US-China Education Review 2015(12B)

US-China Education Review B Volume 5, Number 12, December 2015 (Serial Number 55) David Publishing David Publishing Company www.davidpublisher.com Publication Information: US-China Education Review B (Earlier title: Journal of US-China Education Review, ISSN 1548-6613) is published monthly in hard copy (ISSN 2161-6248) by David Publishing Company located at 1840 Industrial Drive, Suite 160, Libertyville, IL 60048, USA. 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The Beck Hopelessness Scale and General Information Form were used to collect data. As a result of the study, it has been concluded that age is effective in the hopelessness levels of both children with and without hearing impairment. There are no differences between different sexes in terms of hopelessness. Receiving pre-school education, subscale of feelings about the future, and hearing impairment create a difference on hopelessness levels of children. The hopelessness levels of children who have a member of family with any disability are higher compared to other children. The age of parents has no effect on hopelessness levels. Children with hearing impairment are more hopeless compared to other children. Educational level and employment status of mother create no differences between both groups in terms of hopelessness levels, while educational level and employment status of father affect hopelessness levels of children. Keywords: hearing impairment children, children, hopelessness, hope Introduction In mythology, it has been expressed that all emotions are escaped other than hope when Pandora’s Box is opened. Hope is indeed the most reliable basis of life. Hope and hopelessness are two opposite concepts at both ends of the spectrum. Hope can be defined as a feeling for a particular thing to happen or expecting to reach a goal desired. The most important feature of hope is believing that there is a way out and changes may occur with help. Hopelessness can be defined as negative expectations regarding the chance of a particular thing to happen. According to another definition, hopelessness is expressed as a set of negative expectations about the future. In addition, hopelessness reminds the feelings of being trapped, impossibility, and despair. Both hope and hopelessness are the reflections of one’s expectations regarding the possibility of reaching future goals. Hope and hopelessness are the symbols of opposite expectations. Hope contains successful future expectations, whereas hopelessness contains failures and mistakes towards future. In hope, there is prediction regarding achievement of the plans to be implemented in the future, while there is prediction of failure in hopelessness. These two opposite expectations may vary from person to person and case to case depending on when and how results expected become true (Minkoff, Bergman, Beck, & Beck, 1973; Beck, Lesker, & Trexler, 1974; Bonner & Rich, 1991; Dilbaz & Seber, 1993; Gençöz, Vatan, & Lester, 2006; Vasta, 2015). Ayhan Bababroğlu, Ph.D., assistant professor, Department of Child Development, Institute of Health Sciences, University of Hitit. 764 HOPELESSNESS LEVELS IN CHILDREN WITH AND WITHOUT HEARING IMPAIRMENT It is inevitable that children with disabilities, who face physical and functional disabilities, are more sensitive towards problems caused by their situation and its reflections. Hearing impairment is one of the most common types of disabilities in the world. According to the World Health Organization (2011), there were 360,000,000 persons in the world with disabling hearing loss and 32,000,000 of these individuals are children in 2011. Hearing impairment affects individuals in various proportions depending on parents’ attitudes and environmental factors as well as degree of hearing impairment. Children need to be able to establish positive relationships to sustain their growth by gaining a healthy self-perception. The negativities experienced by hearing impaired children when entering the socialization process without the chance to choose differ from their peers and these negativities considered as unreachable boundaries despair them; and therefore, aggressive behaviors, such as low self-esteem, despair, worthlessness, and the feelings of anger and frustration, arise in these children. Difficult and conflictive experiences in early childhood and later in adolescence lead to hopelessness in both individuals with and without any disability and result in important psychological problems, such as depression and suicide. Many researchers suggested that hopelessness is associated with disorders, such as depression and suicidal ideation, and it can be used as an important tool in determining the development risk of these problems (Beck, Kovacs, & Weissman, 1975; Weissman, 1974; Dyer & Kreitman, 1984; Turner, Windfuhr, & Kapur, 2007). Considering the studies conducted on this subject, it has been determined that hopelessness makes children prone to violence (Bolland, Mccallum, Lian, Bailey, & Rowan, 2001; Eisenbraun, 2007) and hopelessness scores of boys are higher than those of girls (Küçük & Arıkan, 2005; Özmen, Erbay Dündar, Çetinkaya, Taşkın, & Özmen, 2008; Ceylan & Şahin, 2008; Şahin, 2009; Derman-Taner, 2013). Studies related to hopelessness that can emerge as a result of inabilities and disabilities revealed that children with disabilities experience many problems, such as hopelessness, anxiety/depression, timidity, and attention problems. In these studies, it has been detected that the existence of disability increases the feeling of loneliness and isolation in children and the level of being affected by traumatic events results in hopelessness and depression (Tatar, Çekin, & Uzun, 1997; Turner et al., 2007; Fellinger, Holzinger, & Pollard, 2012; Rostami, Bahmani, & Bakhtyari, 2014; Tanhan & Kardaş, 2014). In the study of Demir, Bolat, Yavuz, Karaçetin, Doğangün, and Kayaalp (2014) conducted on children and adolescents with disabilities from birth, they have determined that visually impaired group experiences more anxiety/depression, timidity/depression, and attention problems compared to others. Similarly, Koç and Akmeşe Piştav (2011) determined that hopelessness and depression levels of epileptic individuals significantly differ from hopelessness and depression levels of healthy individuals. In the study of Özmen et al. (2008) conducted on high school students, hopelessness levels of students living in rural areas with lower education quality and income were found to be higher. The prevalence of concepts of hope/hopelessness that have vital importance is noteworthy. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate factors affecting hopelessness of both healthy individuals and individuals with disabilities, because hopelessness affects all components of health. This study aimed to investigate hopelessness levels of both children with and without any impairment and their relationship with factors that may affect hopelessness levels. Method Participants For this purpose, 81 children with hearing impairment and 80 children without hearing problems attending a public school between the ages of 10-17 years at similar socio-economic levels in the province of Adana located in the south of Turkey were included in the study (a total of 161 children). While creating population of HOPELESSNESS LEVELS IN CHILDREN WITH AND WITHOUT HEARING IMPAIRMENT 765 the study, some limitations were introduced as follows: For the group with hearing impairment, participants with no other impairment other than hearing problem at low (25dBHL-40dBHL) 1 and moderate levels (41dBHL-70dBHL) were selected from families that are still together (not divorced) and capable of evaluating the scales to be implemented; for the other group without hearing impairment, participants without impairment and capable of evaluating the scales to be implemented were selected. Demographic information of the students included in the study are presented in Table 1. Table 1 Demographic Information About the Sample Children with hearing impairment N % Female 32 39.51 Gender Male 49 60.49 10 8 9.87 11 7 8.64 12 12 14.81 13 8 9.87 Age 14 14 17.28 15 13 16.05 16 12 14.81 17 7 8.64 52 64.20 Pre-school education I receive receiving status I did not receive 29 35.80 18-25 2 2.47 26-36 34 41.97 Mother’s age 37-49 43 53.09 50 + 2 2.47 Illiterate 20 24.69 Primary school 61 75.31 Mother’s educational level High school and equivalent University Working 7 7.41 Mother’s employment status Not working 75 92.59 18-25 26-36 10 12.35 Father’s age 37-49 56 69.13 ≥ 50 15 18.52 Illiterate 9 11.11 67 82.72 Father’s educational Primary school level High school and equivalent 5 6.17 University Working 62 76.54 Father’s employment status Not working 19 23.46 No 38 46.91 The case of other One or more siblings 31 38.27 individual with impaired in the Mother and father 4 4.94 family Whole family 8 9.88 Variables 1 Children without hearing impairment N % 45 56.25 35 43.75 8 10 10 12.5 10 12.5 7 8.75 11 13.75 12 15 10 12.5 12 13.75 28 35 52 65 11 13.75 62 77.5 7 8.75 7 8.75 55 68.75 12 15 6 7.5 18 22.5 62 77.5 1 1.25 57 71.25 22 27.5 2 2.5 44 55 25 31.25 9 11.25 71 88.75 9 11.25 74 92.5 5 6.25 1 1.25 - dBHL: dB—decibel (refers to the power of sound); HL—hearing level. According to British grading system, hearing loss can be seen in varying degrees: 25-40 dBHL—Low, 41-70 dBHL—Moderate, 71-95 dBHL—Advanced, and 96 dBHL—Too advanced. 766 HOPELESSNESS LEVELS IN CHILDREN WITH AND WITHOUT HEARING IMPAIRMENT Procedure After determining the schools to be surveyed, required permissions are obtained. Then, these schools were contacted and teachers and students were informed about the study. This study was conducted based on volunteering. Demographic information of the students included in the study was presented in the General Information Form. Then, the Beck Hopelessness Scale was explained to the children with hearing impairment by using the method of communication they prefer to use (verbal method, sign language, and total method). Each student filled out the form in an empty room. There was no time limitation set for students while filling out the form. Required disclosures were made when needed. A similar procedure was applied on other children without hearing impairment. As a result of the normality test (Kolmogorov-Smirnov) applied on the data obtained in order to determine the effects of variables set for children in the sample group on their hopelessness levels, data distribution was found to be normal and Duncan test was employed to find the significance of differences between characters, in which variance (F-test) was applied. Statistical analyses were performed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software package. Data Collection Tool The Beck Hopelessness Scale and General Information Form were used to collect some demographic data of the group included in the study. The Beck Hopelessness Scale, which was developed by Beck et al. (1974) in order to determine the degree of pessimism of an individual for the future, is a 20-item self-report inventory with high reliability and validity. Each question has two answers as “Yes” and “No” and each correct answer gets 1 point while wrong answers receive no points. The total score received is accepted as “hopelessness” score. The lowest score that can be received from the scale is 0, whereas the highest score is 20. Scores of 0-6 are considered as low, 7-13 are considered as moderate, and 14-20 are as high scores, respectively. Questions forming the scale covers emotional, motivational, and cognitive dimensions. The scale is composed of three factors: “feelings about the future,” “loss of motivation,” and “expectations about the future” (Beck et al., 1974). Translation of the Beck Hopelessness Scale into Turkish and its validity and reliability studies were done by Seber (1991). Then, Durak (1994) obtained more detailed information about validity, reliability, and factor structure of the scale. Results Considering the data given in Table 2, it has been seen that hopelessness levels of children vary depending on age of the children (F = 2.592; p = 0.015), and hopelessness levels of children with and without hearing impairment differ from each other regardless of age only when they are 15 years old. Hopelessness levels of 15 years old children with hearing impairment were found to be higher than hopelessness levels of 15 years old children without hearing impairment. In the subscale of feeling about the future, hearing impairment is found to be effective on hopelessness (F = 7.664; p = 0.006). In this subscale, hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment were found to be higher than hopelessness levels of children without hearing impairment. In the subscales of loss of motivation and expectations about the future, no differences were found between the two groups. Considering the data presented in Table 3, it has been seen that age does not affect hopelessness levels (F = 0.031; p = 0.861). However, hearing impairment creates a difference in the subscale of feeling about the HOPELESSNESS LEVELS IN CHILDREN WITH AND WITHOUT HEARING IMPAIRMENT 767 future (F = 6.441; p = 0.012) and hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment are found to be higher than hopelessness levels of children without hearing impairment in the subscale of feelings about the future regardless of sex of the children. Table 2 Hopelessness Scores and Age Hopelessness1 Age Hearing impaired 14.62 ± 1.22 16.57 ± 0.99 13.75 ± 1.19 16.37 ± 1.58 13.07 ± 1.48 17.61 ± 0.82 A3 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Mean Hearing X age Age Hearing 15.58 ± 1.00 15.14 ± 1.53 - Feelings for the future Hearing impaired 14.00 ± 1.45 5.12 ± 0.40 13.80 ± 1.45 5.28 ± 0.28 16.80 ± 0.81 4.83 ± 0.36 15.00 ± 1.36 5.12 ± 0.44 16.54 ± 0.65 4.62 ± 0.49 14.17 ± 1.29 B 5.61 ± 0.43 16.60 ± 0.89 5.33 ± 0.26 13.17 ± 0.99 5.14 ± 0.40 5.12 ± 1.31 A3 Hearing Motivation loss Hearing impaired 4.50 ± 0.38 6.25 ± 0.77 4.40 ± 0.37 7.00 ± 0.72 5.40 ± 0.22 5.83 ± 0.78 4.71 ± 0.28 7.37 ± 0.73 4.73 ± 0.14 5.28 ± 0.77 4.25 ± 0.43 8.08 ± 0.35 4.80 ± 0.20 7.08 ± 0.64 4.08 ± 0.31 6.71 ± 0.99 4.59 ± 0.11 B Hearing Hearing 6.00 ± 0.84 5.60 ± 0.88 7.40 ± 0.60 7.28 ± 0.94 7.73 ± 0.43 6.00 ± 0.61 7.90 ± 0.67 5.25 ± 0.54 - Expectations for the future Hearing impaired 3.25 ± 0.41 4.28 ± 0.36 3.08 ± 0.29 3.87 ± 0.83 3.14 ± 0.42 3.92 ± 0.21 3.25 ± 0.25 3.43 ± 0.29 - Hearing 3.62 ± 0.42 3.90 ± 0.41 4.00 ± 0.29 3.71 ± 0.64 4.18 ± 0.26 4.00 ± 0.44 3.90 ± 0.31 3.83 ± 0.42 - F = 2.592; p = 0.015 F = 1.547; p = 0.156 F = 2.845; p = 0.08 F = 0.908; p = 0.502 F = 0.679; p = 0.689 F = 0.292; p = 0.590 F = 0.448; p = 0.870 F = 7.664; p = 0.006 F = 1.173; p = 0.322 F = 0.025; p = 0.874 F = 0.678; p = 0.691 F = 3.72; p = 0.066 Notes. 1 Each size is assessed in itself; 2 Different small letters in the same column are different from the statistical point of view; 3 Big letters different in the same row are different from the statistical point of view. Table 3 Hopelessness Scores and Gender Hopelessness1 Feelings for the future Gender Hearing Hearing Hearing Hearing impaired impaired Female 14.72 ± 0.69 14.71 ± 0.59 4.81 ± 0.21 4.55 ± 0.17 Male 15.75 ± 0.56 15.34 ± 0.66 5.33 ± 0.17 4.63 ± 0.19 Motivation loss Hearing impaired 6.59 ± 0.41 6.69 ± 0.33 Mean Hearing F = 0.031; p = 0.861 X gender Gender F = 1.379; p = 0.239 5.12 ± 0.13 A3 4.59 ± 0.13 B - Hearing F = 0.035; p = 0.851 Expectations for the future 6.44 ± 0.35 6.80 ± 0.39 Hearing impaired 3.34 ± 0.20 3.57 ± 0.15 - 3.48 ± 0.12 B 3.91 ± 0.14 A Hearing Hearing 3.89 ± 0.19 3.94 ± 0.19 F = 1.374; p = 0.243 F = 0.11; p = 0.734 F = 0.219; p = 0.641 F = 2.434; p = 0.121 F = 0.369; p = 0.545 F = 0.575; p = 0.450 F = 6.441; p = 0.012 F = 0.003; p = 0.954 F = 6.086; p = 0.015 1 Notes. Each size is assessed in itself; 2 Different small letters in the same column are different from the statistical point of view; 3 Big letters different in the same row are different from the statistical point of view. In addition, although it is not statistically significant, hopelessness levels of boys with hearing impairment are found to be higher than hopelessness levels of girls in the subscale of feelings about the future. In the subscale of expectations about the future, hopelessness levels of children without hearing impairment are found to be higher than hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment. No differences were found in the subscale of loss of motivation. 768 HOPELESSNESS LEVELS IN CHILDREN WITH AND WITHOUT HEARING IMPAIRMENT According to Table 4, receiving pre-school education has no impact on hopelessness levels of children (F = 0.043; p = 0.836). However, in the subscale of feelings about the future, it is noteworthy that although receiving pre-school education does not create any difference, hearing impairment creates a difference between groups. In this subscale, hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment are higher than hopelessness levels of children without hearing impairment. In the subscales of loss of motivation and expectations about the future, no differences were found between the two groups. Table 4 Hopelessness Scores and Pre-school Education Receiving Status Pre-school Hopelessness1 Feelings for the future Motivation loss Expectations for the future education Hearing Hearing Hearing Hearing Receiving Hearing Hearing Hearing Hearing impaired impaired impaired impaired status I did not receive 15.17 ± 0.58 14.75 ± 0.73 5.10 ± 0.20 4.69 ± 0.21 6.52 ± 0.39 6.28 ± 0.40 3.55 ± 0.17 3.82 ± 0.22 I receive 15.27 ± 0.64 15.11 ± 0.50 5.13 ± 0.20 Mean Hearing X education Education - Hearing - 4.54 ± 0.14 6.73 ± 0.35 6.77 ± 0.32 3.44 ± 0.16 5.12 ± 0.15 A3 4.59 ± 0.11 B - - - 3.96 ± 0.17 - F = 0.043; p = 0.836 F = 0.191; p = 0.663 F = 0.122; p = 0.727 F = 0.424; p = 0.516 F = 0.127; p = 0.722 F = 0.077; p = 0.781 F = 0.816; p = 0.36 F = 0.006; p = 0.936 F = 0.197; p = 0.658 F = 6.792; p = 0.010 F = 0.063; p = 0.803 F = 4.242; p = 0.041 1 Notes. Each size is assessed in itself; 2 Different small letters in the same column are different from the statistical point of view; 3 Big letters different in the same row are different from the statistical point of view. As it can be seen in Table 5, the existence of another disabled family member creates no statistically important differences between groups in terms of hopelessness levels (F = 0.419; p = 0.518). However, it is worthy of note that hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment stating that there are family members with hearing impairment or other disabilities in the entire family are high. No differences were found in other subscales. Table 5 Hopelessness Scores and Existence of Other Individual Impaired in the Family Existence of other individual impaired in the family No One or more siblings Mother and father Whole family Hearing X other impaired Other impaired Hearing Hopelessness1 Hearing impaired Feelings for the future Hearing impaired Motivation loss Expectations for the future Hearing impaired Hearing Hearing impaired Hearing 15.29 ± 0.64 14.93 ± 0.46 5.21 ± 0.19 4.58 ± 014 6.74 ± 0.38 6.58 ± 0.27 3.37 ± 0.19 3.89 ± 0.14 14.77 ± 0.71 15.67 ± 1.61 4.97 ± 0.21 4.67 ± 0.49 6.22 ± 0.42 6.83 ± 0.96 3.61 ± 0.21 4.17 ± 0.48 16.00 ± 1.97 - 5.00 ± 0.59 - 7.75 ± 117 - 3.25 ± 0.58 - 16.37 ± 1.39 - 5.37 ± 0.42 - 7.37 ± 0.83 - 3.62 ± 0.41 - F = 0.419; p = 0.518 F = 0.317; p = 0.574 F = 0.445; p = 0.506 F = 0.003; p = 0.775 F = 0.338; p = 0.798 F = 0.077; p = 0.782 F = 0.173; p = 0.915 F = 2.549; p = 0.112 F = 0.680; p = 0.566 F = 0.156; p = 0.694 F = 0.369; p = 0.775 F = 3.574; p = 0.061 Hearing Hearing Notes. 1 Each size is assessed in itself; 2 Different small letters in the same column are different from the statistical point of view; 3 Big letters different in the same row are different from the statistical point of view. HOPELESSNESS LEVELS IN CHILDREN WITH AND WITHOUT HEARING IMPAIRMENT 769 In Table 6, data regarding the age of mother are presented. According to the data presented in the table, age of mother has no impact on hopelessness levels of children (F = 1.737; p = 0.179); however, hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment, whose mothers are aged 50 and above, are found to be high. In the subscale of feeling about the future, hearing impairment is found to be effective (F = 7.403; p = 0.007). In this subscale, hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment are higher than hopelessness levels of children without hearing impairment. There were no differences in other subscales. Table 6 Hopelessness Scores and Mother’s Age Hopelessness1 Mother’s age Feelings for the future Motivation loss Expectations for the future 18-25 Hearing Hearing impaired 17.50 ± 2.77 - - Hearing impaired 8.50 ± 1.63 - Hearing impaired 3.50 ± 0.83 26-36 15.44 ± 0.67 16.18 ± 1.18 5.09 ± 0.20 4.82 ± 0.35 6.91 ± 0.39 7.45 ± 0.69 3.44 ± 0.22 3.91 ± 0.35 37-47 14.79 ± 0.59 14.94 ± 0.49 5.07 ± 0.18 4.57 ± 0.15 6.28 ± 0.35 6.59 ± 0.29 3.49 ± 0.17 3.92 ± 0.14 ≥ 50 19.00 ± 1.00 13.33 ± 1.59 6.50 ± 0.83 4.33 ± 0.48 8.50 ± 1.63 5.17 ± 0.94 4.00 ± 0.83 3.83 ± 0.47 - - - - - Hearing impaired 5.50 ± 0.83 Hearing 2 5.12 ± 0.30 A 4.59 ± 0.21 B - Hearing Hearing - Mean Hearing X Mother’s age Mother’s age F = 1.737; p = 0.179 F = 1.632; p = 0.199 F = 1.871; p = 0.158 F = 0.196; p = 0.823 F = 0.740; p = 0.530 F = 0.556; p = 0.645 F = 1.125; p = 0.341 F = 0.073; p = 0.974 Hearing F = 1.806; p = 0.181 F = 7.403; p = 0.007 F = 1.395; p = 0.239 F = 0.473; p = 0.493 Notes. 1 Each size is assessed in itself; 2 Different small letters in the same column are different from the statistical point of view; 3 Big letters different in the same row are different from the statistical point of view. According to the data given in Table 7, age of father has no impact on hopelessness levels of children (F = 1.630; p = 0.204). In the subscale of feelings about the future, the existence of hearing impairment affects hopelessness levels of children regardless of age and increases hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment. No differences were found in other subscales. Table 7 Hopelessness Scores and Father’s Age Hopelessness1 Father’s age Feelings for the future Motivation loss Expectations for the future 26-36 Hearing Hearing impaired 16.30 ± 1.24 - 37-47 14.77 ± 0.52 15.10 ± 0.51 5.03 ± 0.15 4.69 ± 0.15 6.37 ± 0.31 6.71 ± 0.30 3.39 ± 0.15 3.83 ± 0.15 ≥ 50 16.26 ± 1.01 14.68 ± 0.84 5.47 ± 0.30 4.31 ± 0.25 7.00 ± 0.60 6.32 ± 0.49 3.80 ± 0.29 4.14 ± 024 - - - - Hearing impaired 7.70 ± 0.73 Hearing 3 - Hearing impaired 3.50 ± 0.36 - Hearing Hearing Mean Hearing X father’s age Father’s age F = 1.630; p = 0.204 F = 3.133; p = 0.079 F = 1.287; p = 0.258 F = 0.049; p = 0.825 F = 0.513; p = 0.600 F = 0.070; p = 0.933 F = 0.906; p = 0.206 F = 1.300; p = 0.275 Hearing F = 0.690; p = 0.407 F = 10.870; p = 0.001 F = 0.153; p = 0.696 F = 3.013; p = 0.085 1 - Hearing impaired 5.10 ± 0.37 - 5.12 ± 0.16 A 4.58 ± 0.14 B - Notes. Each size is assessed in itself; 2 Different small letters in the same column are different from the statistical point of view; 3 Big letters different in the same row are different from the statistical point of view. 770 HOPELESSNESS LEVELS IN CHILDREN WITH AND WITHOUT HEARING IMPAIRMENT According to Table 8, the employment status of mother has no effect on hopelessness levels of children (F = 0.009; p = 0.991). In the subscales of feelings about the future, loss of motivation, and expectations about the future, it is still same. However, in the group of children with hearing impairment, the presence of illiterate mothers and mothers with primary education is noteworthy. Table 8 Hopelessness Scores and Mother’s Educational Level Mother’s educational level Illiterate Primary school High school and equivalent University Hearing X mother’s education Mother’s education Hearing Hopelessness1 Feelings for the future Hearing Hearing Hearing impaired impaired 15.05 ± 0.88 14.57 ± 1.49 4.80 ± 0.26 Motivation loss 4.43 ± 0.44 Hearing impaired 6.75 ± 0.52 15.29 ± 0.50 14.82 ± 0.53 5.23 ± 0.15 4.56 ± 0.16 - 15.92 ± 1.14 - - 15.17 ± 1.61 - Expectations for the future 6.43 ± 0.89 Hearing impaired 3.55 ± 0.25 3.71 ± 0.25 6.62 ± 0.30 6.58 ± 0.31 3.46 ± 0.14 3.80 ± 0.15 4.75 ± 0.34 - 6.83 ± 0.68 - 4.50 ± 0.33 4.67 ± 0.48 - 6.50 ± 0.96 - 4.00 ± 0.47 Hearing Hearing Hearing F = 0.009; p = 0.991 F = 0.270; p = 0.604 F = 0.062; p = 0.804 F = 0.103; p = 0.749 F = 0.260; p = 0.854 F = 0.353; p = 0.787 F = 0.060; p = 0.981 F = 1.305; p = 0.275 F = 0.257; p = 0.613 F = 3.351; p = 0.069 F= 0.104; p = 0.748 F = 0.839; p = 0.361 1 Notes. Each size is assessed in itself; 2 Different small letters in the same column are different from the statistical point of view; 3 Big letters different in the same row are different from the statistical point of view. Considering the data given in Table 9, it has been seen that educational level of father has an impact on children’s hopelessness levels (F = 4.758; p = 0.010). Hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment, whose fathers are illiterate or holding a high school degree, are found to be higher compared to other children. In addition, while hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment, whose fathers are illiterate or holding a high school degree, are higher, hopelessness levels of children without hearing impairment, whose fathers are graduated from universities, are found to be higher, respectively. In the subscale of feelings about the future, hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment, whose fathers are illiterate, are found to be higher that hopelessness levels of children without hearing problems. In this subscale, it is noteworthy that hopelessness levels of children with illiterate fathers are lower than hopelessness levels of children without hearing impairment. In the subscale of loss of motivation, hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment, whose fathers are illiterate or holding a high school degree, are higher than hopelessness levels of children without hearing impairment. In the group of children without hearing impairment, while hopelessness levels of children whose fathers are graduated from universities are found to be the highest, hopelessness levels of children whose fathers are illiterate are found to be at lowest values. No differences were found in the subscale of expectations about the future. As it can be seen in Table 10, employment status of mother has no impact on hopelessness levels of children (F = 1.219; p = 0.271). In addition, in the group of children with hearing impairment, although it is not statistically significant, hopelessness levels of children whose mothers have a job are found to be higher; whereas in the group of children without hearing impairment, hopelessness levels of children whose mothers do not have a job are found to be higher, respectively. In the subscale of feelings about the future, hearing impairment HOPELESSNESS LEVELS IN CHILDREN WITH AND WITHOUT HEARING IMPAIRMENT 771 creates a difference regardless of employments status of mother (F = 3.872; p = 0.050). In the subscale of feelings about the future, hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment are found to be higher than hopelessness levels of children without hearing impairment. No differences were found in other subscales. Table 9 Hopelessness Scores and Father’s Educational Level Hopelessness1 Father’s educational level Hearing Hearing impaired 15.33 ± 1.26 10.00 ± 2.72 bB Illiterate b2A3 Primary school 14.97 ± 0.47 b 15.59 ± 0.58 a High school and 18.60 ± 1.72 aA 14.00 ± 0.77 aB equivalent University 15.89 ± 1.28 a Hearing X F = 4.758; p = 0.010 father’s education Father’s F = 1.715; p = 0.166 education Hearing F = 6.589; p = 0.011 Feelings for the future Hearing impaired 5.22 ± 0.41A Motivation loss Hearing Hearing impaired 3.00 ± 0.82 bB Expectations for the future Hearing Hearing impaired Hearing 6.78 ± 0.74 bA 3.50 ± 1.62 bB 3.44 ± 0.36 3.50 ± 0.81 7.00 ± 0.34 a 5.06 ± 0.14 4.79 ± 0.17 a 6.51 ± 0.28 b 3.42 ± 0.14 3.95 ± 0.17 5.80 ± 0.52 4.32 ± 0.23 a 8.40 ± 1.03 aA 6.00 ± 0.45 aB 4.40 ± 0.51 3.72 ± 0.23 - 4.67 ± 0.39 a - 4.33 ± 0.38 F = 3.771; p = 0.025 7.00 ± 0.76 a F = 4.539; p = 0.012 - F = 2.059; p = 0.131 F = 1.206; p = 0.310 F = 1.511; p = 0.214 F = 1.066; p = 0.365 F = 12.937; p = 0.000 F = 5.737; p = 0.018 F = 0.007; p = 0.936 Notes. 