Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, Vol. 34, No. 5, September 2005 (© 2005)
DOI: 10.1007/s10936-005-6202-0
Affecting Factors in Second Language Learning
G. Andreou,1,3 F. Vlachos,1 and E. Andreou2
The present study investigated the influence of sex, handedness, level in second language (L2)
and Faculty choice on the performance of phonological, syntactical and semantic tasks in L2.
Level in L2 and sex were the most affecting factors. Subjects who achieved higher scores on
L2 tasks had strong second language aptitude skills since they were those who had obtained a
professional degree in the second language. Females performed better than males in syntax and
semantics which is explained by the general female superiority on verbal tasks based on differences in hemispheric specialization for language functions between the sexes. Handedness and
Faculty choice on the part of the participants had an impact on our results but only when combined with other factors.
KEY WORDS: second language; sex; handedness; faculty.
INTRODUCTION
A relationship between handedness and cognitive ability has repeatedly
been reported in the past, especially by earlier studies (Levy, 1969;
Miller, 1971). More recent studies found no relationship, especially between
verbal ability and relative hand skill in the two sexes (Bishop, 1990;
Crow, Crow, Done, & Leask, 1998; Palmer & Corballis 1996; Resch et al.,
1997). However, degrees of handedness may be important since it has
been suggested (Bishop, 1990; Orton, 1937; Zangwill, 1960) that failure to develop unequivocal dominance in one hemisphere predisposes to
pathology. Given the fact that left-handers are a more heterogenous population than right-handers in language function organization and patterns
of interhemispheric communication, some studies showed inferior achievements of left-handers in foreign language achievement (Lamn, 1997;
1 Department
of Special Education, University of Thessaly, Greece.
of Primary Education, University of Thessaly, Greece.
3 To whom correspondence should be addressed. Department of Special Education, University of Thessaly, Argonafton & Filellinon St., 38221 Volos, Greece, email: andreou@uth.gr
2 Department
429
0090-6905/05/0900–0429/0 © 2005 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc.
430
Andreou, Vlachos, and Andreou
Lamn & Epstein, 1999). It seems that left-handers are less equipped for
the developing of adequate phonological skills needed for reaching high
levels of proficiency in second language (L2). In addition, left-handedness
seems to be a more affective factor than sex since studies have shown that
left-handers of both sexes are overrepresented in the lowest level L2 classes
and were underrepresented in the higher level L2 classes, compared with
right-handers of both sexes (Lamn & Epstein 1999).
However, many previous studies have shown sex differences in performance on a variety of cognitive tasks (Crow et al., 1998; Janowsky,
Chavez, Zamboli, & Orwoll, 1998). One of the differences reported is a
female superiority on verbal fluency tasks. In general, females are reported
to be more verbally fluent than men (Stumpf, 1995), although mixed
results have also been obtained. For instance, a female advantage for
quickly producing words from a particular semantic category has been
reported (Gordon & Lee, 1986) but no sex difference for rapidly producing
words beginning with a particular letter was found (Gordon & Lee, 1986).
There are also some other studies which found no sex difference for either
type of fluency measure (Hampson & Kimura, 1992; Moffat & Hampson,
1996) or a task of rapid articulation (Gouchie & Kimura, 1991). It seems
that language has evolved by a process of increasing hemisphere specialization. Therefore, studies on hemisphere specialization for language functions which reveal stronger lateralization in men than women and even
sex-related differences in interhemispheric transmission time in the human
brain (Nowicka & Fersten 2001) may account for female superiority on
verbal tasks.
The study of verbal abilities in the native language (L1) has often
been separated from the study of language abilities in L2, yet research in
one field may enrich our knowledge of the other, since the overall level
of verbal processing skills is very important for L2 proficiency (Koda,
1992). Studies have consistently shown that students who achieve higher
scores on L2 tasks have significantly stronger L1 and L2 aptitude skills
than students who achieve lower L2 scores (Ganschow et al., 1994; Ganschow, Sparks, & Javorsky, 1998; Ganschow, Sparks, Javersky, Pohlman, &
Bisop-Marbury, 1991; Sparks Ganschow, & Patton, 1995). The most successful L2 learners are those who have strong skills in all of the linguistic codes, in particular the phonological code, which seems to have the
most immediate impact on a student’s performance in L2 tasks (Sparks
& Ganschow, 1993). It has also been suggested in the context of a Linguistic Coding Deficiency Hypothesis (LCDH) (Sparks, Ganschow, & Pohlman, 1989) that a student who fails to reach a high level of proficiency
in L2 might display a broad range of linguistic coding deficits (e.g. phonology + syntax + semantics).
