case Study of the United
Arab Emirates.” Asian and Paciic Migration Journal 20, nos.3-4, 2011.
Malit, Froilan T. Jr., Ali Al Youha. “Labor Migration in the United Arab Emirates: Challenges and Responses.” Migration Information Source, September 18, 2013.
Naufal, George. “he Economics of Migration in the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries.” In
Handbook of the Economics of International Migration, Volume 1B, eds. Barry Chiswick and Paul
Miller. Amsterdam, Boston, etc.: North Holland / Elsevier, 2014.
Vora, Neha. Impossible Citizens: Dubai’s Indian Diaspora. Durham: Duke University Press, 2013.
UAE Yearbook 2010, Abu Dhabi: National Media Council, 2010 http://www.uaeyearbook.com.
Explanatory Note No. 7/2015
17
Françoise De Bel-Air
Endnotes
1.
In general, however, British authorities did not record population movements in and out of the territory.
2.
his section draws partly on the UAE Yearbook 2010, http://www.uaeyearbook.com/Yearbooks/2010/ENG/
data/UAE-Yearbook-2010-English.pdf.
3.
National Bureau of Statistics, Analytical Report on Economic and Social Dimensions in the United Arab Emirates
2009 (Abu Dhabi: NBS, April 2010), 6.
4.
Paul Dresch. “Debates on Marriage and Nationality in the United Arab Emirates,” in Monarchies and Nations.
Globalization and Identity in the Arab States of the Gulf, eds. Paul Dresch and John Esposito. London, New
York: IB Tauris, 2005.
5.
he Shaikh is supposed to have said, in support of incorporating expatriates into citizenry, that: “those who
were with us when we were poor should be with us now that we are rich” (Dresch 2006: 141).
6.
Ingo Forstenlechner and Emilie Rutledge, “Unemployment in the Gulf: Time to Update the ‘Social Contract’,” Middle East Policy XVII, no. 2 (Summer 2010): 50.
7.
Nationals choosing unemployment instead of taking on jobs available in the public sector reveals the mismatch between education and employment, and the low quality of jobs proposed in the private sector as an
alternative to fading public employment. his raises the urgency to “update the social contract” (Forstenlechner and Rutledge 2010) in every GCC country, where well paid and secure governmental jobs assorted
with generous welfare systems have been for decades an element of the redistribution of the oil wealth. he
system created “a sense of entitlement among the local youth, pushing them to delay employment until a better, more suitable, job ofer comes along” (Naufal 2014: 1635). By contrast, since the onset of oil exploitation,
laissez-faire policies have been ruling over the management of the private sector, where wages are too low to
attract local job-seekers, hence creating what the latter see as an “unfair competition” between nationals and
non-nationals on the labour market.
8.
http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/04/lebanon-nationals-deportation-uae-decision.
html?utm_source=Al-Monitor+Newsletter+[English]&utm_campaign=f26d558241-April_08_2015&utm_
medium=email&utm_term=0_28264b27a0-f26d558241-100372433#.
9.
http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/d9a58dc0-648b-11e1-9aa1-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3Zw8oldGq http://www.
hrw.org/news/2010/07/19/letter-minister-interior-uae-regarding-arbitrary-deportatations-lebanese-andpalesti.
10. http://www.thenational.ae/news/uae-news/irms-see-obstacles-in-hiring-from-arab-spring-nations.
11. http://www.gulinthemedia.com/index.php?m=politics&id=633539&lim=240&lang=en&tblpost=2013_02.
12. http://www.thenational.ae/uae/government/amnesty-of-more-than-dh2-billion-in-unpaid-labour-inesfor-uae-workers.
13. http://www.uaeinteract.com/docs/Dubai_issued_more_than_12m_visas_in_2014/66417.htm.
14. “Emirates ID is responsible for the issuance of electronic identity cards for the whole population in the
country, nationals and residents, in order to verify and conirm the identity of each individual through the
unique identiication numbers and smart cards that are linked with their biographical and biometric details.
(..) Emirates ID is also responsible for the establishment of a modern population register in order to facilitate
18
Gulf Labour Markets and Migration
Demography, Migration, and the Labour Market in the UAE
the obtainment of government services as well as to provide the required information for supporting decision
making, strategic planning and the allocation of resources in all vital sectors in the UAE.” EIDA, Strategic
Plan 2014-2016, p. 22, http://www.id.gov.ae/assets/ql375iED.pdf.aspx. See also Lori 2011.