1 Each size is assessed in itself; 2 Different small letters in the same column are different from the statistical point of view; 3 Big letters different in the same row are different from the statistical point of view. Table 10 Hopelessness Scores and Mother’s Employment Status Mother’s employment status Working Not working Mean Hearing X mother’s employment Mother’s employment Hearing Hopelessness1 Hearing impaired 16.33 ± 1.60 15.15 ± 0.45 - Feelings for the future Hearing impaired 14.22 ± 0.83 5.17 ± 0.48 15.21 ± 0.49 5.12 ± 0.214 5.12 ± 0.25 A3 Hearing Motivation loss Hearing impaired 4.50 ± 0.32 7.00 ± 0.95 4.61 ± 0.15 6.63 ± 0.26 4.86 ± 0.16 B Hearing Hearing 5.94 ± 0.59 6.79 ± 0.30 - Expectations for the future Hearing impaired 4.17 ± 0.47 3.43 ± 0.13 - Hearing 3.78 ± 0.29 3.95 ± 0.15 - F = 1.219; p = 0.271 F = 0.072; p = 0.789 F = 1.085; p = 0.299 F = 2.491; p = 0.117 F = 0.010; p = 0.920 F = 0.012; p = 0.912 F = 0.163; p = 0.687 F = 0.956; p = 0.330 F = 1.082; p = 0.300 F = 3.872; p = 0.050 F = 0.581; p = 0.447 F = 0.055; p = 0.815 Notes. 1 Each size is assessed in itself; 2 Different small letters in the same column are different from the statistical point of view; 3 Big letters different in the same row are different from the statistical point of view. Considering the data given in Table 11, it has been seen that employment status of father has an impact on children’s hopelessness levels (F = 6.709; p = 0.010). Hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment, whose fathers do not work, are found to be higher than hopelessness levels of children without hearing problems. In the subscale of feelings about the future, in the group of children with hearing impairment, hopelessness levels of children whose fathers do not work are found to be higher; whereas in the group of children without hearing impairment, hopelessness levels of children whose fathers have a job are found to be higher than hopelessness levels of children whose fathers do not work, respectively. In the subscale of loss of motivation, results are similar. In the subscale of expectations about the future, hopelessness levels of children 772 HOPELESSNESS LEVELS IN CHILDREN WITH AND WITHOUT HEARING IMPAIRMENT without hearing impairment, whose fathers have a job, are found to be higher than hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment, whose fathers have a job. Table 11 Hopelessness Scores and Father’s Employment Status Father’s employment status Working Not working Hearing X father’s employment Father’s employment Hearing Hopelessness1 Hearing impaired 14.90 ± 0.49 Hearing 15.32 ± 0.46 b2 3 Feelings for the future Hearing impaired 5.09 ± 0.14 16.31 ± 0.89 A 12.33 ± 1.29 aB 5.21 ± 0.26A Motivation loss 4.73 ± 0.13 a Hearing impaired 6.37 ± 0.29 3.44 ± 0.38 b 7.58 ± 0.58A Hearing Hearing 6.69 ± 0.27 a Expectations for the future Hearing impaired 3.45 ± 0.14B 5.88 ± 0.77 bB 3.58 ± 0.26 Hearing 4.03 ± 0.13 aA 3.00 ± 0.38 F = 6.709; p = 0.010 F = 7.620; p = 0.006 F = 3.894; p = 0.050 F = 5.300; p = 0.023 F = 0.862; p = 0.355 F = 5.347; p = 0.022 F = 0.160; p = 0.690 F = 3.221; p = 0.075 F = 4.390; p = 0.038 F = 17.603; p = 0.000 F = 1.813; p = 0.180 F = 0.005; p = 0.996 1 Notes. Each size is assessed in itself; 2 Different small letters in the same column are different from the statistical point of view; 3 Big letters different in the same row are different from the statistical point of view. Discussion and Conclusion The hearing loss affects the relationship of an individual and his/her environments in almost every aspect. Unfortunately, these individuals are forced to grow up and live in a relative isolation in the society. Disabilities, such as deafness, adverse environmental conditions, and public order interfere with many desires and needs. These barriers may lead to a variety of intimidations, griefs, and losses and internal life comes to a tense situation (Tunçbilek & Hatipoğlu, 1988). In consideration of these information, in this study, which was conducted to determine hopelessness levels and factors affecting hopelessness levels of children with and without hearing impairment, age is found to be effective on hopelessness (see Table 2). However, hopelessness levels of children were differed regardless of age when they are 15 years old. Hopelessness levels of 15 years old children with hearing impairment were found to be higher than hopelessness levels of 15 years old children without hearing impairment. These children are in their adolescence period and this period is generally considered to be the most tense and difficult period of their lives. Since children have to deal with very significant changes during this period, they are under intense stress. In addition to these difficulties, having hearing impairment makes this period more difficult and problematic to overcome. As a matter of fact, according to many researchers, individuals with hearing impairment feel left out from the world, isolated with low self-esteem, and hopeless and they are more prone to depression and suicide (Turner et al., 2007; Sahli, Arslan, & Belgin, 2009; Sheppard & Badger, 2010; Rostami et al., 2014). The study of Coşkun (2007) supports these findings. However, Küçük and Arıkan (2005) stated that hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment, who are in the age range of 13-15, are higher than hopelessness levels of children without hearing impairment, but this difference is statistically insignificant. Bayramova and Karadakovan (2004) and Deveci, Ulutaşdemir, and Açık (2011) have found no significant differences between age and hopelessness levels. In the study, it has been determined that gender differences have no impact on hopelessness levels of children (see Table 3). In the subscale of feelings about the future, it has been seen that hearing impairment creates a difference regardless of sex. In this subscale, although it is not statistically significant, hopelessness levels of boys are found to be higher than hopelessness levels of girls. In the subscale of expectations about the HOPELESSNESS LEVELS IN CHILDREN WITH AND WITHOUT HEARING IMPAIRMENT 773 future, hearing impairment creates a difference regardless of sex. Considering the previous studies conducted, although there are some studies consistent with the findings of this study (Bayramova & Karadakovan, 2004; Coşkun, 2007; Koç & Akmeşe Piştav, 2011), there are also some studies suggesting that hopelessness levels of boys are higher that hopelessness levels of girls (Bolland, 2003; Durak Batıgün, 2005; Küçük & Arıkan, 2005; Ceylan & Şahin, 2008; Şahin, 2009; Deveci et al., 2011; Lester, 2015). In addition, in some studies, it can be seen that hopelessness levels of girls are higher that hopelessness levels of boys (Tanhan & Kardaş, 2014; Yerlikaya, 2014; Baran, Baran, & Maskan, 2015). Stereotypes, differences, and prejudices of children other than their biological differences and their roles are defined by society. In the socialization process, differences between emotion, attitude, behavior, and roles of boys and girls appropriate to their genders are social gender differences (Dökmen, 2005). It is thought that hearing impairment plays a more effective role in hopelessness behaviors of children compared to the role of gender. In the subscale of expectations about the future, although it is not statistically significant, since hopelessness levels of boys are higher than hopelessness levels of girls, perspectives of societies regarding boys and girls and cultural education differences can be considered as determinants of hopelessness, because higher expectations of men in Turkey may have affected their level of hopelessness. In other words, hopelessness can be a mechanism that may affect attitudes towards hearing impairment (Wagner, Smith, Ferguson, Horton, & Wilson, 2009). Another finding of the study is determining whether receiving pre-school education has any impact on hopelessness levels of children (see Table 4). In the subscale of feelings about the future, hearing impairment has created a difference regardless of receiving pre-school education. It can be seen that hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment are higher than hopelessness levels of their peers. In fact, having pre-school education is very important for children with hearing impairment. In this way, children can overcome many communication and consequently social problems, such as speaking properly or understanding the conversation. Children included in the study have mild or moderate hearing impairment and more than half of them (52%) have received pre-school education. Children with hearing impairment going to the same school with children without hearing impairment compare themselves with these children and experience all challenges by realizing their disabilities. From this point of view, it is inevitable that children with hearing impairment have to face impacts of these emotional and social trauma in their older ages. Although hopeless people have control over their own lives, they think that the problem has no solution and they cannot reach their goals. The lack of environmental support elements will also reinforce this feeling. These reasons seem to be effective on results obtained from the subscale of expectations about the future. Although having a family member with hearing impairment or another disability increases hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment, it does not create any statistically significant difference (see Table 5). Küçük and Arıkan (2005) tried to determine hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment and suggested that hopelessness levels of children stating that they have a family member with hearing impairment are close to each other regardless of whether they are hearing impaired or not. The existence of a disabled family member/members in the family brings special challenges and affects all family members either directly or indirectly (Spink, 1976; Laurie, Fortier, & Richard, 1984; Lyon, Albertus, Birkinbine, & Naibi, 1996). Hearing impairment takes place in human lives with communication problems and other challenges caused by these problems. If a common language is developed in families formed by hearing impaired individuals; then, relationships, attitudes and behaviors, and dynamics in and out of family are achieved in a healthy way. 774 HOPELESSNESS LEVELS IN CHILDREN WITH AND WITHOUT HEARING IMPAIRMENT It is known that problems occurring in families without hearing impaired individuals are caused by the lack of communication and failures in communication. In families formed by individuals with hearing impairment, many factors, such as number of individuals with disabilities, type and degree of these disabilities, their self-understandings and approaches towards problems caused by these disabilities, educational levels, socio-cultural factors, and environmental support factors have effects on children when they evaluate themselves. However, even if these children face no communication problems with family members, they experience challenges and problems caused by their impairment when they are outside and they isolate themselves from the world if there are no environmental support elements when they discover their differences and persistence of this situation. Although it has been assumed that this situation has impacts on hopelessness levels of children, in this study, the number of families consist of persons with disabilities only is eight. Therefore, this study cannot have a reliable comparison of these children in terms of their hopelessness levels. The data regarding age of mother are presented in Table 6 while the data regarding the age of father are given in Table 7, respectively. Considering these data, both ages of mother and father have no impact on hopelessness levels of children. However, it is noteworthy that hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment, who have elder parents, are quite high. According to some studies conducted, parents who have children with hearing impairment become more protective towards their children (Temel, Ersoy, & Şahin, 1998; Brubaker & Szakowski, 2000; Dönmez, Bayhan, & Artan, 2000). Because these children experience danger, being ridiculed, and condemned outside the family, therefore, parents try to protect their children from all this negativities. This makes children more dependent to the family. Changes in physical, mental, and emotional capacities of parents with their increasing age are another sources of concern. The possibility of getting sick increases as parents get older and even death can come to the mind. These reasons may have affected the hopelessness levels of children. In the subscale of feelings about the future, hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment are higher than hopelessness levels of their peers without hearing problems regardless of age of their parents. Hope and hopelessness are opposite concepts. Hope can be defined as having expectations to reach a particular goal in the future, whereas hopelessness can be defined as negative expectations. Individuals make plans for the future as long as they have hope (Dilbaz & Seber, 1993; Abbey, 2006). Individuals in their adolescence period try to combine their expectations towards their past, present time, and futures in order to create their identities. Hearing impairment may have created negativities in terms of their future expectations. Akandere, Acar, and Baştuğ (2009) determined that in the subscale of feelings about the future, hopelessness scores of elderly fathers who have children with disabilities are higher than younger fathers. According to the results of the study, mother’s educational level has no impact on hopelessness levels of children (see Table 9). In some studies conducted on the same subject, there are similar results (Küçük & Arıkan, 2005; Şahin, 2009). In fact, educational level of mother has an impact on determination of strategies developed by children when they encounter a problem and on their behaviors. Furthermore, it has been determined that problem-solving skills of highly educated parents are better than other parents and these parents can better identify adaptation strategies (Quine & Pahl, 1991). Haveman, Gottlieb, and Heller (1997) reported that mothers with lower educational level spend less time for themselves and experience more intense care responsibilities for their children. Positive approaches of mothers and use of social support networks are protective against depression and hopelessness (Hammen, Burge, & Adrian, 1991; Abela, 2001). In addition, low educational levels of mothers (75.31% have primary education and 24.69% are illiterate) of children included in the study are thought to be effective on the results of this study. HOPELESSNESS LEVELS IN CHILDREN WITH AND WITHOUT HEARING IMPAIRMENT 775 As it can be seen in Table 9, it has been seen that educational level of father has an impact on children’s hopelessness levels. Hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment, whose fathers are illiterate or holding a high school degree, are found to be higher compared to other children. In addition, while hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment, whose fathers are illiterate or holding a high school degree, are higher; hopelessness levels of children without hearing impairment, whose fathers are graduated from universities, are found to be higher, respectively. Relationship between father and child is extremely important for a child’s mental and physical health regardless of any disability. According to the studies conducted, children established healthy communication with their fathers are psychologically well adjusted, they have higher self-esteem and exhibit less anti-social behaviors and bond between children with hearing impairment and their parents is no different than the bond between children without hearing impairment and their parents (Fluori & Buchanan, 2003; Ozşenol, Işıkhan, Gunay, Aydın, Akın, & Gökçay, 2003). The role of father in terms of personalization of the child is very important and he has a facilitating role for children to accept the impairment condition. In this process, educating father is important. As in mothers, educational level of fathers has positive impacts on their approaches, attitudes, and adaptation to the situation. Awan, Bibi, and Chaudhry (2015) determined the existence of a relationship between attitudes of families, who have children with mental retardation, and hopelessness. However, Sahin (2009) found that educational level of father has no impact on hopelessness levels of healthy children. In addition, Hoffman, Quittner, and Cejas (2015) determined that educational levels of families who have children with hearing impairment are quite low. In this study, 11.1% of the fathers are illiterate and 82.725% of them are primary school graduates, respectively. These results are consistent with findings of Hoffman et al. (2015). As it can be seen in Table 10, employment status of mother has no impact on hopelessness levels of children. In addition, in the group of children with hearing impairment, although it is not statistically significant, hopelessness levels of children, whose mothers have a job, are found to be higher; whereas in the group of children without hearing impairment, hopelessness levels of children, whose mothers do not have a job, are found to be higher, respectively. In the study of Babaroglu and Baran (2006) conducted on children with leukemia, it has been concluded that employment status of mother has no significant impact on hopelessness levels of children. Mothers generally take more responsibility in matters concerning children. In this period, the mother is an indispensable element for children with hearing impairment and these children consider their mothers as a bridge that allows them to establish relationship with life and the outside world. Therefore, working mother means lack of this bridge for children with hearing impairment and being deprived of the most important and reliable support. Although mothers who have a child with hearing impairment may choose not to work, this may not work for other mothers with no hearing impaired children, because mothers who have a job financially support the family. In addition, working mothers experience less stress and use more social support mechanisms (Çavuşoğlu, 1992; Gallagher, Beckman, & Cross, 1993; Hersh & Weiner, 1993). It has been thought that this affects hopelessness levels of children without hearing problems. In the subscale of feelings about the future, hearing impairment creates a difference regardless of employment status of mother. In this subscale, hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment are found to be higher than hopelessness levels of children without hearing impairment. Hearing impairment has an impact on self-esteem. According to the studies conducted, children with hearing impairment have low self-esteem (Leigh & Stinson, 1991; Ekim & Ocakcı, 2012). Self-esteem is an important protector for the mental health of the individuals and it is correlated with expectations and coping mechanisms of an individual (Masten, 2001; Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & 776 HOPELESSNESS LEVELS IN CHILDREN WITH AND WITHOUT HEARING IMPAIRMENT Vohs, 2003; Flory, Lynam, Milich, Leukefeld, & Clayton, 2004; Donnellan, Trzesniewski, Robins, Moffitt, & Caspi, 2005). These structures may have impacts on results obtained in the subscale of feelings about the future. As it can be seen in Table 11, employment status of father has an impact on children’s hopelessness levels. Hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment, whose fathers do not work, are found to be higher than hopelessness levels of children without hearing problems. In the subscales of feelings about the future and loss of motivation, results are similar. In the subscale of expectations about the future, hopelessness levels of children without hearing impairment, whose fathers have a job, are found to be higher than hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment, whose fathers have a job. Employment status of father is also associated with socio-economic level of the family. Although this is not the only determinant of hopelessness, it may affect some factors either directly or indirectly, because children with disabilities need more care and support compared to their peers. Diagnosis of the impairment, treatment, and making appropriate instrumentation and receiving almost all necessary trainings and support processes are associated with economic conditions of the family. In this case, unemployed fathers may cause the lack of these supports and some negativities. In some studies, hopelessness levels of children coming from families with low income levels are found to be high (Aydoğan-Akıncı, 1999; Özmen et al., 2008; Bayramova & Karadakovan, 2014; Baran et al., 2015). In addition, Küçük and Arıkan (2005) have determined that hopelessness levels of children whose fathers are farmer are lower than hopelessness levels of children whose fathers are teacher. Thus, it has been thought that all these factors may have impacts on hopelessness levels of children with hearing impairment. In children without hearing impairment, since fathers do not spend sufficient time with their children and the primary person responsible to take care of the children is children’s mother, this may have affected the results. References Abbey, J. G. (2006). Hopelessness at the end of life: The utility of the hopelessness scale with terminally ill cancer patients. British Journal of Health Psychology, 11, 173-183. doi:10.1348/135910705X36749 Abela, R. Z. J. (2001). 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International Periodical for the Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic, 9(8), 865-877. US-China Education Review B, December 2015, Vol. 5, No. 12, 780-793 doi:10.17265/2161-6248/2015.12.002 D DAVID PUBLISHING Myth and Antinomy in Early Childhood Education: Formal vs. Applied Curricula and Professional Development* Domna-Mika Kakana, Anastasia Mavidou  University of Thessaly, Volos, Greece Kindergarten is considered as the first significant educational context that children interface. As a result, it is very interesting to understand the type of learning that they interface in such context. The present study attempts to delineate the actual educational practices that teachers apply, as well as the instructional content that children are taught. To this aim, 77 teachers and a total of 187 pre-designed activities were recorded in systematic observation by trained staff, who were familiarized prior to the research with the observational scale. The analysis of the data uncovered several specific codes, namely, the selected themes that teachers developed, time sequence and repeatability, theme selection criteria, content of educational activities (concerning the learning areas, the exact activities that occurred, the educational material teachers used, and the space of classroom that activities were conducted), and teaching methods. The results indicated that there are considerable similarities among the practices that teachers apply, regardless of the theme or the class of children. More specifically, teachers tended to develop repeatedly specific themes every year without any significant adjustments. Moreover, they emphasized on language education, as they included it in each and every theme they taught, while mathematics and other learning areas (e.g., new technologies, physical education, etc.) were surprisingly contemned. Kindergarten teachers seem to preserve a model of practice that is repeated in every theme development. Such a model includes lecturing the whole class and individual consolidation activities. The model of teaching that emerged from our analysis illustrated that the teacher-centered approach prevails, while teachers’ practice is defined by old-fashioned ways. As a consequence, our results show that further investigation should be conducted in order to earn deeper insight on the reasons that lead teachers to conserve this kind of teaching practices and select the instructional content. Keywords: instructional content, teaching practices, kindergarten, teaching methods, theme development Introduction The importance of preschool education is widely recognized not only for its essentiality in children’s development, but also for its impact on the students’ achievements during the following school years. The constantly increasing interest in preschool education proves its vital role in social, emotional, cognitive, and physical growth of children (Melhuish, 2011). Additionally, high quality of preschool education establishes more long-term assets for students (Allen, 2011; Giardiello, McNulty, & Anderson, 2013). Therefore, the combination of high quality and long-lasting preschool education facilitates the best results for young children * Acknowledgments: The authors wish to acknowledge the valuable contributions of the kindergarten teachers who accepted to participate in the current study, as well as those who helped selflessly to conduct the survey. Domna-Mika Kakana, Ph.D., professor, Faculty of Preschool Education, University of Thessaly. Anastasia Mavidou, ,M.Sc., researcher, Laboratory of Theoretical and Applied Pedagogy, University of Thessaly. MYTH AND ANTINOMY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION 781 (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD] Reports, 2004). Nevertheless, the quality of preschool education is reflected on the curricula that are utilized by each country. There are two wide categories of types of curricula that occur universally (Flouris, 1995; Ntoliopoulou, 2005): (a) content-centered, where the focus is on the acquisition and memorization of information; and (b) child-centered programs that address children’s needs and interests and construct knowledge through immediate experiences. According to the OECD (2001; 2003), several approaches are applicable to preschool education. For instance, many countries focus mostly on academic development and view kindergarten as a preparation stage before formal school starts, while others (mainly in Scandinavian and central Europe) emphasize on the socio-emotional development of preschoolers. Regardless of the followed pattern, kindergarten curricula demonstrate higher levels of flexibility than the curricula of other grades. However, the educational content remains quite vague and kindergarten teachers have to select and tailor it according to their class. Teachers’ Perceptions The content that teachers decide to teach reflect the socially transmitted perceptions of what is feasible and important for the specific age of children (New, 1999). Therefore, teachers’ perceptions are vital to their instructional choices in the class. Spodek (1988) argued that there are two broad categories of theories that teachers hold: (a) explicit; and (b) implicit. The former refers to those theories that are formally expressed in educating courses of pre-service teachers, as well as in literature. On the other