Silicon-photonics-based wideband radar beamforming: basic design

Optical Engineering 49共1兲, 018201 共January 2010兲 Silicon-photonics-based wideband radar beamforming: basic design Sasan Fathpour, MEMBER SPIE Nabeel A. Riza, FELLOW SPIE University of Central Florida CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics 4000 Central Florida Boulevard Orlando, Florida 32816-2700 E-mail: fathpour@creol.ucf.edu Abstract. Proposed is silicon-photonics-based phased array antenna beamforming for high-resolution long-range radars with wide instantaneous radio frequency 共rf兲 bandwidth. Specifically, the proposed siliconphotonics beamformer platform offers the potential for cost-effective monolithic chip-scale integration of photonic delay lines, 2 ⫻ 2 optical switches, variable optical attenuators, and optical amplifiers that form the base unit of a rf transmit/receive array signal processor. In effect, the proposed silicon-photonics devices empower the design of a powerful proposed photonic beamformer with one time-delay unit per antenna element. Device-level designs studies are shown that promise meeting the high-resolution radar mission-critical requirements via time delays of up to 2.5 ns, switching times of less than 100 ns, optical isolations as good as 50 dB, and optical gains of up to 6 dB. Longer delays are achieved off chip using optical fibers. © 2010 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers. 关DOI: 10.1117/1.3280286兴 Subject terms: Fourier optics and signal processing; analog optical signal processing; continuous optical signal processing. Paper 090573R received Jul. 28, 2009; revised manuscript received Nov. 5, 2009; accepted for publication Nov. 11, 2009; published online Jan. 7, 2010. 1 Introduction Photonics has long been recognized as a viable technology for distribution and processing of millimeter and microwave signals in modern phased-array antennas 共PAAs兲.1 Advantages of photonics over electronics for these beamforming control systems include reduced weight and size, immunity to electromagnetic interference 共EMI兲 and electromagnetic pulses 共EMP兲, and low rf transmission loss. In particular, photonic technologies have been successfully employed to demonstrate true time-delay beam steering, which is essential for squint-free wide-instantaneousbandwidth operation of high-performance radar systems. A typical advanced wideband radar beamforming system design is shown in Fig. 1, where each antenna element uses an independent rf signal-conditioning unit. Note that a beamformer is a complex interconnection of rf waveguides 共splitters and combiners兲 that can produce different timedelay errors per antenna element depending on system conditions such as the beamformer temperature and stresses and strains in different parts of the waveguides. Therefore, any robust beamformer architecture such as the Fig. 1 design involves an independently controllable time-delay unit 共TDU兲 per antenna element. Electronically, a beamformer system includes high-power amplifiers 共HPAs兲, low-noise amplifiers 共LNAs兲, rf attenuators, and transmit/receive 共T/R兲 rf switches. In addition, if optical fibers are deployed in the rf signaling control system, such as for distribution and rf-optical-rf links, then again temperature changes and stresses can put strains in the fibers that can independently affect the different rf time-delay paths in the beamforming network. Thus, any practical deployed wide-instantaneousbandwidth radar beamformer for demanding outdoor environments must use an independently controllable TDU per antenna element, and this TDU should produce both long Optical Engineering delays 共e.g., 10 ns兲 and high-resolution delays 共e.g., 10 ps兲, equivalent to 1000 settings, or 10 bits. In addition, the TDU should have other general features such as wideband rf operation 关e.g., S/C band 2 to 8 GHz or X band 共8 to 12 GHz兲兴, low loss 共e.g., ⬍5 dB optical兲, low crosstalk 共e.g., ⬍50 dB optical兲, and fast 共submicrosecond time delay兲 reset.2 To date, such a desired TDU is altogether lacking in the all-electronic domain. Fig. 1 An advanced rf PAA beamformer design using one variable TDU per antenna element. HPA: high-power amplifier; LNA: lownoise amplifier; T/R: rf transmit/receive switch; TDU: time-delay