Chapter 4 SHAPING THE GOOD CITIZEN - Beyond Phrenology

SHAPING THE GOOD CITIZEN Beyond Phrenology to the Child-Centred Classroom By Dr Denis ARTHY ii CONTENTS Acknowledgments Thanks to the Reader Abbreviations Lists of Figures and Appendices iii iv vi vii Introduction viii Overview Training the Soul Square Pegs in Round Holes Manuals of Ethical Conduct Global Genealogy of Good Citizen viii ix xiii xviii xxvi PART ONE: CIVILISING AND CHRISTIANISING PRACTICES Chapter 1 Shaping the Good Citizen Chapter 2 Educational Ladder 27 Chapter 3 Problem of Retardation 42 Chapter 4 Beyond Phrenology: Sagax, Capax and Efficax 65 1 PART TWO: FLOWERING OF A CHILD CENTRED CLASSROOM Chapter 5 Government Reconstruction 97 Chapter 6 Science in a New Education 125 Chapter 7 Child-Centred Retardation 146 Chapter 8 Higher Education 163 Chapter 9 Abandonment of Failure 191 Chapter 10 Parachutes, Regulators & Helicopters 233 Appendices 241 Bibliography 257 iii Acknowledgements In the early to mid-1980s, while in my employment as a Counsellor at the QUT Counselling Centre, after becoming concerned at the continuous flow of disgruntled, unhappy and confused students regarding their educational directions, I began a detailed ethnographic study of the psychological practices and techniques of guidance and counselling. Why did I do this? A number of years earlier in the mid to late 1970s as part of an Honours thesis at the Faculty of Humanities at Griffith University, I had already begun to research the relationships between sex discrimination in professional employment and certain cultural technologies embedded in the high school classroom influenced by the emerging new profession of counselling psychology. On the basis of numerous interviews with prospective, undergraduate and postgraduate students over subsequent years, I began to make the connection that it was the dysfunction of these same classroom technologies which seemed to be so influential and dominate the shaping of the educational and vocational direction of many of these unhappy “students-in-crisis” who had received questionable advice and who were fundamentally lacking in basic skills necessary to understand the complexities of a modern world. From these beginnings, I had begun to formulate certain theories regarding the relationships between the fields of education, employment and disciplinary orientations of the counselling practice. In supporting me in this preliminary research, I am most thankful to Professor David Saunders who encouraged me to extend, what began as a critique of dysfunctional “grubby” psychological practices, into a doctoral research project and now a book. This project received the support of my employers at QUT and also that of my colleagues in the broader guidance and counselling community. I thank those numerous students for agreeing to be interviewed and for their participation. To others who generously offered their time and contributions I also thank them. In particular, I am thankful for the unique insights provided by the late Dr Howell into the Radford Committee, his experience as Head Master of the Brisbane Grammar school and his initiatives in the area of vocational guidance. Associate Professor Ian Hunter's early and brief co-supervisory contribution to my research was to also challenge the limited temporal parameters of my research methodology. Through the main part of the formal supervision of this programme, Professor Saunders has provided generous encouragement and support, sound advice on the rhetorical form, strategy and protocol of the written project and has facilitated the intellectual stimulation necessary to research and report on the multiple threads of the interdisciplinary project. A brief but important discussion with Dr Bruce Smith in Canberra resulted in my researching archival material that has contributed significantly to the substance of the historical orientations. In the latter part of the research project, I have also received most valued support and guidance from Dr Denise Meredyth as co-superviser. The completed project is, however, my own contribution to those fields of knowledge that converge on contemporary issues related to the demise of the subject-centred classroom, the consequent abandonment of failure, the triumphant emergence of the child-centred classroom, and of the contemporary dilemmas in the shaping of the vocational and ethical ambitions of the good citizen. The result of this intensive research and over twenty years at the coal face as a Careers Counsellor at QUT in Brisbane was the award of PhD by Griffith University in 1996. This project would not have come to fruition without the opportunity provided by the radical policy to open up the "ivory towers", the universities to working class people such as myself and many thousands of others, by Prime Minister Gough Whitlam and the Labor government from 1972-1975 in being able to attend university as a mature aged full time student after having qualified as an accountant throughout the 1960's as a part time evening student completing the external examinations of what is now the CPA Australia. After spending two years working and living in Europe from 1972 to 1974 working as an accountant, and experiencing the joy of learning about European culture, its history, music, theatre, sport, politics, literature, architecture and geography, I was now able to fully participate in the equally radical interdisciplinary Griffith University and the Humanities and Social Sciences Faculty in a liberal arts degree. Finally, I am deeply indebted for the generous support, patience and understanding of my family, my children Ben, Tara and Zoe with my greatest thanks going to my beautiful and loving wife Ellie. To her, my closest friend and companion, I dedicate this book, finally published. iv Thanks to the Reader The book is published on Academia.com as separate chapters and is based on extensive research into the role of government in “shaping the good citizen” and in “training the soul” both of which terms are used in historical government archival records and writings in the field of education in Queensland Australia. This research traces certain historical threads related to transformations of the classroom which themselves significantly impact on present day issues such as the National Curriculum debate, the lack of separation between State and Church manifested in the School Chaplain’s debate, and the oft reported disaster and failure of the Australian classroom in global rankings in a modern world. This research meticulously examines, analyses and documents the strategic importation by progressive educationalists of a child-centred pedagogy while leaving the gate open for an intensely anti-intellectual political culture to fill the content neutral classroom void. All of which flowered in Queensland in the early 1970s with the full blown Radford Scheme while other states resisted for many years this shift away from a content saturated curriculum and related publicly visible standards. This research examines the failure of the contemporary child-centred classroom in its abandonment of failure and the key role of the classroom in shaping the "good citizen" where "every child is a winner", only to discover sooner or later, the world have never and does not work that way. The detailed research into this topic was driven initially from practical experience at the coalface for over twenty years as a university careers counsellor and was completed in 1996 and submitted as a PhD thesis. Twenty years later, this research is still highly relevant to a meaningful “history of the present”, in understanding and explaining present day issues in "shaping the citizen" and "governing the soul". It was for these reasons, that I now believe quite strongly that this research is far too valuable to NOT be published in some shape or form and thus I believe will contribute to a new accountability of the Australian classroom that was initially recognized politically at the Federal level and spearheaded by Ms Julia Gillard in her earlier role as Education Minister of a Labor government and championed later as the first female Prime Minister of Australia. The resulting book “Shaping the Good Citizen: Beyond Phrenology to a Child-Centred Classroom” is also based on significant empirical and archival research on the emerging transformations of pastoral guidance practices converging as significantly influential political forces in “shaping” the contemporary “good citizen” through a modern, child-centred curriculum, remaining largely unchallenged by an anti-intellectual culture thriving and protected within the contemporary classroom insulated from public scrutiny. Specifically, this history of the present is crucial to understanding a key aspect of the National Curriculum debate – the dismal failure by the Australian classroom to meet basic educational standards and to meet the needs of a global competitive economy, ranking significantly low in the in the world, and mostly the dismal lack of understanding about the crucial importance of the question: "how do you know if you like or dislike something (courses, careers, life choices) if you know little or nothing about it? Rather than thinking this book is “too specialised”, I would suggest to the intelligent reader that the general thrust is an historical critique motivated by the failures of a modern child-centred classroom which has been dominated by Christian and Civilising pastoral norms instrumental to shaping a good child and future citizen but which now is devoid of the prerequisite skills and knowledge to cope as a consumer of what the modern world has to offer. This critique may well sit uncomfortably for progressive educationalists who condescendingly and patronisingly admonish those who do not agree with the “child-centred” mantra and dogma that “every child is a winner and every child deserves a barbie doll, and big MAC from any shelf of their own choosing… let the child choose!!” Thus we can confront if we are not resistant to the possibility of an anthropological antidote of the "other", to the secular psychology of self as citizen of "who am I" which has been shaped by the child-centred dogma of "everyone is a winner", and failure is anathema to self. Thank you to the reader for your consideration. I am optimistic that by publishing this in separate chapters and placing this on Academia.com, I will reach readers who have the patience to examine the detail and complexity of this work and the intelligence to understand the importance of the convergence of the key issues examined through this research and from my own practical experiences over twenty years dealing with many thousands of students, most of whom had sadly never heard of nor understood the term “liberal arts”, or were wary and even frightened of its meaning and its significance to the broader question of cultural literacy, and whether or not a democracy can exist without the reasoned consent of the governed. In importing over the past forty years the very worst aspects of a child-centred culture direct from the United States into the Australian classroom, we may yet as v a nation be condemned to perpetual mediocrity in the global classroom!! Nothing changes if nothing changes!! This book published in this way is my acknowledgment of and thanks for the opportunities provided to me over a life-time by a public education system in Australia that strives to be free, secular and rewarding those who can apply themselves. The content of my book though is my contribution towards the current debates in Australia running in parallel, but connected through a common history of the classroom and to the broader question of cultural literacy, whether or not a democracy can exist without the reasoned consent of the governed:  In understanding the historical influence of the Christian mutuality between work and society within the classroom in the form of the Australian government’s “anti-democratic” treatment of the successful High Court decision challenging the lack of separation between the State and the Christian religion made by Ron Williams;  In understanding the historical transformation from the subject-centred classroom to the child-centred classroom in Australia with the resultant backlash to the failings of the child-centred pedagogy in the form of various government initiatives such as NAPLAN, MY SCHOOLS WEBSITE, and the NATIONAL CURRICULUM. The child-centred classroom has failed to deliver on providing the intellectual capital necessary for the good citizen to be able to make well informed choices within a complex consumer society and an educational marketplace in a liberal democracy;  In understanding the centrality of a child-centred pedagogy in significantly contributing towards the “Australia Disaster in Education” where Australia ranks 27 in the world. th The target audience of this material will be anyone interested in the history of education and in particular, anyone who wishes to be better informed about:  Origins of vocational guidance and careers counseling  Cultural literacy and access to higher education  Historical origins of the rationale for a National Curriculum  History of the child-centered classroom  Role of government on Christian influences past and present on classroom  All tertiary level academic courses involved in cultural studies, education, guidance and counseling The appeal of this research generally will be to those who support the liberal values of a modern secular democracy and have an interest in the debate of child-centered versus subject centered classrooms and the relevance for providing an education relevant to the arguments in support of “reasoned consent of the governed” in a liberal democracy. Dr Denis Arthy - 11 August 2016 Previous published articles/papers on some chapters of the unpublished PhD dissertation titled The Vocational Personality: Guidance and Counselling Practices in Queensland Education 1996  Article – “A Cultural Analysis of Parachutes, Regulators and Helicopters in Career Planning”, in Australian Journal of Career Development, Vol 8, Nr 3 Spring 1999  Article – “Governance of the Vocational Personality in the Origins of Vocational Guidance”, in Journal of Career Development – JCD, Volume 24, Number 2, Winter 1997  Paper titled “The CIA connection in careers planning: Psychological and anthropological paradigms of vocational guidance”,presented at Conference Proceedings of the 7th Australian International AACC Conference, Careering into the Future Crystal Balls & Cyberspace. Brisbane. 