Affecting Factors in Second Language Learning
431
In addition, success in L2 learning is related to career choice.
Discipline-based research (Willcoxson & Prosser, 1996) has shown that
specific learning style preferences are typically found in disciplines which
belong to pure sciences such as Foreign Languages and Humanities and
are different from those adopted by students in disciplines such as Civil
Engineering and Computer Science or Mathematics, which belong to exact
sciences. This finding indicates that common learning style preferences
may act as a facilitating factor for students of Humanities who learn a foreign language.
In view of the above findings, the aim of the present study was to
investigate further the influence of sex, handedness, level in L2 and faculty choice on the performance of phonological, syntactical and semantic
tasks in L2.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A total of 452 undergraduate students, 146 males and 306 females,
from the University of Thessaly participated. Of the 452, 232 of them were
enrolled in the Faculty of Humanities and 220 in the Faculties of Civil
Engineering and Computer Science. Their mean age was 19.50 ± 1.83.
To assess hand preference we used the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory
(Oldfield, 1971), which was previously used in other studies (Andreou
& Karapetsas, 2001; Andreou, Karapetsas, Gourgoulianis, & Molyvdas,
2000; Andreou, Krommydas, Gourgoulianis, Karapetsas, & Molyvdas,
2002; Gaillard & Satz, 1989) and as the Citation Index indicates, it has
been the most widely used Inventory in the literature. The questionnaire
comprises items pertaining to hand preference in writing, drawing, throwing a ball, use of scissors, toothbrush, knife (without fork), spoon, broom
(upper hand), striking a match and opening a box. After the students’
answering all ten questions of the Inventory, their lateralization index was
calculated according to the formula: (R − L/R + L)100, where R is the
sum of tasks performed by the right hand and L by the left hand. Scoring
left preferences as negative and right preferences as positive we obtained
a tripartite scheme, ranging from −100 to +100. Subjects who received
scores of between +40 and +100 were called right-handed (RH), those
with scores between −30 and +30 mixed-handed (MH) and those with
scores between −40 and −100 left-handed (LH), as regarded by Oldfield
(1971). Therefore, in our sample of 452 students there were found 406
right-handed (89.6%), 24 left-handed (5.3%) and 22 mixed-handed (5.1%).
The students’ verbal fluency in the foreign language was measured
by their answers in semantic, syntactic and phonological tasks. For the
semantic verbal fluency, we used the Set Test (Isaacs & Kennie, 1973)
432
Andreou, Vlachos, and Andreou
previously used by other researchers (Roberts & Le Dorze, 1997; Varley,
1995). The subjects are asked to write as many items as they can in one
minute, from four successive categories: colors, animals, fruits and towns.
The score is the total number of items written, 40 being the highest possible score. For the syntactic verbal fluency, the subjects were asked to produce as many sentences as possible in the active and passive voice from
mixed words, by making the necessary changes or additions for the passive
voice but keeping the same tense of the verb in both voices. The sentences
given were (a) the, boy, girl, kisses, the; (b) car, the, the, washes, boy; (c)
an, the, child, apple, eats; and (d) boy, the, carries, a, package. The highest possible score was 10. For the phonological verbal fluency, a spelling
test was used since spelling is considered a measure of phonology (Sparks
& Ganschow 1993). The subjects were asked to write down ten high frequency regular and exception English words and ten low frequency regular and exception words, previously used in another study (Graham, Patterson, & Hodges, 2000). In addition, the students were asked to report if
they had obtained a professional degree in English (the Cambridge Certificate of Proficiency, the Michigan Certificate of Proficiency or both) in
the past three years. So, in our sample we had 251 students who had a
professional degree and 201 who did not have.
The data were analyzed by a mixed-design analysis of variance
(MANOVA) using sex (male–female), handedness (right–left–mixed), certificate (professional degree–no degree) and Faculty (pure sciences–exact
sciences) as factors. The dependent variables were the marks obtained for
the phonological, syntactical and semantic tasks in L2. The SPSS statistical programme was used to analyze the data.
RESULTS
A within-subjects 3 (handedness: left–right–mixed) × 2 (sex: male–
female) × 2 (faculty: pure sciences–exact sciences) × 2 (certificate: professional degree–no degree) mixed-design ANOVA revealed statistically
significant (p < .05) main effects for sex (F (3.000) = 3.367, p < .01) and
certificate (F (3.000) = 22.448, p < .00). No statistically significant main
effect for faculty alone was found but there was a statistically significant
two-way interaction of sex × faculty (F (3.000) = 5.839, p < .00).