15. EIDA, Annual Report 2013, 40, http://www.id.gov.ae/assets/p6MrFjXs.PDF.aspx. To date, no data is available to the public from the population register.
16. UAE Yearbook, 2010, Chapter “Labour.”
17. he NOC will be replaced by a visa stamp from the Ministry of Labour. he reforms also give employees the
right to leave their companies if their employers do not respect contractual arrangements or other employment standards. he reform allows expatriates who have work permits to act as sponsors of their dependents,
a role traditionally reserved for companies. http://www.thenational.ae/news/uae-news/uae-leads-on-pathto-worker-sponsorship-reform.
18. http://www.khaleejtimes.com/kt-article-display-1.asp?xile=data/editorial/2015/April/editorial_April30.
xml§ion=editorial.
19. Froilan T. Jr., Malit, Ali Al Youha. “Labor Migration in the United Arab Emirates: Challenges and Responses,” Migration Information Source, September 18, 2013, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/labormigration-united-arab-emirates-challenges-and-responses.
20. http://www.thenational.ae/news/uae-news/door-to-door-census-in-uae-is-scrapped.
21. Respectively by the Statistics Center-Abu Dhabi (SCAD) and the Fujairah Statistics Center. No results have
been published from Abu Dhabi’s census and population estimates released by SCAD are still based on the
2005 census. Only one table was published on Fujairah’s population composition.
22. As announced by the Emirate’s Department of Statistics and Community Development (http://www.thenational.ae/uae/government/census-planned-for-sharjah-population). Ajman announced its own for 2016
(http://gulfnews.com/news/uae/government/ajman-to-hold-census-1.1457641).
23. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2014/cr14187.pdf, 15.
24. http://www.thenational.ae/business/industry-insights/economics/standard-poors-warns-on-rak-rating-asit-questions-population-data. he methodology used by UAE statistical apparatuses until 2010 was the component method, which projects the various components of population growth (fertility, mortality, migration)
separately by sex, age group, etc. he UN estimated that the UAE civil registration system ensures a good coverage of events (90 per cent) (http://unstats.un.org/unsd/vitalstatkb/Attachment206.aspx). However, administrative records pertaining to migration movements and to events, afecting migrants may not be as accurate
for reasons stated above. In a second phase, after 2010, the methodology for calculating population igures
switched to an exponential growth model, whereby population is assumed to grow at a constant, geometric
rate. Given the speed of demographic changes in the UAE, the assumption of a constant rate of growth is
hard to conirm; moreover, the small size of each of the emirates’ population may amplify the errors, if any.
25. Estimate of resident population (nationals and non-nationals) based on administrative records, using the
component method: addition of natural increase and net migration since the last census year (2005). http://
www.uaestatistics.gov.ae/ReportPDF/Population%20Estimates%202006%20-%202010.pdf.
26. 21.6 and 26.1 in 2007 and 2008, respectively (unsmoothed data). If data are smoothed, the annual rate of
increase is 23 and 15.3; these may be closer to reality, since intercensal estimates of population igures are
obviously too low.
Explanatory Note No. 7/2015
19
Françoise De Bel-Air
27. Intercensal data are estimates. For details available from SCAD and from DSC on the source of the data for
each year, please see: http://gulfmigration.eu/uae-abu-dhabi-mid-year-population-estimates-by-nationalityemiratinon-emirati-and-sex-1960-2010/ and http://gulfmigration.eu/uae-dubai-estimates-of-total-population-by-sex-1953-1968-census-dates-2006-2013.
28. See note 21 for NBS’s methodology of estimating 2010 igure of non-nationals.
29. http://www.fscfuj.gov.ae/reports/census2011.pdf.
30. http://www.scad.ae/SCADDocuments/SYB%202014%20-%20Population%20-%20En.pdf. he igures are
said to be estimates based on the 2005 census results, and not on the 2011 census.
31. he sex ratio of total population aged 15 and more is 357 males for 100 females. For the non-nationals alone:
420 males for 100 females. See: http://gulfmigration.eu/national-and-non-national-populations-aged-15and-above-by-sex-and-sex-ratios-in-gcc-countries-national-statistics-latest-year-or-period-available.