unit with rf in and rf out. 018201-1 Downloaded from SPIE Digital Library on 17 Jan 2010 to 132.170.11.35. Terms of Use: http://spiedl.org/terms January 2010/Vol. 49共1兲 Fathpour and Riza: Silicon-photonics-based wideband radar beamforming: basic design A wide variety of schemes and device technologies have been proposed and used for realizing optical beamformers,3–25 including silica glass, III-V semiconductors, polymers, electromechanical and microelectromechanical systems 共MEMS兲, lithium niobate, and nematic and ferroelectric liquid crystals. However, these proposed and implemented systems do not meet the requirements mentioned for advanced TDUs. Recently, it was shown that acoustooptic switching26 can indeed meet the desired TDU requirements, but this device technology, like many others before it, is presently limited in capability of cost-effective scaling to practical PAA TDU counts 共e.g., ⬎500兲 required in large PAAs. Given this motivation, this paper uses silicon photonics as the base platform to propose the desired design of a superperformance 共e.g., 10 bits兲, superfast 共e.g., ⬍1 ␮s兲 optical TDU design that can realize the wideband PAA radar control mission. Shown are basic device design and simulation studies indicating the performance expected from the proposed silicon photonic TDUs. Many years ago, silicon photonics was proposed for optical switching at 1300 nm.27 Meanwhile, silicon photonics has matured in the last few years as a viable technology for a host of applications, particularly for passive and active integrated optics.28 Silicon-based delay lines with subpicosecond time-delay accuracy have been demonstrated, although with very short time delays of the order of tens of picoseconds.29 A new CMOS-compatible material named Hydex®, allowing delays as high as 2 ns, has also been reported.30 Compared to competing technologies based on nonlinearity in fibers and the electro-optic 共EO兲 effect in lithium niobate and III-V semiconductors, silicon photonics has several key advantages, which include: 共a兲 共b兲 共c兲 共d兲 Cost-effectiveness: Lots 共e.g., thousands兲 of TDUs per large-aperture advanced phased-array radar 共e.g., Aegis class兲 are required, particularly for a fully agile three-dimensional 共3-D兲 electronic or e-scan system with complete beam power. A monolithic technique capable of processing all these TDUs simultaneously would substantially reduce manufacturing costs. CMOS compatibility: Unlike competing materials, silicon has the great advantage of compatibility with silicon integrated circuit 共IC兲 technology required to electrically drive the devices. In addition, compatibility of silicon photonics with CMOS processing and integration with variable optical attenuators 共VOAs兲 and rf-to-optical modulators also implies further cost reduction and high-yield manufacturing. Compactness: The high refractive index contrast between silicon and SiO2 provides a platform for submicron waveguide dimensions in silicon-oninsulator 共SOI兲 waveguides, leading to a smaller footprint and reduced weight for a silicon photonic beamformer. Integration: Compact 共 ⬃ 1 cm兲, fast 共 ⬍ 1 ␮s兲, high-attenuation 共 ⬎ 40 dB兲 VOAs have been recently demonstrated31 and can be monolithically integrated with the optical switches, photonic delay lines, and optical amplifiers of the proposed TDU. In addition, the rf-to-optical modulator that Optical Engineering provides the PAA’s rf signal can also be integrated on the same silicon chip, a feature presently hard to achieve in the competing material technologies. Another vital component of an optical TDU is a highspeed rf-band photodetector. Because of its optical transparency in the 1300 and 1550-nm wavelength bands typically used for rf EO modulation, silicon is not a suitable material for rf demodulation via photodetection. With a smaller bandgap, germanium 共Ge兲 has strong absorption at these wavelengths, and Ge photodetectors can be integrated on silicon chips. High-performance hybrid Ge共Si兲-on-Si photoreceivers have been demonstrated28—for example, a Ge-on-SOI photodetector with a 6.6-GHz bandwidth.32 2 Proposed Beamsteering System Figure 2 shows the proposed basic silicon-based TDU for implementing PAA beamsteering. The unit employs a classic serial digitally switched