1997  Paper titled “Vocational Guidance and Government Reconstruction of the Good Citizen: the emergence of vocational guidance in the great depression as a governmental practice addressing the boy problem”, presented at and extracted from Proceedings of Australian and New Zealand History of Education Society 26 Annual Conference – Childhood, Citizenship Culture Conference Volume 1 Queensland University of Technology Brisbane 10-14 July 1996 th  Article – Beyond Phrenology: The beginnings of Vocational Guidance in Queensland through ”Sagax, Capax and Efficax” – in Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, Vol 5 Nr 1, 1995  Paper titled “Guidance and Counselling Practices in Queensland: Government, Foucault and Ethnography”, presented at The Australian Sociological Association TASA '93 Sociology Conference, Social Theory and Practice. Sydney: Macquarie University, 14th December 1993  Paper titled “The Vocational Personality: Careers Education and Counselling in Queensland” presented at the TASA '90 Sociology Conference, Social Policy and Action Research, Applied Sociology. Brisbane: held at the University of Queensland 14th - 16th December 1990 vi Abbreviations ACER Australian Council for Educational Research ASAT Australian Scholastic Aptitude Test CAE College of Advanced Education CES Commonwealth Employment Services CPD Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates CPP Commonwealth Parliamentary Papers CSS Commonwealth Scholarship Scheme CSSE Commonwealth Secondary Scholarship Scheme DEET Department of Education and Employment DEO District Employment Officer FP Field Position G&SE Guidance and Special Education GO Guidance Officer IQ Intelligence Quotient JEB Juvenile Employment Bureau L&NS Labour and National Service NBEET National Board of Employment, Education and Training OP Overall Performance QDE Queensland Department of Education QDPI Queensland Department of Public Instruction QIT Queensland Institute of Technology QPP Queensland Parliamentary Papers QTAC Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre QUT Queensland University of Technology R&C Research and Curriculum R&G Research and Guidance TAFE Technical and Further Education TE Tertiary Entrance TEEP Tertiary Entrance Education Project TOLA Test of Learning Ability V&P Votes and Proceedings VGO Vocational Guidance Officer vii List of Figures Figure 1 Square Pegs in Round Holes, Radford Scheme - 1993 Figure 2 Proposed Educational Ladder - 1906 67 Figure 3 New Educational Ladder - 1914 81 Figure 4 Pyramid Effect - 1993 215 Figure 5 University Distributions - 1980 to 1990 216 Figure 6 League Tables - 1992 to 1994 217 Figure 7 Square Pegs in Round Holes, CES - 1993 218 xvii List of Appendices Appendix 1 Training Course of the G&SE Branch - 1973 241 Appendix 2 Prudent Chusing a Calling - 1699 242 Appendix 3 Physical Defects and Intelligence - 1910 243 Appendix 4 General Intelligence and Home Conditions - 1923 244 Appendix 5 Backward Children - 1928 245 Appendix 6 State Grammar School Pupils - 1900 246 Appendix 7 Juvenile Employment Bureau - 1935 to 1942 247 Appendix 8 R&G Branch - 1959 to 1962 248 Appendix 9 Clinical Cases of R&G Branch - 1955 251 Appendix 10 Clinical Cases - 1957 to 1970 252 Appendix 11 Backwardness - 1958 254 Appendix 12 League Table of Top Fifty Senior Students - 1961 255 Appendix 13 League Table of Top Senior Students - 1993 256 - 65 - Chapter Four: BEYOND PHRENOLOGY: SAGAX, CAPAX AND EFFICAX It is often stated that education is not meeting the needs of the country, that it is designed solely with a view to the academic training of the youth, and that little account is taken of the fact that not more than 1 per cent. of the pupils ever reach the University. (Leonard Morris, "Report of the Superintendent of Technical Education", in QPP, 1914, v.1, p.1466) Very often the child of one talent is treated the same as the child with 10 talents, and, like its prototype in the Bible, its talent is hid, buried, or lost. If a child of one or two talents was taught a few subjects it would be better able to master these and become more efficient and thorough. Teachers should understand more fully the nature of the child they are expected to train. Teachers and children should be classified accordingly, some children learn rapidly, others are dull, phlegmatic, and slow. (S.T. Julian, "Letter to Editor", Courier Mail, 6th April, 1922) This chapter will examine the beginnings of vocational guidance in Queensland as a bureaucratic-pastoral activity of the primary school teacher in identifying the natural-bent and talents of the vocational personality and in generating ambition in the family for a higher education. The focus will be on the re-structuring of the colonial educational system from the turn of the century through to the early 1930s towards a complex range of vocational outcomes progressively coming under the direct control of the Queensland Department of Public Instruction throughout this period. The restructured educational ladder was to represent significantly expanded opportunities for children and adults to participate in secondary, university, agricultural, technical and continuing education (1) in ways that previously had not existed within Queensland. A vocational guidance scheme was first formulated from within the Department of Public Instruction under the heading of "Sagax, Capax, and Efficax" prior to the First World War in response to governmental imperatives for national efficiency. Although it was a scheme which was articulated as necessitating co-operation between the State primary school and the family, it was first proposed to be trialled by the Department of Public Instruction at the Central Technical College in Brisbane. However, as the words of S.T. Julian ("Letter to Editor", Courier Mail, 6th April, 1922) at the beginning of the chapter would suggest, vocational guidance had previously been available in Australia through private consultation during the colonial era and well into the twentieth century through the application of the mental sciences of phrenology and physiognomy. These mental sciences had operated within the moral space of an innate and fixed nature of the human condition, the visibility of which could be ascertained by the outward physical signs or the language of the body that specifically included a taxonomy regarding notions of character and abilities as being central to scholastic performance within school. In a properly arranged society, a proponent for phrenology argued (S.T. Julian, "Letter to Editor", Courier Mail, 6th April, 1922), men, women and young people would be placed in positions for which they were naturally best adapted. If the Government were to lay the right foundation with children on phrenological lines then they could be taught subjects suited to their mental capacity. The average child had to learn far too many subjects. The practising Phrenologist in Australia had been able to provide a vocational guidance service to the public "By Authority of the Education Department as a Visitor to State Schools of Tasmania, Victoria, South Australia and Queensland". It was claimed that this Phrenologist could ascertain the vocational nature of the child, that is, determine the occupation best adapted for the child through the visibility of physical features: The body is simply the instrument through which the mind manifests itself while on earth. The mind is manifested through forty or more organs. Each is primary and independent in its functions, doing its own work, and not doing the work of any other. Each of these powers is manifested by or through a particular nerve, organ, or portion of the brain. The power of each organ - all other things being equal - is in exact proportion to the size and quality of that portion of the brain through which it is manifested. The mental powers are possessed originally in different degrees by different individuals, and also by the same individual. One possesses ten talents, another five, another one. Each mental power grows stronger and becomes more skilful by proper exercise. Our accountability is just in proportion as we make good or bad use of talents. Each mental power was created for the purpose of doing good, and was intended to be so used. (Blumenthal, 1896) - 66 In October, 1896, a letter (Blumenthal, 1896a) was received by the Queensland Department of Public Instruction from G.A. de Blumenthal who identified himself as Professor and Lecturer on Mental Science, as Practical Delineator of Character by the late Rev. Dr de Blumenthal's "Swiss System of Craniology, Physiognomy, and Physiology". He requested from the Minister for Education the following: I take the liberty of arguing permission to visit the state schools of Queensland after school hours for the purpose of examining phrenologically according to the Swiss system any schoolchildren, who may desire to submit themselves to such an examination. (Blumenthal, 1896a) Although a similar request had been made three years earlier and was refused by Mr J.G. Anderson, Under Secretary for Public Instruction, this particular request was this time accepted by Anderson with the comment appearing on the letter as follows: I think no objection need be raised to the writer examining the heads of school children, so after school hours if they are willing with the approval of their parents organisations to submit to the process; but school work should not be interfered with. (Reply to Letter from Blumenthal, 1896a) These particular mental sciences were never formally included or became part of the institutional fabric of government in Queensland. It was the science of individual psychology, as we have seen in previous chapters, that emerged within the early 1920s in the government of retardation as a technology capable of making visible and ascertaining the level of mental deficiency as a pedagogic classification of retardation. This chapter will examine aspects of those organisational changes and initiatives taken within the Department of Public Instruction, in particular the first official vocational guidance experiment titled "Sagax, Capax and Efficax", technical education and the New Scholarship. Together, these initiatives represented the transformation of the colonial educational system which now included a complex range of vocational alternatives. By the end of the 1920s, these alternatives were broadly categorised by Mr L.D. Edwards as the dichotomy of academic or practical. In this post-colonial era with government seeking new nation status among the enlightened and civilised nations of the world, higher levels of education at secondary and university levels were no longer to be the province of ambitious parents able to pay tuition fees at the State Grammar, technical and private schools. A higher education would now be provided for those capable of perceiving the value of such education, capable of receiving formal instruction and having the power to make practical use of this knowledge. Such an education thus was to be for those with the natural-bent and the scholastic talent. It was to be an education for the mentally fit (J. Story, "Educational Pioneering in Queensland", Under-Secretary for Public Instruction, in QDPI, 1914, p.443). The governmental imperative of efficiency now presented a need to generate new parental ambitions and to provide a significantly expanded number of scholarships and financial assistance so as to fill the greatly expanded capacity of the educational system after the implementation of the New Scholarship. More importantly, however, was the need for new bureaucratic-pastoral techniques for identifying the natural talent of children for higher education. By way of introducing the New Scholarship to the public through parliament, the guiding scheme of "sagax, capax and efficax" was presented in 1913 by J.W. Blair, Secretary for Public Instruction, as facilitating the bureaucratic-pastoral objectives of generating parental ambition and reducing the wastage of square pegs in round holes. While the governmental focus of this vocational guiding scheme of "sagax, capax and efficax" was interrupted by the onset of the First World War and dissipated within a period of government inactivity, it would re-emerge in the late 1920s as a result of a new problem for government - failed parental ambition to seek new educational and vocational opportunities provided by the New Scholarship. This time vocational guidance was formulated as an experiment for small number of State primary schools, an experiment which lasted only a relatively short period. The vocational guidance experiment had by this time absorbed new techniques from the embryonic science of individual psychology and from the North American progressive child-centred pedagogy. As discussed in the previous chapter, these psychological techniques of calculation, measurement and inscription had been trialled in the governance of retardation at the primary school level. Within a few years, vocational guidance was again taken up, not within the primary school but in the Manpower model of the JEB to address the Boy Problem. RADFORD'S GREAT LEAP BACKWARD - 67 In examining the background to the New Scholarship, I will firstly refer to a fairly recent governmental report of the Queensland education system, a report that has had an enormous impact on the direction of education in contemporary Queensland. This report known as the Radford Report (1970) was the result of a governmental committee of enquiry commissioned in 1969. The object of the committee was to review the system of public examinations for Queensland secondary school students and to make recommendations for the assessment of students' scholastic achievements (Radford Report, 1970, p.1). In practical terms, the Radford Committee was requested to review the organisation of the State education system that pertained to the systems of measuring the intellectual performance of high school pupils, in particular, at the two crucial transition points in the educational ladder, that is, from one level of education to the next level of either further education or employment - the Junior level, being the end of the compulsory period of education and the Senior level, being the level for selection for entry into tertiary level education. For our purposes, the Radford Report (1970) represented a significant transition point in the transformation of the modern educational ladder and the post-war guidance practice. The history leading to this transformation is examined in this thesis in terms of tensions between the traditional subject-centred pedagogy and a progressive child-centred pedagogy. The transformation to the progressive and child-centred era of education brought into effect at the secondary level by the Radford Report (1970) in the early 1970s will be discussed in detail in the final chapter. In its analysis of the issues involved, the Radford Report (1970) presented a certain historical representation of events which reflected favourably on the child-centred cultural need to abandon public examinations. The Report referred to a specific proposal made in 1909 by the Secretary of Public Instruction ("Thirty-Third Report of the Secretary for Public Instruction for the year 1908"), noting that it was too radical to be accepted at the time. The relevant part of that 1908 report referred to a Departmental Conference held in February 1909 (2) and a prior proposal for the "Reorganisation of the System of Education" as set forth in the 1906 annual report of the Department (see Figure 2 and A.H. Barlow, "Thirty-First Report of the Secretary for Public Instruction", in QPP, 1907, v.1, p.1241). Figure 2 Proposed Educational Ladder - 1906 (from