Furthermore, a within-subjects mixed-design ANOVA (handedness ×
sex × faculty × certificate) was performed on phonological, syntactical
and semantic tasks. Mean scores obtained in phonological, syntactical and
semantic tasks for all factors are presented in Table I. The only statistically
significant (p < .05) main effect for all three tasks was obtained for certificate (phonology: F (1) = 67.626, p < .00; syntax: F (1) = 4.128, p < .04;
Certificate
Professional
degree
Phonology∗
Semantics∗∗
Syntax∗∗∗
Faculty
No degree
Pure
Sciences
Sex
Exact
Sciences
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
13.88
35.30
8.02
0.15
0.26
0.11
6.80
25.67
6.11
0.15
0.49
0.17
10.25
30.06
7.33
0.28 11.24
0.47 32.02
0.14 7.01
SD
Males
Mean
0.27 10.78
0.49 30.80
0.16 6.47
SD
Handedness
Females
Mean
0.31 10.70
0.42 31.47
0.21 7.50
SD
Right
handed
Mean
0.25 10.80
0.59 30.97
0.12 7.18
SD
Left
handed
Mean
0.21 10.41
0.36 32.66
0.11 7.25
SD
Mixed
handed
Mean
SD
0.67 9.86
1.12 30.04
0.50 6.86
0.74
1.65
0.51
Affecting Factors in Second Language Learning
Table 1. Mean Scores for Certificate, Faculty, Sex and Handedness in L2 Phonological, Semantic and Syntactical Tasks
∗ Highest
possible score: 20.
possible score: 40.
∗∗∗ Highest possible score:10.
∗∗ Highest
433
434
Andreou, Vlachos, and Andreou
semantics: F (1) = 11.806, p < .00), indicating that subjects with a
professional degree performed generally better than those who did not have,
in phonological tasks (13.88 vs. 6.80), in syntactical tasks (8.02 vs. 6.11) and
semantic tasks (35.30 vs. 25.67). A statistically significant main effect for syntax
and semantics was obtained for sex (syntax: F (1) = 8.262, p < .00; semantics:
F (1) = 5.093, p < .02), indicating that females performed better than males
in syntax (7.50 vs. 6.57) and semantics (31.47 vs. 30.80). No statistically significant main effects were found for faculty and handedness when taken alone
but there were two-way statistically significant interactions of handedness ×
certificate for semantics (F (2) = 3.992, p < .01), of sex × faculty for syntax
(F (1) = 6.793, p < .00) and semantics (F (1) = 15.704, p < .00) and of faculty × certificate for syntax (F (1) = 6.123, p < .01). A three-way statistically
significant interaction was also obtained for handedness × faculty × certificate
for syntax only (F (2) = 3.075, p < .04).
DISCUSSION
Our study showed that the students who had obtained a professional degree in L2 performed better than those who did not have in
all three tasks, phonology, syntax and semantics. We obtained a statistically significant main effect for certificate alone and in combination with
other factors and it was the only factor for which there was a statistically significant main effect for all three linguistic tasks, indicating that
the students who reached high levels in L2 showed a superiority in all
three linguistic codes of the L2 system. This finding confirms earlier
studies which have shown that subjects who achieve higher scores in L2
tasks have significantly stronger language aptitude skills than subjects who
achieve lower L2 scores (Ganschow et al., 1991, 1994, 1998; Karapetsas &
Andreou, 2001; Sparks et al., 1995).
Certificate also interacted statistically significant with handedness for
semantics, indicating that only in this linguistic code the three handedness
groups in our sample behaved differently in combination with the acquisition of a professional degree in the L2. The fact that we did not find a
statistically significant main effect for handedness alone could be explained
by the fact that 67.5% of our sample was consisted of females and as it
has been previously shown left handers are underrepresented in females
with regard to the general population (Halpern, Haviland, & Killian, 1998;
Perelle & Ehrman, 1994). However, our results confirm earlier studies
which found no relationship between language abilities and relative hand
preference (Bishop, 1990; Crow et al., 1998; Palmer & Corballis, 1996;
Resch et al., 1997). Furthermore, some other studies claim that degrees of
Affecting Factors in Second Language Learning
435
handedness are important and that left handers are less equipped for the
developing of adequate phonological skills needed for reaching high levels
of proficiency in L2 (Lamn, 1997; Lamn & Epstein, 1999;) and probably
that’s why the combination of handedness and certificate played an important role in our results.
Certificate also interacted statistically significant with faculty but only
for syntax. Faculty alone did not play an important role in our results
indicating that career choice was not related to L2 learning not confirming
in this way our hypothesis that common learning style preferences among
pure sciences might facilitate the students of Humanities into their L2
learning. This finding could be explained by the fact that as it has previously been shown (Willcoxson & Prosser, 1996), although students focus
upon specific learning preferences in the context of acquiring skills related
to their faculty they might focus upon different learning preferences while
learning a L2.
