Orpheus before opera

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LM, NO LIUVSNEI(TaH SI D^ol?lo^e DllLupn7 qtlll &aa"tatuz an ,g5gg;NVHf,NA ;ea,o1 Sunor( E su snoruuJ auoooq ol sEAA eq ,e8es pue uurcr8eru e ecuo zttuotut4l pnuDWZ (g ,Vt{gdo AUOdAg S1AHdUO (> o '.t[ 'suDlua[ tt!3pdg (g'UENCVI( NI Sq16VZL4 61NV SiIHJIIIA 9 m1-,xnaa ,'* SIHI - rI 'a3o11t1 Llclotuaa.tg m satll /Aou puD hLDStDll ut utoq oq$'o1s.to3o7 trolstuDts {q ,kolutl )tplqDq stql u1 a8.taw uDt4s sttl ituo ur.t}uaqo1 :ulIAoJ aHJ No sD&L /u:iiiiilHiiiiis,,\ .w ,,'oIrlM ? )rolg,, 'tq61uo1 't{tloos puo 'ssou qloorus'sseu1q6r; rol e1so1 o sar1r1or6.1oq1 euo or11 'sro)urrp r1)lots rol Llllols eql sl slL{I 'e)uare#!P gl,s /nou) ou/n opo6diol - LPlo)s srNlf, s€l896t 'or ,\uvnugil sl urgwnN,/z€ lwnto^ $|]lilffiril[ t$:'l'l'i'l*r'd [lNPHEU$ BEFtlNE llPENA by EmanuelWinternitz Orpheus, once a magician and sage, gradually turned into opera's most celebrated young lover lAn important U.S. premiere takes place at Carnegie Hall this Wednesday, when the American Opera Society performs, Haydn's Orfeo ed Euridice in concert lorm. The stars are Nicolai Gedda and Joan Sutherland, the conductor Richard Bonynge; the same artists revived the little-known work last year during the Vienna Festival Weeks.f The myth of Orpheus is one of the most important subjects in operatic literature, since it combines the themes of love beyond death. the all-conquering power of music and, for scenery, the three realms of being-Hell, Elysium and the pastoral setting where mortals abide. It must be this unrivaled combination that has made Orpheus a favorite of librettists and composers alike. The Orpheus myth can be traced as a dramatic subject through more than a century before 1600, when the Camerata of Florence gave birth to opera as we know it today. But it is astonishing that the originators of opera, with their professed love for antiquity, chose the tale of Orpheus, a plot unused by the great Greek dramatists. As the Italian Renaissance progressed, the figure of Orpheus, in the imagination of painters and musicians, underwent gradual metamorphosis into a topic for musical drama, outgrowing his role in the Middle Ages as a sage and magician. DR. wINTERNtrz, a native o/ Vienna, is curator of musical instruments at the Metropolitan Museum ol Art in New York. His most recent hooks include Musical Instruments and Tlreir Symbolism in Western Art (ll . W. Norton, 1967). 8 OPERA NEWS,/FEBRUARY 10, 1968 Many listeners know Gluck's Orleo ed Euritlice; an increasing number are acquainted with Monteverdi,s Orfeo; only musicologists know the operas rvritten on the subject for the Camerata by Peri and Caccini. The venture of the trlorentine humanists participating in the Camerata was highly original in its intention to revive ancient Greek drama, and to create a style of recitation in which the word was more dominant than it had been in traditional polyphony. Yet their achievement was by no means the first combination of poetry, music and the stage. Long before, there existed mystery plays based on Biblical subjects such as the life of Christ, the Creation, the story of Daniel, the Massacre of the Innocents and the like; fetes, of which we will speak later; intermedia, musical interludes performed between the acts of serious plays; and masques, representing mythological and allegorical subjects through singing, recitation, instrumental music, acting and dancing. All these forms used the stage for drama with music, however simple the stage may have been. While the Cameratisti, faithful to their ideal of Greek simplicity, refrained from drarving on such immecliate precursors, Monteverdi did not feel bound by the academic principles of these revivalists and freely used any elements from the past that fitted into his nelv, ingenious vision. A first example of his artistic liberty was his Favola d'Orfeo, performed in 1607 in Mantua, seven years after Peri's and Caccini's Euridice. In the choruses, for instance, Monteverdi used the polyphonic madrigal, where the Camera- 6 S.arl,SN YUSdO/896I '0I .trUYIIUBg,{ QotparyoS a)uarcld {o altuttdtuoS) aBDS lD^atpaw ?apnaq sD Dtqqog Dllap DcnT tq ttnyuac Lttuaaq{ u! patcldap ,snatldtg Orpheus has become a mourning young widower alter the