A.H. Barlow, "Thirty First Report of the Secretary for Public Instruction", in QPP, 1907, v.1) The Radford Report (1970) appeared to be suggesting that this 1909 proposal was in effect a proposal for the abandonment of public examinations and thus represented some form of historical evidence or wisdom for - 68 the acceptance of school-based assessment and the abandonment of public examinations. Was this proposal ahead of its time, as the Radford Report (1970) seemed to be suggesting? Or was the account written in the report an anachronistic one (3), constructing the liberal-progressive present in terms of glimpses of visions of progress in the past? In attempting to answer these questions, I will outline specifically how the 1909 proposal was representative of considerable activity on the part of the government in restructuring the educational ladder in Queensland so as to make it commensurate with the new nation status in company with the enlightened nations of the civilised world. First and foremost, one of the significant factors relevant to this restructuring of education and the formation of the 1909 proposal was the lack of co-ordination, coherence or control between these broadly different sectors of education - viz. primary, secondary, technical, agricultural, university. Up until 1900 there had been no legal requirement for compulsory attendance. There had been no minimum or maximum age for attendance at a State primary school. State primary schools had offered education at both primary and secondary levels and State Grammar schools had provided both elementary and secondary levels of instruction with no necessity for public examination (Scholarship) for fee paying pupils articulating to the secondary level. In regard to provisional schools alone which constituted in excess of 50 percent of the number of schools throughout Queensland, these schools were considered to have teachers who were not properly trained compared with classified schools. As a post-primary option, the State Grammar schools had been legislated into existence and endowed with yearly government grants and allowances specifically for the purpose for providing a secondary level education that led directly onto university level. However, the levels of education cut across primary and secondary in the State Grammar schools which provided tuition at both these levels for fee paying pupils. Technical colleges also received a yearly government endowment and offered a range of technical and professional courses that bridged secondary and tertiary levels for fee paying students. In 1904, both the State Grammar schools and the Technical colleges (4) were publicly funded institutions but were reliant on tuition fees for their survival. While they were considered under the direction of the Department of Public Instruction, they were also outside and independent of the direct control of Parliament: I am personally of the opinion that the Secretary for Public Instruction should accept full responsibility in regard to his administration of those branches of education which are under his direction and are not, as in the case of Grammar Schools and the Brisbane Technical College, expressly committed by Parliament to control outside and independent of the Department of Public Instruction. (A.H. Barlow, Twenty-Ninth Report of the Secretary for Public Instruction, in QPP, 1905, v.2, p.182) Such an autonomous arrangement of responsibility and control for the secondary and technical areas of education significantly contributed to the stated need for a reorganisation of the system of education in Queensland. In regard to other tertiary levels of education, there was no University or any Teachers' Training College in existence. University education was only available in other states or overseas and teacher training at the primary level operated through the pupil-teacher or apprenticeship system. Up until 1900, the Scholarship Examination had provided a visible educational standard as well as an opportunity for talented children from the State primary system to move into secondary education with the State paying their fees. Only pupils already enrolled in the State primary school system could enter the examination and successful winners of the Scholarship could attend only the State Grammar schools. The Scholarship Examination had thus functioned as a governmental mechanism to offer talented scholars free secondary level education exclusively at the State Grammar schools and at the State's expense. A fixed and small quota of Grammar School Scholarships were thus provided to State primary school pupils who could exhibit a high level of a measured capacity to succeed at the secondary level as evidenced by the performance on the Scholarship Examination. In the year 1900, out of the total state wide State Grammar schools' population of 831 pupils, 105 pupils were Scholarship holders (see V&P, 1901, v.1, p.1089 and p.1253) (see Appendix 6). After 1900, amendments to the Scholarship Regulations opened competition for scholarships and bursaries to be tenable at any grammar school or other secondary school approved by the Governor-in-Council. According to Goodman, (1968) this represented the beginnings of the system of state subsidy to private and denominational schools which was to dominate and direct Queensland's secondary education for the next sixty years (Goodman, 1968, p.105) (5). For fee paying pupils entering the secondary level (ie at the State Grammar school), there had never been any entrance or qualifying examination. All Grammar School pupils had automatic access to tuition for the Junior or Senior Examinations set by the University of Sydney. In practical - 69 effect, a form of school-based assessment had already existed for fee paying students in the Grammar school system at the transition point from elementary to secondary level. The State Scholarship Examination continued until its abolition in 1962 as a qualifying examination for State primary school pupils. This Public Examination thus set a compulsory public standard for the transition point between primary and secondary levels for State primary schools but, as a standard, was not relevant to the very large majority of fee paying pupils within the Grammar school and private school systems. At the transition point from secondary to the university level, the public standard was set by the University of Sydney. The State government in Queensland offered three scholarships or exhibitions. Students who attended University could thus only do so if they could afford to pay the fees and move to another State or overseas. As part of a post-primary alternative, technical education was available through seventeen colleges spread throughout the State where tuition fees were payable by all students. In 1908, The Technical Instruction Act of 1908 came into force on 1st August with the amalgamation of the three Brisbane Colleges (North Brisbane, South Brisbane and West End) into the Central Technical College, thus bringing for the first time the Brisbane Technical College directly under the control of the Department of Public Instruction. The Act also gave the State the power to establish technical colleges where one-fifth of the estimated cost of the site and buildings was to be raised by local subscriptions. Prompted by the success of the Central Technical College, several country colleges which had been receiving the annual government grant to subsidise classes requested the Department to take over their institutions (L.D. Edwards, "Report of the Director-General of Education", in QPP, 1951, v.1, p.651). In 1909, the Technical College system had a state-wide student population in excess of five thousand students with over one thousand who had completed a certificate qualification during that year. There had been three significant changes between 1900 and 1909 in regard to the general educational background. The first was the implementation of compulsory attendance at primary schools for all children up to the age of twelve years. The second was the beginnings of government control over technical education through legislation, and the third was the formulation of proposals to begin a new system of State controlled high schools, a University and a Teacher's Training College. What was it about this 1909 proposal, however, that seemed to strike such a chord with the Radford Committee in the late 1960s? The proposal itself arose directly from a Departmental Conference where the Director, the Under Secretary and the District Inspectors had met in February 1909. Several important resolutions were passed related to the reorganisation of the then current education system. These resolutions are summarised as follows: 1. Reorganisation of Educational System: The system of education in Queensland should be reorganised on the lines set forth in the Annual Report of the Department for 1906 (see Figure 2), subject to the modifications indicated in the 1909 plan. 2. Direct Control of Grammar Schools: In order that the proposed scheme of reorganisation may be properly carried into effect, the State would need to take over direct control of the grammar schools in much the same way as it already had with the technical colleges. This was now deemed necessary to ensure, among other things, that there was to be standardisation and clear separation of the two levels - primary and secondary level - and that transition from primary to secondary was to be uniform and equitable. 3. Certificates: A system of grading should be introduced that would function as leaving certificates from First to Fourth Grades, with First Grade being equated with the Scholarship level but not necessarily that standard, and the Third and Fourth with Junior and Senior levels respectively (A.H. Barlow, "Thirty-Third Annual Report of the Secretary for Public Instruction", in QPP, 1909, p.261). At that time, there had been no form of certification by the Education Department other than Scholarship and technical certificates at the Technical colleges and this was not deemed suitable for the vast majority of persons leaving school and seeking various forms of employment which necessitated those employing institutions to set their own examinations for entry. The Scholarship Examination was still limited to a very small number of pupils in the State school system whose main ambition was to climb the educational ladder to University level through the State Grammar School. There was considerable confusion in regard to the levels and standards of education within the various parts of the overall educational system in Queensland. Having briefly outlined the 1909 proposal within its historical context, we can now ask two important questions. The first is - of what relevance is this 1909 proposal to the emergence of vocational guidance? The second is - what is the significance of this proposal, as outlined above, to the particular account of this 1909 proposal by the Radford Report (1970)? Taking the second question first, we can return to the suggestion - 70 made in the Radford Report (1970) that this leaving certificate scheme was radical for the period, since schoolbased assessment implied the necessity of abandoning public examinations. The short response is that the 1909 proposal itself did not advocate an abandonment of public examinations as is implied or even possibly suggested in the brief presentation of such proposal in the Radford Report (1970). The 1909 proposal was in part an attempt to provide some standard certification for a significant number of pupils exiting from primary school without having undertaken the Scholarship examination. Moreover, regardless of the introduction or otherwise of a leaving certificate system, the Scholarship Examination was clearly to continue as the public standard at the transition point along the re-constructed and articulated educational ladder from primary to higher levels for all pupils within the newly reorganised State controlled system which was now proposed to include the State Grammar schools and the technical colleges. No longer would those fee paying students who had failed to obtain 50 percent or more in the Scholarship Examination be able to enter secondary level education either in the Grammar school system or any other State controlled level of secondary education. The Radford Report (1970) does not make any reference to these key aspects of the proposal. Perhaps we can speculate at this point that the complex historical facts surrounding the 1909 leaving certificates proposal simply did not accord with the triumphant and progressive educational present in which the Radford Committee found itself, ready to introduce a psychologically driven child-centred pedagogy further into the school systems. As will be discussed in the final chapter, this was to take place through the introduction of a school-based assessment, a psychologically driven system of moderation and the compulsory abandonment of the external public examinations at the Junior and Senior levels for all adolescents under 18 years of age. Moreover, modifications suggested in the 1909 Departmental Report did not propose the abandonment of public examinations but suggested the creation of a new way of organising the secondary school curriculum with the formation of a representative committee. This committee would have representatives from the Department, the new Queensland University when established, the State Grammar schools, and the State Technical colleges and was proposed to have been responsible for the issuing of Third and Fourth Grade Certificates, that is Junior and Senior levels. The Third Grade Certificate (Junior) was considered to be highly important and would become the most valuable of the series. It would indicate that the holder had completed a course of two to three years in a grammar school, free high school or other secondary school, or had reached an equivalent standard in continuation classes or the technical colleges: It is hoped that by arrangement with the authorities concerned these certificates might be accepted in lieu of special examinations which are now held, say, for entrance to the Public Service, Department of Public Instruction, banks, insurance societies, &c.; or in lieu of the preliminary examinations for the legal profession, dentists, and the like. In cases where there are only a limited number of vacancies, and there are more qualified applicants than there are places to fill, it is hard to see how competitive examinations could be avoided. (A.H. Barlow, "Thirty Third Report of the Secretary for Public Instruction", in QPP, 1909, p.262) Rather than the certificates being a radical alternative to public examinations, they were suggested to provide a standard endorsed by the State as an alternative to the plethora of examinations that flourished outside the State education systems. The certificate at this level was thus regarded as the most important. It would represent a new exit point into the employment market for a large percentage of students and a standard that would in time come to be accepted by employers. We can now bring into play the first