N-bit TDU scheme using the proposed silicon 1 ⫻ 2 and 2 ⫻ 2 routing switches. Using an N-bit delay line, one can produce 2N − 1 independent relative time delays. The delay lines can be on chip, using long integrated waveguides for shorter delays 共 ⬍ 2.5 ns兲, or can be external optical fibers 共for 2.5- to 20-ns delays兲. One advantage of silicon photonics is that the losses caused per TDU bit stage can be partly compensated by Raman optical amplification. In addition, a VOA can be monolithically integrated on the chip per TDU for signal conditioning required for antenna pattern control as well as rf loss calibration within the beamforming network. Critical to the design of any TDU is the realization of low-loss, high-speed, low-crosstalk 1 ⫻ 2 and 2 ⫻ 2 optical switches to meet the mentioned TDU requirements. Due to the lack of a linear EO effect in silicon, the free-carrier plasma effect has been the most popular mechanism for achieving EO modulation. Specifically, the principle of EO operation involves the modulation of the free-carrier density in which the optical loss and/or refractive index is rf modulated by injection, depletion, accumulation, or inversion of free carriers.28 The very first silicon photonic device was a 2 ⫻ 2 switch based on n-type waveguides fabricated on n+ substrate.27 More recently, EO switches based on SOI substrates have been demonstrated33 that exhibit high 5-MHz switching speed but lack the TDU’s required low 共e.g., ⬎40 dB兲 crosstalk. To realize the TDU switching goal, Fig. 3共a兲 shows the proposed novel 1 ⫻ 2 fast 共 ⬍ 1 ␮s兲 switch based on the free-carrier plasma effect using carrier injection via lateral pn junction diodes that straddle SOI waveguides. The design of these devices is optimized for the targeted beamforming control application, i.e., fast switching time 共 ⬃ 0.1 to 1 ns兲 and high on/off extinction ratio, leading to 50-dB interchannel optical isolations. The proposed 1 ⫻ 2 switch design uses a silicon Mach-Zehnder interferometer 共MZI兲. At the output of the MZI, the phase-shifted signals are directed into a multimode interference 共MMI兲 coupler that selects the desired output channel. To control the phase-shifting process, refractive index variation is induced by carrier injection 共i.e., the plasma effect兲 via the electrical biases applied to the two pn junction diodes. Shorter de- 018201-2 Downloaded from SPIE Digital Library on 17 Jan 2010 to 132.170.11.35. Terms of Use: http://spiedl.org/terms January 2010/Vol. 49共1兲 Fathpour and Riza: Silicon-photonics-based wideband radar beamforming: basic design Fig. 2 Proposed N-bit programmable silicon photonic TDU module. vices can be achieved at the expense of higher carrier injection 共slower switching operation兲 via the pn junctions. This trade-off can be optimized according to the specific beamforming system requirements, another useful feature of silicon photonics. Note that low-crosstalk switching cannot be obtained merely based on MMI couplers, and reported optical extinction ratios are on the order of −22 dB.34 To overcome this shortcoming, the design in Fig. Fig. 3 Proposed 共a兲 1 ⫻ 2 and 共b兲 2 ⫻ 2 silicon optical switch designs to be used to realize the TDU design in Fig. 2. Optical Engineering 018201-3 Downloaded from SPIE Digital Library on 17 Jan 2010 to 132.170.11.35. Terms of Use: http://spiedl.org/terms January 2010/Vol. 49共1兲 Fathpour and Riza: Silicon-photonics-based wideband radar beamforming: basic design Fig. 4 Proposed S-shaped waveguides for achieving long on-chip photonic delay lines in the silicon TDU of Fig. 2. 3共a兲 proposes inserting two 1 ⫻ 1 photonic switches at the output arms of the integrated device. Specifically, by applying a forward bias to the off arm, the 1 ⫻ 1 switch essentially acts like a VOA and can provide an extra 40 dB or more extinction ratio at high biases, leading to the desired high-isolation photonic switch for routing the no-delay and delay rf signals on the light carrier. It is emphasized that the pn junctions in the MZI arms and those in the output arms serve different purposes. In essence, with the appropriate choice of bias, the same device, consisting of a silicon waveguide with a straddling pn junction, is employed as a phase modulator in the MZI arms, while it is