Sex was found to play an important role in our results since we
obtained a statistically significant main effect for both sex alone and when
it is combined with faculty. In our study, females performed better than
males in both syntax and semantics confirming earlier studies which found
a female advantage for verbal skills (Gordon & Lee, 1986; Stumpf, 1995),
especially in semantics but not phonology (Gordon & Lee, 1986). The fact
that sex combined with faculty influenced our results could be explained
by studies on hemispheric specialization for language functions which
reveal stronger lateralization in men than women and a female superiority on verbal tasks. Stronger verbal skills on the part of females influence
their career choice leading them to choose Faculties such as Humanities
which belong to pure sciences rather than exact sciences.
Furthermore, although handedness and faculty alone did not play an
important role in our results, when they are combined with certificate they
influenced our results, especially in syntax. This finding indicates that in
our study strong verbal skills needed to reach high levels in L2 combined
with degrees of handedness and faculty choice, influenced our students’
performance in syntax. Our results confirm partly the results of other
studies (Sparks & Ganschow, 1993) which found that the most successful
L2 learners are those who have strong skills in all of the linguistic codes
but they claim that it is the phonological code which has the most immediate impact on the students’ performance in L2 tasks, a finding we do not
confirm.
In our study, the linguistic code which was mostly influenced by all
factors was syntax. This is probably related to L1 spoken by the subjects tested in L2 tasks. The L1 of our sample was Greek which is a
language with free word order while the L2 tested was English, a language
436
Andreou, Vlachos, and Andreou
with strict word order (Goodluck, 1986). Therefore, all our factors had
an impact on syntax probably because Greek syntax is completely different from English syntax. In Greek, the same sentence may be expressed in
different word orders even with the subject missing, while in English words
follow a strict word order in a sentence.
In conclusion, the present study provides evidence that high levels of
proficiency in L2 are closely related to L2 aptitude skills which are influenced by a combination of factors such as sex, handedness and faculty
choice. So, all those who are involved in L2 teaching should adopt teaching methods in their curriculum that suit the real needs of their students
taking into account all these factors which seem to influence L2 learning plus the fact that there are difficulties associated with the linguistic
codes of the two languages, if L2 is completely different than L1 concerning phonology, syntax and semantics. However, further research is needed
into the affecting factors of L2 learning with a greater variety of exercises
testing the linguistic codes of L2 and a detailed analysis of the learning
style preferences among the participants.
REFERENCES
Andreou, G., & Karapetsas, A. (2001). Hemispheric asymmetries of visual ERPs in lefthanded bilinguals. Cognitive Brain Research, 12, 333–335.
Andreou, G., Karapetsas, A., Gourgoulianis, K. I., & Molyvdas, P. A. (2000). Left-handedness and inheritance of bronchial asthma. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 90, 371–372.
Andreou, G., Krommydas, G., Gourgoulianis, K. I., Karapetsas, A., & Molyvdas P. A.
(2002). Handedness, asthma and allergic disorders: Is there an association? Psychology,
Health & Medicine, 7(1), 53–60.
Bishop, D. V. (1990). Handedness and developmental disorder. London: MacKeith.
Crow, J. T., Crow, R. L., Done, J. D., & Leask, S. (1998). Relative hand skill predicts academic ability: Global deficits at the point of hemispheric indecision. Neuropsychologia,
36(12), 1275–1282.
Gaillard, F., & Satz, P. (1989). Handedness and reading disability: A developmental study.
Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 4, 63–69.
Ganschow, L., Sparks, R., Anderson, R., Javorsky, J., Skinner, S., & Patton, J. (1994).
Differences in anxiety and language performance among high- and low-anxious college
foreign language learners. Modern Language Journal, 78, 41–55.
Ganschow, L., Sparks, L. R., & Javorsky, J. (1998). Foreign language learning difficulties:
An historical perspective. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31(3), 248–258.
Ganschow, L., Sparks, R., Javorsky, J., Pohlman, J., & Bishop-Marbury, A. (1991). Identifying native language difficulties among foreign language learners in college: A foreign
language learning disability? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24, 530–541.
Goodluck, H. (1986). Language acquisition and linguistic theory. In P. Fletcher & M. Garman (Eds.), Language acquisition (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Gordon, H. W., & Lee, P. A. (1986). A relationship between gonadotropins and visuospatial function. Neuropsychologia, 24, 563–576.