hand, implicit theories concern ideas about instruction that are influenced by personal experiences and practical knowledge of teachers. These theories are essential for instructional decisions that occur in a classroom environment. Therefore, Spodek’s (1988) classification offers a sufficient explanation to the gap that exists between formal and applied curricula. Both in- and pre- service teachers seem to have developmentally appropriate theories about instruction, while their practice tends to be aligned with old-fashioned methods, such as knowledge-centered instruction and emphasis on results of learning (Charlesworth, Hart, Burts, & Hernandez, 1991; Leung, 2012; Rentzou & Sakellariou, 2011). Developmentally appropriate practices are widely accepted by curricula, formal university institutes, and literature, which may impede teachers to declare their rejection about this theory of learning (Rentzou & Sakellariou, 2011). Apparently, there is disparity between the formally expressed ideas about instruction and everyday practice of teachers. Since the formal curricula and the developmentally appropriate practices are well known, the research about instructional content contributes to get insight about the real experiences that children have in kindergarten classrooms and, thus, highlights the process that children develop socially, emotionally, and cognitively (Kallestad & Ødegaard, 2013). Instructional Content Both learning and developmental theories highlight the significance of content in the learning process, as the level of its difficulty impacts the achievements of the educated children (Claessens, Engel, & Curran, 2014). Specifically, their exposure to a basic level of content in mathematics, such as counting to 10 and recognizing geometrical shapes, seems to be related with low performance in mathematics (Bodovski & Farkas, 2007; Engel, Claessens, & Finch, 2013). According to Claessens et al. (2014), the advanced level of content in mathematics is considered the addition and subtraction, the comprehension of quantities of numbers, and 782 MYTH AND ANTINOMY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION classification processes. Regarding the language, the recognition of letters, writing of letters, and writing of the name are considered as basic content, while the instruction of phonological awareness, silent and reading out loud, and comprehension of text are categorized as advanced content. Unfortunately, kindergarten teachers dedicate much more time in basic content than in advanced, even though it is proven that advanced content impacts positively children’s achievement (Claessens et al., 2014), which is aligned with the zone of proximal development that Vygotsky (1978) has established. Previous research in the instructional content applied in kindergarten classrooms showed that teachers emphasized on the preparation for the elementary grade (Spodek, 1988). The program which they strictly followed every day contained reading and writing activities, story narrations, instruction of the whole class through direct teaching, as it was considered the most appropriate by teachers, and individual work sheets (Hatch & Freeman, 1988). On the contrary, in Norway, preschool children work mostly in small groups with activities that emerge from their initiative. The pre-designed activities cover only 20% of the total instructional time and are directly related with a learning area, such as language, art, and creativity (Kallestad & Ødegaard, 2013). Nevertheless, limited evidence exists concerning the applied practices and the exact instructional content that is taught in kindergarten. As a result, the present study was designed in order to enlighten those educational practices. More specifically, the main goal of this study is the investigation of the instructional content that teachers apply in Greek kindergarten classes (i.e., the chosen topics and the selection criteria, the development of activities and the methodology they follow, as well as educational material). The present study is based on the previous research of Kakana (2011), which indicated that instructional content in kindergarten is applied in a limited range that follows seasonal sequences. In addition, although current curricula in Greece are aligned with developmentally appropriate practices, their implementation seems to puzzle teachers, as their everyday practices, including the topics, the way they develop them, and the instructional activities, are mainly knowledge-centered and old-fashioned. Meanwhile, the topics are mainly related to general encyclopedia knowledge and not to current social and environmental issues from students’ everyday life in the 21st century (Kakana, 2011). Although a new curriculum is published and proposed for kindergarten teachers since 2011, which includes clear methodological suggestions, topics, and instructional content that is aligned with current curriculums worldwide (Tickell, 2011), we expected that present findings would be consistent with Kakana’s (2011) research. More specifically, we hypothesized that kindergarten teachers’ practices would be stereotypic and traditional, as well as teacher-centered, regardless of the class, the theme they developed, and the academic year they occurred. Method Participants/Sample The participating schools in this study were 57 kindergartens from the wide region of the city of Volos (Greece), which corresponds to 77 teachers and a total number of 187 pre-designed activities. Data Collection Instrument The application of the pre-designed activities was documented through an observation scale, which was developed and applied in the previous research (Kakana, 2011). The observation scale consisted of two parts. The first one included information that teachers declared after a brief conversation related to the topics and the selection criteria (e.g., “Ask the teacher about the theme MYTH AND ANTINOMY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION 783 he/she selected, what are his/her selection criteria, what are the educational goals, and from what cognitive areas they stem from?”). The second part acquired information which stemmed from systematic observation of instruction and contained questions that focused on chosen topics and the exact content of instruction (e.g., “Describe the exact content of an activity, what time did it start, and where?” “How were children introduced to the theme?” and “How the activity ended?”), the methods teachers employed (e.g., “What instructional methods the teacher used?”), and educational materials they used (e.g., “Report and describe the instructional materials [visual or audio forms] which were used for the needs of the activity”). Procedure Trained observers in systematic observation, who had been familiarized before the research with the observational scale, selected the data. Every classroom hosted three observers who were asked to document one or two re-designed activities. Every observer filled an individual scale, which was triangulated with each other with a consistency level of 95%. In case that the consistency was lower than the limit set, only the scale with the most detailed documentation was accepted. The process of documentation was held in two consecutive academic years (2012-2013 and 2013-2014). Specifically, the selection of data in both academic years was carried out during the month of November (11/14/2012, 11/21/2012, 11/19/2013, and 11/26/2013), in order to control the repeatability and seasonal sequence of the topics. In total, every class was observed from at least one time to a maximum of four times. Results Thematic analysis of content (Bos & Tarnai, 1999) with predefined axes was considered as the most appropriate method for such an investigation. The analysis was held in the NVivo 10 software for qualitative data analysis. The predefined axes were in correspondence with the research questions. Specifically, they were: (a) Themes; (b) Time sequence and repeatability; (c) Selection criteria of themes; (d) Content of educational activities: Learning area, activities, educational material, and space of classroom; (e) Teaching methods. Themes Thematic analysis revealed that the vast majority of the reported activities were developed in the context of a specific theme. More specifically, during the academic year 2012-2013, the activities that were designed under a specific theme reached 89.5%. Similarly, the same level was achieved during the next year 2013-2014 with 87.1%. The themes that kindergarten teachers chose more frequently were “Olive tree,” “autumn/fall,” “restoration of democracy,” and “sowing (bread)” (see Table 1). Such themes were themes-umbrellas which were separated in several sub-themes that were developed around the central theme or were connected with relative themes, causing confusion to small children as these connections are usually more associative than real. For instance, the theme “autumn/fall” included the phenomenon of rain, the circle of water, as well as seasonal fruits. In addition, the theme “Olive tree” was usually connected to “Olive oil” and the Olympic Games. Moreover, teachers tended to connect the “sowing” theme with autumn, as it is a process that takes part during this specific period. They also considered the “sowing” theme to be inextricably bounded with the production of bread. 784 MYTH AND ANTINOMY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION Table 1 Frequency of References of Kindergarten Teachers’ Theme Preferences Themes References (N) Olive tree 48 Autumn/fall 24 Restoration of democracy 22 Sowing (Bread) 13 Nutrition 7 Human body 6 Weather 6 Animals 6 My family 4 Colors 4 Sound (Music) 3 My house 2 The city of Volos 2 Traffic behavior 2 Means of communication 2 Volcano 2 Christmas 2 Plants 1 Recycling 1 Our neighborhood 1 As already mentioned, themes were developed outside of a framework and were concerned during the instruction as isolated concepts, usually related to mathematics. However, such activities were quite rare (see Table 2). Table 2 Frequency of References of Kindergarten Teachers’ Preferences on Isolated Concepts Themes (concepts) References Shapes 7 Numbers 3 Fairytale reading 3 The alphabet 1 Puppet theatre 1 Time Sequence and Repeatability Data analysis indicated that a respectful percentage of teachers (38.6%) existed who repeated the themes they developed either within the same academic year or during the next one. According to Table 3, the themes are repeated: (a) once every year; (b) twice in the same academic year; and (c) twice in the same academic year and once in the following year. Regarding the chosen theme, more than half of the schools (57.1%) repeated the “Olive tree” theme. Moreover, the repetitions, regardless of the theme, usually occurred once every academic year (57.1%). MYTH AND ANTINOMY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION 785 Table 3 Time Sequence and Repeatability Frequencies of References Once every year Themes Olive tree My family Restoration of democracy Autumn/Fall Total Twice in the same year Schools 9 1 1 1 12 Twice in the same year and once in the following Themes Schools Themes Schools Olive tree Weather Means of communication Volcano Autumn/fall Shapes 2 1 1 1 1 1 Olive tree Sowing Autumn/fall - 1 1 1 - Total 7 Total 3 Selection Criteria of Themes Kindergarten teachers were interviewed on the selection criteria of themes and their responses were recorded by the observers. Thematic analysis revealed that teachers select the themes based on the timeliness (54 references), due to their perceived significance (21 references), because they were assumed to be interesting for students (18 references), and finally because they believed that those themes correspond to young children’s needs (7 references). On a second level of analysis, the selection criteria were compared with the themes. The intersection between those codes showed that for the theme of “restoration of democracy,” the exclusive criterion was timeliness (90.9%), as the date of observation coincided with the national celebration. According to the observations, the “restoration of democracy” took place at least three days before the national celebration, as 90.5% of the teachers were observed to develop related activities since 14th of November 2012 (with the celebration day being the 17th of November), while similar activities were observed at least three days after the celebration (i.e., 19th of November), although in fewer cases (9.5%). Concerning the “Olive tree” theme, the selection criteria were: timeliness (72.2%), because it was the time of Olive harvesting, children’s interests (37.5%), as well as the considered significance of the theme by teachers (11.1%). Furthermore, the selection of the themes “autumn/fall” and “sowing (bread)” was based on current affairs criteria, student’s interests, and significance of the theme. However, some themes were selected solely according to their significance for kindergartens learning, namely, teaching numbers and shapes. Content of Educational Activities The analysis of the specific content focused on the activities that were developed in the context of the most frequent themes (“Olive tree,” “autumn/fall,” “restoration of democracy,” and “sowing (bread)”), in order to deeply analyze teachers’ designs and practices. Since the term content is quite abstract, we created four sub-codes in order to organize our analysis. The sub-codes were the following: (a) learning area, i.e., language, mathematics, studies of the environment, physical education, etc.; (b) activities that were observed, such as painting, completion of a worksheet, etc.; (c) educational material that was used as learning aid of instruction (e.g., pictures, videos, etc.); and (d) space of the classroom, where the activities conducted. In the following subsections, we further analyze the four sub-codes that we used. Learning area. Significant similarities can be noticed in the manner that different kindergarten teachers developed the theme “Olive tree.” Specifically, the teaching goals, and thus, the activities that were observed 786 MYTH AND ANTINOMY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION were mainly related to the learning areas of studies of the environment1 (82.6%), language (58.7%), and creation and expression (fine arts) (45.6%) (see Table 4). The same picture can be also noticed during the instruction of other popular themes. Namely, during the theme “autumn/fall,” kindergarten teachers presented instructional activities mostly related to the studies of the environment (83.3%) and creation and expression (fine arts) (58.3%). Similarly, during the theme “restoration of democracy,” the goals and the activities were all related to the studies of the environment (100%), creation and expression (fine arts) (71.4%), and language (52.4%). Lastly, during the theme “sowing (bread),” the most referenced learning areas were once more studies of the environment (92.3%) and language (58.3%). On the other hand, we observed that some cognitive areas were surprisingly marginalized in each and every theme. Hence, the less often referenced goals and activities were from the learning areas of mathematics and creation and expression (music), whereas no references were observed related other cognitive areas from the National Curriculum of Greece, such as Computer Science and Child and Physical Education. Table 4 Frequency of References of Learning Areas That Were Developed During the Most Popular Themes Themes Olive tree Autumn/fall Restoration of democracy Sowing (Bread) Learning areas Studies of the environment Language Creation and expression (fine arts) Mathematics Creation and expression (drama) Computer science Study of the environment Creation and expression (fine arts) Language Creation and expression (drama) Mathematics Study of the environment Creation and expression (fine arts) Language Creation and expression (drama) Mathematics Creation and expression (music) Study of the environment Language Creation and expression (fine arts) Mathematics Creation and expression (drama) References 38 27 21 7 6 1 20 14 9 7 3 21 15 11 8 5 3 12 7 3 3 2 Activities. Significant similarities in the specific activities existed in every theme that teachers presented in different classrooms. One of the most referenced activities was the conversation with the whole class (see Table 5), where the actual “lesson” was taught. The whole class sat opposite to the teacher as he/she was lecturing and/or asking questions that were usually close-ended. That kind of activity occupied most of the time 1 Learning areas as mentioned in the National Curriculum of Greece (2003), since the implementation of the proposed curriculum of 2011 is not obligatory yet. MYTH AND ANTINOMY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION 787 used for instruction. Conversation with the whole class was considered as an integral part of the theme development, as it was always the beginning activity that set the cornerstone for the upcoming activities. Table 5 Frequency of References of Specific Activities Developed in the Frame of the Most Popular Themes Themes Olive tree Autumn/fall Restoration of democracy Sowing (Bread) Activities Language activities Conversation (whole class) Art activities Worksheet (order of oil production) Experiment (solubility of oil) Cooking Wreath of olive branches (Kotinos) Dramatization of Olive harvest Count of related items Classification of deciduous and evergreen trees Visit (museum, Olive press) Conversation (whole class) Language activities Art activities Experiments (about water) Dramatization Worksheet (circle of water) Video (circle of water) Singing songs of rain Cooking Conversation (whole class) Language activities Art activities Dramatization Singing songs Video (excerpts of historical films) Language activities Conversation (whole class) Art activities Cooking Dramatization Singing songs Planting seeds Worksheet (order of bread production) Classification of seeds Count seeds Interview an expert References 49 42 18 9 9 7 5 4 3 3 3 24 18 14 11 7 6 4 3 2 24 20 19 8 6 1 13 10 6 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 Regarding the “Olive tree” theme, the conversation was around the subthemes of Olive products (15 references), harvest of Olives (14 references), and oil and its properties (8 references). Accordingly, during the theme “autumn/fall,” teachers talked about fruits of autumn (4 references), the water circle (11 references), autumn’s weather (6 references), and rivers (3 references). Accordingly, the conversation during the “restoration of democracy” theme concerned the narration of historical facts (15 references), as well as the concepts of 788 MYTH AND ANTINOMY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION democracy and dictatorship (9 references). Moreover, the same activity during the “sowing (bread)” theme was related to the bread production process (4 references), sowing in the past (4 references), and seeds (2 references). Another highly referenced practice of kindergarten teachers, regardless of the theme, was language activities that usually concerned both learning letters or/and words and narration of myths, tales, and proverbs. More specifically, during the “Olive tree” theme instruction, teachers required from children to create compound words using the words “Olive” or “oil” (11 references), learn to write and read them (6 references), and learn the first letter from the word “Olive” (in Greek) (7 references). Furthermore, they presented the myth of goddess Athena who gave her name to the Greek City of Athens (where the Olive tree was used as a symbol) (10 references), the story of Noah’s Ark (as a dove brought back a branch of Olive tree to sign the end of cataclysm) (3 references), reading of related riddles and proverbs (6 references), as well as reading other related tales (6 references). During the “autumn/fall” theme, children were taught related words (6 references), heard the teacher reciting a specific poem about rivers (7 references), as well as other associated tales (5 references). Reading tales was a frequent activity at the “restoration of democracy,” too, as teachers selected a specific tale which addressed the concepts of democracy and dictatorship (14 references), while some writing activities were conducted (write slogans and letters). The same activities occurred at “sowing (bread),” as children wrote names of seeds (2 references), learnt related words (2 references), riddles and proverbs (2 references), and listened to tales (7 references). The analysis showed that teachers preferred quite often to develop art activities, such as constructions (e.g., an Olive tree [6 references], about the circle of water [4 references], group collage about democracy [8 references], and constructions with pasta and seeds [2 references]) and paintings (35 references), usually with the use of worksheets (14 references). Those kind of activities occurred after the main learning activities, namely, conversation (with the whole class), since they were considered as consolidating activities. Moreover, other activities that were developed indicated interesting similarities regardless of the theme. For instance, the use of worksheets was pretty dominant in activities that aimed specific procedural processes, like learning the order of oil production (9 references), circle of water (6 references), and order of bread production (1 reference). In addition, many teachers developed cooking activities, such as making Olive cookies, fruit salads, and bread. During the cooking activities, as also during the experiments, teachers had the leading role since they demonstrated the process while children had mostly a passive role. Educational material. The materials that teachers included in their instruction were mainly printed and real objects rather than digital. The printed materials included photographs or/and pictures (54 references) (e.g., Olive trees, stages of oil production, stages of circle of water, and historical photographs), various cards with words and letters (6 references), and fairy tales and poems (17 references). In addition, the real objects stemmed from the nature (31 references) (e.g., branches of Olive tree, leaves, seeds, and fruits), as well as famous paintings (6 references) and puppet dolls (2 references). Despite the fact that printed materials and real objects were dominant throughout the activities, regardless of the theme, digital materials were used in a few instances, including mostly music and sound excerpts (16 references) and videos (7 references). Classroom space. The vast majority of activities were conducted inside the classroom (172 references) rather than outdoor (5 references). Specifically, most of the teachers preferred to initially gather the children at the conversation area (99 references), where the actual lesson took place, and later moved on the tables (70 MYTH AND ANTINOMY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION 789 references) for children to practice on the new knowledge they just heard. In some very few cases, during the “sowing (bread)” theme, after or before the gathering time in the conversation area, teachers used the computer area (2 references) as well as the science area (1 references). Nevertheless, even in these cases, the role of the children remained passive, since the teacher demonstrated a video or some nature objects while children were not encouraged to cooperate with each other or touch the items (computers or nature objects). Teaching Methods According to Table 6, the most occurring method of teaching was conversation (161 references), which in fact included close-ended questions that teachers posed to the children about concepts they had already learnt. The conversation method was mainly accompanied with the questions and answers method (160 references) which did not encourage a viral conversation between the students, but only a limited exchange between teacher and students. As we have already mentioned, teachers used to lecture (98 references) in front of the children in their attempt to impart the knowledge. As a result, they very rarely organized their class in small groups (22 references) and even when they did, children’s work could not be characterized as cooperative. Instead, children were gathered all together at most of the teaching time (171 references). Table 6 Instances of References of Teaching Methods Methods Conversation Questions and answers Lecture Picture observation Fact’s description Narration Demonstration Role playing Experiment Video projection Puppet show Educational visiting References 161 160 98 82 52 51 41 35 24 17 3 3 Discussion and Conclusion The scope of the present study was the investigation of the instructional content that occurs in kindergarten, i.e., the applied educational practices and the exact instructional content that is taught. The analysis of data showed that there were interesting similarities between teachers’ practices. Such findings are allied with the previous research of Kakana (2011), as we initially hypothesized. More specifically, our findings indicated that there was a specific model of educational practice which teachers tend to apply, regardless of the theme they developed. According to this model, instruction always started with a “conversation,” that was actually a lecture from the teacher who introduces the theme and imparts the knowledge he/she considers significant. The second stage of the model included individual assignments to the students aiming to consolidate the new knowledge through worksheets or various construction activities. Every other activity that teachers developed was usually adjusted in this model of practice. 