employed as an intensity 共loss兲 modulator in the 1 ⫻ 1 switches following the MZI. To realize the desired 2 ⫻ 2 optical switch required for TDU assembly, a second MMI coupler is inserted at the input of the MZI as depicted in Fig. 3共b兲. The working principle remains similar to that of the 1 ⫻ 2 switch. The choice of biases V1 and V2 allows selecting one of the input ports to be routed to one of the output ports via phase modulation. Similar to the 1 ⫻ 2 switches, two 1 ⫻ 1 switches 共biases V3 and V4兲 are inserted at the output arms to provide more than 40-dB extra isolation via intensity 共loss兲 modulation in the off port. Guided-wave optical delay lines on the TDU silicon chip in Fig. 2 provide high precision for rf beamforming systems, because the waveguides are defined using photolithography, by which waveguide lengths can be controlled with submicron precision with accuracy limits typically set by processing variations or the mask quantization. The higher refractive index of silicon than that of silica 共3.4 versus 1.45兲 suggests that a larger time delay per waveguide length 共 ⬇ 12 ps/ mm兲 is possible in silicon. Figure 4 shows how long 共2.5-ns兲 time delays are achievable in a 20-cm-long S-shaped waveguide. The footprint of such a chip is 3.5⫻ 1.5 cm2. Note that the proposed silicon photonic delay lines would induce a typical waveguide linear loss of 0.3 dB/ cm,35 and thus the overall loss can be as high as 6 dB for a 2.5-ns waveguide delay. Given that beamforming requires cascaded delay lines, a 6-dB loss is considered high. Given that silicon Raman amplifiers have proven successful,36,37 we propose their use for optical loss recovery in the silicon TDU chip. Note that stimulated Raman scattering 共SRS兲 has been long exploited in optical fibers to create amplifiers and lasers. However, several kilometers of fiber are typically required to create a useful device. The gain coefficient for SRS in silicon is approximately 103 to 104 times higher than that in silica fiber. Optical Engineering Fig. 5 Proposed method for integrating a photonic delay line and a silicon Raman amplifier needed for the TDU design of Fig. 2. Additionally, silicon waveguides can confine the optical field to an area that is approximately 100 times smaller than the modal area in a standard single-mode optical fiber. Combined, these facts make it possible to observe SRS over the interaction lengths encountered on a chip. To achieve net cw gain, a pn junction diode can be used to sweep the carriers out of the waveguide core region. Up to 6.5 dB of optical gain has been demonstrated,38,39 which is sufficient to compensate for the loss of a 2.5-ns silicon waveguide delay. Hence, we propose the integration of such Raman amplifiers in the silicon TDU. For these optically pumped amplifiers, an off-chip laser source is required, whose beam ought to be combined with the rfmodulated signal for the PAA. As shown in Fig. 5, a Y-junction combiner can achieve this goal. 3 Performance Predictions Next, the critical performance parameters of the silicon photonic devices used to realize the proposed TDU are presented. First, the diode waveguides shown in Fig. 3 are analyzed using the lateral geometry shown in Fig. 6, with ridge height H = 2.0 ␮m, waveguide width W = 1.5 ␮m, slab height h = 1.1 ␮m, and ridge-to-contact spacing d = 2 ␮m used in the numerical simulations. The model used in the calculations follows Ref. 40. The dependence of freecarrier absorption 共FCA兲, ␣FCA, on carrier density is given by Fig. 6 Schematic of the proposed silicon EO modulator with a straddling pn junction diode. Modulation of carriers 共electrons and holes兲 in the waveguide core region via the pn junction allows phase or intensity modulation of the guided light. Ridge height H = 2.0 ␮m, waveguide width W = 1.5 ␮m, slab height h = 1.1 ␮m, and contact-toridge spacing d = 2 ␮m are used in the numerical simulations. 