Affecting Factors in Second Language Learning
437
Gouchie, C., & Kimura, D. (1991). The relationship between testosterone levels and cognitive ability patterns. Psychoendocrinology, 16, 323–334.
Graham, N. L., Patterson, J. R., & Hodges, J. R. (2000). The impact of semantic memory
impairment on spelling: Evidence from semantic dementia. Neuropsychologia, 38, 143–163.
Halpern, D., Haviland, M., & Killian, C. (1998). Handedness and sex differences in intelligence:
Evidence from the Medical College administration test. Brain and Cognition, 38, 87–101.
Hampson, E., & Kimura, D. (1992). Sex differences and hormonal influences on cognitive
function in humans. In J. B. Becker, S. M. Breedlove, & D. Crews (Eds.), Behavioral
endocrinology (pp. 357–398). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Isaacs, B., & Kennie, A. T. (1973). The Set Test as an aid to the detection of dementia
in old people. British Journal of Psychiatry, 123, 467–470.
Janowsky, S. J., Chavez, B., Zamboli, D. B., & Orwoll, E. (1998). The cognitive neuropsychology of sex hormones in men and women. Developmental Neuropsychology, 14(2/3),
421–440.
Karapetsas, A., & Andreou, G. (2001). Visual field asymmetries for rhyme and semantic
tasks in fluent and nonfluent bilinguals. Brain and Language, 78, 53–61.
Koda, K. (1992). The effects of lower level processing skills on foreign language reading
performance: Implications for instruction. Modern Language Journal, 76, 502–512.
Lamn, O. (1997). Sinistrality and developmental reading difficulties. In J. Shimron (Ed.),
Studies in the psychology of language (pp. 228–247). Jerusalem: Magnes.
Lamn, O., & Epstein, R. (1999). Left handedness and achievements in foreign language
studies. Brain and Language, 70, 504–517.
Levy, J. (1969). Possible basis for the evolution of lateral specialization of the human
brain. Nature, 224, 614–615.
Miller, E. (1971). Handedness and the pattern of human ability. British Journal of Psychology, 62, 111–112.
Moffat, S. D., & Hampson, E. (1996). A curvilinear relationship between testosterone and
spatial cognition in humans: Possible influence of hand preference. Psychoendocrinology,
21, 323–337.
Nowicka, A., & Fersten, E. (2001). Sex-related differences in interhemispheric transmission
time in the human brain. Neuroreport, 12(18), 4171–4175.
Oldfield, R. C. (1971). The assessment and analysis of handedness. The Edinburgh Inventory. Neuropsychologia, 9, 97–114.
Orton, S. T. (1937). Reading, writing and speech problems in children. New York: Norton.
Palmer, R. E., & Corballis, M. C. (1996). Predicting reading ability from handedness measures. British Journal of Psychology, 87, 609–620.
Perelle, I., & Ehrman, L. (1994). An international study of human handedness: The data.
Behavior Genetics, 24(3), 217–227.
Resch, F., Haffner, J., Parzer, P., Pfueller, U., Strehlow, U., & Zerahn-Hartung, C. (1997).
Testing the hypothesis of relationships between laterality and ability according to Annett’s right-left theory: Findings in an epidemiological sample of young adults. British
Journal of Psychology, 88, 621–635.
Roberts, M. P., & Le Dorze G. (1997). Semantic organization, strategy use and productivity in bilingual semantic verbal fluency. Brain and Language, 59, 412–449.
Sparks, R., & Ganschow, L. (1993). The impact of native language learning problems on
foreign language learning: Case study illustrations of the linguistic coding deficit hypothesis. Modern Language Journal, 77, 58–74.
Sparks, R., Ganschow, L., & Patton, J. (1995). Prediction of performance in first-year foreign language courses: Connections between native and foreign language learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 638–655.
438
Andreou, Vlachos, and Andreou
Sparks, R., Ganschow, L., & Pohlman, J. (1989). Linguistic coding deficits in foreign language learners. Annals of Dyslexia, 39, 179–195.
Stumpf, H. (1995). Gender differences in performance on tests of cognitive abilities: Experimental design issues and empirical results. Psychological and psychobiological perspectives on sex differences in cognition: I. Theory and research. Learning and Individual
Differences, 7, 275–287.
Varley, R. (1995). Lexical-semantic deficits following right hemisphere damage: Evidence
from verbal fluency tasks. European Journal of Disorders of Communication, 30, 362–
371.
Willcoxson, L., & Prosser, M. (1996). Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory (1985): Review and
further study of validity and reliability. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 66,
247–257.
Zangwill, O. L. (1960). Cerebral dominance and its relation to psychological function. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.