manner ol tisti would have hesitated to adopt any rich musical texture that might obscure the words. To begin at the beginning, the Orpheus of Greek myth was the most important singer and lyre player except for Apollo himself. Many legends dealt with him. He accompanied the expedition of the Argonauts, strumming his lyre to the rhythm of the oars. Like Amphion he charmed the animals, especially the birds and fish. This magical quality was later expanded by Horace, who tells us, in his odes, of Orpheus stopping rivers by playing, of arresting winds and of charming oak trees into following him. Such phases of the Orpheus myth have been illustrated in vase paintings and other media. More important for the history of opera, however, are the Eurydice episodes. Through the power of his music, Orpheus invades Hades and cajoles the king of the Underworld into giving him permission to reclaim his wife on the condition that he never look back during his long return journey to the realm of the living. But Orpheus, unable to resist temptation, loses Eurydice. One deeply touching marble relief of the fifth century 8.c., known through several Roman 10 opERA NEWS/FEBRUARY ro, 1968 classical antiquity in Mantegna's fresco lor Mantua copies, shows Eurydice turning away from Orpheus to' ward Hermes, who already reclaims her for the Underworld. While this episode has been exploited in centuries of opera, the other tragic experience of Orpheus has seldom been used-his death at the hands of raving Thracian women, who tear him to pieces when, shaken by his loss of Eurydice, he forsakes the love of women. So much for Orpheus in Greek myth, details of which have been elaborated upon by Roman poets, especially by Ovid in his Metamorphoses. In early Christian art, some of Orpheus' magic traits were transferred to the image of Christ. In wall paintings in Roman catacombs, Christ the teacher was represented by the image-intelligible only to the initiated-of Orpheus among the animals. The Church fathers wrote more openly of Orpheus as the image of Christ. If Orpheus domesticated wild animals, Christ mastered the most difficult of creatures, man; sometimes the fusion of pagan and Christian images goes even further, as in the writings of Clemens Alexandrinus, who calls the Cross "Christ's lyre." 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At sixteen he astonished Florentine humanist circles with his translation of parts of the lliad into flawless Latin hexameters. Only a year later he used his knowledge of ancient languages in h.is first poetic creation, the Fabula cl'Orfeo, which he wrote in two days for court festivities in the ducal palace of Mantua. Politian's Fabula selects from the ancient poets (especially Ovid, whom he sometimes follows almost literally) the scenes of Eurydice, Orpheus' descent into Hades and his death at the hands of the maenads. Here for the first time a theme was used onstage that had not been employed, so far as we know, by the ancient dramatists. Politian fuses this pagan, profane plot with the tradi- tional form of the sqcra rappresentazione. From this church play he takes over the meter of the ottava, the stage setting and machinery and the usual annunciation instead of using Mercury. (More messenger, Jupiter's he introduces angels, of the play by a messenger. Ilowever, than a century later, the figures of Tragedy in Rinuccini's Euridice and Music in Monteverdi's Orleo were the ones to announce the play. )' The power of music is symbolized in concise poetic terms by contrasting the scepter of Pluto with the plectrttm of Orpheus. Yielding to Orpheus, Pluto says he is satisfied that the power of his scepter has to give way to that of the plectrum: "I' son contento che a si dolce plettro/ S'inchini la potenzia del mio scettro." Following the ancient legend more faithfully than do the texts of the Monteverdi and Gluck operas, Politian's Fabula does not yet replace the tragic ending with a huppy one provided by the deus ex ruachina. A pitiless Fury opposes a second approach to Pluto, and in the last scene a dejected Orpheus, renouncing love for women, meets death at the hands of the maenads, who end the play with a long, passionate sacrificial chorus to Bacchus. There is no doubt that the Fabulq