question raised above in regard to the relevance of the 1909 proposal to the emergence of vocational guidance. We can also begin to outline some of the key factors preliminary to the introduction of vocational guidance at the nexus of the educational and employment spheres. Under this 1909 proposal, the first year into the secondary school would represent the beginnings of a new period of vocational decision-making for students, parents and teachers. Decisions would be taken as to a possible calling and a selection of appropriate subjects to match. We thus have the origins of the modern vocational personality with the suggestion of matching the vocational attributes of the pupil with the appropriate modern callings deriving from the proposed restructured and articulated educational ladder. It was suggested that, as far as practicable, when a pupil had been at the secondary school for a year, he should determine with his parents and teachers, what calling he intends to adopt, and that his studies should then be directed towards that calling. At the end of the prescribed course he should be able to gain his Third Grade Certificate, and it would show what results he had gained in the - 71 - group of subjects selected. Thus if a lad decided to select a commercial course, he would take the germane group of subjects. If he gained a certificate of high merit he would doubtless have little difficulty in obtaining suitable employment, as it is hoped that merchants, bankers, and commercial men generally would come to recognize and value these certificates and be guided by them in making appointments. This illustration may be regarded as applying to all professions and trades and employers. (A.H. Barlow, "Thirty Third Report of the Secretary for Public Instruction", in QPP, 1909, p.262) The Fourth Grade Certificate would indicate that the holder had completed a full course at a secondary school, the Central Technical College, or other institutions of equal standing. This certificate would also be sufficient for admission to the new University and Training College in Queensland without further examination (see also Secretary for Public Instruction, Queensland Parliamentary Debates, 1913, v.116, p.2528). As has been stated above, school-based assessment had in fact already existed for that large quota of children of ambitious parents who had the financial capacity to pay fees within the State grammar school and private school systems. In view of the fact that part of the proposal concerning the assumption of full governmental control over the Grammar school system was not implemented, this school-based assessment within the State Grammar schools and the non-state system continued at the Scholarship level until 1962. The Radford Report (1970) makes no reference to the existence of the stratified quota and school-based assessment for fee-paying students. Moreover, in regard to the administration of the scholarship and exhibition systems, the Radford Report (1970) also suggests that school-based assessment could well have been applicable in determining the distribution of that small quota of scholarship places from State primary schools to the secondary level and an even smaller quota for State sponsored exhibitions to university level. The key questions here are: Is it reasonable to assume that some form of public examination had to remain as an integral part of the certification process as proposed at that time? Was it required in order to produce a rank order of merit in the competition for scarce employment and educational opportunities? In other words, what was the alternative that would have been practical and acceptable at the time for scrapping external public examinations as the common standard for the competition for exhibitions and scholarships to enter the State grammar schools, the new State High schools, the new University, the new Training College and other Universities in other States and overseas? Alternative technologies of providing a rank order of scholastic merit other than by way of public examination simply did not exist at that time. Even some sixty years later, the Radford Scheme's alternative psychologically-based moderation system was being presented as an experimental technology for arriving at a rank order of merit. For the moment, as there did not appear to be any alternative technologies available at the time and as there was no apparent intention to offer higher education to all children of ambitious parents based on scholastic performance only, what is the answer to the question of how the distribution of secondary and tertiary level places was to take place? One possible answer can be located in identifying the type of history constructed by the Radford Report (1970). The Report's suggestion of the possibility of school-based assessment for all students in the early twentieth century represents a sophisticated variation of that form of history typified by Goodman (1968) and Wyeth (1953) which portrays the past as a series of events and characters who inhibit or accelerate movement towards an almost triumphant and progressive present. In other words, the suggestion that school-based assessment could have been introduced at the turn of the century in effect ignores the rationing function of the external public examination that existed at that early part of the century. More importantly, it also represents another liberal-progressive history of education which has appeared from time to time throughout the period in question but which contributed to the proselytising of a child-centred pedagogy and the triumphant outcome of the Radford Scheme with the abandonment of external public examinations for adolescents under 18 years of age. The retention of public examinations in the early twentieth century thus quite clearly represented for government the pragmatic and only solution to distributing limited resources in accordance with available technical capabilities as well as with the social, cultural and political logic of the time. Public examinations served this function in the form of a competition for the small quota of free scholarship and exhibition places at secondary level and university levels. In the words of Mr A.H. Barlow, Secretary for Public Instruction in 1909, it is hard to see how competitive examinations could be avoided. As we will see in the final chapter, the Radford Report (1970) was both consistent with the optimism and rhetorical style of other government reports and heralded a radical transformation of a subject-centred classroom into a progressive child-centred pedagogy. - 72 By examining the suggestion of a child-centred pedagogy expressed in the Radford Report (1970) as having origins in the 1909 proposal, we have thus reviewed a key period in the transformation of the colonial educational ladder into the articulated and co-ordinated educational ladder that would subsequently come to include the full range of technical education under the control of the Department of Public Instruction. This review has also identified the governmental necessity for a guiding and shaping role of the classroom teacher in co-operation with the family in the formation of the modern vocational personality. We will now turn to examine more closely the origins of vocational guidance as a pedagogic technique adopted by government in the bureaucratic-pastoral shaping of the modern vocational personality. THE GUIDING SCHEME - "SAGAX, CAPAX AND EFFICAX" Following Brewer (1942), we can simply note the vocational matching practices of the mental sciences of phrenology and physiognomy within Queensland primary school at the turn of the century and look elsewhere for the origins of vocational guidance in Queensland. What authority has already commented on these origins? When did vocational guidance emerge as a governmental practice in the shaping of the modern vocational personality? Reporting a history of the Department as the Director-General of Education in 1951, L.D. Edwards located the beginnings of vocational guidance under the heading of Psychological Services. Directly after quoting from his own report as Chief Inspector of Schools in 1924 on the value of psychological tests of educable capacity, he continued by stating the following: The need for vocational guidance was realized in the late twenties. The increase in apprenticeship and in further technical training showed that in many cases students had not chosen their occupations wisely. (L.D. Edwards, "Report of the Director-General of Education", in QPP, 1951, v.1, p.645) What is quite significant to this thesis is that this particular history of individual psychology implies that vocational guidance began or was realised in the scientific testing, not of mental defectives as has been established in the previous chapter, but in vocational testing of the school child. The intriguing fact is that this historical narrative was not written by Edwards but was put together by the R&G Branch in 1950 written by Mr W. Wood (6). Mr Edwards acknowledged this at the beginning of his 1951 official report to Parliament by stating that he was indebted to the R&G Section of the Department for collecting most of the material for him (L.D. Edwards, "Report of the Director-General of Education", in QPP, 1951, v.1, p.645). What is even more intriguing is that Mr Edwards, writing as the Chief Inspector of Schools some twenty four years earlier in 1927, had given a significantly different account of the emergence of vocational guidance. Rather than vocational guidance somehow emerging from ambiguous reflections by classroom teachers practising an embryonic craft of the teacher-psychologist on pupils' intelligences and vocational attributes, Edwards characterised vocational guidance as a new governmental instrument in addressing questions of wastage: The State, as the provider of educational facilities, is entitled to know that it is getting value for the money spent on education. Ultimately, that value must be expressed in terms of the capability of the young people who are trained under the State's educational system. The State will probably get fuller value for its expenditure when it is able to ascertain the different types of capacity displayed by the children attending the schools. (L.D. Edwards, "Report of the Chief Inspector of Schools", in QPP, 1930, p.764) The origins of vocational guidance in Queensland are to found, not in psychological theory or the experimental laboratory of individual psychology, but in the governmental imperative for efficiency and avoidance of wastage - in avoiding fitting the square peg in the round hole. Contrary to the history written by W. Wood and reported on by L.D. Edwards in 1951 (L.D. Edwards, "Report of the Director-General of Education", in QPP, 1951, v.1, p.645), the need for vocational guidance was formulated some fifteen years earlier than the late 1920s. As we have already seen, the governmental need for guiding the pupil towards vocationally appropriate options had been first alluded to by Barlow in his 1908 Departmental Report as directing the pupil towards a calling (see A.H. Barlow, "Thirty Third Report of the Secretary for Public Instruction", in QPP, 1909, p.262). However, this need was first expressed publicly in the specific terms of the bureaucratic-pastoral role of the teacher as the government official who had both the opportunity and training to assist in the avoidance of human wastage and to recognise the natural talent of the pupil. The formal recognition of this role of the teacher as the effective guide was first announced by J.W. Blair on separate occasions during 1913 as arising - 73 out of the restructured educational ladder and the soon-to-be implemented new scheme which I have referred to in this thesis as the New Scholarship: Under the new scheme scholarships will be granted to every boy and girl who can get not less than 50 percent of marks, and they will be able to take out the scholarships where they liked, and at any school they liked - at a grammar school, high school, or approved secondary school. (Hear, hear!). (sic) (J.W. Blair, Secretary for Public Instruction, QPD, 1913, v.116, pp.2561) The new scheme presented to Parliament by the Secretary had been prepared by the Department of Public Instruction and was stated as touching the question of grammar schools, scholarships, and bursaries (QPD, 1913, v.116, pp.2560-65). The intention of the new scheme was to endeavour to get the best results from the education system. Directly impacting on this new scheme was the strategic atmosphere of efficiency and economy that would incorporate population wide vocational norms being compared with the natural-bent of the pupil as an integral feature of the new vocationally guiding technology to ensure that the best results were obtained. The Department would be endeavouring to equip every boy and girl who attended the schools so as to fit them for the peculiar vocation in life for which they were suited temperamentally: The ideal and aim of the Education Department was to see that the possibility was brought to the door of every boy and girl in the community to rise practically to that position in life to which their functions and gifts temperamentally suited them. (J.W. Blair, Secretary for Public Instruction, QPD, 1913, v.116, p.2560) The Secretary, Mr J.W. Blair, referred to a celebrated lecture of Professor Tucker, agreeing with him that what the Department wanted was to find out, first of all, whether the boy or girl was sagax (capable of perceiving); then capax (capable of receiving); and finally, efficax (having the power of making practical use of knowledge). The Department wanted to guard in that particular direction, to give these pupils such a training as would not, he stated, render them, in the familiar phrase, round pegs in square holes and for these boys and girls to be developed for what they were naturally suited: But the true aim of education should be to see, as far as possible, that they (the Department) got each boy or girl selected for that work for which they were physically endowed. (Hear, Hear!) They knew that very often many people were pressed into sedentary occupations in which they became failures or indifferent successes, when they could possibly be wonderful successes in some vigorous outdoor occupation. (J.W. Blair, Secretary for Public Instruction, Queensland Parliamentary Debates, 1913, v.116, p.2560) The problem of education was to strive toward some system that would pick out the best of those qualified for physical work, and in doing it so that there would not be any superiority of class against class - so that the highly gifted mental individual would think no higher and no less of the man who was gifted as an artisan. The skilled hand would be matched against the skill of the brain. This was not envisaged as a utopian scheme but would rely on the practical co-operation of teachers and parents. As teachers were intimately concerned with the development of the child and watched the child from the embryonic stage right up to the stage of full development, they were more familiar than the parent