018201-4 Downloaded from SPIE Digital Library on 17 Jan 2010 to 132.170.11.35. Terms of Use: http://spiedl.org/terms January 2010/Vol. 49共1兲 Fathpour and Riza: Silicon-photonics-based wideband radar beamforming: basic design Fig. 7 Simulated switching results for a silicon intensity 共loss兲 modulator, showing: 共a兲 applied electrical signal; 共b兲 output optical transmission with ⬇50-dB extinction ratio. ␣FCA = 8.5 ⫻ 10−18 · ⌬N + 6.0 ⫻ 10−18 · ⌬P, 共1兲 where ⌬N and ⌬P are the free-electron and hole concentrations, respectively. In the presence of FCA and twophoton absorption 共TPA兲, the propagation of optical intensity I p共z兲 along the z direction 共Fig. 6兲 is given by the following nonlinear differential equation: dI p共z兲 = − 关␣ + ␣FCA共z兲兴I p共z兲 − ␤I2p共z兲, dz 共2兲 where ␤ = 0.7 centimeter per gigawatt 共cm/GW兲 is the TPA coefficient, and ␣ is the linear absorption coefficient of the waveguide. Here ␣FCA is a function of the optical intensity I p and bias voltage V. The device was simulated using a commercial drift-diffusion simulator 共ATLAS by Silvaco International兲. TPA was emulated by specifying a carrier generation rate G at the waveguide core with G = dN / dt = −共1 / 2E兲dI p / dz = ␤I2p / 2E, where E = 0.8 eV is the photon energy and N is the carrier density. The values of the electron and hole bulk recombination lifetimes were 3 and 10 ␮s, respectively. A surface recombination velocity of 200 cm/ s was used for both types of carriers. The simulator provides the carrier concentration as a function of V, from which, by using Eq. 共1兲, the output optical intensity and modulation depth are obtained. The optical transmission and modulation depth can be extracted from I p共L兲 / I p共0兲 as a function of V. In order to accommodate the 3-D nature of the problem, a quasi-3D model is developed in which the 2-D results of ATLAS at several optical intensities are interpolated to numerically solve Eq. 共2兲. The simulator also provides the diode current per unit length, J 共A / ␮m兲. The switching speed of intensity EO modulators is a key figure of merit for rf photonics. Up to 10-GHz bandwidth has been reported in EO 共carrier injection type兲 silicon optical modulators.41 Figure 7 shows a summary of the conducted switching 共intensity modulation兲 simulation results in a 0.4-cm-long waveguide. A 10-MHz 共100-ns period兲 square waveform electrical signal with trise = tfall = 200 ps is applied to the diode. An external resistance of 5 ⍀ cm2 was assumed. The simulated optical response shows ton = 12.9 ns, toff = 5.6 ns, giving f max ⬇ 54 MHz 共⬇18.5-ns switching time兲 achievable in this particular bias case of Optical Engineering Fig. 8 Attenuation versus bias current of the ridge waveguide with pn junction diode under forward bias for intensity 共loss兲 modulation. Voff = −2.0 V and Von = 2.0 V. Up to 49.3-dB modulation depth 共i.e., extinction ratio兲 is attainable by this choice of biases. The characteristic 共static attenuation versus bias current兲 of the diode waveguide is shown in Fig. 8. By trading off some of the 18.5-ns switching time, one can achieve higher extinction ratios, which can be beneficial for noise suppression in the TDU. To estimate the performance of the MZI-based Si switches 共phase modulation兲, a 5-MHz 共200-ns period兲 square-waveform electrical signal with trise = tfall = 35.5 ps is applied to the diodes. In a 0.5-cm-long waveguide, a ␲ phase shift is achievable for Voff = 0.75 V and Von = 0 V, that is, V␲ = 0.75 V. An optical loss of 0.9 dB loss in the off state 共0.75 V兲 is obtained. Figure 9 shows the transient response of phase shift under these conditions. The transient optical response shows ton = 6.2 ns, toff = 24.2 ns, indicating that f max ⬇ 33 MHz 共or ⬇30-ns TDU switching time兲 is attainable. These initial design studies of the proposed silicon-photonics-based TDU indicate the road to achieving the desired numbers for loss, crosstalk, delay range, and switching speed. 4 Conclusions Over the years, the stringent rf beamformer system requirements have impeded deployment of an optically controlled PAA. Silicon photonics is a promising technology for fulfilling this elusive goal. For the first time, to our knowledge, this paper proposes, analyzes, and simulates a silicon- Fig. 9 Simulated switching results of a silicon phase modulator, showing: 共a兲 applied electrical signal; 共b兲 transient response for attaining ␲ phase shift. The result confirms that ⬇30-ns switching time is attainable in the proposed switches. 