790 MYTH AND ANTINOMY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION Moreover, the art activities that occurred during the consolidation stage were mainly applied in order to fill any possible time gap rather than addressing educational goals. Combining the way they used arts with the fact that the theme “restoration of democracy” was developed in three days before and after the national celebration, highlights the lack of organization of time, as well as the lack of intention to experiment with different themes. Consequently, teachers seemed not to be well-prepared and thus they extended every situation, i.e., celebration day, to fill the teaching time. The above results suggest that kindergarten teachers maintained a conservative approach towards learning and teaching, since they preserved an agenda with pre-designed themes and activities which were applied in the exact same way every year. Therefore, they seemed to be unwilling in updating any of their teaching design or adapting them according to the students’ needs. Possibly, such conservatism stems from their insecurity to experiment with approaches they may not be trained and subsequently feel unprepared (Kakana, Ioannidis, & Kotzampasaki, 2004). The selected themes, the activities, and the educational material indicate the intense didacticism of teachers who are trying to lead children in the one and only correct answer. Their obvious focus on direct teaching highlights the dominance of the model of knowledge transfer. Therefore, Greek teachers seem to be baffled to make the transition into a more developmentally appropriate program that is also suggested by the formal curriculum for early childhood education (Kakana, 2011; Kalantzis & Cope, 2012; Lave & Wenger, 1992). In addition, they emphasize and consider critical for children to learn specific knowledge skills, which becomes obvious from their options during the development of themes, while on the other hand they ignore other cognitive areas. More specifically, they focus on the language instruction, as well as on the children’s engagement with crafts, while they avoid activities related to new technologies, mathematics, and music education. The teacher deviation from designing activities related to new technologies strengthens the point that they are quite unfamiliar with them, and especially with the potential to utilize them into their educational practice (Tsitouridou & Vryzas, 2004; Saúdea, Cariocaa, Siraj-Blatchfordb, Sheridanc, Genovd, & Nueze, 2005). Additionally, they considered that mathematics could not be easily included in themes and as a result they tended to teach them separately. Concerning the music education, teachers avoided to engage children in producing their own music or play with instruments, as it turns the classroom into a noisy environment. The complete omission of the physical education could be reflected into the following principles: 1. The established opinion that children should stay seated in the classroom during the “lesson”; 2. Children can only move or play during the break or/and during the free activities; 3. Based on 1 and 2, at the same time, they prepare themselves for the rules of elementary school. Apparently, the teaching practice did not promote the holistic development of the children or any creativity skills, as the formal curriculum of Greece (Hellenic Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs, 2003) suggests. Although this curriculum is aligned with developmentally appropriate practices, its implementation seems to puzzle teachers, as their everyday practices, including the themes, the way they develop them and the instructional activities are mainly knowledge-centered and old-fashioned (Kakana, 2011). The lack of holistic development from everyday practice in kindergarten illustrates the low quality of the educational content (Feeney & Moravcik, 2005; Logue, 2007). Generally, it was observed that the most experiential activities, which are characterized as developmentally appropriate, occurred less often, indicating the teacher-centered approach of instruction, as students remained passive. As a matter of fact, current learning situations in kindergarten are stuck in principles MYTH AND ANTINOMY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION 791 and methods of the 19th century, since memorization of distributed knowledge and treatment of children as blank papers are still on the core of teachers’ practice (Koutsouri, 2007). According to our results, teachers argued that children were interested in the “Olive tree” theme and that it emerged from them. However, that was actually an assumption that they made in order to provide a developmentally appropriate explanation. Former findings highlighted the tendency that teachers have to promote a more developmentally appropriate approach than their actual practice demonstrates (Charlesworth et al., 1991; National Association for the Education of Young Children [NAYEC], 2003; Spodek, 1999; Rentzou & Sakellariou, 2011). However, there is a restriction that should be taken into consideration as it may have affected the results of the study. Teachers were aware of being recorded and thus they may have altered their behavior. Nevertheless, such a restriction was attempted to be limited. Although the observers recorded all the activities that occurred that day, only one activity from each classroom was used as our data input while teachers did not know which one was actually used. Additionally, although teachers were aware of the study, they did not have access to its precise goals in order to accordingly alter their behavior and practice. Concluding, the present study delineated the significant gap that exists between the formal suggestions and the teaching practice in kindergartens. Teachers seemed to be quite conservative with their instructional approaches. Therefore, significant consideration arises, on one hand, about the deeper reasons that determine their preferences, and on the other hand, concerning the type of interventions that may lead to update their practice and approaches. As we mentioned, numerous studies emphasize that each teacher owns a personal theory and a personal history. Thus, our results should be taken into account when developing, organizing, and implementing in-service training programs are planned (Dunn & Dunn, 1979; MacNeil, 1980; Meyers & Myers, 1980). The absence of any active, self-involving procedure in the course of a teacher’s professional development seems to turn training into a simply academic, unreliable, and ineffective process (Bagakis, Demertzi, & Stamatis, 2007; Dakopoylou, 2000; Kakana et al., 2004; Riga & Botsoglou, 2004; Vergidis, 1995). The initial focus should be on teacher training programs as it is urgent to facilitate teachers with adaptive expertise in order to be more effective and innovative. Such teachers would be able to apply appropriate practices and teaching approaches, as also to interlard established practices, evaluate and reflect their actions, in order to improve their teaching skills (Hammerness, Darling-Hammond, & Bransford, 2005). Consequently, the development of adaptive expertise presupposes the cultivation of analyzing and reflecting skills of teaching and learning and more importantly on their own educational practice (Feiman-Nemser, 1990; Schön, 1983; Zeichner & Liston, 1996). Hence, the question is what kind of teachers’ training procedures could contribute in the configuration of reflective teachers who are able to link flexibly theory and practice and choose accordingly the instructional approach. All in all, further investigation on content and instructional approaches that define the educational context in kindergarten adds significant value to the deeper understanding of kindergarten practice. References Allen, G. (2011). Early intervention, the next steps (An independent report to Her Majesty’s Government, the Stationery Office). Bagakis, G., Demertzi, K., & Stamatis, Th. (Eds.) (2007). A school learns: Self-evaluation of a school under the program Carpe Vitam: Leadership for learning. Athens: Livani. 792 MYTH AND ANTINOMY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION Bodovski, K., & Farkas, G. (2007). Do instructional practices contribute to inequality in achievement? The case of mathematics instruction in kindergarten. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 5, 301-322. Bos, W., & Tarnai, C. (1999). Content analysis in empirical social research. International Journal of Educational Research, 31(8), 659-671. Charlesworth, R., Hart, C. H., Burts, D. C., & Hernandez, S. (1991). Kindergarten teachers’ beliefs and practices. Early Child Development and Care, 70(1), 17-35. Claessens, A., Engel, M., & Curran, F. C. (2014). Academic content, student learning, and the persistence of preschool effects. American Educational Research Journal, 51(2), 403-434. Dakopoylou, A. (2003). Training of Greek primary education teacher’s: Teacher’s perceptions, experiences and preferences. Retrieved from http://www.pee.gr/e27_11_03/sin_ath/mer_c_th_en_iii/dakopoyloy.htm Dunn, R. S., & Dunn, K. J. (1979). Learning styles/teaching styles: Should they ... can they ... be matched? Educational Leadership, 36, 238-244. Engel, M., Claessens, A., & Finch, M. (2013). Teaching students what they already know? The misalignment between instructional content in mathematics and student knowledge in kindergarten. Educational Evaluation and Policy Administration, 35, 157-178. Feeney, S., & Moravcik, E. (2005). What should they be learning in preschool? The development of preschool content standards in Hawaii. Educational Perspectives, 38(1), 27-31. Feiman-Nemser, S. (1990). Teacher preparation: Structural and conceptual alternatives. In W. R. Houston (Ed.), Handbook of research on teacher education (pp. 212-229). New York, N.Y.: McMillan. Flouris, G. (1995). Curricula for a new age of education. Athens: Gregory. Giardiello, P., McNulty, J., & Anderson, B. (2013). Observation, assessment and planning practices in a children’s centre. Child Care in Practice, 19(2), 118-137. Hammerness, K., Darling-Hammond, L., & Bransford, J. (2005). How teachers learn and develop. In L. Darling-Hammond, & J. Bransford (Eds.), Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do. San Francisco, C.A.: Wiley & Sons. Hatch, J. A., & Freeman, E. B. (1988). Kindergarten philosophies and practices: Perspectives of teachers, principals, and supervisors. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 3(2), 151-166. Hellenic Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs. (2003). Cross-thematic curriculum framework for nursery school. Athens: Hellenic Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs. Kakana, D. M. (2011). Thematic approaches in preschool education: Creative actions or stereotypic options? In S. Nektarios, & M. Efstathiadou (Eds.), European regional conference: Perspectives of creativity and learning in early childhood. Cyprus: Cypriot Committee of OMEP. Kakana, D., Ioannidis, X., & Kotzampasaki, E. (2004). A successful training program: Afterwards what? Teachers’ opinions about continuing support of their work. Teaching of natural sciences. Research and Act, 10, 20-26. (In Greek) Kalantzis, M., & Cope, B. (2012). Didactic. Retrieved from http://newlearningonline.com/learning-by-design/glossary/didactic/ Kallestad, J. H., & Ødegaard, E. E. (2013). Children’s activities in Norwegian kindergartens (Part 1: An overall picture). Cultural-Historical Psychology, 4, 74-81. Koutsouri, A. (2007). Instructional methodology: Creative activities and learning processes. Athens: Hellenic Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1992). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. Leung, C. (2012). Teacher beliefs and practices of kindergarten teachers in Hong Kong. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 37(1), 38-54. Logue, M. E. (2007). Early childhood learning standards: Tools for promoting social and academic success in kindergarten. Children & Schools, 29(1), 35-43. MacNeil, R. (1980). The relationship of cognitive style and instructional style to the learning performance of undergraduate students. Journal of Educational Research, 22, 354-359. Melhuish, E. C. (2011). Preschool matters. Science, 333(6040), 299-300. Meyers, I. B., & Myers, P. B. (1980). Gifts differing. Palo Alto, C.A.: Consulting Psychologists Press. National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAYEC). (2003). Early childhood curriculum, assessment and program evaluation: Building an effective, accountable system in programs for children birth to age 8 (Position Statement). Washington, D.C.: Author. MYTH AND ANTINOMY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION 793 New, R. S. (1999). What should children learn? Making choices and taking chances. Early Childhood Research and Practice, 1(2). Retrieved from http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v1n2/new.html Ntoliopoulou, E. (2005). Current curricula for kindergarten children. Athens: Typotheto. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2001). Starting strong: early childhood education and care. Paris: Author. OECD. (2003). Five curriculum outlines. Paris: Author. OECD Reports. (2004). Background Reports (prepared by country) and Country Notes (written by OECD experts teams) have been prepared for Austria, Canada, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Korea and Mexico. These reports are available at hhtp://www.oedc.org/edu/earlychildhood Rentzou, K., & Sakellariou, M. (2011). Greek pre-service kindergarten teachers’ beliefs about and practices of developmentally appropriate practices in early childhood education. Early Child Development and Care, 181(8), 1047-1061. Riga, V., & Botsoglou, K. (2004). Reforming “traditional” teaching methods in in-service training programs for early childhood teachers: An action research project. International Journal of Learning, 11, 223-230. Saúdea, S., Cariocaa, V., Siraj-Blatchfordb, J., Sheridanc, S., Genovd, K., & Nueze, R. (2005). KINDERET: Developing training for early childhood educators in information and communications technology (ICT) in Bulgaria, England, Portugal, Spain and Sweden. International Journal of Early Years Education, 13(3), 265-287. Schön, D. A. (1983). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco, C.A.: Jossey-Bass. Spodek, B. (1988). The implicit theories of early childhood teachers. Early Child Development and Care, 38(1), 13-32. Tickell, C. (2011). The early years: Foundations for life, health and learning (An independent report on the early years foundation stage to Her Majesty’s Government). Tsitouridou, M., & Vryzas, K. (2004). The prospect of integrating ICT into the education of young children: The views of Greek early childhood teachers. European Journal of Teacher Education, 27(1), 29-45. Vergidis, D. (1995). From the faculties of training in the regional training centers: Critical review of teacher’s training. In A. Kazamias, & M. Kassotakis (Eds.), Greek education: Prospects of reconstruction and modernization. Athens: Seirios. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. (S. Vosniadou, Trans.). Athens: Gutenberg. Zeichner, K., & Liston, D. (1996). Reflective teaching: An introduction. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. US-China Education Review B, December 2015, Vol. 5, No. 12, 794-805 doi:10.17265/2161-6248/2015.12.003 D DAVID PUBLISHING Developing Students’ Intercultural Competence in Foreign Language Textbooks Paweł Sobkowiak  Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland If learners are to communicate effectively in a foreign language (FL), they have to know not only the language with its intricate system and conventions, but also, to some degree, their interlocutors’ cultural background, since language is also a cultural phenomenon which cannot be properly understood without the cultural context in which it is used. Globalization has led to changes in students’ needs concerning FL learning. To cater to them, intercultural capabilities have to be incorporated into language education—learners have to be involved in observing, describing, and comparing different cultures rather than only learn passively about the target foreign culture(s). This paper reports on the findings of research aiming to check whether textbooks used for teaching English as a foreign language (EFL) in Polish schools reflect an intercultural approach, i.e., to what extent their cultural components go beyond depicting the target culture or various cultures and involve students in exploring, analyzing, and comparing the cultures, thus sensitizing their intercultural perception, awareness, and appreciation. The study revealed that the textbooks do this in a very limited way, and their capacity to foster intercultural teaching and learning is quite small and limited. Keywords: intercultural teaching and learning, developing intercultural competence, EFL textbooks Introduction Language is used to communicate something beyond itself. Hence, foreign language (FL) teaching should go beyond a linguistic code, because forms and structures of the language will not suffice to enable effective communication (Kramsch, 1993; 2008). In intercultural interactions, people make cultural assumptions that arise from their own cultural backgrounds. According to Byram (1988), language does not function independently from the context in which it is used. The meaning of any particular utterance is not determined solely by its linguistic composition; speakers’ cultural backgrounds influence it considerably. Thus, to interpret one’s message appropriately, the cultural context in which it has been created has to be taken into consideration.1 Cultures structure reality differently, and as a result, behaviors differ across countries. For example, when it comes to introducing oneself, in the U.S. (individualistic culture), where emphasis is placed on personal achievements, what a person does is often accentuated, while in Mexico (collectivistic culture), where relationships are highly valued, people introduce themselves in terms of family names and these relationships Paweł Sobkowiak, Ph.D., senior lecturer, School of Law and Administration, Adam Mickiewicz University. A dialogue between an American manager and his Greek team member shows how different values and attitudes surface in conversations and can lead to miscommunication (Dignen & Chamberlain, 2009, p. 154). 1 DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE 795 (Kohls & Knight, 1994, pp. 23-24). People raised in the same culture share the same set of cultural practices and an understanding of the meanings associated with the language in use, and hence, their language use is shaped accordingly by these shared understandings. Cultural conditioning results in people viewing situations in predetermined ways, and students should be aware that their responses are not universal across the globe, but typical of the ones considered appropriate in their native cultures. Without such knowledge, understanding foreigners is hard to achieve. Some people, despite their considerable FL proficiency, still have problems with communicating in it successfully. If learners want to understand representatives of foreign cultures, firstly they have to realize that they are products of enculturation, i.e., their perception of the world and a range of accepted behaviors have been shaped by the surrounding culture, and so have the accepted norms they conform to and the values they hold. Secondly, they have to be able to find similarities and differences between cultures, and in intercultural contacts resort to the former and try to find and explain the reasons for the latter. Students should be encouraged to observe, analyze, and interpret the behaviors of foreigners, and compare them with the norms and conventions of their own cultures, hoping to grasp perception and appreciation of the difference. This will help them notice and understand better the diversity of the world; develop empathy, open-mindedness, mindfulness, and respect for others; and increase their chances for successful intercultural communication. Currently, the paradigm of teaching culture in a FL classroom has changed—for example, in the case of English, which has gained a status of lingua franca, it has been postulated that it should be taught as an international language in an intercultural perspective.2 It has even been argued that students do not need to internalize the cultural norms of the British or American cultures anymore, because they will not be of much help in contact with the citizens of the world. The aims of an intercultural approach have been summarized in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages as follows: “… It is a central objective of language learning to promote the favorable development of the learner’s whole personality and sense of identity in response to the enriching experience of otherness in language and culture” (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 1). The intercultural perspective in language education challenges one of the well-established goals of FL teaching, which used to be achieving native-like proficiency by students. First, such an objective is in fact unattainable for the majority of learners, and second, seems unjustifiable and unnecessary, since, as it has been mentioned before, students will use it more often in contacts with its non-native speakers. In intercultural learning and teaching, linguistic goals are complemented by developing intercultural competence and the skills required for cultural exploration and mediation. Separation of English as an international language from any particular culture and adopting the intercultural perspective imposes on English textbook writers specific requirements—cultural content should go beyond a mere presentation of the English-speaking countries, such as Great Britain, the U.S., or Australia, and cover a wide range of other cultural contexts, the students’ one included. However, interculturality cannot be equated solely with the representation of many cultures. What lies at the heart of the intercultural approach is learners’ active involvement in exploring, analyzing, and comparing 2 Liddicoat and Scarino (2013) claimed that since FL learners bring more than one language and culture to the process of meaning-making and interpretation, language learning per se is intercultural in its nature (p. 2). 796 DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE cultures, so that they can learn about the system of values used by other people often perceived as strangers, and thus, develop intercultural sensitivity and the skills necessary to mediate whenever differences in understanding occur. It is also supposed to contribute to students’ wider perception and appreciation of the differences between cultures, distancing them from ethnocentrism and preventing evaluation of foreigners from their native cultural perspective, which often provides a strong impediment to cross-cultural understanding. Research—Rationale, Aim, and Methodology This paper seeks to examine the potential of English as a foreign language (EFL) textbooks used in Poland for intercultural teaching and learning, i.e., for preparing learners for cross-cultural communication. The reason for undertaking the research was the author’s interest in adapting intercultural teaching and learning to the Polish context, where the majority of students had gone through a largely mono-cultural socialization into homogenous classrooms. Few cultural minorities inhabit the country and teachers are mostly Polish graduates of local English departments. Consequently, students have access mostly to cultural worldviews similar to their own and cannot experience the difference between their own perception and that of people who originate from different cultural backgrounds. In such a situation, developing students’ intercultural competence seems to be extremely important. It is in the FL classroom that learners should attain the ability to put together, and thus, experience cultural differences as preparation for intercultural communication in which they will get involved. If this cannot be achieved by direct contacts with multicultural classmates or a teacher from a diverse culture, it should be compensated by appropriate intercultural content in textbooks which can, to a certain degree, make up for this deficiency. The research aimed at investigating the cultural content of ELT textbooks used in Polish high schools. It focused on the textbooks used in Poland, since it was part of a larger project which attempted to assess whether intercultural competence was developed in FL classrooms in the Polish context.3 The study was meant to answer the following specific questions concerning EFL textbooks, namely, whether they helped learners to: 1. Explore foreign cultures, and, thus, increase learners’ positive attitudes toward otherness; 2. Contrast and compare cultures, investigate cultural differences (increase learners’ awareness of the problems that arise in communicating with foreigners); 3. Develop socio-cultural pragmatic abilities; 4. Explore their own culture (to acknowledge their own cultural identity and increase awareness of having specific cultural values and unstated cultural assumptions); 5. Reflect on their values, attitudes, and beliefs, and those of foreigners; 6. Explore non-verbal communication across cultures; 7. Become conflict mediators. A content analysis of 20 EFL textbooks (see Appendix) was carried out in the summer of 2015. Six titles targeted at high school students aged 15 to 18 were examined: Oxford Matura Trainer (two levels), New Matura Explorer (four levels), Matura Prime Time Plus (four books), New English File (four levels), Matura Solutions (four books), and Framework (two levels). Most of the textbooks (except New English File) have a seal of approval granted by the Polish Ministry of Education and are recommended for use in Polish EFL 3 The findings of the previous studies were published in Sobkowiak (2012a; 2012b; 2013; 2014; 2015). 