with what the child was suited for. But sometimes the teachers were overweighed by the parent who wanted the child to be something else. It was very difficult for the teacher to deal with the parent, in pointing out that if they moved the child into a particular walk of life the result would be indifferent success or failure. The parent sometimes, unfortunately for the child, succeeded and the teacher failed (J.W. Blair, Secretary for Public Instruction, Queensland Parliamentary Debates, 1913, v.116, p.2561) (7). What was needed was to produce the pedagogic family, the family whose ambition could be extended to and even transformed into valuing higher education. For this new scheme to work, the parent would need to co-operate with the teacher in order that the very best kind of boy or girl could be picked out for any particular work. This ideal of co-operation between the teacher and parent was similar to that expressed by Barlow some years earlier. However, Blair was suggesting that it was now necessary to endeavour to find out what the natural-bent of the boy or girl was. The key method used to help them on to their destiny along the newly restructured and articulated educational ladder towards a higher education was the external public examination, the Scholarship, not under the old quota system but on the basis of competitive performance: Under the new scheme, scholarships are granted to every boy and girl who can get not less than 50 per cent of marks and they can take out the scholarships where they liked, and at any school they - 74 - liked - at a grammar school, high school or approved secondary school. (J.W. Blair, Secretary for Public Instruction, Queensland Parliamentary Debates, 1913, v.116, p.2561) Central to this "sagax, capax and efficax" guiding scheme of a vocational direction was both the teacher as the guide and the Scholarship examination as the key method of establishing scholastic ability. Earlier that year, Mr J.W. Blair as the Minister for Public Instruction had provided the opening address of the Teachers' Conference on 13th January 1913. His main theme was to inform teachers of their bureaucraticpastoral role in addressing the governmental imperative of efficiency and avoidance of wastage of natural talent arising out of this new scheme, the New Scholarship. He began his address by identifying the success of progressive and enlightened nations of the world as being causally related to their increasing involvement in technical education with education generally being one of the principal subjects to which attention had been given by the leading nations during the present decade: It may, indeed, be said that one of the standards by which the progressiveness of a country is now judged is her educational system. The day has gone for ever, I think, when education can be relegated to the list of minor matters. Enlightened nations realise that education leads to supremacy in every factor that makes for national greatness and for national fame - be it in peace or war, in commerce, in art, in science, in literature, in music, or in any of the diversified forms of a country's work or an country's interests. (J.W. Blair, Minister for Public Instruction, QDPI, 1913, v.15, p.4) Mr Blair stated that science applied to the developments of warfare could now be directed to the proper training of not only the leaders but of the rank and file to increase commercial prospects of these enlightened nations. This training, coupled with the perfecting of machinery and the greater application of science to industries, was tending to secure for these countries industrial as well commercial supremacy. The keynote to this supremacy was declared to be education. The realisation of the all-potency of education stimulated the nation's awakening to the necessity of educating her people that they should reach the highest degree of efficiency possible in their respective callings, and of thoroughly grounding her statesmen in the essential principles of modern nation-building. Mr Blair illustrated his argument by suggesting that it was this realisation by the nineteenth century seers of Japan, that had not only raised Japan in the supremacy amongst Eastern nations, but had given her a leading place amongst the nations of East and West (J.W. Blair, Minister for Public Instruction, QDPI, 1913, v.15, p.5). Australia's educational future thus lay in protecting the right of each State to work out its own educational destiny in its own way while continuing to extend the hand of fellowship with the educational authorities of the British Empire through the League of the Empire (8). It was the conferences of the educational authorities of the British Empire (9) that were identified as being productive of good: ...the reading and discussion papers can hardly fail to be instructive; but I think that what counts for most is the valuable handshake of fellowship, the communing of mind with mind; the visits to historic places, the rambles through the homes and haunts of celebrities; the visits to institutions of note; the contact with the pulsating life of the world's great centres; and the scrutiny, even though brief, of the trend of modern development. It is good to know that many of our teachers are anxious to spend their long-service leave in this way. (J.W. Blair, Minister for Public Instruction, QDPI, 1913, v.15, p.6) Teachers' involvement in such conferences not only enriched them intellectually and professionally, it resulted in benefit to the pupils and thus to the State: Our Parliaments have realised that the children are our best asset; that it is true economy to educate them wisely and well; that the future welfare and prosperity of the State is inseparably interwoven with the childrens' welfare; and that there is deep-rooted wisdom in the maxim that the future belongs to those nations who have best educated their children and themselves. (J.W. Blair, Minister for Public Instruction, QDPI, 1913, v.15, p.6) Having outlined the case that the highest degree of efficiency possible in the nation was dependant upon proper training and education of both leaders and the rank and file, Mr Blair then developed the argument further by presenting an outline of a new scheme for the consideration and discussion of the teachers. At the conclusion of this presentation, he stated: I do not submit a concrete working scheme to you; I prefer at this juncture merely to offer the - 75 - suggestion, but it is a suggestion which you may consider worthy of discussion. I intend to have the scheme tried in the Central Technical College. (J.W. Blair, Minister for Public Instruction, QDPI, 1913, v.15, p.9) Before outlining the scheme, Mr Blair questioned whether Queensland was educating its children as wisely as it might, particularly in the training of girls for the home-life and of boys for trades. The fundamental education of children, he stated, must be considered irrespective of parentage or future vocation. It is indisputable that the future members of every calling, or of those who will never reach a particular calling at all, should be taught to read and write, and to count with ease; if we can cultivate also a love for good literature, a great work will be accomplished, and there may be created in the minds of a fair proportion of our young people a growing desire to spend some of their leisure hours with Dickens, with Scott, with Stevenson, or with other of our delightful authors; and there may also be a corresponding waning of the desire to spend even part of the leisure time in billiard saloons or betting shops, or at sensational and erotic picture shows, which tend to character-destroying rather than character-building. (J.W. Blair, Minister for Public Instruction, QDPI, 1913, v.15, pp.6-7) The vocational direction for those pupils who intended to follow professions was clear - the primary school, the secondary school and, if necessary, the University. For those who were destined for clerical, mercantile, and commercial pursuits generally, the preliminary education seemed to be sufficient. Similarly, in some agricultural districts, the agricultural bias of the primary level education produced some very fine results: But can the same be said of the training for the homes and for trades? We may hope that the ultimate destination of most of our girls will be wifehood and motherhood, but do we do as much as we might in giving them simple lessons on the management of the home, the laws of health, food, clothing, &c.? (J.W. Blair, Minister for Public Instruction, QDPI, 1913, v.15, p.7) The answer to these rhetorical questions was to suggest that some progress had already been made for boys and girls. The new schedule Domestic Economy and Hygiene was being admitted as an alternative subject in girls' school and elaborate preparations were being carried out at the Central Technical College in regard to trade-teaching for boys. The concern for educational efficiencies, the beginnings of these new educational programmes and initiatives and in particular, the new college trade-teaching, served to crystallise the formulation of this new scheme in helping pupils choose the vocations for which they are best suited. The enrolments of pupils at the Central Technical College in the new trade subjects were stated as no doubt being small at first, for the classes will have to prove their worth in the estimation of parents, employers, and employees, and to demonstrate that the college trade-teaching will not be a waste of time but will be instrumental in a really practical way in the production of finished craftsmen. (J.W. Blair, Minister for Public Instruction, QDPI, 1913, v.15, p.8) Something now had to be done by government, however, to ensure that the pupil chose the vocation for which he was best suited: Does not a lad often drift into a sedentary occupation when Nature intended him for an active and vigorous outdoor life? Does not a lad, owing to his taking the first position that offers, often become an indifferent brainworker, when he would have become a master-craftsman if he had only had a fair chance? Does it not often happen, too, that lads struggle under misguided parental pressure, perchance, into professions for which they are not temperamentally fitted and in which they will never rise? And does this not happen in the teaching profession as often as in any other profession? (J.W. Blair, Minister for Public Instruction, QDPI, 1913, v.15, p.8) Vocational choice had already been a public matter through the scholarship systems of providing opportunities for a secondary and university education. In addition, as we will recall, it was the government officer, the head teacher, who had the prerogative to refuse or concede a significant career path, namely teaching for the pupil-teacher. What was new with this guiding scheme, however, was that it was now to be a governmental responsibility to identify the natural-bent of the boy. A new distributional reality was being proposed to extend vocational norms to the whole of the white-European population through the government officer, the primary school - 76 teacher. The teacher was in a better position to ascertain the natural abilities and vocational desires of the pupil and he or she should use that knowledge in assisting in the selection of a vocation. Where in the teacher's professional view the manifested natural-bent of the pupil was not in the direction of becoming a teacher, he or she should simply not nominate that child as pupil-teacher, even under strong pressure from the parents. In regard to other career options, the teacher was now being requested to tactfully assist the parent in the selection of a vocation: Save the child from what to him will be an uncongenial calling; save yourselves from a period of drudgery in trying to instruct and train an unwilling and unresponsive subject; and save the State from an employee who, through an inherent dislike of his work, will never be fully worthy of his hire. But if you have a pupil who feels that his mission in life is teaching, and if you feel so too, nominate him. That one exemplification will serve very well to illustrate my point. The teacher, as a general rule, knows better than the parent in what direction a child's natural abilities lie; and the teacher would tactfully assist the parent in the selection of a vocation for which the child has an inclination and for which he is fitted. I am sure that much unhappiness would be prevented and much human wastage obviated. ("Address by the Hon. J.W. Blair, Minister for Public Instruction, at the Opening of the Teachers' Conference, 13th January, 1913", in QDPI, 1913, v.15, p.8) Blair's proposal for the new scheme made at the conference also foreshadowed a vocational guidance practice emerging within a Manpower model at the nexus of education and employment, a model which would be implemented some twenty years later within the JEB. Blair outlined this model as part of the new guiding scheme to be trialled at the Central Technical College in 1913: Indeed, would it not be possible to establish, in connection with some of our larger schools, at least, a kind of pupils' labour bureau in which a register might be kept of pupils desiring employment? The register might contain particulars of the pupil's personal characteristics, the school subjects in which he is strong and those in which he is weak, suggestions as to the vocations for which he appears to be best suited, and information of the like kind. (J.W. Blair, Minister for Public Instruction, QDPI, 1913, v.15, p.8-9) Later that same year in which this vocational guiding scheme and labour bureau experiment had first been proposed by Blair, the New Scholarship as a package was formally presented to the Legislative Assembly in November by the Minister for Public Instruction, Mr J.W. Blair in the debate on Supply. This New Scholarship was based on the necessity for co-operation between the family and the school and it located the classroom teacher as the quintessential governmental guide in the avoidance of fitting square pegs in round holes. THE NEW SCHOLARSHIP What was the New Scholarship? While the emphasis in the presentation of this new scheme was on the importance of first finding out the boy or girl who had the natural ability that was worth cultivating and worth paying for, and who was going to be a mental asset to the State, the central feature of this new scheme announced to members in the Legislative Assembly was in fact the modified and significantly expanded Grammar School Scholarship system. This New Scholarship scheme, however, was not offering universal free education for all to attend an approved secondary school. Free education, according to Blair, was based on a myth that all people must have the same amount of wealth, because without a certain amount of wealth, they could not avail themselves of education: To try to have free education would mean that you would have to abolish the system of scholarships altogether. To abolish the system of scholarships would mean that you might have to offer free education to a boy out at Cunnamulla at a grammar school at Toowoomba. It