was set to music; we know from many reports that music was customary in such court festivities. Moreover, the text itself in many places requires music. It emphasizes, for instance, the symbolism of musical instrttments by opposing the pastoral flute and bagpipe of the shepherd, Aristeus, to the more noble lyre of Orpheus. There are also such stage directions as "Orpheus, singing, approaches Hades," or "Orpheus, on a mountain top, sings to the accompaniment of his lyre the following Latin verses." These directions point clearly to the contemporary practice of the humanists, who recited poetry while accompanying themselves on a lute, viol or lira da braccio (the subtle, polyphonic, many-stringed fiddle of the time). Politian was not the onty artist who revived the Orpheus theme in Mantua. At the same time, Mantegna created his famous frescoes for the camera degli sposi rn the ducal palace, which include, besides other allegorical representations of ancient themes, pictures of Orpheus mourning, tamin-Q Cerberus to gain entrance to Hades and being killed by the maenads. Mantegna was a profound student of ancient literature, and his humanistic learning 12 OPERA NEWS/FEBRUARY 10, 1968 made him the Duke of Mantua's favorite companion for learned discussions. We may assume that Politian, on his visit to the court, must have fallen under the spell of this mature painter, though it would be hard to guess whether the painter inspired the poet, vice versa, or both received inspiration from a third source. Mantegna's frescoes were completed in 1474, and the origin of Politian's Fabula has been placed between 1471 and 1484. Whatever the exact dates, both works influenced later musicians and painters. There are reports of quite a number of musical plays about Orpheus, in Ferrara and other places in northern Italy, immediately following the Fabula. We are told of a popular "Story of Orpheus with the Sweet Lyre," and we also kno,,v of the revival of Politian's play in Mantua in 149A, the year in which sixteen-year-old Isabella d'Este was married to Prince Francesco Gonzaga-to whom she had been engaged in 1480, when she was only six. It was the famous Atalante Migliorotti, a friend of Leonardo da Vinci and like him an outstanding virtuoso on the lira da braccio, who was specially called to perform the role of Orpheus. It is tantalizing that we do not know how stage and costumes looked at the Mantua performance. Though neither drawings nor reports have survived, one can still form an idea. It was usual in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries to commemorate famous celebrations in books, which often preserve detailed descriptions of princely receptions, processions and, above all, the theatrical performances. Many great painters of the Italian Renaissance participated in such festivals, working on the scenery, costumes and stage machinery; at the court of Lodovico Sforza in Milan, for instance, Leonardo da Vinci was in charge of such preparations. (Several drawings for stage decorations and costumes from Leonardo's hand have survived. ) Brunelleschi, Filippo Lippi and Piero di Cosimo, too, were actively engaged in the preparation of court feasts-which, as a rule, included dramatic performances. Another clue to the stage design of those times is contained in certain paintings that may be interpreted as models for or "snapshots" of actual performances. Mythological or pastoral in subject, these paintings show gods or heroes descending from heaven, landscapes in a particular perspective (for instance, mountains flanking a view of the ocean in the center), and such groupings of people as may have sung in the chorus onstage. How long such stage images lasted may be gathered from Mozart's Zauberfldte, where Tamino is attacked by a gigantic snake and the Three Genii come flying through the air (or did so in the original production) while the music describes the flapping of their wings. It is interesting to note how this opera preserves the Orpheus legend in the use of a magic instrument: Tamino, with a flute rather than a lyre, charms the animals (actors dressed in skins appeared in the first Vienna performance, to the great amusement of the public). 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