32. Population aged 15 years and more, respectively in 2011 and 2013.
33. http://www.bqdoha.com/2015/04/uae-population-by-nationality. BQ is a business newspaper based in Doha,
Qatar. Data presented in the article were the most recent estimates supplied to the writers by origin countries’
embassies. In general, sending countries’ estimates cannot be as accurate as receiving countries’. Moreover,
embassies alone do not have the means to record comprehensively the presence and characteristics of their
resident nationals, which relies on expatriates’ will or need to frequent consular services, declare their presence and departure, etc. Comprehensive account of national communities thus has to rely on the receiving
country’s records of residents (from Interior Ministries or population registers). In the UAE, EIDA is in the
process of completing the recording of all residents, nationals and non-nationals, in the country in order to
deliver ID documents to all.
34. It should be kept in mind that the following data are taken from Labour Force Surveys, which are sample
surveys. he sampling base of these surveys is Family Budget Surveys, which in turn depend on the 2005
census with minor modiications. herefore, the Labour Force Surveys’ results should be taken with caution,
even though they are the only available source for describing the Emirate’s population. I thank one of the
reviewers of this paper for informing me on the LFS’s sampling procedure.
35. hese data have not been published (i.e., disclosed to the public).
36. Al Awad, Mouawiya. “he Population of Dubai”, WP: 16-08, Dubai: Dubai Economic Council, 2008 Al
Awad 2008: 8.
37. National Bureau of Statistics (NBS). Labor Force Survey 2009, Abu Dhabi: NBS, 2011. he remaining 5 per
cent is employed in “joint” and other sectors.
38. http://www.thenational.ae/uae/new-rules-for-emiratis-in-private-sector-jobs.
39. http://gulfmigration.eu/uae-employed-population-by-nationality-group-and-major-occupationgroup-2008.
40. National Bureau of Statistics (NBS). Labor Force Survey 2009, Abu Dhabi: NBS, 2011.
41. Unpublished data disclosed in media statements. http://www.gulinthemedia.com/index.php?m=economics
&id=746838&lim=420&lang=en&tblpost=2015_04.
42. http://indembassyuae.org/en/community-afairs/indian-community-in-the-uae.
43. Dubai Statistics Centre (DSC). Bulletin of Labor Force Survey Results 2012, Dubai: Population Statistics Section (DSC), November 2013.
20
Gulf Labour Markets and Migration
Demography, Migration, and the Labour Market in the UAE
44. http://gulfmigration.eu/qatar-population-aged-15-and-above-by-nationality-qatari-non-qatari-sex-andrelation-to-labor-force-2013.
45. Article 31(D), Ministerial Decision No. 360/1997. See M. Zahra, http://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/35397/GLMM_ExpNote_05_2015.pdf ?sequence=1, 7. See also: http://dnrd.ae/en/Services/ServicesGuide/Pages/AudianceService.aspx?ServiceId=233&AudianceId=3. he amounts are equivalent to $817
and 1,100, respectively, as of April 15, 2015. In May 2014, a hike in the salary threshold for family reunion was
announced (at a minimum salary of AED 10,000 was announced and later denied (http://www.emirates247.
com/news/dubai-says-no-hike-in-minimum-salary-for-uae-family-visa-2014-05-04-1.547896). his AED
4,000 level of income allowing for family reuniication is similar to that of Kuwait where the minimum salary
allowing for family reuniication is KD250 (F. De Bel-Air, “he Demographic and Economic Framework of
Migration in Kuwait,” EN 1/2013, GLMM, http://gulfmigration.eu/).
46. http://gulfmigration.eu/uae-dubai-employed-population-aged-15-and-above-by-nationality-group-andmonthly-and-annual-income-2011.
47. http://www.dsc.gov.ae/Report/DSC_LFS_2012_02_18.pdf.
48. http://www.guide2dubai.com/info/work-with-husbands-visa.asp.
49. However, with diferences according to nationality. For example, 30 per cent of Arab expats stayed in the
UAE for more than 10 years, as opposed to 21 per cent of Asians and 15 per cent of Europeans and Americans. See Al Awad, Mouawiya. “he Population of Dubai”, WP: 16-08, Dubai: Dubai Economic Council,
2008: 8.
50. http://gulfmigration.eu/uae-non-emirati-population-by-sex-age-group-and-duration-of-stay-in-the-uaeive-year-periods-2005.
51. http://gulfmigration.eu/percent-distribution-of-non-qatari-population-by-duration-of-stay-in-qatar-foreach-municipality-2010.