would be like offering a drink of water to a dying man 10 miles away with no hope of getting there - offering him a drink of water by telephone. It was insulting the individual by the offer. It was a baseless sort of thing, and showed what a myth the offer of free education was. (J.W. Blair, Secretary for Public Instruction, QPD, 1913, v.116, pp.2560) As we have already established, central to the strategy of the New Scholarship was the idea of offering free education to those who had the "sagax, capax and efficax", that is, to those who had the minimum mental - 77 capacity to benefit from an education higher than primary level, including those brilliant pupils who exhibited scholastic potential for university. This was accordingly considered to be a true system of education, particularly in a young State, where what was needed was to hold out the offer of free education to the pupil with natural ability to move from primary, through secondary and on to the University without having to pay a penny. The first part of the scheme was thus to establish the capax in terms of a natural ability of the individual pupil and if worth cultivating, then establish whether the parents were unable to pay and, if so, to help them out of the national exchequer. Under the old scholarship scheme, there were only a certain number of available scholarships over the whole of Queensland and boys and girls worked their hardest at a period of their lives when they ought not to be working their hardest. I think that is a mistake. (Hear, hear!) (J.W. Blair, Secretary for Public Instruction, QPD, 1913, v.116, pp.2561) Why then should this be a mistake? The Secretary suggested that advancement along the educational ladder should be made far less competitive to enable pupils to participate in physical pursuits. As we have already seen in the previous chapter, the physical health of the child body had, only a few years earlier, become the focus of the governmental medical gaze as part of a new School Hygiene: The reason why so many senior wranglers from the Universities, all highly-cultured men with degrees, failed to make good in after life, arose from the fact that they burned themselves out when they ought to have been building up their frames. (Hear, hear!) That was the very reason... in cutting out the competitive system, and that was why they did not make it a very severe standard. They realised that they could not get the best results under the old competitive system, where boys and girls sat up until late at night studying up an indefinite number of subjects and working into the small hours of the morning, and, after getting little or no sleep, to get up in the morning again to start studying once more... it was not the way to build up a sound body and a sound mind. (Secretary for Public Instruction, Queensland Parliamentary Debates, 1913, v.116, pp.2561) What was meant by the old competitive system was simply that there was a limited quota of Scholarships to a higher education at a State Grammar school or an approved private secondary school. The whole idea of the New Scholarship scheme was not therefore first of all to ascertain who was the absolute premier individual, who was going to stand out as a bright star in a scholastic firmament, but to pick the boys or girls who had the general mental gifts to enable them to get 50 per cent in the Scholarship Examination. The idea behind the new scheme was that it would be worth the while of the State to give them a trial to bring them out and develop them. In formulating this New Scholarship scheme, the second question that confronted the Department at this time was how to provide State controlled secondary education offering free education for all who qualified through the competitive Scholarship Examination. Secondary education was now to be radically expanded as part of this New Scholarship scheme that would have far exceeded the capacity of the State Grammar schools which at that time had over sixty percent of the total enrolment as private fee paying students, none of whom had ever had to qualify for admission through any entrance examination. We can recall that the 1909 proposal had recommended the resumption of control by the State of the Grammar schools in similar fashion as had already occurred with the State endowed technical colleges. It had also recommended the extension of the Scholarship Examination as the common minimum standard for admission to all secondary school students within the family of State secondary educational institutions. Contrary to these recommendations, however, the expansion of secondary education was to take place entirely within the new form of State funded secondary education to be known as free high schools but was not to infringe upon or compete with the continued existence of the State Grammar schools. These new free State High schools were to be opened at various regional centres around Queensland but only where there was no State Grammar school. There was a growing conviction that the value of secondary education for the ambitious family who could not afford the fees for State Grammar or private schools, should not be confined to such children of exceptional ability, and that the object of secondary education should not simply be to enable a child to climb the educational and social ladder. The significant value was seen to lie in maintaining and extending the inculcation of those habitual practices that were considered desirable in forming the good citizen: The continuance of school discipline during the years of adolescence, the spread of a high mental and physical standard which a good secondary school maintains, and the diffusion of good habits and - 78 - principles which formed and strengthened by a prolonged school life, are regarded now as desirable for average children whether they climb or not, to make them better workmen, better parents, better citizens in all walks of life. The intelligence, the public spirit, and the moral strength of the community will thus be raised. (R.H. Roe, Inspector-General of Schools, QPP, 1913, v.1, p.1369) While these appear as the benefits of secondary level education, the problems which would arise in the mid 1960s out of extending the compulsory leaving age to fifteen years will be discussed in Part Two of this thesis. It was the average student who would now become the focus of attention by educational policy makers. The standard of examinations for admission to the new free State High schools was to be made sufficiently high only to exclude those whose ignorance or idleness rendered them incapable of proceeding with any profit to secondary school work. Mr Roe, the Inspector-General of Education and formerly the Principal of the Brisbane Grammar School for thirty-three years from 1876 to 1909, thus spoke with considerable authority when he stated: My experience of thirty three years secondary school teaching has convinced me that some of those who have profited most in character and mental training from a secondary school course have been boys with little prospect of success in competitive examinations. The average boy, in my opinion, must not be excluded from the High school if he wants to go there and has reached the average Primary Fifth Class standard. (R.H. Roe, Inspector-General of Schools, QPP, 1913, v.1, p.1369) To cater for the broad range of average students, the curriculum in the new free high school had been specially prepared in consultation with the University professors. Three courses of study, each of four years' duration, were provided for high school students - general, commercial and domestic. The first two years had a common curriculum so that a student would be able to proceed to any of the three courses for the third and fourth years. The general course would lead up to the University thus enabling students to matriculate from the high school. State High schools were not opened at centres where there already existed grammar schools. If that happened, it was argued, the pupils at the grammar school would leave and go to the free high schools resulting in the grammar schools falling into desuetude. The government had ultimately rejected the suggestion of the State taking full control of the State Grammar schools: It would be better, at present, instead of spending a tremendous amount of money in taking over the grammar schools, to spend it in the far-out districts where no schools existed now. (Hear, hear!) It would be better to use the money in providing playsheds and new schools in repairs, and in providing shelter for the children in many places where they did not have it at present and who were less favoured than the children in the metropolis and the suburbs around Brisbane. (J.W. Blair, Secretary for Public Instruction, QPD, 1913, v.116, p.2562) Mr J.W. Blair, the Secretary for Public Instruction, had thus presented a range of arguments as to why the State Grammar schools should not have been brought under the full control of the State. He also included what in current terms would be called the user-pays argument, the view that there were certain people who were able to afford to pay for sending their children to these schools and accordingly they should pay. There were some children, he further argued, who did not get a chance until a late period in life, and there were others who were too old for scholarships; and why, the Secretary asked, should not their parents pay for them to go to a grammar school if they could afford to do so? The user-pays argument had already been put by Mr Blair as the Secretary for Public Instruction that if the State were to take full control of the State Grammar schools, free secondary education would have become an educational mirage so far as the children of poor parents were concerned. This user-pays argument put forward by Blair thus did not represent a defence of free market forces (as is frequently maintained in today's political economy of schooling). Instead, it was an expression of the limitations of the governmental largesse in relation to fiscal priorities of the government of the day: It is almost certain that the allowances of thirty pounds per annum which are now paid to country children who win scholarships and whose parents are poor, and of twelve pounds to town children who win scholarships and whose parents are poor, would be withdrawn, as it is not at all likely that funds would be available for all these purposes..... It will be seen that the establishment of a free High school in Brisbane raises many difficulties, and that the main difficulties are those of finance. The linking of a liberal scheme of allowances with an entirely free system of secondary education would doubtless form an attractive educational ideal, but, as I have already pointed out, our finances do not - 79 - yet admit of the realisation of that ideal. (J.W. Blair, Secretary for Public Instruction, QPP, 1913, v.1, p.1355) The Secretary for Public Instruction concluded his Parliamentary presentation of the New Scholarship scheme by reminding the members of the Assembly of the necessity for the educational system to facilitate the proper matching of the natural capacity of pupils with their true vocation. He suggested that the New Scholarship scheme should be given a three year trial period by reiterating: The object of a true system of education was to fit a boy or girl for that work for which Nature had intended him or her. If our education did not fit our boys and girls for their particular work in life, the work for which each was especially fitted, it was a ghastly failure. (J.W. Blair, Secretary for Public Instruction, Queensland Parliamentary Debates, 1913, v.116, p.2564) Thus the New Scholarship scheme represented a significant transformation within public education in Queensland from an elite colonial education system based mostly on the ambition and financial capacity to pay for higher education, to a mass education system based on a new vocational capacity for mutual benefit to the average pupil and the State. In other words, the State funded educational ladder had previously enabled only children of the ambitious family who could afford the fees or who had exhibited exceptional ability through the Scholarship Examination to climb the ladder from Primary to Secondary schools, and from there to the Universities and the professions. Vocational guidance, as we understand the term from Brewer (1942), thus emerged in Queensland as an intrinsic feature of the New Scholarship in the early 1910s as part of a governmental plan to generate ambition in the family for a higher education while at the same time to minimise educational waste arising out of mismatching the natural-bent and talents of the pupil with the vocation thus avoiding the inefficiency of fitting square pegs in round holes. According to the former long serving Head Master of the Brisbane Grammar school and the then Education Department's Inspector-General of Schools, it was the State that was would reap the benefit of significantly expanding the educational ladder. It was a benefit that would follow from unearthing, rearing, and developing into full flower and fruit the latent seeds of genius which might otherwise "perish unfructified or be born to blush unseen in poverty and obscurity" (R.H. Roe, Inspector General of Schools, QPP, 1913, v.1, p.1355). The colonial educational system beyond the elementary level had been limited, un-co-ordinated and not capable of meeting the needs of a new nation. A higher education could now be provided for those with the necessary mental fitness, for those capable of perceiving the value of such education, capable of receiving formal instruction and having the power to make practical use of this knowledge. Such an education thus was to be for those with the natural-bent and scholastic talent. Up until this time, secondary education had been considered as a class distinction, with its extension being advocated mainly in order to enable children of exceptional ability, who were found in larger numbers than was expected, to climb the rungs of the social scale via the educational ladder (R.H. Roe, Inspector General of Schools, QPP, 1913, v.1, p.1369). While the New Scholarship was greeted with enthusiasm by most members on both sides of the House, there were those who still argued that the State had not gone far enough and that it should take complete control of the State grammar school system in order to immediately provide free secondary education for all throughout the State. To illustrate this point of view (which has surfaced periodically in the public arena), it was claimed by Mr Grant (State Member for Fitzroy) in the Legislative Assembly, that the Grammar schools should belong to the State and be administered by the Education Department. Rich people, he suggested, could afford to send their dullards to school. That was quite a different system from what went on in the State High schools. In the new State High schools, children had to pass a qualifying examination and any who were unfit to take advantage of a secondary education were not sent there. The qualifying examination was