018201-5 Downloaded from SPIE Digital Library on 17 Jan 2010 to 132.170.11.35. Terms of Use: http://spiedl.org/terms January 2010/Vol. 49共1兲 Fathpour and Riza: Silicon-photonics-based wideband radar beamforming: basic design photonic TDU design to enable an element-level wideband beamformer.42 The novel chip-scale TDU uses silicon 2 ⫻ 2 switches, photonic delay lines, integrated Raman amplifiers, and VOAs. The reported design simulations suggest that it is feasible to obtain a high-performance allsilicon TDU that provides the low crosstalk 共50 dB optical兲, high speed 共 ⬍ 1 ␮s兲, long delays 共up to 2.5 ns兲, and low insertion loss 共 ⬍ 6 dB兲 required for an advanced beamforming TDU. Future work relates to the fabrication of the proposed silicon TDU. 22. 23. 24. 25. References 1. N. A. Riza, Ed., Selected Papers on Photonic Control Systems for Phased Array Antennas, SPIE Press, Bellingham, WA 共1997兲. 2. N. Madamopoulos and N. A. Riza, “Demonstration of an all-digital 7-bit 33-channel photonic delay line for phased-array radars,” Appl. Opt. 39, 4168–4181 共2000兲. 3. 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Jones, A. Liu, O. Cohen, D. Hak, A. Fang, and M. Pannicia, “A continuous-wave Raman silicon laser,” Nature (London) 433, 725–728 共2005兲. S. Fathpour, K. K. Tsia, and B. Jalali, “Energy harvesting in silicon Raman amplifiers,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 89, 061109 共2006兲. B. Jalali, S. Fathpour, and K. K. Tsia, “Green silicon photonics,” Opt. Photonics News 20, 18–23 共2009兲. S. Fathpour and B. Jalali, “Energy harvesting in silicon optical modulators,” Opt. Express 14, 10795–10799 共2006兲. C. Gunn, “CMOS photonics for high-speed interconnects,” IEEE MICRO 26, 58–66 共2006兲. N. A. Riza and S. Fathpour, “Hybrid Design Variable RF Delay Line Using Silicon Photonics,” US Patent Pending. Sasan Fathpour is an assistant professor of optics at CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, at University of Central Florida, which he joined in 2008. He received his PhD degree in electrical engineering from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, in 2005 for his research on GaAs-based quantum dot lasers and spintronic light sources. He then joined the Electrical Engineering Department of UCLA as a postdoctoral fellow researching on nonlinear silicon photonics, and was a visiting assistant professor there in 2007. Before joining CREOL, he was a senior researcher at Ostendo Technologies, Inc., in Carlsbad, CA, working on nitride light 018201-6 Downloaded from SPIE Digital Library on 17 Jan 2010 to 132.170.11.35. Terms of Use: http://spiedl.org/terms January 2010/Vol. 49共1兲 Fathpour and Riza: Silicon-photonics-based wideband radar beamforming: basic design sources for display applications. His current research interests include applications of silicon photonics to microwave photonics, photovoltaics, and telecommunications. Dr. Fathpour is the winner of the 2007 UCLA Chancellor’s Award for Postdoctoral Research. He is a coauthor of more than 55 journal and conference publications and book chapters. Nabeel A. Riza holds a doctorate from the California Institute of Technology. In January 2002, he became the first Caltech alumnus to be awarded the prestigious International Commission for Optics 共ICO兲 Prize. He was co-awarded 2001 Ernst Abbe Medal from the Carl Zeiss Foundation, Germany. Riza’s other awards include the 2007 IEEE Fellow Award, 1998 OSA Fellow Award, 1998 International Society for Optical Engineering 共SPIE兲 Fellow Award, and 2008 Illinois Institute of Technology 共IIT兲 Distinguished Alumni Professional Optical Engineering Achievement Award. In 2008 he was a Berthold Leibinger Innovation Prize nominee. After completing his PhD in 1989, Riza joined the General Electric 共GE兲 Corporate Research and Development Center, New York, where he initiated and led the GE Optically Controlled Radar Project. In 1995, he joined CREOL, The College of Optics & Photonics at the University of Central Florida, where he is a full professor and head of the Photonic Information Processing Systems Laboratory. For 2007–2008, he was selected as EU Erasmus Scholar Visiting Professor at the Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands. 共Further information at http://pips.creol.ucf.edu.兲 018201-7 Downloaded from SPIE Digital Library on 17 Jan 2010 to 132.170.11.35. Terms of Use: http://spiedl.org/terms January 2010/Vol. 49共1兲