797 DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE classrooms, so they can be considered as constituting a representative sample. The books were selected at random. A mixed-methods approach of quantitative and qualitative data collection was applied. First, following a thorough study of the literature on intercultural learning and teaching, a list of 10 most typical intercultural task-types was compiled. Second, in the quantitative part of the study, all the textbooks were examined in search of the identified activities. A reading passage oriented on a specific cultural issue with a set of exercises which accompanied it, i.e., a reading comprehension exercise, a vocabulary exercise, and a listening passage with a follow-up comprehension exercise, were treated as one example of an activity aiming at exploring culture (one recording in the table). A separate, single task designed for learners to write a short passage, preceded by their individual searches of the available sources, was also given one time. The main concern was to count the frequency of intercultural exercises in the analyzed textbooks. To increase validity of the results, the sample was double-checked for the intercultural content. The data collection and the analysis of the cultural material were conducted by the author of the article. All the books were considered separately to allow identifying the ones with the highest numbers of intercultural tasks. At the qualitative stage of the study, the material related to various cultures in the sample was analyzed, i.e., all the texts with the accompanying exercises and the context in which they appeared. This was done to consider the nature of cultural presentations and their contexts. Since not all cultural information can possibly be integrated in a given volume and it is not enough to enumerate what is (or is not) there, also considered was how a given cultural input could be used to sensitize students to intercultural awareness and appreciation. Results and Discussion Most of the examined books have a separate section devoted to teaching culture where diverse cultures are presented and explored (except for the New English File series and Oxford Matura Trainer). However, the content reflects a culturalist perspective—elements of the intercultural approach appear very rarely. The distribution of intercultural activities in the sample is shown in Tables 1-6. Table 1 Distribution of Intercultural Exercises in New Matura Explorer Level Exercise type Exploring foreign cultures Elementary Pre-intermediate Intermediate 4 - 5 Upper-intermediate 8 Ethnographic project - - - - Contrasting and comparing cultures 1 1 1 2 “Critical incident” - - - - Developing learners’ socio-cultural pragmatic abilities - - - - Exploring learner’s culture 1 6 2 7 Reflecting on values, attitudes, and beliefs - - - 5 Exploring non-verbal communication - - - - Interpreting visual and verbal cultural representations 1 - - 1 Conflict mediation - - - - Total 7 7 8 23 798 DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE Table 2 Distribution of Intercultural Exercises in New Matura Solutions Level Elementary Pre-intermediate Intermediate Upper-intermediate 11 - 13 - 8 - 4 - Contrasting and comparing cultures “Critical incident” Developing learners’ socio-cultural pragmatic abilities - 2 - - - Exploring learner’s culture Reflecting on values, attitudes, and beliefs Exploring non-verbal communication 4 - 4 1 1 2 - - Interpreting visual and verbal cultural representations Conflict mediation - - - - 15 20 11 4 Exercise type Exploring foreign cultures Ethnographic project Total Table 3 Distribution of Intercultural Exercises in Matura Prime Time Plus Level Exercise type Exploring foreign cultures Ethnographic project Elementary Pre-intermediate Intermediate Upper-intermediate 3 - 8 - 2 - 4 - Contrasting and comparing cultures “Critical incident” Developing learners’ socio-cultural pragmatic abilities 6 - 2 - 3 - - Exploring learner’s culture Reflecting on values, attitudes, and beliefs Exploring non-verbal communication 5 1 1 12 - 2 - 4 - Interpreting visual and verbal cultural representations Conflict mediation 1 - - - - 17 22 7 8 Total Table 4 Distribution of Intercultural Exercises in New English File Level Elementary Pre-intermediate Intermediate Upper-intermediate 5 - 2 - - 2 - Contrasting and comparing cultures “Critical incident” Developing learners’ socio-cultural pragmatic abilities - - 2 - - Exploring learner’s culture Reflecting on values, attitudes, and beliefs Exploring non-verbal communication - - - 2 - Interpreting visual and verbal cultural representations Conflict mediation - - 1 - 1 - Total 5 2 3 5 Exercise type Exploring foreign cultures Ethnographic project 799 DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE Table 5 Distribution of Intercultural Exercises in Framework and Oxford Matura Trainer Level Exercise type Exploring foreign cultures Ethnographic project Contrasting and comparing cultures “Critical incident” Developing learners’ socio-cultural pragmatic abilities Exploring learner’s culture Reflecting on values, attitudes, and beliefs Exploring non-verbal communication Interpreting visual and verbal cultural representations Conflict mediation Total Oxford Matura Framework Framework Trainer (Elementary) (Pre-intermediate) (Ordinary) 10 5 1 1 1 1 1 11 6 3 Oxford Matura Trainer (Advanced) 3 1 4 Table 6 The Overall Distribution of Intercultural Exercises in the Investigated Textbooks Exercise type Exploring foreign cultures Ethnographic project Contrasting and comparing cultures “Critical incident” Developing learners’ socio-cultural pragmatic abilities Exploring learner’s culture Reflecting on values, attitudes, and beliefs Exploring non-verbal communication Interpreting visual and verbal cultural representations Conflict mediation Total N 98 21 51 11 2 5 188 The analyzed textbooks most often encourage their users to explore foreign cultures (98 recordings). However, there are two books in which not even a single such exercise can be found (New Matura Explorer [Pre-intermediate] and New English File [Intermediate]). The distribution of this activity type in the sample ranges from 1 to 13. However, none of the textbooks contains ethnographic projects, which could provide students with the unrivalled opportunities to explore and analyze cultures. In most cases, exploring cultures happens implicitly—learners are expected to read a text on a specific aspect of a foreign culture, and do the accompanying exercises focusing mostly on a comprehension check or vocabulary practice. Students are not expected to explore anything on their own, nor are they given any tasks requiring observing, analyzing or assessing any element of a foreign culture. Consequently, they do not have much chance to realize how multi-dimensional any culture is. Quite a number of the exercises are very superficial, and although they refer learners to their culture, they do not encourage exploring it in depth. For example, while exploring famous artists Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh (New Matura Solutions [Elementary]), students are asked to write a short text about another artist, writer, or musician. This will involve searching various sources for information. However, in the book, this is 800 DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE not preceded by any discussion of the features that have made both artists famous, how the perception of fame has changed over the years and what it looks like across cultures. Without this, not much intercultural learning will take place. The second most common intercultural activities found in the sample provide learners with opportunities to explore their own culture (51 times). Their distribution ranges from 1 to 12. However, in as many as six books, such exercises do not appear at all (30% of the sample). In only four books do students have an opportunity to explore their native culture five times and more (20%). This reveals that even if there are activities referring students to their own culture, they do not work on this frequently enough, nor on a regular basis, so consequently the chances for them to be released from the confinements of ethnocentrism are very low. The exercises are very superficial. Not a single exercise was found, which would give students an opportunity to look at well-known Polish practices from a different perspective than the Polish one. Naturally, people do not observe others from any other viewpoint than that determined by their own cultural conditioning. Kohls and Knight (1994) claimed that in cross-cultural communication, people often have to “detach themselves from their usual behaviors and mindsets and to stand back and gain a different perspective” (p. 66). The analyzed textbooks do not make this possible—learners are not invited to look afresh at their home culture, nor can see themselves as others might see them. The third most frequent intercultural activities in the analyzed textbooks focus on comparing and contrasting cultures (21 recordings). Their distribution in the sample ranges from one to six. However, in as many as 10 textbooks, such tasks do not appear at all (50% of the sample). What is quite surprising is that the book with the most frequent distribution of this exercise type is for beginners (Matura Prime Time Plus [Elementary]), which buries the myth, as if exploring cultures required a high level of language proficiency. Furthermore, in four books for upper-intermediate and advanced levels, such tasks have not been included at all (20% of the sample). Critical incidents and specific exercises aiming at comparing and contrasting cultures do not appear in the sample at all. They become something that requires an impulse on the part of the student to analyze in detail intercultural encounters and aim to explain the reasons for their failures, usually caused by different cultural expectations between the participants. Critical incidents encourage students to reflect on the analyzed situation and help them develop a range of strategies for effective cross-cultural communication. They are useful in probing the cultural assumptions people make in interactions with foreigners. They seem to sensitize learners to cultural differences and develop their intercultural sensitivity and competence (Triandis, 1995a; 1995b). Critical incidents might be useful in helping students develop mediating skills, since they might result in some discomfort or even conflict. This in turn will require learners to mediate between different sides of the conflict. Yet, the explored books offer the learners no training in conflict mediation, either. The cultural input of the examined books does not give learners much access to reflecting on their own values, attitudes, and beliefs, nor on the ones of strangers (11 times). The distribution of this exercise category in the sample ranges from one to five. However, in 15 of the books, such tasks do not appear at all (75% of the sample). The frequency of another intercultural activity type, namely, interpreting visual and verbal cultural representations, is even smaller—in the whole sample there have been only five recordings. Such exercises can be found in only five books (25% of the sample) and only once in each. This shows that the examined textbooks will not prepare the students to analyze how messages are constructed and understood across cultures. DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE 801 Non-verbal communication is practiced in the sample even less frequently—in fact, two recordings have been made in only two textbooks, i.e., in the majority of the sample (90%), nothing is done to make the students aware of the differences in this area of intercultural communication. No exercises designed to work on students’ socio-cultural pragmatic competence have been found in the sample. Accounting for the importance of this sphere of language, signaled in the introduction, such deficiency is a serious drawback of the examined textbooks. If learners are to produce situationally appropriate utterances, they have to be able to determine what can be said, to whom, where, when, and how. Such practice in a FL classroom is extremely important, since pragmatic competence in our native language is a powerful influence working against the appropriate use of a FL. The cultural content of the examined books reflects a culturalist perspective. Culture is presented in a very traditional, old-fashioned way, as if it were homogenous and static. It is reduced to a body of factual knowledge about a particular country or a cultural domain. This is done uncritically and with limited involvement between the learner and the culture being presented. The learner is positioned as an external observer of cultural facts, rather than as someone expected to interpret cultural practices considered relevant to increase this learner’s capacity to communicate in a FL. Students passively consume the information about natural wonders, prominent architecture, regional food and dances, etc. The message the cultural sections convey is rather superficial and lacks in-depth analysis of the presented content. Students do not have any opportunity to go beyond static appraisals of the presented material, because it does not encourage them to pursue deeper interpretation. Neither questions nor activities accompanying the texts stimulate the learners to think more deeply, or analyze their feelings, interpretations, and responses. For example, one can find texts about Hollywood movies and television programs, such as The Simpsons, Big Brother, American Idol, Deal or No Deal, Celebrity Homes, and the HBO series The Sopranos, A Space Odyssey, The Lord of the Rings, Avator (a breakthrough in 3D sci-fi movies), or Melancholia. There are also many excerpts from literary works, mainly passages from English or American novels, such as Sherlock Holmes, The Portrait of Dorian Grey, Oliver Twist, Tess of the d’Urbevilles, The Great Gatsby, 1984, The Time Machine, The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby, and Frankenstein, and a short poem by Robert Burns. There is quite a large representation of architectural icons in the sample, mainly from the English-speaking countries, for example, Stonehenge, the Sydney Opera House, the Sydney Harbor Bridge, the White House, the Statue of Liberty, the Tower of London, Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle, or York Cathedral. But examples of architectural icons from other cultural areas can be found, too, such as the Taj Mahal, the Eiffel Tower, or the Wieliczka Salt Mine Chapel. The sample presents a lot of tourists’ attractions, mainly from Western, English regions, e.g., Beverly Hills, downtown New York, Harrods, Yellowstone National Park in the U.S., or the Karijini National Park in Australia, and foods (examples range from European cuisine, such as pizza, fish and chips, and reindeer stew, to quite exotic dishes, like edible caterpillars popular in some African regions, aquatic insect larvae enjoyed in Japan since ancient times, or grasshoppers eaten in Mexico). However, the authors seem to have adopted a tourist’s perspective, emphasizing how much there is to see and do in the places presented. Thus, they turn the students into tourists who travel from country to country and do not engage themselves with the cultures met. The books in the sample depict customs from around the entire world. Among them, learners will find those well-known, originating from the Western culture, such as Christmas in the U.S. with its gingerbread 802 DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE cookies and a Christmas tree, St. Patrick’s Day, Mardi Gras in New Orleans, Burn’s Night in Scotland, to those less known, e.g., the Burning Man Festival in Nevada, the U.S. (alternative arts festival), dog sled races in the Cascale mountains of the northern U.S., or pumpkin throwing competition in Delaware, U.S.. The analyzed textbooks also present customs typical of non-English speaking countries, illustrated by a celebration of the religious feast of Corpus Christi in the Polish context, where church goers follow the priest in a procession of the Blessed Sacrament displayed in a monstrance along the streets of the city, or the lemon festival in Menton, in southern France, where people make a lot of lemonade and create amazing giant statues using tons of lemons and oranges. The sample also presents customs from non-European backgrounds, such as the Chinese New Year or the Jewish Hanukkah, or Kwanzaa—a holiday to commemorate African heritage. Students will find information about daily life in various places around the globe. For example, they will read about different aspects of education (home schooling in Great Britain and the U.S., a system of education in Great Britain, English independent and boarding schools, college life in the U.S., the Ivor Spencer International School of Butler Administrators, schools in Poland, Harvard University, and career counseling typical of the U.S.), sport (American football as illustrated by the Super Bowl, golf, rugby, cricket, the London marathon), and teenagers (summer jobs in the U.S.) and society in the broad sense. The latter is depicted by the texts about unconventional housing which brings people back to nature (a tree house in West Sussex in England, a boathouse, a house in a double decker bus, and reed houses in Peru), new forms of employment (teleworking), shopping malls (the U.S.), unusual places (a chill-out ice restaurant in Dubai), picking up litter on a beach in Brighton (Litter Day), and the Edinburgh Festival. Learners will find in the materials various rites of passage, ranging from getting a driver’s license at the age of 16 in the U.S., through a child’s going off into the wilderness to get guidance and direction for the future in Native American tribes, to arranged weddings in India. However, what the material is missing is a chance for students to make comparisons, explore cultures on their own and draw conclusions that there are no universal solutions. For example, users of Matura Prime Time Plus (Intermediate) can learn a lot about arranged marriages in India and a Hindu wedding ceremony, but the material does not invite them to discuss how people enter into marriages across the globe and what reasons lie behind what differs cultures in this respect. The cultural content is limited, fragmented, and superficial. For example, in the material on sport, usually only one is described (e.g., American football or golf), whereas basketball, quite common in America, is not mentioned in any of the samples. Cultures are presented as being only slightly different and the differences between them are often obscured. Kramsch’s (1987) claim that textbooks are often developed with reference to the culture of the learner rather than to that of the target community still seems to be valid. This is done to protect students from the perceived discomfort of encountering different ways of living and of viewing the world. Consequently, cultural diversity is not presented as a normal element of human reality with its own internal validity and value, but as something that is to be assessed from one’s own cultural perspective. Unfortunately, this way students’ intercultural understanding is fostered in a very limited way, if at all. Cultural sections of the examined textbooks present a range of views typical of particular cultures. It is illustrated by Crime Scene Investigation, a popular drama series in the U.S., perceived by viewers as entertainment and not a source of real crime evidence. Views are also depicted in an informative text about American TV series (both found in Oxford Matura Trainer [Advanced]). Those TV series mirror the changes which have taken place in society over the years. For example, students learn how the perception of fatherhood DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE 803 in the 20th century changed, from unrealistic, autocratic fathers who had their jobs and did nothing at home, but read newspapers and watched TV (Father Knows Best), through fathers of blended families (The Cosby Show), who shared economic and parenting responsibilities, to immature dads who needed more care than their children (The Simpsons). ABC’s Modern Family breaks ground by portraying a same sex couple who struggle with adoption and fatherhood. However, in the whole sample, there is only one such example presenting a particular view in a broader perspective (Oxford Matura Trainer [Advanced]). The sample books present diverse attitudes towards various aspects of life across the globe, e.g., how Brits perceive charity—from the text Red Nose Day, learners get to know that it is a big charity event that has become a sort of holiday of laughter in which many people want to participate. A lot of special comedy shows are organized on TV and viewers can call in to make donations (Matura Prime Time Plus [Pre-intermediate]). The text Sculptures Under the Sea depicts a unique example of the environment protection done by an artist in Cancun. He encourages tourists to swim to the underwater sculpture park he created which is supposed to be an alternative to a visit to a damaged reef (Matura Prime Time Plus [Pre-intermediate]). Another text (Care Homes) shows Americans as an uncaring society who put their elderly in nursing homes (Matura Trainer [Advanced]). However, the text is very judgmental and subjective—only one side of the coin is presented. The reason for which nursing homes are so popular, i.e., focusing on an individual’s independence, has not been mentioned. The analyzed books contain a lot of information about people—national and international icons, figures who symbolize or represent people in a country as a whole, and heroes whose qualities, track records, and accomplishments demand national or even international respect and admiration. In the sample, students will find people of different walks of life, such as Frida Kahlo, Edgar Allan Poe, Ralph Lauren, Lady Gaga, and Mark Beaumont (a Scottish cyclist with an entry in the Guinness World Records book). They will read about a Mexican poet Octavio Paz (the winner of the 1990 Nobel Prize in literature), Mother Teresa (born in Macedonia and founder of the Missionaries of Charity Order), or Usain Bolt (a runner from Jamaica, who holds eight world championship titles). Almost half of the icons presented in the textbooks originate from English-speaking countries, but quite a number of them stem from Western cultures that are non-English speaking. They are mostly Polish, which is determined by the course books targeting the Polish students. Among the people displayed in the sample are Bronisław Malinowski, an inspiring, world-famous anthropologist; Lech Wałęsa, the icon of the Solidarity movement and the first president elected in democratic elections; Wisława Szymborska, a well-known poetess and Noble Prize winner; and Janina Ochojska, the founder of a charity organization. Those people offer a considerable potential for intercultural exploration in the classroom because they embody qualities admired by a group, nation, or international community. However, this potential for intercultural exploration has not been utilized—there are no follow-up activities which could motivate students to express their opinions on the qualities those icons are considered to have, or examine how well they mirror the core values of the nation they stem from, or the qualities that the nation as a whole finds admirable. Nor are students encouraged to try to reflect on the qualities that have made some of those individuals iconic figures across nations and cultures. Very useful for intercultural communication seem to be tips on etiquette in such diverse places as Thailand, Dubai, Egypt, Rio, or Germany found in the textbooks. However, they can be found only in the minority of them. 804 DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE Conclusion The research reported in the article has revealed that the examined EFL textbooks’ capacity to develop students’ intercultural sensitivity and competence is very low. Out of 10 activity types identified as crucial for fostering intercultural skills, four have not been found in the sample at all. Although students have some opportunities to explore foreign cultures, they do this very superficially and mostly indirectly, merely by reading texts. The most useful exercises, i.e., ethnographic projects, have not been included. Students contrast and compare cultures, but it happens even less frequently. Furthermore, the most useful tasks for developing intercultural competence, namely, critical incidents, do not appear in the sample. Students compare cultures with their own, but since it is done very superficially, one can doubt whether such exercises will contribute to showing students the subjectivity of cultural norms, conventions, and people’s behaviors. No tasks involve students with mediation across cultures, nor the developing of their socio-pragmatic abilities. The books do not involve learners in discovering the importance of the interplay between speakers in creating meaning, which is strongly conditioned by the cultural context. Similarly, very few exercises, if any, designed to work on non-verbal communication in different cultures and interpreting visual and verbal cultural representations, can be found in the examined books. Students will have not many opportunities to reflect on values, attitudes, and beliefs. The cultural material in the analyzed textbooks seems to have been presented in a fragmented way. The materials seem to be disconnected from each other, making it impossible for the students to realize how multi-dimensional culture is and often invisible on the surface, thus difficult to describe. Such a simplified approach to culture which students will face obscures its complexity and makes teaching/learning it very ineffective, which might result in many misunderstandings in future intercultural encounters. The cultural content most frequently found in the sample revolves around topics connected with entertainment, tourist attractions, food, and literature. Such a choice might result from textbook writers’ incorrect assumption that such popular topics are more appealing to the target audience and can stimulate more interest in them than abstract ones inviting students to analyze diverse beliefs, attitudes, or religions. Intercultural perspective is hardly visible in the examined material and, consequently, the users will not be prompted to develop open-mindedness toward cultural diversity, mindfulness, or respect for otherness. Although there is a wide range of culture representations in the sample, this does not automatically contribute to fostering students’ intercultural competence, since developing it does not require many cultures to be present. What are needed instead are specially designed activities motivating learners to explore, contrast, and compare cultures, which in the case of the examined books is missing. Some limitations of the present study should be addressed since they provide agenda for future research. The findings obtained provide a crude picture of teaching culture in the sample. To help validate the current analysis, more detailed qualitative investigation should be undertaken. It will increase the credibility of interpretations and provide a more reliable answer to the research questions. References Byram, M. (1988). Foreign language education and cultural studies. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 1(1), 15-31. Council of Europe. (2001). Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. Dignen, B., & Chamberlain, J. (2009). Fifty ways to improve your intercultural skills. London, U.K.: Summertown Publishing. DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE 805 Kohls, L., & Knight, J. (1994). Developing intercultural awareness: A cross-cultural training handbook. Yarmouth, Me: Intercultural Press. Kramsch, C. (1993). Context and culture in language education. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press. Kramsch, C. (1987). Foreign language textbooks’ construction of foreign reality. Canadian Modern Language Review, 44(1), 95-119. Kramsch, C. (2008). Ecological perspectives on foreign language education. Language Teaching, 41(3), 389-408. Liddicoat, A., & Scarino, A. (2013). Intercultural language teaching and learning. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley-Blackwell. Sobkowiak, P. (2012a). Cross-cultural perspective of FL teaching and learning in the Polish context. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 2(4), 527-541. Sobkowiak, P. (2012b). Dialog interkulturowy na lekcji języka angielskiego w kontekście polskim (Intercultural dialog in the EFL classroom in Poland). Neofilolog, 38(1), 107-128. Sobkowiak, P. (2013). Intercultural dimension of FL teaching in the Polish context. In M. Kleban, & E. Willim (Eds.), PASE papers in linguistics (pp. 291-309). Kraków: Jagiellonian University Press. Sobkowiak, P. (2014). Intercultural teaching in the Polish context. In M. Pawlak, J. Bielak, & A. Mystkowska-Wiertelak (Eds.), Classroom-oriented research: Achievements and challenges (pp. 185-202). Cham, Heidelberg, New York, Dordrecht, London, U.K.: Springer. Sobkowiak, P. (2015). Interkulturowość w edukacji językowej (Intercultural language education). Poznań: Adam Mickiewicz University Press. Triandis, H. (1995a). Culture-specific assimilators. In S. Fowler, & M. Mumford (Eds.), Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural training methods (Vol. I, pp. 179-186). Yarmouth, M.E.: Intercultural Press. Triandis, H. (1995b). Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, C.O.: Westview Press. Appendix: Investigated Textbooks Dooley, J., & Evans, V. (2014a). Matura prime time plus (Elementary). Newbury: Express Publishing. Dooley, J., & Evans, V. (2014b). Matura prime time plus (Pre-intermediate). Newbury: Express Publishing. Dooley, J., & Evans, V. (2014c). Matura prime time plus (Intermediate). Newbury: Express Publishing. Dooley, J., & Evans, V. (2014d). Matura prime time plus (Upper-intermediate). Newbury: Express Publishing. Dummett, P., Benne, R. R., Inglot, M., & Polit, B. (2015). New Matura explorer (Upper-intermediate). Warsaw: Nowa Era. Falla, T., & Davies, P. A. (2011a). New Matura solutions (Elementary). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Falla, T., & Davies, P. A. (2011b). Matura solutions (Pre-intermediate). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Falla, T., & Davies, P. A. (2012). Matura solutions (Intermediate). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Falla, T., & Davies, P. A. (2013). New Matura solutions (Upper-intermediate). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Goldstein, B. (2005). Framework (Pre-intermediate). London: Richmond Publishing. Harding, R., Markowska, M., Sosnowska, J., & Szuwart, J. (2014). Oxford Matura trainer. Repetytorium z języka angielskiego. Poziom rozszerzony (Matura exam preparatory course [Advanced level]). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hughes, J., Polit, B., Wardyńska, E., & Michalak, I. (2014). New Matura explorer (Intermediate). Warsaw: Nowa Era. Hughes, J., Łubecka, A., & Polit, B. (2015). New Matura explorer (Elementary). Warsaw: Nowa Era. Jones, C., & Goldstein, B. (2005). Framework (Elementary). London: Richmond Publishing. Manin, G., Gryca, D., Sobierska, J., & Sosnowska, J. (2014). Oxford Matura trainer. Repetytorium z języka angielskiego. Poziom podstawowy (Matura exam preparatory course [Ordinary level]). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Naunton, J., Łubecka, A., & Polit, B. (2014). New Matura explorer (Pre-intermediate). Warsaw: Nowa Era. Oxenden, C., Latham-Koenig, C., & Seligson, P. (2005a). New English file (Elementary). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Oxenden, C., Latham-Koenig, C., & Seligson, P. (2005b). New English file (Pre-intermediate). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Oxenden, C., & Latham-Koenig, C. (2006). New English file (Intermediate). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Oxenden, C., & Latham-Koenig, C. (2008). New English file (Upper-intermediate). Oxford: Oxford University Press. US-China Education Review B, December 2015, Vol. 5, No. 12, 806-818 doi:10.17265/2161-6248/2015.12.004 D DAVID PUBLISHING The Cognition of Curatorial Strategies for Interpreting Localism Yu-Ju Lin, Jun-Liang Chen, Po-Hsien Lin National Taiwan University of Arts, New Taipei City, Taiwan Many unique traditional industries in Taiwan have declined over time. How to revive these fading craft cultures and retain the diversity of Taiwan’s cultural assets is a critical research topic. Thus, when preserving valuable cultural resources through curatorial exhibitions is considered a feasible measure, approaches to curating effective exhibitions that elicit emotional responses from visitors is a crucial issue. This article explores the emotional effect of the curation process as well as the visitor experiences by investigating the “Lost Memories Redux—The Search for the 100 Lost Industries” exhibition as a case study. Through this case study, a curatorial model was established to explain how to effectively elicit emotional responses from exhibition visitors. Through semi-structured in-depth interviews and a literature review, this article presents an analysis of the curatorial practice model. Subsequently, the results of a questionnaire survey are analysed to explore the emotional differences between the curator and the visitors regarding their exhibition experience. The results show that the proposed curatorial model can effectively elicit emotional responses of the visitors and identify their preferences. Through effective curatorial design, the core theme of an exhibition can be transmitted to visitors, thereby raising their awareness of cultural conservation and reflection. Thus, the proposed curatorial model can enhance the visitor’s acknowledgement according to their emotional responses to the exhibition. The results may serve as a reference for future studies. Keywords: curation, localism, cultural conservation, cultural reflection Introduction Exhibition design is an on-going process. Through the process of cultural participation, visitors internalize cultural identity targets and values, with a particular emphasis on forming a mutual cultural identity by developing a sense of belonging to a community. In contemporary curatorial methods, how curators present the features of an exhibition has become a critical topic in curating works for an exhibition. However, determining how to interpret an exhibition theme according to how items are displayed, how storylines are arranged, and how spatial layouts are combined to successfully transmit a message to visitors in full, is a challenge for curators. Curators must possess a complete understanding of exhibition content what to say as well as when and how to say it. Burcaw (1987), Carroll (2004), Liu (2003), Fu (2004), Hsu (2009), and Hsu and Lin (2011) have contended that from planning to executing an exhibition, as well as through the process of formulating a curatorial design and communicating a central theme, determining whether curators and visitors relate to an exhibition theme in the same way and share the same values is crucial. Yu-Ju Lin, Ph.D. candidate, Graduate School of Creative Industry Design, National Taiwan University of Arts. Jun-Liang Chen, Ph.D. candidate, Graduate School of Creative Industry Design, National Taiwan University of Arts. Po-Hsien Lin, Ph.D., professor, Graduate School of Creative Industry Design, National Taiwan University of Arts. THE COGNITION OF CURATORIAL STRATEGIES FOR INTERPRETING LOCALISM 807 Baxter (1998), Crilly, Moultrie, and Clarkson (2004), and Norman (2005) have reported that when abstract design concepts are transformed into tangible products, because curators and audiences have different experience, a certain degree of difference exists between the original concept and the finished work. In the process of curating works for an exhibition on localism, determining how to assist curators in accurately realizing the concepts of cultural conservation and reflection while simultaneously retaining the original concept implications and catering to the perceptions and preferences of visitors have become primary topics that curators must consider carefully when devising a curation strategy. Accordingly, this article examines the “Lost Memories Redux—The Search for the 100 Lost Industries” exhibition as a research target and explores the differences between curators and visitors regarding their experiential perceptions. Clarifying the difference between visitors and curators could help visitors understand the theme of an exhibition, which is something that curators must pay attention to following the increasingly complex spiritual and cultural needs of exhibition visitors. Belcher (1991) claimed that media communicate information. The value of an exhibition equals the information it conveys. However, visitors attend exhibitions to experience authentic works, acquire new knowledge, and attain spiritual and sensory enrichment and satisfaction. Curators must organise complex and diverse information rapidly and effectively. Through adopting systematic and organised transmission methods, curators can provide real-time feedback and resources to visitors to help them apply the various types of information provided in order to further understand the exhibition. Thus, developing high-quality information not only facilitates effective information transmission, but also arouses visitors’ interests in an exhibition, thereby, influencing their behaviours and learning. Literature Review Visitor Experiential Perceptions When attending an exhibition, individual visitors have different experiences according to the interaction between their moods and the event (Mcluhan, 2000). During the experiential process, the senses, cognitions, minds, and behaviours of visitors continually interact with the environment. Through such interactions, visitors can develop perceptions and gain experience (Kao, 2002). Falk and Dierking (1992) proposed an interactive experience model and argued that such experiences are not completely passive for visitors. Visitors each have unique experiences that form through the interaction of personal, social, and physical contexts. Finally, after visiting an exhibition, visitors reflect on their experiences based on their memories, which influences their expectations for and experiences of the next exhibition they attend. The considerations involved in designing a contemporary exhibition are focused on creating an optimal scenario that promotes visitor learning. The content of an exhibition must consistently reflect diversity. A critical consideration for visitors is to build confidence through observation (Oppenheimer, 1990). The key concepts for curators, who effectively act as the “authors” when designing an exhibition, are the operation, control, and rehearsal of spatial considerations. Building an exhibition atmosphere goes beyond utilising the physical characteristics of an exhibition space. Such atmosphere is created through contrasting works, cultural relics, and the exhibit spaces. Curators have a role that is similar to that of a director, in that they provide a context for actors (artists or works), which is the first layer of rhetoric when communicating with visitors (Lin, 2014). The intervention and control enables visitors to construct diverse thoughts and understandings regarding the theme of an exhibition. Thus, in the process of designing an exhibition and deciding on the content, curators provide stimuli for visitors through transmitting information and concepts that comprise the external factors of exhibitions. In any exhibition, curators must 808 THE COGNITION OF CURATORIAL STRATEGIES FOR INTERPRETING LOCALISM consider visitors’ emotional perceptions, create bonds through communication, form relationships with visitors, and thereby, transmit sensory exhibition curations. Exploration of Emotional Effect Jordan (2000) indicated that consumers have three layers of needs related to products they consume: functionality, usability, and pleasure. Functionality represents the intended use that a product is created for, through which people can utilise the product’s basic functions to complete certain tasks. Maslow (1943) proposed the hierarchy of needs (five basic needs) to define user needs theory regarding product characteristics including functionality, usability, and pleasure. Norman (2004) suggested that in addition to functionality, products are embedded with another critical element: emotion. Through the classic affective-behavioural-cognitive model of attitude, Norman developed three levels of emotional design: visceral (product appearance and texture), behavioural (product functions), and reflective (personal perceptions and thoughts) levels. He also indicated the importance of emotions to decision-making in daily life. In response to various levels of design principles for the current design and service industries that increasingly emphasise customisation and interaction, emotional design becomes central to the future development of industries. Lin (2007) improved the emotional design structure and combined it with Norman’s concept. He divided the factors requiring consideration when designing cultural and creative products into three levels of design attributes: (a) the outer tangible level, including colours, textures, shapes, and patterns; (b) the middle or behavioural level, including functionality, operability, and usability; and (c) the inner or intangible level, which is motivated by story, emotion, and cultural connotations. Figure 1 shows a comparison of the hierarchy of needs proposed by Maslow (1943) with the hierarchy of user needs proposed by Jordan (2000). In addition, the consideration factors regarding product design proposed by Norman (2004) and Lin (2007) are included in the comparison (Chu, 2011). In addition to considering techniques and devising themes, curation should be focused on forming interactions with the psychological or emotional characteristics of visitors. This article explores how the curator realized the core themes of an exhibition through curatorial planning and implementation. In addition to elucidating the curation process, this article examines how the curator converted abstract concepts into tangible display elements that promote learning and generate interest in an exhibition, which are crucial strategies and methods that can be applied in contemporary curatorial design. Figure 1. Comparison of application of hierarchy theory in curatorial practice models. THE COGNITION OF CURATORIAL STRATEGIES FOR INTERPRETING LOCALISM 809 The Curator’s Viewpoint and Strategy Hsu (2009) proposed an educational viewpoint that is suitable for curators, who are responsible for interpreting the combination of arts and institutions (i.e., final exhibits, concepts, or products), enabling artists and firms to view their works and products from different perspectives. Artists can understand their works from a commercial perspective and be inspired by new directions in creativity, whereas institutions can integrate creative designs into mass-produced products to generate innovation and market demand. Thus, when people create or attend exhibitions, these intrinsic and extrinsic factors should be considered in order to facilitate creating effective works and rendering their observation meaningful. The curator’s meticulous planning and in-depth understanding of works are essential in making decisions regarding exhibition themes. Curators attempt to employ research and exhibition themes to make exhibitions meaningful and create an environment that visitors can share. These efforts are the goal of curatorial design. A curation model primarily starts with determining the theme followed by searching for art works that can be connected with the theme. Obtaining diverse works that represent the theme can elicit certain questions from visitors while observing the exhibition (Fu, 2004). Hosting an exhibition requires a thorough planning process. Although the execution process may differ according to the theme or characteristics of an exhibition, the development process of curatorial planning and scheduling can be divided into four stages. 1. Introduction: An organiser communicates and negotiates with relevant organisations to ensure that works for an exhibition theme are obtainable. 2. Preparation: Curation conceptions are transformed from abstract concepts into physical objects. Artists are contacted and negotiated with in the process of curating works. The exhibition venue and exhibit objects are then confirmed, prepared, and arranged. Event promotion materials are created that meet the needs and regulations of the exhibition implementation process. 3. Execution: Activities related to exhibition opening, media advertising, frontline and service staff, education training, guided tours, and post exhibition dismantling are undertaken. 4. Dismantling: Disposing of exhibitions, dismantling of scaffolding, and returning of borrowed items are conducted post exhibition. The outcome and effectiveness of the exhibition is evaluated to publish a work report and perform data archiving. The exhibition execution schedule can be used as a guideline for future curators. This article explores how the curator transformed abstract content based on the theme of localism into physical exhibition elements through the curation process according to a planned curation schedule, as well as how they embed such elements into an exhibition to express and promote the core theme of cultural conservation and reflection in the exhibition. Methods Exhibitions entailing humanistic representation lack resources and have seldom been studied. When the exhibition is hosted by curators who are not familiar with the theme, the curators need to think outside of conventional frameworks for designing general exhibitions, and they may need to familiarise themselves with the entire design of project operations, as well as seek new spatial meaning for the field. In the first part of this study, semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted to explore the views of curators. The curator for the case exhibition focused on graphic design and creative products in his early careers. Recently, the curator had participated in several events and won numerous international awards in the field. To derive critical information from the interview data, we extracted and condensed valuable internal knowledge of the exhibition and 810 THE COGNITION OF CURATORIAL STRATEGIES FOR INTERPRETING LOCALISM organised the curator’s experiences and operational guides to formulate specific curatorial planning steps to provide a reference and planning directions for the curators of future exhibitions. The second part involved designing a questionnaire. Following the consumption emotions set developed by Richins (1997), 46 items were combined with the five items related to the curator’s emphasis on exhibition essence established by this article. Because this article assesses the positive emotions and behavioural intentions of visitors, negative emotional responses were removed. To reduce the items, repeated or similar emotional adjectives and those irrelevant to the current research topic were eliminated. Experts in related fields were invited to screen appropriate lexicons and list the emotional experience adjectives. Fourteen items were measured using a 5-point scale. The first section comprised nine items for evaluating of the works (realism, attractiveness, liveliness, value, craftsmanship, traditional content, content focus, emotion, and representativeness of local industry artists and craftsmen). The second section comprised perceptions from the exhibition and examined five items (representativeness of local industry artists’ and craftsmen’s spirit, benevolence, affection, joy, and pricelessness). Each item was evaluated from 1 (“Strongly disagree”) to 5 (“Strongly agree”). The response data were analysed using the multidimensional scaling in Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Multivariate regression was used in the first stage of the analysis to identify which visitor preferences and satisfaction with the image content of the exhibited works differed significantly (p < 0.001). An independent samples t-test was then conducted to examine whether the curator and the visitors’ evaluations and perceptions differed significantly (p < 0.05) (see Figure 2). Figure 2. Research framework and flowchart. Tangible Practice of Curating Design Formation of Curatorial Planning Concepts The curatorial planning concept of this exhibition was based on the curator’s inspiration, and focused on demonstrating the local connotations and meanings based on the theme of searching for localism. The curator THE COGNITION OF CURATORIAL STRATEGIES FOR INTERPRETING LOCALISM 811 explained that the artists featured in the exhibition employed their skills, which they had developed over their lives, to demonstrate their hand-made art works. Thus, in this exhibition, instead of emphasising the effort and humbleness of these artists and craftsmen, the curator focused on their persistence and commitment to represent the 100 fading traditional industries in this transitioning era. Through the expression of strong but simple emotions, the exhibition displayed the local beauty of Taiwan and demonstrated respect to the guardians and transmitters of these beautiful folk cultures. To indicate the curatorial theme of emphasising traditional arts and crafts, the curator developed a simple and direct slogan for the exhibition: “See You Tomorrow,” which also elicits visitors’ emotion. They, thus, adopted “Focusing on local Taiwanese cultures to manifest the spirit of craftsmen” as the exhibition theme. The craftsmen’s lives and cultures were displayed in detail (see Figure 3). Through benevolent and affectionate practice of joyful identification with the land of Taiwan, the craftsmen and artists enjoyed increasing popularity and attained opportunities of being continuously reported by media or receiving event invitations, thereby generating extended and lasting effectiveness of the exhibition. Figure 3. Scenes of the exhibition area. Implementation of Curatorial Planning Concepts The curator’s curatorial planning concepts were aimed at creating an exhibition that reflected the cultures of the traditional industries the artists and craftsmen worked in and ensured that they were fully aware of the curator’s interpretation of the exhibition content. Thus, the curator’s expectations for the exhibits and the spatial planning of the exhibition were. After organising the interview data, we summarised four steps in curating design as follows. 812 THE COGNITION OF CURATORIAL STRATEGIES FOR INTERPRETING LOCALISM Establishing an exhibition theme. This step involves two tasks, i.e., developing the core theme and establishing a thematic connection. Developing the core theme involves screening and planning all of the exhibition content through meaningful and organized methods according to the connotations of the traditional industries and cultures of the artists and craftsmen. Establishing the thematic connection involves exploring and interpreting the thoughts of artists and craftsmen in the traditional industries and cultures to highlight their persistence in their profession and to emphasise their refined skills and techniques. Determining the exhibition structure. This step comprises two tasks, i.e., administrative management and implementing engineering technologies. Administrative management involves managing relevant affairs, integrating art, and general administration. In this exhibition, works were curated from artists and craftsmen and then transported to the exhibition venue. Thus, the estimated budget accounted for packaging, transport, insurance, and damage of the exhibits. Implementing engineering technologies refers to the integration between interfacial design employed in the presentation of the exhibit and technology engineering of the exhibition form to meet the requirements and adjustments of the exhibition project. Experts from relevant fields were hired to adjust the details according to the characteristics of the works, including how the works were arranged and setting up the lighting. With the assistance of the experts, the overall exhibition projected a sense of harmony. Curating the exhibition works. To ensure that the artists and craftsmen understood of the curator’s vision for the exhibition, this step involves sampling works and creating platforms for the exhibits. The sampling of works involved the curatorusing his personal experience and visiting various places in Taiwan to search for data, contacting artists and craftsmen, and choosing the sampling. The artists and craftsmen were not from relatively unknown or archaic industries. Most of the industries included in the exhibition were either established during the Japanese colonial period or strongly influenced by that period. Creating platforms for the exhibits required the curator to determine how the exhibited works would be presented. The curated works were large. For instance, the wall photography images on both sides corridor of the entrance were arranged by seamlessly connecting a series of printed photographs to create a clustering effect, contributing to the beauty of the exhibition because of the large scale of the work. This type of presentation reinforced the beauty of the works displayed at the exhibition. Designing the venue layout. This step primarily involves two work items aimed at planning and designing the exhibition spaces, i.e., planning the exhibition area and constructing the atmosphere. Planning the exhibition area involved evaluating the exhibition space, such as area size, floor layout, perspective drawing, and distribution of power sockets and electricity access, before planning visitor flow management. The curator used environmentally friendly concepts combined with various common elements in life to plan the exhibition area. The emphasis and visual focus of the exhibition area were designed to enable the visitors to experience the characteristics of the curated works. Constructing the atmosphere involved arranging the works and adjusting lighting. Such adjustments imparted specific spatial aesthetic atmospheres and perceptions of the various contexts the exhibits were involved in. After analysing traditional Taiwanese crafts, the curator decided to construct an atmosphere of early life cultures under the influence of Japanese rule by using colour, text, and devices. According to the in-depth interview data, we deduced the curatorial practice model employed by the curator. As shown in Figure 4, the curatorial practice model comprises three stages. The first stage is project conception. The main content demonstrated the innovative thinking in design. Creating exhibitions through the THE COGNITION OF CURATORIAL STRATEGIES FOR INTERPRETING LOCALISM 813 ideas of extended focus and depicting real life can elicit emotional responses from and resonance with visitors and strengthen the artists’ and craftsmen’s persistence for Taiwanese localism. The second stage involved ensuring that the exhibitions require people foremost action practice. In other words, providing interpretations of the various knowledge and new aesthetic experiences to visitors can lead them into the scenarios the curator constructed and enable them to “communicate” with the works, thereby, bridging the visitors’ impressions of and emotional responses to the works with the curator’s. Moreover, in determining the exhibit presentation framework, the curator employed the approaches and attitude that emphasized text and lexicon and pursuit for perfection; through this approach, the curation process was successfully implemented and promoted. Subsequently, in curating the works, the curator applied the creative techniques for reinforcing unique values and using the colour, image, and texture elements of the works to emphasise the core theme. In designing the venue layout, the curator planned the layout of the exhibition area and employed various atmospheres and ambience that changed the exhibition space. To maintain the venue quality and atmosphere, the curator had to design the exhibition venue through spatial partitions and connections, and aesthetic management to manipulate lighting and adjustments to the detailed characteristics of the works. The third stage was project review. A review meeting was convened to determine the strengths and limitations of the exhibition as well as measures for how the exhibition could be improved. Following the exhibition, the curator evaluated the visitors’ perceptions of the works as well as their views on how the service quality could be improved in order to identify detailed sections that should be considered in the future. According to the interview content, this article systematically summarized a curatorial practice model that can serve as a reference guideline for training and teaching future curators. Figure 4. Curatorial practice model. Evaluation of Emotional Effect on Visitors’ Experiences Analysis of Visitor Experience Questionnaire Survey Results A total of 149 valid questionnaires were collected, one from the curator and 148 from the visitors (69 men and 80 women). To further explore the visitor’s experiences in evaluating the image content of the works, a 814 THE COGNITION OF CURATORIAL STRATEGIES FOR INTERPRETING LOCALISM correlation analysis was conducted using the questionnaire data. To determine the affective response for the exhibition (i.e., whether the visitors cherished and valued the artists and craftsmen of traditional industries), we adopted the following eight independent variables: 1. “The photos are emotive”; 2. “The photo composition conveys the craftsmen’s persistence”; 3. “The photo content is focused”; 4. “The photos are realistic”; 5. “The photos are lively”; 6. “The photos are valuable”; 7. “The photos are attractive”; and 8. “The photos represent traditional cultures.” A multivariate regression analysis was conducted using the independent variables and the dependent variable of the level of emotional effect of the image content of the works on the visitors. Table 1 shows the regression results. The correlations between the independent variables and dependent variable show that five of the eight independent variables were significantly and positively correlated with the dependent variable. The F value of the overall regression model was 27.728, reaching the level of significance (p < 0.001); in other words, the scores of the five independent variables could be used as a basis for predicting the emotional effect. In the regression model, the importance of each dependent variable arranged sequentially according to the standardised regression coefficient value was highest in “The photos represent traditional cultures” (β = 0.456; p < 0.001), followed by “The photos are lively.” The lowest score was observed in “The photos are realistic.” From the perspective of the content attributes of the curated works, the works