regarded as not being high, because it was not considered desirable to exclude anyone who was suited to receive it from the benefits of secondary education. But in the Grammar schools, Grant stated, there were no such restrictions. In other words, he was suggesting that fee-paying pupils were not restricted for entry on the basis of a minimum common standard of scholastic performance. As has been outlined earlier, there was in effect a system of school-based assessment that was integrated with the capacity to pay on the part of the larger majority of State Grammar school pupils. Moreover, Grant further stated that a number of people sent their children to the grammar schools, not for the benefits of education they were going to get, but to put the hallmark of caste on their children, so as to have it said that they had enjoyed the distinction of a grammar school education (Mr K.M. Grant, M.L.A., Queensland Parliamentary Debates, 1913, v.116, p.2536). The counter argument to the further liberalisation of access to higher education at the time, however, was that the New Scholarship scheme as it was planned even in its expanded form was sufficient to revolutionise social - 80 life in Queensland because in the past the privileges of post primary education had only been enjoyed by the few. Ironically, the consequences of both promoting further liberalisation of access to higher education and inculcating unbridled ambition in the family for access to the professions were treated as an effect of labour market forces (10): They (the privileges) had been enjoyed by the rich, but now every boy and girl would have an opportunity to get a grammar school education. But what were they going to do with them when they had educated them? Were they educating them all for the civil service, or for lawyers or doctors? What were they going to find them employment at? Who was going to do the industrial work? If they educated them for lawyers they would be causing trouble to get cases in court, and if they were all educated for doctors they would get up smallpox scares or something of that sort, so as to make trade. When they had given a boy a University education, he was not going back to plough and dig postholes. (Mr Bebbington, M.L.A., QPD, 1913, v.116, p.2540) It would appear that Mr Bebbington (Member for Drayton) was articulating the German model of post-primary education - a diversified system, not dominated by the professional guilds. Technical high schools, he maintained, would solve the difficulty. He considered that a good tradesman - a good engineer or carpenter - was a very much better citizen than a bad doctor or lawyer. If the State spent money on the education of each individual, it had a right to say something as to what was going to become of him, and what it was going to get back for that education. The question of educational and vocational misfits, square pegs in round holes, thus appeared to be a crucial issue in this public debate concerning the New Scholarship scheme and the expansion and extension of post primary education at all levels. This question of the best fit in the vocational arena was similarly echoed in the same Parliamentary session on the debate on Supply for public education by Mr Kirwan (Member for Brisbane) where he referred the Members to another proposed scheme where a leaving certificate was to be substituted for public examinations. He read a short extract by the Melbourne correspondent of the Sydney Daily Telegraph which is quoted in full as follows: The desirableness of substituting a better test of scholarship than examinations and by the "cramming" systems was discussed by Sir Alexander Peacock, Minister for Education; Mr F. Tate, Director of Education; and representatives of the University to-day. At the close of the interviews the Minister stated that the school board of the University had under contemplation a considerable modification of public examinations and had laid certain proposals before him. The chief effect of the board's consideration would be to lessen the importance of examinations and rely more on the certificate of the headmaster of a school that a pupil has gone through a particular course of study in an effective manner. The essential part of the scheme was the efficient and frequent inspection of schools. The Minister said he was favourably impressed by the views put forward, but before pronouncing his decision on them publicly be would have to consult his colleagues. (quoted by Mr Kirwan (Member for Brisbane) in QPD, 1913, v.116, p.2543) According to Mr Kirwan, the up-to-date educationalists who proposed this scheme considered that the system of cramming had to be given the go-by. He then referred to the question at hand, the question of efficiency and economy - what return was the State going to receive for its vast expenditure on education? He took account of the argument that some people felt that this particular scheme of a leaving certificate could result in a situation where it would be impossible to get anyone to learn a trade or engage in a manual occupation which were so necessary in a State like Queensland. However, he stated that he did not agree with such fears: It had often occurred to me that if it was possible to ascertain what young boys and girls were best fitted for, we should not have so many misfits in the world. A vast number of people in this State spend hundreds of pounds in endeavouring to have their daughters educated as musicians, and have them taught to play the piano or some other instrument, quite oblivious that they have no particular gift in that direction, though they might make very good milliners. (Mr Kirwan, QPD, 1913, v.116, p.2543) The vocational guidance strategy of "sagax, capax and efficax" thus appeared to have been generally accepted as the commonly accepted technology of efficiency, necessary to reduce educational wastage consequent on the restructuring and expansion of the educational ladder. The New Scholarship scheme came into effect on 1st January 1914 (QPP, 1914, v.1, p.1353), with the maximum compulsory leaving age now having been raised to fourteen years, creating new problems in the - 81 governance of the vocational personality. New ambitions would need to be generated, new capacities would need to be calculated, measured, inscribed and matched to fill the significantly expanding educational ladder which now included technical education (see Figure 3). Promotion of the New Scholarship necessitated increasing the level of ambition by parents for education in whatever form. The goal of national efficiency was reciprocally linked to the governmental ambition of creating well-educated men and women. National efficiency was thus to become the framework within which emerging technologies would inscribe new norms, new capacities and bountiful harvests of a well educated population: Figure 3 The New Educational Ladder as at January 1914 (Extracted from QPP, 1914, v.1, p.1360) National efficiency is the concern of the State, and as education is one of the main contributors towards national efficiency, the State is interested deeply in making every part of the education system - 82 - as good as possible. Children should be looked upon by mothers and fathers as one of their greatest blessings; if they are not so regarded, something is wrong. But this blessing brings its corresponding responsibility, and one of the chief obligations of parents is to see that their children are educated. (H.F. Hardacre, "Thirty-Ninth Report of the Secretary for Public Instruction", in QPP, 1915-16, v.2, p.18) The obligation of the parent underscored the continuity of the neglectful parent theme examined in the previous chapter and was absorbed by the New Scholarship into the governmental imperative of efficiency by seeking co-operation between the school and the family and through generating ambition for a education. Ambition for education in the family was portrayed in a Departmental brochure called "State Education in Queensland" which identified Queensland as having the lowest national statistics of "cannot read" - 682 children compared with the highest in Tasmania of 1,324 children per 10,000 children. Blair concluded from these inscriptions of governmental efficiency that the Queensland Department of Public Instruction would try to maintain this honourable record. The seed which was being planted, he claimed, should in the future yield bountiful harvests of well-educated men and women, and national efficiency should increase steadily (J.W. Blair, quoted by H.F. Hardacre, "Thirty-Ninth Report of the Secretary for Public Instruction", in QPP, 1915-16, v.2, p.18). With the State having taken direct control over technical education first in Brisbane and then later throughout the State, it was now possible to formalise the re-organisation and broadening of the educational ladder to include those technical courses of education referred to as commercial, trades and domestic. Prior to the State exercising control over technical courses, students had exercised their own discretion in selecting subjects of study. They had had little guidance from those connected with their respective trades. As part of the restructuring of the educational system leading to the implementation of the New Scholarship, a scheme had been submitted, approved and put into operation in 1912, a scheme which provided for the division of all work at the Central Technical College into definite departments, each comprising related subjects, for the placing of a supervisor in charge of each department, and for the teachers to be responsible immediately to the supervisors of their respective departments. Eleven departments were created as follows: Art; Building; Commerce; Correspondence Tuition; Domestic Science; Engineering and Allied Trades; Languages and Literature; Mathematics; Metallurgy and Mining; Science; and Sheep and Wool. In the same year, new administrative techniques for the systematisation of teaching were initiated with a view to increasing the comparability of student's work. A new population of pedagogic norms was thus framed to grade and systematise students' work. In addition, this resulted in the need for detailed recording of these pedagogic norms of the individual student: The value of every exercise completed by the student will be assessed, and will be recorded in permanent form, together with such remarks as may be required to indicate the excellence of the work or its failure to reach the satisfactory plane. The keeping of complete records will involve considerable work, but it is necessary and must be done. (R. Riddel, "Report of the Inspector of Technical Colleges", in QPP, 1913, p.1476). The new educational system of distribution was now formalised in city centres to include courses in technical education (Commercial, Trade and Domestic), vocational courses which led directly to specific occupations and pursuits: Take, for example, Brisbane, the city in which is naturally, by reason of its population, the largest number of children in any town of the State: the organisation is as follows:The primary school leads into the Secondary School and the Secondary School leads into the University. The primary school also leads into the following departments in the Central Technical College:1) The secondary department, which leads into the University on the Engineering and Science sides; 2) The commercial department, which leads to business occupations; 3) The trade department, which leads into corresponding trade-occupations; and 4) The domestic department, which leads into the home or into women's pursuits. (J.W. Blair, "Report of the Secretary for Public Instruction", in QPP, 1914, v.1, p.1360) Blair asked the question as to what could be done for the country child. The new educational ladder could not be extended to every little country school causing much anxious thought to the undesirable consequence of too many boys being taken from the land. Country life had to be made attractive as part of a national view - 83 that suggested that the bulk of the State's wealth was derived from the land. Blair argued that for many years to come Queensland had to be a producing rather than a manufacturing country. Her empty spaces had to be filled. It was a national concern to deal with the rural problem of how to prevent the general exodus from the country to the towns and how to encourage a fair exodus from the towns to the country. The conclusion to these problems, Blair suggested, was to give a practical trend to the Nature Knowledge work of the upper primary classes of country schools and establish a preparatory agricultural school at metropolitan centres (J.W. Blair, "Report of the Secretary for Public Instruction", in QPP, 1914, v.1, p.1359). In regard to trade work, it was reported that the technical college would undertake training for trades for the first time in its history in 1914 (R. Riddel, "Report of the Inspector of Technical Schools", in QPP, 1913, v.1, p.1476). Formerly, apprenticeship had been the only process by which tradesmen had imposed on employers very stringent responsibilities (J.W. Blair, "Thirty-Eighth Report of the Secretary for Public Instruction", in QPP, 1914, v.1, p.1357). It was further stated that the attempt by ancient guilds to renew the old apprenticeship system was inadequate for the then present-day conditions. It was not possible to train tradesmen efficiently solely in the factory, and the most promising method of meeting the need was stated as being a combination of the factory and trade training school. The term apprenticeship was thus to acquire a new meaning that would cover that course of factory-cum-trade school training which would suffice to produce the well-trained journeyman. With a view to efficiency and economy, the government regulated system of trade schools thus began in Queensland (L. Morris, "Report of the Superintendent of Technical Education", in QPP, 1914, v.1, p.1465). The governmental response to the deficiencies in the technical training of tradesmen was to introduce vocational teaching, a scheme of instruction that represented the formal beginnings of government regulated apprenticeship training leading to a recognised trade. The bureaucratic-pastoral strategy was similarly aimed at shaping the vocational personality to include an orientation towards a technical calling for the boy (J.W. Blair, "Thirty-Eighth Report of the Secretary for Public Instruction", in QPP, 1914, v.1, pp.1357). To these ends, not only trade classes were established in a Day Trade School, but also a Day Preparatory Trade School which was to give a direct preparatory training for machining and for carpentry and allied trades (J.W. Blair, "Thirty-Eighth Report of the Secretary for Public Instruction", in QPP, 1914, v.1, pp.1357-8). The Trade Schools were established by government in 1915 along with Trade Advisory Committees thus marking a new step towards the co-ordination of industry and technical training (L.D. Edwards, "Report of the Director-General of Education", in QPP, 1951, v.1, p.651). The development of College work was suggested to be fraught with far-reaching