52. http://gulfmigration.eu/national-and-non-national-populations-by-aggregated-age-groups-in-gcc-countries-national-statistics-latest-year-or-period-available.
53. http://gulfmigration.eu/national-and-non-national-populations-by-aggregated-age-groups-in-gcc-countries-national-statistics-latest-year-or-period-available.
54. UAE Yearbook 2010.
55. Philippines Overseas Employment Administration (POEA), compendium of OFW statistics 2010 and
2013, http://www.poea.gov.ph/stats/2010_Stats.pdf; http://www.poea.gov.ph/stats/2013_stats.pdf; Bureau
of Manpower, Employment and Training (BMET) of Bangladesh http://www.bmet.gov.bd/BMET/stattisticalDataAction; Ministry of Overseas Indian Afairs, Annual Report 2012-2013, http://moia.gov.in/writereaddata/pdf/Annual_Report_2012-2013.pdf.
56. Malit and Youha “Labor Migration in the United Arab Emirates”.
57. hese igures concern visas, not permits. he visas delivered are more than the permits.
58. http://gulfnews.com/news/uae/general/uae-residency-visas-issued-up-30-this-year-1.1357431.
59. Among many ield works available on migrants in the UAE, N. Vora’s book on second-and third- generation
middle-class Indians in Dubai emphasises the feeling of belonging through “consumer citizenship” (Neha
Vora, Impossible Citizens: Dubai’s Indian Diaspora, Durham: Duke University Press, 2013). See also Syed Ali,
Explanatory Note No. 7/2015
21
Françoise De Bel-Air
“Going and Coming and Going Again: Second-Generation Migrants in Dubai,” Mobilities 6, 4 (2011): 553568, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17450101.2011.603947.
60. Manal A. Jamal “he “Tiering” of Citizenship and Residency and the ‘Hierarchization’ of Migrant Communities: he United Arab Emirates in Historical Context,” International Migration Review, Fall 2015, doi:
10.1111/imre.12132.
61. Law http://www.arabianbusiness.com/1-117-foreign-children-granted-uae-citizenship-446111.html.
62. http://www.thenational.ae/uae/government/sheikh-khalifa-grants-uae-citizenship-to-500-children-ofemirati-mothers.
63. Law http://www.thenational.ae/uae/government/sharjah-ruler-issues-citizenship-decree.
22
Gulf Labour Markets and Migration
Demography, Migration, and the Labour Market in the UAE
About the Author
Françoise De Bel-Air (Ph.D.) is a researcher and consultant based in Paris, France.
A socio-demographer by training, she specialises in the political demography of Arab
countries, with an emphasis on the Middle Eastern and Gulf States. She has been a
research fellow and programme manager in the French Institute for the Near East
(IFPO) in Amman, Jordan. She is currently involved in several European and international projects focusing on recent changes in family structures in the Arab world,
highly-skilled and female migration, as well as GCC countries’ demographic dynamics and policies. She has published over thirty-ive book chapters, scientiic articles and research papers,
and an edited volume on Migration and Politics in the Middle East (2006). She is currently working on
a book on Jordan and the refugee issue. Contact: f_dba@hotmail.com
Publication Reference : Citations and quotations should always include either the long or the short
reference provided here. Generally the long reference should be used but in exceptional cases (e.g., not
enough room), the short reference may be used.
Long Reference: Françoise De Bel-Air, “Demography, Migration, and the Labour Market in the UAE,”
Explanatory Note No. 7/2015, Gulf Labour Market and Migration (GLMM) programme of the Migration Policy Center (MPC) and the Gulf Research Center (GRC), http://gulfmigration.eu.
Short Reference: F. De Bel-Air, “Demography, Migration, and the Labour Market in the UAE,”
Explanatory Note No. 7/2015, GLMM, http://gulfmigration.eu.
GLMM Mission : he Gulf Labour Markets and Migration programme is an international independent, non-partisan, non-proit joint programme of a major Gulf think tank, the Gulf Research Center (GRC - Jeddah, Geneva, Cambridge, Tokyo), and a globally renowned academic migration centre,
the Migration Policy Centre (MPC - Florence). he GLMM programme provides data, analyses, and
recommendations contributing to the improvement of understanding and management of Gulf labour
markets and migration, engaging with and respecting the viewpoints of all stakeholders.
GLMM Activities : he Gulf Labour Markets and Migration programme will have a wide range of
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Explanatory Note No. 7/2015
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Françoise De Bel-Air
MIGRATION
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