demonstrated observational and realistic imageries. The variables of “The photos represent traditional cultures”; “The photos are lively”; “The photo composition conveys the craftsmen’s persistence”; “The photos are emotive”; “The photo content is focused”; and “The photos are realistic” had a stronger emotional effect on the visitors and enabled the visitors to value the artists and craftsmen of the traditional industries more than the variables “The photos are attractive” and “The photos are valuable” did. Table 1 Evaluation of Work Image Content Based on the Visitors’ Experiences Dependent variable Independent variable The photos are realistic The photos are attractive The photos are lively Increasingly cherish and The photos are valuable value artists and craftsmen The photo composition conveys the of traditional industries craftsmen’s persistence The photos represent traditional cultures The photo content is focused The photos are emotive R = 0.784 * ** Notes. p < 0.05; p < 0.01; and *** B 0.079 -0.092 0.226 -0.173 r 0.504*** 0.468*** 0.539*** 0.377*** 0.196 0.486 0.090 0.102 2 R = 0.615 β t 0.082 -0.095 0.238 -0.164 1.186 -1.132 2.687** -2.045* 0.626*** 0.179 2.294* 0.732*** 0.537*** 0.511*** 0.456 0.094 0.109 5.405*** 1.269 1.348 - 27.728*** - p < 0.001. The visitors’ overall perceptions of their experience at the exhibition were analysed using the following four independent variables: 1. “I feel the local industry craftsmen’s persistence in this exhibition”; 2. “I feel benevolence in this exhibition”; 3. “I feel the affectionate feature in this exhibition”; and 4. “I feel that this exhibition is joyful and priceless.” The emotional effect of the visitors’ overall experience at the exhibition was used as the dependent variable in the multivariate regression. Table 2 shows the results. The correlation coefficients between each of the four independent variables and the dependent variable were significantly positive. The F value of the overall regression model was 27.135, reaching the level of significance (p < 0.001). Thus, these three variables can be used as the basis for predicting the overall emotional effect of the exhibition. THE COGNITION OF CURATORIAL STRATEGIES FOR INTERPRETING LOCALISM 815 In the regression model, the importance of each independent variable, arranged according to standardised regression coefficients, is in the descending order of “I feel the local industry craftsmen’s persistence in this exhibition”; “I feel the affectionate feature in this exhibition”; and “I feel that this exhibition is joyful and priceless.” The variable “I feel the local industry craftsmen’s persistence in this exhibition” reached the level of significance (β = 0.422; p < 0.001). According to the overall visitors’ impression of the exhibition, the overall planning of the exhibition enabled the visitors to perceive the local industry craftsmen’s spirit of persistence. Table 2 Evaluation of the Overall Planning Based on Visitors’ Experiences Dependent variable Enjoy the overall exhibition works and contexts Independent variable I feel the local craftsmen’s persistence in this exhibition I feel benevolence in this exhibition I feel the affectionate feature in this exhibition I feel that this exhibition is joyful and priceless B r R = 0.657 R = 0.432 β t 0.473 0.579*** 0.422 -0.042 0.260 0.120 0.424*** 0.527*** 0.496*** -0.036 0.264 0.128 2 5.119*** -0.418 2.900** 1.329 F = 27.135*** Notes. **p < 0.01; and ***p < 0.001. Analysis of Exhibition Experience of the Curator and Visitors We analysed the curator’s and visitors’ cognitive attitudes and perceived benefits regarding the exhibition. As shown in Figure 5, many items attained a score higher than 4 points on average. Only three items were lower than 4 points in the factors on evaluating the image content of the works. This shows that the visitors generally recognised and understood the exhibition as a whole. The curator scored 5 points (full score) for the following six items: “The photos are realistic”; “The photos are attractive”; “The photos are lively”; “The photos are valuable”; “The photos represent traditional cultures”; and “The photo content is focused.” Thus, the curator was satisfied with the final presentation of the works at the exhibition. The photo works were as if miniatures of the artists’ and craftsmen’s life during work. The curator claimed that the works focusing on reality easily stimulated the visitors’ thoughts and fully expressed the core spirit of the exhibition. Nonetheless, the curator scored 4 points for the image content evaluation items of “The photo composition conveys the craftsmen’s persistence” and “The photos are emotive.” Although the exhibits were created after the curator had multiple discussions with students from Fu Jen Catholic University, the students encountered unpredictable external elements involving people and spaces while photographing. Thus, the image composition and emotive level did not fully meet the curator’s expectations. The scores on these two items revealed that comprehensive preplanning, such as field surveys, consultations, and location searches, should be performed before photographing or filming work records. Comprehensive pre-processing procedures combined with scheduled photographing or filming might conform to the curator’s expectation regarding the pertinence and quality of the curated works. The independent samples t-test results indicate that the visitors did not differ significantly among the 14 items (p > 0.05). By comparing the means between the curator and visitors, we found that among the eight items exhibiting difference greater than 0.5 points, seven items attained higher scores from the curator than from the visitors. The curator rated lower scores than the visitors did in the “The photo composition conveys the craftsmen’s persistence” only. This result merits further exploration. After interviewing the curator, we realised that the curator expected that the works would express the craftsmen’s conviction and persistence from 816 THE COGNITION OF CURATORIAL STRATEGIES FOR INTERPRETING LOCALISM their eye expression. However, several exhibits were displayed in a full-shot or long-shot layout, which failed to focus on the persistence in the craftsmen’s eye expression and thus failed to meet the curator’s expectations. The curator required the presentation of the works to be complete, consistent, and refined for the exhibition to be perfect. However, the visitors judged the image compositions intuitively, which contributed to the difference between the visitors and curator regarding the exhibit composition evaluations. Figure 5. The curator’s and visitors’ cognitive attitudes and perceived benefits. In addition to “The photo composition conveys the craftsmen’s persistence,” the curator rated the other three items (i.e., “I feel the affectionate feature in this exhibition”; “I feel that this exhibition is joyful and priceless”; and “Enjoy the overall exhibition works and contexts”) lower than the visitors did. The mean differences were within 0.2, which could be regarded as the curator’s experience being similar to that of the visitors. The smallest difference between curator’s and visitors’ scores was in “I feel the affectionate feature in this exhibition” from the overall planning evaluation factor. Because this exhibition attempted to evoke the visitors’ caring and grateful feelings when examining the artists’ and craftsmen’s persistence from the exhibits, the curator and the visitors approved of the overall planning. The data reveal that the exhibition successfully and precisely communicated its intended message with the visitors. Through the visitors’ cognitive experiences with observing the exhibition and connecting key stimuli that influenced the visitors’ emotions, the visitors not only understood the exhibition theme, but also experienced the emotional aspect of the exhibition. THE COGNITION OF CURATORIAL STRATEGIES FOR INTERPRETING LOCALISM 817 Conclusion The survey results indicate that the curatorial practice model adopted in the curation process can be divided into three stages: (a) project conception; (b) project execution; and (c) project review. The execution stage was further divided into the following six steps: innovative thinking, determining the exhibition theme, establishing the exhibition structure, curating works for the exhibition, designing the venue layout, and reviewing the emotional effect and making improvements. In addition, the following 10-step procedure was employed as the operating method for curating works for the exhibition: 1. Establish the core theme; 2. Establish the thematic connections; 3. Administrative management; 4. Implement engineering technologies; 5. Curate works; 6. Set up the exhibition; 7. Plan the layout of exhibition area; 8. Construct an atmosphere; 9. Evaluate the benefits of the exhibition; and 10. Identify improvement measures. The proposed curatorial practice model was organised on the basis of an actual exhibition implemented by the curator. Through design thinking contexts, execution and creation, as well as review, the model can substantially facilitate curatorial applications for curating agents and organisations. A curator acts as a mediator. Curators are responsible for facilitating communication and mutual understanding among the host institute, artists, and visitors. Considering how to apply visitor needs and inspire visitors to think and convert them into design elements to successfully curate a fascinating exhibition is critical for every curator. In summary, the quality of an exhibition experience is the main factor influencing the emotional responses of visitors. The findings of this article suggest that the smoothness of visitor traffic flow of the exhibition environment and interactivity between visitors and curate works also influenced the visitors’ cognitions and perceptions during their experience. The questionnaire results show that the curator’s and visitors’ emotional experiences can realise shared conceptual goals. The visitors’ preferences and cognitive acceptance were high. Thus, the curatorial practice model can effectively deliver the core values of planning an exhibition concept. The results of an interview with an experienced curator show that the emotional responses of the visitor based on their experiences have become an indispensable part of curatorial design. In this exhibition, the experienced professional curator transformed the exhibition from merely focusing on exploring disappearing industry sectors and the practice of techniques to creating new visual experiences or questions for a curation theme because the exhibition was implemented by an independent curator leading a team. The curation process was based on a correlation analysis, questionnaire survey, and in-depth interviews, which were used instigate visitor experiences to generate new perspectives, identify emotional values, and market. Consequently, a paradigm of a successful curating case was accomplished, and a curatorial practice model was constructed for future reference. The topic of humanistic representation can provide a reference for exhibition curators seeking to organise events in the future. The model improves the quality and connotation of curations in Taiwan and enables curation to profoundly explore value recreation, thereby, elevating aesthetic literacy in visitor experiences. References Baxter, M. (1998). Product design and development. Taipei: Liuho Publishing House. Belcher, M. (1991). Exhibitions in museums. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. Burcaw, G. E. (1987). Introduction to museum work. Nashville: American Association for State and Local History. Carroll, A. (2004). Independent curators—A guide for the employment of independent curators. Taipei: Five Senses Arts Management. Chu, P. Y. (2011). Exploring the emotional dimensions on product design with a decision analysis model (Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Graduate Institute of Design Science, Tatung University). 818 THE COGNITION OF CURATORIAL STRATEGIES FOR INTERPRETING LOCALISM Crilly, N., Moultrie, J., & Clarkson, P. J. (2004). 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Journal of Consumer Research, 242, 127-146. US-China Education Review B, December 2015, Vol. 5, No. 12, 819-824 doi:10.17265/2161-6248/2015.12.005 D DAVID PUBLISHING A Case Study on Lecturers’ Motivation Under the Self-Determination Theory Ma Wen-ying, Liu Xi  Changchun University, Changchun, China This study investigates the motivation of lecturers in a Chinese university. Recent studies have shown that low morale and job dissatisfaction are significant problems identified in lecturers in Chinese universities. Low staff morale is likely to be associated with less effective teaching and poor student learning outcomes. Although the problem is acknowledged, there has been limited research to understand the underlying contributing factors. To address this, a survey was adopted and implemented at a large regional university in Northern China. The participants in the study were 100 lecturers from two colleges at this university. The study found that in contrast to previously reported studies, lecturers in this institution were in general intrinsically motivated in teaching. The contextual factors, such as the reward system and leadership. were significant in regulating lecturers’ motivation to teach. The findings are significant for leaders in higher education who need to implement policies that foster effective work environments. Keywords: case study, teaching motivation, Self-Determination Theory (SDT) Introduction The slogan “Education needs modernization and modernization needs education” (Ross, 1991, p. 67) reflects the dilemma facing China as it undergoes a rapid transition from a largely agrarian society to a modern globalised economy. Accordingly, education has become strongly linked to the economy. Teachers are the key parts in a university. The attributes expected of a qualified teacher are various and include a suitable personality, good teaching skills, research competence, rich knowledge, good skills for classroom management and communication, and professional dedication (Shu, 2005). Given these expectations, many university administrators have speculated that lecturers are struggling to meet the demands placed on them by their institutions, as well as the demands placed on them by their daily lives in contemporary China. Concerns have been expressed about the commitment of teachers, with the perception that in the context of higher education, teachers are not sufficiently dedicated to their teaching jobs (Lu, 2004). As recently as 2008, Gao claimed that lecturers’ professional vulnerability might be in fact worsen before it can improve on the Chinese mainland in the near future, and the factors that contributed to dissatisfaction were factors related to pay and promotion (as cited in Yu, 2010). An extensive analysis of the literature in relation to the problem of academic commitment, however, has yielded very little empirical research. Only one study has been identified, which explicitly examines the Ma Wen-ying, Ph.D., associate professor, School of Foreign Languages, Changchun University. Liu Xi, M.A., lecturer, School of Foreign Languages, Changchun University. 820 ON LECTURERS’ MOTIVATION UNDER THE SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY motivation and engagement of teachers in Chinese higher education institutions (Lu, 2004). In this study, Lu investigated intrinsic and extrinsic motivation among 80 lecturers in Zhejiang Province. The results showed that 80% of the teachers were dissatisfied with their jobs and 50% said that they would not be lecturers again if they had a choice. Furthermore, 30% of the lecturers were trying to change their profession by engaging in further graduate education. The lecturers reported that increased pressure for academic performance, a lack of challenge, no sense of self-growth, no sense of self-efficacy, and limited work autonomy were having a negative impact on their teaching. The study concluded that there was a serious crisis in motivation among English language lecturers in China (Lu, 2004, pp. 60-61). Given this apparent crisis among teachers in higher education in China, the present study has adopted a questionnaire to investigate the motivation of lecturers towards teaching and working in a Chinese university. The study has utilised a survey to examine teachers’ motivation, as well as some suggestions on enhancing lectures’ motivation. The notion of motivation, as in Oxford Dictionary of English, is a reason or reasons for acting or behaving in a particular way. Brophy (1985) defined motivation as “a theoretical construct used to explain the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior, especially goal-directed behavior” (p. 3). The usual meaning of motivation for the teacher is probably the interest that something generates in the students. A particular exercise, a particular topic, a particular song, may make the students appear involved in the class, to the teacher’s delight. (Butler & Shibaz, 2008, p. 454) Self-Determination Theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 1985) categorises motivation into three broad types: amotivation, extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation, and arranged in a continuum according to the levels of self-determination. In SDT, self-determination means the process of autonomy, which “refers to being the perceived origin or source of one’s own behaviour” (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Connell, 1989, p. 8). From lower to higher levels, motivation is designated as amotivation, external regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation, integrated regulation, and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Connell, 1989). Amotivation refers to a state in which there is resistance to engaging in an activity. Behaviour corresponding to this type of motivation is neither self-determined nor self-regulated. Extrinsic motivation refers to motivation to act that is largely driven by sources outside of the individual. Ryan and Connell (1989) divided extrinsic motivation into different types which they termed “regulations” (or the value underlying an action) and arranged these along a continuum (see Figure 1). In ascending order of level of self-determination, these are external regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation, and integrated regulation. External regulation is the least self-determined type of extrinsic motivation as it is reinforced by specific external rewards or punishment. External regulation is considered to control extrinsic motivation behaviour; it is promoted and maintained by the contingency but will disappear when the rewards and punishments are withdrawn. Introjected regulation involves the process in which external demands become a strategy to generate an internal response. Thus, to make sure they perform an activity, they place pressure on themselves through internal reinforcement, such as shame or guilt. Identified regulation, a more self-determined type of regulation, exists when an individual’s motivated behaviour is consciously driven by the individual’s values and goals. Because this regulation is so closely identified with self, motivation can be explained as a way to maintain particularly motivated behavior, and thus, achieve high quality performance. Integrated regulation is the fullest, most complete type of self-determined regulation across the continuum of extrinsic motivation. This ON LECTURERS’ MOTIVATION UNDER THE SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY 821 type of regulation is driven by a strong sense of self, and is likened to intrinsically motivated behaviour. The last type of motivation in SDT is intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation refers to disposition to engage in an activity for the pleasure and satisfaction that is inherent in the activity (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Figure 1. Self-determination continuum showing types of motivation with their regulatory styles (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 72). Method Participants The present study tries to investigate the types of motivation in a Chinese university. The participants in the study were 100 lecturers from two colleges in a large university in China. All of the lecturers were responsible for teaching and they agreed to participate in the study. Instruments This study utilized the questionnaire Work Tasks Motivation Scale for Teachers—Teaching (WTMST-T). The WTMST-T was developed by Fernet, Senecal, Guay, Marsh, and Dowson in 2008. In the present study, this scale was used to test lecturers’ motivation (amotivation, extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation). There are 15 items in the questionnaire and each item is repeated for each of six tasks that relate to teaching functions. These tasks are class preparation, teaching, evaluation of students, class management, administrative tasks, and complementary tasks. Thus, the full instrument provides a measure of motivation on each of these tasks. Given the aim of this study, investigating the types of teaching motivation of lecturers in a Chinese university, the present study only used the scale on teaching (WTMST-T). Participants respond to the items using a 7-point type scale ranging from 1—“Does not correspond at all” to 7—“Correspond completely.” The reported Cronbach’s α values ranged from 0.83 to 0.96 (Mean = 0.92) for intrinsic motivation, 0.72 to 0.89 (Mean = 0.82) for identified regulation, 0.79 to 0.89 (Mean = 0.85) for introjected regulation, 0.64 to 0.87 (Mean = 0.76) for external regulation, and 0.75 to 0.81 (Mean = 0.77) for amotivation (Fernet et al., 2008). Chinese versions of the research questionnaires were not available, so it was necessary to conduct a rigorous three-step translation process in preparation for the pilot study. The five questionnaires were translated from English to Mandarin Chinese and then back-translated to English (Chow, Harrison, Lindquist, & Wu, 1997). The forward and backward translations were employed to produce equivalency between the original language (English) and the target language (Chinese) on content. 822 ON LECTURERS’ MOTIVATION UNDER THE SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY Results The research question posed in this study concerned the types of motivation evident among the lecturers in the research site university. The participants were asked to complete the WTMST-T on a 7-point Likert scale. Five types of motivation are measured, namely, intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, introjected regulation, external regulation, and amotivation. The participants respond to each question on a 7-point Likert scale. Accordingly, each type of motivation has a maximum possible score of 21 (7 × 3) and a neutral median is 12 (4  3). A frequency analysis of data yielded by the WTMST-T indicated that 52.5% of the participants obtained scores at or above the neutral median score of 12 for the intrinsic motivation scale. Furthermore, 52% obtained scores at or above the neutral median score of 12 for identified regulation (see Table 1). Earlier in this chapter, descriptive statistics analysis on WTMST-T revealed Cronbach’s α for intrinsic motivation and identified regulation. Therefore, the scales were internally consistent (see Table 1). On the basis of literature, this finding indicated that the types of motivation which existed in the lecturers were marginally intrinsic motivation and identified regulation. Table 1 Descriptive Statistics in WTMST-T Cronbach’s α Mean Intrinsic motivation 0.84 16.51 4.17 -0.51 -0.65 4-21 Introjected regulation 0.15 7.86 3.24 0.58 0.03 3-17 External regulation 0.16 11.13 3.17 0.11 0.27 3-21 Identified regulation 0.67 15.25 3.90 -0.16 -0.75 7-21 Amotivation 0.46 6.67 3.73 0.85 -0.07 3-17 Scale SD Skewness Kurtosis Range Conclusion The present study did research on the types of motivation of lecturers in a Chinese university. According to the SDT, there are three types of motivation: amotivation, extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. SDT argues that human motivation is formed in a social context. SDT emphasises the influence of social culture and context on motivation and behaviour. The participants of the study are 100 lecturers in a Chinese university. A survey was delivered to the participants. The finding of the present study was that intrinsic motivation and identified regulation were the predominant forms of motivation. This indicates that lecturers at the research site university were generally internally motivated. Participants in the present study defined their teaching on the basis of interests and self-endorsed values; therefore, their motivation to teach was measured against their personal tendencies towards intrinsic motivation and well integrated extrinsic motivation, or identified regulation. Both types of motivation were evident in the population, although a higher mean score indicated that intrinsic motivation was more dominant. However, the findings are unlike those of Lu (2004), which found that 80% of the participants were dissatisfied with their lecturing jobs, 50% would not be lecturers again if they had a choice, and 30% were trying to change their profession by engaging in further graduate education. Specifically, this study found that 52.2% of the lecturers had intrinsic motivation to teach and 50% had identified regulation to teach. The difference between the two studies may be that Lu’s (2004) study was a survey study investigating a phenomenon, while the present study was a case study. ON LECTURERS’ MOTIVATION UNDER THE SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY 823 Some suggestions on enhancing the motivation of lecturers will be presented according to the results of the research. These are related with school policies on the aspects of the reward system and leadership. Rewards are management tools that hopefully contribute to an institute’s effectiveness by influencing individual or group behaviour (Lawler & Cohen, 1992, p. 8). Rewards are defined as the “deliberate utilisation of the pay system as an essential integrating mechanism through which the efforts of various sub-units or individuals are directed towards the achievement of an organisation’s strategic objectives” (Gomez-Mejia & Balkin, 1992, p. 58). Although some research proposed that rewards could undermine productivity and performance (Denning, 2001), Cameron and Pierce (1997) stated that rewards could be used effectively to enhance motivation when they are offered to people for completing work or for attaining or exceeding specified performance standards. Cameron and Pierce further postulated that rewards increase performance and interest when they are made contingent on quality or performance or are given for meeting clear standards of performance; and delivered for high effort and activity. Therefore, in the university, careful arrangement of rewards, which are given for mastering each component of a complex skill, or delivered for high effort and activity, can enhance lecturers’ interest and level of performance; consequently enhancing lecturers’ intrinsic motivation. The Higher Education Law (Chinese Communist Party, 1998) legitimised the leadership in university management. In Chinese universities, leadership comprises a president academically selected and an executive vice president chosen by the Communication Party. This unique combination of academic and political governance arrangements sometimes creates administrative tension and reduces self-governance by the academic community (Altbach, 2000). In recent years, China has begun to follow an American academic leadership model, with leadership in universities being strengthening (Min, 2004). Thus, more authority has been given to departmental chairs and other administrators to implement a faculty responsibility system in research and teaching. Findings from the present study also implied that the style of leadership had a considerable impact on their work motivation. Leaders within higher education institutions need to display the following attributes: be open to and encourage the creativity of staff, be team-oriented (i.e., be ready to rely on help from others), be able to listen, practice coaching (i.e., give advice and motivate), demonstrate accountability (i.e., take personal ownership and support the changes), and show appreciation (i.e., recognise and reward the employees’ effort in relation to the changes) (Galpin, 1996). In order to create a culture that is motivating and in which employees’ opinions are valued, leaders need to be open and encouraging of employee input and participation. Employee participation in policy-making is positively associated with organisational effectiveness and job satisfaction (Sagie & Koslowski, 1994). In turn, organisational effectiveness and job satisfaction have been reported to have meaningful effects on the attitudes and autonomous motivation of employees (Locke & Schweiger, 1979). This suggests that the autonomous motivation of lecturers would likely be enhanced by a more open style of leadership that encouraged authentic communication, teamwork, professional development, participation, accountability, and recognition of successful teaching and learning. References Altbach, P. G. (2000). The changing academic workplace: Comparative perspectives. Chestnut Hill, M.A.: Boston College Centre for International Higher Education. Brophy, J. (1985). Motivating students to learn. Boston, M.A.: McGraw-Hill. 824 ON LECTURERS’ MOTIVATION UNDER THE SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY Butler, R., & Shibaz, L. (2008). Achievement goals for teaching as predictors of students’ perceptions of instructional practices and students’ help seeking and cheating. Learning and Instruction, 18, 453-467. Cameron, J., & Pierce, D. W. (1997). Rewards, interest and performance: An evaluation of experimental findings. American Compensation Association Journal, 6, 4. Retrieved from http:// zigonperf.com/PMNews/reward_and_perf_research.html Chinese Communist Party. (1998). Higher education law of the People’s Republic of China. Retrieved from http://www.moe.gov.cn/ Chow, C. W., Harrison, P., Lindquist, T., & Wu, A. (1997). Escalating commitment to unprofitable projects: Replication and cross-cultural extension. Management Accounting Research, 8, 347-361. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behaviour. New York, N.Y.: Plenum Press. Denning, S. (2001). Incentives for knowledge management. Incentives for knowledge management—Incentives for knowledge sharing 2000. Retrieved from http://www.stevedening.com/incentives_ knowledge_management.html Fernet, C., Senecal, C., Guay, F., Marsh, H., & Dowson, M. (2008). The work tasks motivation scale for teachers. Journal of Career Assessment, 16, 256-279. Galpin, T. J. (1996). The human side of change: A practical guide to organization redesign. San Francisco, C.A.: Jossey-Bass, Inc.. Gomez-Mejia, L. R., & Balkin, D. B. (1992). Compensation, organizational strategy and firm performance. Cincinnati, O.H.: South-Western Publishing. Lawler, E. E., & Cohen, S. G. (1992). Designing pay systems for teams. American Chiropractic Association Journal, 1, 6-19. Locke, E. A., & Schweigner, D. M. (1979). Participation in decision making: One more look. Research in Organisational Behaviour, 1, 265-339. Lu, H. R. (2004). Zhimian daxue yingyu jiaoshi jiaoxuedongji (Facing English lecturers’ teaching motivation). Education and Occupation, 30, 60-61. Min, W. (2004). Chinese higher education: The legacy of the past and the context of the future. In P. G. Altbach, & T. Umkoahi (Eds.), Asian universities: Historical perspectives and contemporary challenges (pp. 53-84). Baltimore, M.D.: Johns Hopkins University Press. Ross, H. (1991). The “crisis” in Chinese secondary schooling. In I. Epstein (Ed.), Chinese education: Problems, policies and prospects. New York, N.Y.: Garland. Ryan, R. M., & Connell, J. P. (1989). Perceived locus of causality and internalization: Examining reasons for acting in two domains. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 749-761. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-Determination Theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78. Sagie, A., & Koslowski, M. (1994). Organisational attitudes and behaviours as a function of participation in strategic and tactical change decisions: An application of path-goal theory. Journal of Organisational Behaviour, 15, 37-47. Shu, D. F. (2005). China needs foreign language teaching theories with Chinese characteristics. Foreign Language World, 6, 2-7. Yong, Z., & Campbell, K. P. (1995). English in China. World English, 14, 377-390. Yu, X. Y. (2010). Job satisfaction of university academics in China. Retrieved June 10, 2012, from http://hdl.handle.net/10443/940 US-China Education Review B, December 2015, Vol. 5, No. 12, 825-830 doi:10.17265/2161-6248/2015.12.006 D DAVID PUBLISHING The Hierarchical Structure of Chinese Higher Education System* Han Meng-jie, Guo Chi  Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China Higher education system can be divided into the dichotomy of structure according to mission and reputation of the institutes: equipollent or hierarchical. However, the hierarchical structure is in conflict with the value of social justice; the equipollent structure is just the pursuit of equal access to higher education. It is a fundamental issue of public policy how to balance the positive and negative aspects of higher education structure, which involves choosing the value of equity, competence, and liberty. Therefore, the government should motivate institutes to stick to their goals to enhance reputation in their respective types, avoid the hierarchical structure of higher education, and especially enhance the mobility of different levels and types of institutes. Keywords: higher education system, hierarchical structure, social justice, China Introduction The higher education system is usually a complicated academic system, and its components are correlative and interactional. At the national level, higher education institutes are just like a net structure. From the horizontal point of view, the structure of higher education system is composed by different types of institutes; from the longitudinal point of view, the structure is composed by hierarchical reputation of institutes. The structure of higher education system is influenced by its political system, financial conditions, and historical and cultural tradition. However, the national systems of higher education always vary substantially according to the extent of diversity and the role dimension of diversity play (Kim & Lee, 2006). Even though many national higher education systems have been fully analyzed, Chinese higher education system is seldom mentioned in the Western world. Therefore, we take China as an example to examine the structural changes of Chinese higher education system in its political economical environments (Han & Zhang, 2014a). Theoretical Framework: Higher Education System and Its Structure Teichler (2006) identified the formal dimensions of diversity to characterize the structure of higher education system: (a) types of institutions and programs (e.g., universities vs. Fachhochschulen); and (b) levels of programs and degrees (e.g., bachelor, master, and doctoral programs). Also, he disentangled: (a) vertical attributes of informal diversity, such as “quality,” “excellence,” “elite,” or “reputation”; and (b) horizontal attributes, such as “profile” of a higher education institution. Most debates on the formal and informal diversity refer explicitly to higher education institutions as key carriers of homogeneity and diversity. Besides, other * Acknowledgments: The study is funded by the National Education Scientific Planning Project (CIA140190), the Ministry of Education’s Major Project of Philosophy and Social Science (14JZD051), and the National Universities’ Basic Scientific Research Project [DUT14RC(3)069]. Han Meng-jie, Ph.D., lecturer, Institute of Higher Education, Dalian University of Technology. Guo Chi, Ph.D. candidate, associate professor, deputy dean, Graduate School, Dalian University of Technology. 826 HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE OF CHINESE HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM scholars research on regional structure of higher education in the context of the unbalanced development across China’s provinces (Han & Song, 2014). As we all know, there are three main missions of higher education, i.e., to cultivate talents, to do scientific research, and to serve the society. The activities of higher education are more or less carried out in different institutes. Academic systems, in varying degrees, have their activities separated into different types of institutions. These institutions, deliberately or otherwise, are arranged in hierarchies. Along with the increase of activities, the ordinal scale of institutes becomes more obvious and important. It is the hierarchical structure not the internal structure that largely determines the nature and functions of the academic system. The vertical arrangements of institutions and sectors are of two sorts: high and low placement based on prestige, a hierarchy of sequence; and ranking based on prestige, a hierarchy of status, which is often but not always closely related to the first (Clark, 1983). One is from higher education institutions based on mission scope. According to the location in the hierarchy of higher education system, we predict that activities carried out in different institutes vary. The research-based institutes may be on the top, general education may be in lower level, while special education lies in higher level. The other kind of hierarchy of higher education system is based on reputation. Different institutes enjoy a different reputation. Different graduate outcomes also result in different reputation. The division by mission is more objective without subjective influence. Even though institutes enjoy the same reputation level, their mission levels probably vary. However, division by reputation relates to more subjective value judgment. If there is less liquidity between different levels of institutes’ mission, the hierarchy based on reputation will be more explicit and stiff. The hierarchy usually means the reputation hierarchy based on recognized graduate social value. In different countries, characteristics of academic system hierarchy are different. In brief, there are three types of academic hierarchy. In the first type, several institutions have a monopoly, or near-monopoly, of elite placement that helps to give them much higher prestige than all others. Japan is an outstanding example. A small set of imperial governmental institutions experienced rapid modernization in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Within the cluster of seven institutions, the universities of Tokyo and Kyoto were given, and seized, an even more special place. They became a class unto themselves, to the point where certain high positions in government could be entered only by graduation from certain faculties. A high degree of institutional hierarchy has been found also in French and Great Britain. In these countries, several institutes monopolize the apex of academic system hierarchy. The advantageous status can obtain much more reputation for these institutes than other institutes. The middle ground of status hierarchy is occupied by such systems as the Canadian and the American, in which pronounced differences exist in the social standing of institutions and sectors, without a few institutions monopolizing elite placement. Institutions and sectors are definitely ranked, but placement to high office in public as well as private spheres is in institutions have a lock on sponsorship of top offices, political or administrative. The third type is characterized by little status ranking. In Italy, there is virtually no non-university sector that could be second best, and all the universities can send graduates to elite positions in government and the professions. The system of the Federal Republic of Germany is somewhat more hierarchical than the Italian, since its non-university components devoted to technical and teacher training have a lesser standing than the universities. But there are few status differences among the universities, with no one or two places serving in the manner of Tokyo-Kyoto or Oxford-Cambridge, nor, as in the United States, are there universities competing for the status advantages of attracting the best students. These important national cases make it clear that institutional sectors tend not to remain merely that, but instead become segments of HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE OF CHINESE HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM 827 hierarchies that vary in steepness and rigidity. The Hierarchy Structure of Chinese Higher Education System With reference to the international educational standard classification, combining with the reality of Chinese higher education, the colleges and universities in China can be divided into three kinds of basic types in terms of academic university, applicable university with undergraduate courses, and vocational technological university or multiversity or mono-discipline university (Pan & Dong, 2009). According to the classification based on different missions, Chinese higher education system can be divided into four levels: research-based universities, teaching-research-based universities, teaching-based colleges, and vocational-technical colleges (see Figure 1). In China, there are about 30-40 universities whose main mission is to do scientific research and cultivate high-level scientific manpower (postgraduate education); about 100 universities that pay the same attention to cultivating talents as to doing scientific research; about 500 teaching-based universities and colleges that focus on undergraduate education; and about 1,600 vocational technical colleges that mainly train technicians and workers. Figure 1. Different classification methods of higher education institutions. According to classification based on organizational reputation, there is a steep hierarchy in Chinese higher education system (Han & Zhang, 2014a). In Chinese higher education system, more than 40 universities are at the first level, whose goal is to be one of the international well-known and domestic first-class universities. These universities are directly governed by central authorities. These universities can obtain abundant funds annually provided by central ministries and commissions. Among them, Tsinghua University and Peking University are usually at the apex to become the world-class universities, funded by much more money from the central government. At the second level are about 100 universities whose goal is to build domestic high-level universities. These universities are mostly 211 project institutes and can obtain adequate funds allocated by central authorities. The provincial institutions are at the third level, including universities, vocational and technical colleges, and junior colleges. All the above-mentioned colleges and universities are almost public institutes, not private ones. In Chinese social environment, people usually prefer public key universities to private institutes. Only when they cannot succeed in entering public institutes, they have to choose the private institutes with high tuitions. It cannot be denied that only few distinctive private universities and colleges can gain as much reputation as public institutes. What is more, people usually prefer universities that educate liberal education to those vocational and technical colleges. The idea of “academic knowledge is more elegant than technology” is deep-rooted in Chinese mind. 828 HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE OF CHINESE HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM The classifications based on mission and on reputation are to some extent consistent but not perfectly corresponding. The research-based universities mostly obtain more reputation, while the vocational and technical colleges obtain less reputation. Exceptionally, only very few colleges that have distinguishing features and good employment situation can obtain higher reputation. The steep hierarchy of higher education system inevitably leads to the Matthew Effect. The institutes at higher level need not be anxious about funding, because they can obtain generous funds from the government and also produce revenues by their own advantages. However, those institutes at lower level usually fall into the dilemma of insufficient funds, which hinders their further development. In order to win higher reputation, the institutes at lower level are often inclined to imitate the mode of institutes at high level. For example, the vocational and technical colleges drift far from vocational and technical education in order to cater to the needs of liberal education. In order to enhance their status, the teaching-based institutes give up their duty of cultivating talents and spare no effort to do scientific research regardless of their conditions. The research-based universities would like to sacrifice time and resources that should be spent in doing research on continuing education and vocational education activities. Colleges and universities cannot sustain the temptation of the market and stick to their own tasks, which leads to the chaos of tasks and hierarchy. Besides, the national assessment criteria of higher education system are uniform and rigid, which promotes the homogeneity of higher education institutes. Higher education institutes of different types and levels have to receive the uniform assessment criteria, which inevitably results in homogeneity. If some colleges and universities cannot cling stubbornly to their mission, they will just optionally meet the wants of outside, drifting aimlessly without a definitive direction or sense of progress. Conclusions Conflict Between Hierarchical and Equipollent Structure of Higher Education The pros and cons of the division of sectors and the development of hierarchies are fundamental issues in public policy in higher education. The issues involve trade-offs among such values as equity, competence, and liberty. Minimizing sectors, and hence hierarchies, allows for more uniformity in practices and rewards. The single formal system composed of one type of institution gives greater strength to “coercive comparisons,” in which “have-nots” exercise strong leverage for equity against the “haves,” the less-noble against the noble (Kerr, 1978). If a country commitments to the equipollent allocation of resources among institutes and establish a uniform national degree that has the same value in the talent market regardless of its hierarchical status, the structure of higher education is not obviously hierarchical. In a more hierarchical higher education system, institutes at higher level not only undertake different mission, but also obtain and consolidate abundant resources by governmental policy and self-aggrandizement in order to attract the most excellent teachers and students, which in return consolidate and enhance their hierarchical status, so that forms a strict hierarchy of higher education system. Institutes at the lower level of hierarchy are faced with struggling developmental dilemma. Modern higher education undertakes a mission that is to realize social justice—to make individual accept just treatment. Social justice means not only the equal access of higher education, but also unifying various criterions of higher education in order to make students in different institutes accept equal treatments and obtain the degree’s diploma of identical value. Institutes at lower level aspire to obtain more resources to enhance their status. They exert strong influence in order to obtain the equal status and realize the equalization of higher HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE OF CHINESE HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM 829 education system. If the higher education system minimizes the hierarchy, higher education institutes will take on structural homogeneity and mission conflict. Along with the rolling up of higher education activities, more and more people aspire to get education. That easily results in structural deficiency, and cannot meet the needs. For example, too large-scale teaching and consult responsibilities undertaken by comprehensive universities occupy the time and resources that were assigned to scientific researches and talent training, which leads to the chaos of new and old functions of colleges and universities. The limited higher education institutes cannot meet more and more general and various activities needs. Under the circumstances, the equipollent structure is not an appropriate choice. The pursuit of equipollent reputation is as illusory as the pursuit of classless society—there is no distinction among different institutes. The higher education system with multiple structure helps to undertake heavy tasks and reduce the conflict between contradictory activities of higher education. The activities, such as service society, may be carried out in some separate institutes, for example, the community colleges established in the United States, the engineering colleges in French, the open universities in England, and the local technical colleges. Higher education institutes of different levels and types respectively accomplish different objectives and tasks, which form the ordered structure of higher education system. However, when the hierarchy of higher education system forms, there will be some inequality in assessment and reward criterion. The extreme hierarchical structure will lead to serious social problems. For example, the phenomenon that University of Tokyo and Kyoto University in Japan monopolize senior posts results in serious nepotism. Even though the institutes educate a few high-quality talents for governmental departments and industrial sectors, it forms a closed loop that impedes to educate more talents and to produce more high-quality research results. Reflections on Chinese Higher Education System Structure In view of the rigid hierarchical structure of higher education in China, some measures should be taken in order to manage the conflict. Higher education institutes should locate reasonably to enhance their reputation in the respective levels. The government needs to be on the alert on the hierarchical structure of higher education system and maintaining the mobility of hierarchical levels. Higher education institutes should locate reasonably to enhance their reputation at their respective levels. Nowadays, the demands of social development are diversified and multilevel. There should be enough institutes of all levels and status in higher education system to meet various social needs. The hierarchy does not mean lowliness or nobleness of institutes but separation of tasks. Any institutes of different types and levels can cultivate top-notch and first-rate talents and turn into a famous university that is well-known domestically and influencing internationally. There is no need for colleges and universities to pursuit comprehensive and mutual rivalry and imitation. It is enlightening that there are the most diversified institutes of American higher education in the world. The institutes at different levels should locate reasonably their special tasks and goals, develop their strong points and avoid their weaknesses, and try to enhance their social reputation in the respective levels. The research-based universities should concentrate on scientific research and cultivate research talents; the teaching-based institutes should devote to cultivating high-quality undergraduates; and the vocational and technical colleges should endeavor to train special technical personnel who have strong operational capability. Colleges and universities should exploit their strengths, prioritize some disciplines or majors, shape their own unique characteristics, enhance students’ quality, and guarantee graduates a good future, which are the important approaches for institutes to obtain higher reputation. 830 HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE OF CHINESE HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM Higher education institutes should be self-disciplined in order to promote their sound development at separate levels. There is some chaos of location in hierarchical structure of Chinese higher education system, which is against the diversified development of higher education institutes. If the poor institutes are at the same hierarchy level with rich institutes, the former will insist being treated equally as the later; if the poor institutes are at a separate level, then their demand will not too strong. Colleges and universities at different hierarchical level should consciously stick to their own mission and engage in separate task, which helps to maintain the order of academic system. That is to say, the vocational and technical colleges are a kind of institute which engages in training technicians, not in scientific research or knowledge innovation. The teaching-based institutes should concentrate on the task of cultivating undergraduate talents. The research-based universities should devote to elite education and scientific research, not vocational or technical education. So, institutes at different hierarchical level should be self-disciplined to avoid offside and distortion of tasks, which will maintain the order of higher education and promote their sound development at separate levels. The government needs to be on the alert on the hierarchical structure of higher education and maintaining the mobility of hierarchical levels. During the early times, the compelling institutional changes oriented by the government influence the hierarchal structure of higher education (Zhang, 2009). Now, the concept of equal division is so popular that public funds should be increased or reduced as equally as possible among different departments. Because the diversified requirements of society call for different types of institutes, the government should pay close attention to every hierarchical level of higher education system and treat these institutes equally. Meanwhile, higher education institutes should maintain the mobility of different hierarchical levels to avoid the inbreeding of scientific researchers and the perfect monopoly on senior posts in governmental and enterprise departments. Then, the potential excellent talents can be selected from the lower hierarchical levels of higher education and effectively prevent the inertia of the actual higher talents, not as the Japanese example that the entry into university just means senior posts. References Clark, B. (1983). The higher education system—Academic organization in cross-national perspective (pp. 67-72). Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press. Han, M., & Song, W. (2014). Xin zhong guo cheng li yi lai gao deng jiao yu qu yu jie gou de zhi du an pai yu fansi (The system arrangement of higher education’s regional structure since the establishment of the People’s Republic of China and its reflections). Journal of Henan University (Social Science), 1, 125-141. 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