consequences to Queensland with skilled craftsmen being considered essential to national efficiency (J.W. Blair, "Thirty-Eighth Report of the Secretary for Public Instruction", in QPP, 1914, v.1, p.1359). Among the subjects offered by the early independent colleges were cookery, dressmaking and millinery. From 1912, the Central Technical College offered full time classes in domestic science for girls in a newly formed department of the College where the aim was to prepare girls for the home life. According to J.W. Blair, Secretary for Public Instruction, who was reporting on the provision of the Domestic School for Girls, countless dissertations had been delivered and elaborate monographs written as to the proper sphere of woman. However, he suggested, no one had ever more aptly described a good housewife than King Lemuel of old: and his mother taught him: she looketh well to the ways of her household and eateth not the bread of idleness: her children arise up and call her blessed: her husband, also, and he praiseth her. (J.W. Blair, "Thirty-Eighth Report of the Secretary for Public Instruction", in QPP, 1914, v.1, p.1357) Girls were not admitted to the School until they had completed the primary school fifth class. The fee was two pounds two shillings per term with a system of free places on the usual basis. The full range of technical education was thus now subject to the detailed scrutiny of government regulators, advisers and educators. All of these structural changes to the educational ladder presented additional problems of vocational selection and choice, not only for the individual student but also for those government regulators concerned to arrive at efficient educational outcomes. The need for new forms of knowledge about the individual pupil emerged from this intense activity of the restructuring of the educational ladder. At the Central Technical College, the new Day School which had commenced at the beginning of 1912 had been organised along the lines of the curriculum arranged between representatives of the Department and the Professors of the University of Queensland (11). The options had been organised that the student had to make a choice of the course at the point of entry from three - 84 courses - general, commercial, or domestic: At that time his natural endowments and his character are unknown to the College, and any advice given lacks that authoritativeness which only intimate knowledge of the pupil can give. While all are not mentally fitted to proceed to the University, some who elect to take the Commercial Course are among those who should most certainly work towards the University. Yet a choice of course had to be made immediately on entry into secondary work, before their mental capabilities can be estimated or their inclinations ascertained and the first choice tends to become the final choice. (R. Riddell, "Report of the Inspector of Technical Colleges", in QPP, 1913, v.1, p.1477) Riddell had suggested in his report that if the first year of the course were made a common general course, the College would be in a position at the end of that year to advise as to the course subsequently to be entered upon, whereas under the then current system, the College could only advise students to enter the General Course but could not argue from a knowledge of the student himself (R. Riddell, "Report of the Inspector of Technical Colleges", in QPP, 1913, v.1, p.1477). The outcome of the restructured educational system was now visibly clearly linked in this analysis by Riddell to a knowledge of the individual student. The need for knowledge of the "sagax, capax and efficax" of the technical college student was thus beginning to be formulated as part of a national response to governmental efficiencies and economy. Over the next decade, the provision of technical education would continue to be brought more and more under the direct control of the Department of Public Instruction. After the passing of The Technical Instruction Amendment Act of 1918, the Department then had the power to transfer the control of other country colleges to the Department when the need became apparent. As a result of this Act, the control of Toowoomba, Rockhampton, and Charters Towers Technical Colleges was immediately transferred to the Department (J. Huxham, "Report of the Secretary for the Department of Public Instruction", in QPP, 1919-20, v.2, p.202). Gatton College came under the control of the Department as from the 1st September, 1923 and from the following year began to operate as an Agricultural College and High School. The Agricultural College was then affiliated with the University and the Principal was appointed as Professor of Agriculture in the recently-instituted Faculty of Agriculture at the University (L.D. Edwards, "Report of the Chief Inspector of Schools", in QPP, 1927, p.760). Other transfers of the control of country colleges took place over the next few decades. In 1920, a Central Apprenticeship Committee was established to supervise training and to conduct examinations for those desirous of entering a trade. It was not until 1924, however, that the first Apprenticeship Act was proclaimed. Initially, the control over the administration of the Act was vested in the Department of Works, although it was subsequently returned in 1932 to the Department of Public Instruction. As we will see shortly, the articulation of technical, trade, domestic, commercial and agricultural education as part of a system of educational distribution limited to secondary level education under the control of the Department of Public Instruction would continue to contribute towards the necessity to find new governmental techniques for generating ambition and avoiding wastage. By the late 1910s, the Technical Colleges were considered to be the principal instrument by which systematic vocational training would be made available (J. Huxham, "Report of the Secretary for Public Instruction for the Year 1918", in QPP, 1919-20, v.2, p.201). By the early 1920s, technical education had been extended into secondary education. Although the first Domestic Science High schools for girls had already been established in 1915 at Ipswich, it was not until some years later that a great forward step was made when the University decided to include commercial and domestic science subjects in the curriculum for the Junior Public Examination. This recognition by the University was stated by Morris to have improved the status of domestic science and consequently increased the interest in housecraft. Within the framework of national efficiency, Morris further stated: It is being brought home to parents and pupils that the best training for a girl is that which prepares her for home life. The home is the foundation of the nation, and women's chief work and sphere of influence is in the home. Principals of High schools, teachers of household arts are combining in the training of the girls to meet problems connected with household expenditure, food, nutrition, and health, and other matters of national importance. (L. Morris, "Report of the Superintendent of Technical Education", in QPP, 1923, v.1, p.800) Technical High Schools were inaugurated during 1921 at the Central and Ipswich Technical Colleges with vocational courses of instruction being provided at the High Schools connected with the Toowoomba and Rockhampton Technical Colleges. Girls now had the option of entering the academic, domestic science, or - 85 commercial courses while boys had the option of the academic, commercial or other vocational courses. Although the University had recognised vocational subjects as part of the curriculum leading to the Junior Public Examination, these vocational subjects did not have the same formal standing vis-a-vis academic subjects. In regard to secondary education in general, Morris stated that parents were at a loss to decide on further action to take after their boys had passed the Scholarship or High School Entrance Examination. Very few parents have any clear notion as to the type of secondary education that would be best suited to their boys. In most cases the boy is allowed to proceed to a Grammar school, High school, or other secondary school. After six or twelve months, it is found that the type of education provided is not suitable, and the action is thereupon taken to find a position for him. When lads reach the age of fourteen or fifteen, parents in most cases are not willing or able to pay for their support, unless it is apparent that such education is to bring some pecuniary benefit. (L. Morris, "Report of the Superintendent of Technical Education", in QPP, 1923, v.1, p.800-1) Ambition for secondary level education was not being realised in the family. In this regard, Morris stated that only fifteen percent of pupils who gained free secondary education stayed on at school to sit for the Junior examination. He suggested that there were two possible reasons for this lack of appreciation of secondary education. One was that even when it was provided free of cost, the type of education did not meet the needs of the majority of boys. The other was that parents had not been properly educated to appreciate it. Morris further suggested that although vocational subjects were part of the secondary school curriculum, they did not have the same value as the academic subjects in relation to what constituted an overall pass or fail in the University controlled Junior Public Examination. What was needed, he argued, was not a curriculum that was purely utilitarian, but one that should possess sufficient interest as well as value in training for future citizenship. Then, he concluded, parents might be more predisposed towards supporting their children during the years of secondary education: When students have a definite objective they usually put forth much more strenuous efforts than is customary when they have only very hazy ideas in the matter of their objective. If something in the way of a Vocational Junior Examination were inaugurated much more zest would be put into the work of the students. (L. Morris, "Report of the Superintendent of Technical Education", in QPP, 1923, v.1, p.801) By the mid-nineteen twenties, the Department of Public Instruction had formalised four separate secondary education options which included technical education fully integrated with the State controlled Secondary School systems. Pupils could now select one of the following streams or courses: (a) (b) (c) (d) Professional. The subjects of study are Languages, Mathematics, History, Geography, Science, and Drawing. Commercial. The subjects of study are a number selected from the course prescribed for (a) above, together with Bookkeeping, Business Methods, and Stenotyping. Domestic Science. The subjects of study are a number selected from the course prescribed for (a) above, together with a course in Housecraft - Cookery, Housewifery, Laundry Work, and Needlework. Technical. The subjects of study are a number selected from the course prescribed for (a) above, including Science, together with Manual Training in wood and metal work". (T. Wilson, "Fifty First Annual Report of the Secretary for Public Instruction", in QPP, 1927, p.736; see also QPP, 1944-45, p.659 for similar streaming into higher levels of secondary education) In this now neatly articulated formation of the educational ladder, we can see emerging a new pedagogic arrangement determining the configuration of capacities for the modern vocational personality. That is, there was now an explicit correlation between all streams of formal studies at the post-primary levels and related broad categories of the vocational options. At this juncture in the pedagogic framework within which the modern vocational personality would be shaped, we can see a clear relationship not only between academic studies and the particular vocational grouping but also between each vocational grouping. While the oft repeated opposition of academic versus vocational education appears to have been collapsed, the professional grouping of academic subjects still dominated the vocational standing of the professions. The question of failed ambition on the part of the family for this professional stream, however, continued to surface in seeking to avoid the wastage of unrealised scholastic talent: - 86 - The successful candidates are fitted by capacity and attainments to undertake more advanced study in the secondary schools, but a very small percentage continue with secondary work until they complete the University Junior requirements, and very few indeed continue to Senior standard. The reason may be that parents cannot afford to keep their children at school for a long period, or it may be that there is little appreciation of something which can be obtained for nothing, but it seems a pity that the educational facilities provided by the State are not being used to the fullest extent. (L.D. Edwards, "Report of the Chief Inspector of Schools", in QPP, 1926, p.746) It was within this complex range of alternatives of the educational system and the disconcerting lack of ambition for a higher education on the part of the family that specific proposals were re-formulated in the late 1920s for a vocational guidance in the State primary school. VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE - PEDAGOGY OR PSYCHOLOGY? This dominance of the academic within the secondary school curriculum was taken up by L.D. Edwards in his 1927 annual report as Chief Inspector of Schools (in QPP, 1928, p.687). He provided a detailed analysis of various matters and proposals under investigation which directly related to the nexus between primary and secondary levels of education. He prefaced his report by stating that the efficiency of the State's educational institutions had been the subject-matter of criticism, investigation and much discussion. One of the major concerns identified in that report was the disinclination of parents to allow their children to complete a full course of secondary education. Edwards acknowledged that financial circumstances prevented many parents from allowing their children to take advantage of a completed secondary education. Equality of opportunity could never be a reality, he suggested, while some parents could afford to keep their children at secondary school while others could not: It is felt, however, that inability to meet the expenses incidental to continuance at school is not the complete explanation of the serious drift from the secondary schools during the early part of their course. The average student finds some difficulty in undertaking successfully the post-primary course as at present constituted. (L.D. Edwards, "Report of the Chief Inspector of Schools", in QPP, 1928, p.687) Only two years earlier, Edwards had commented upon the poor retention of the candidates fitted by capacity and attainments to undertake more advanced study in the secondary schools (in QPP, 1926). He had then suggested that this situation had arisen in part from financial considerations and little appreciation by parents of the benefits of secondary education. In both instances, Edwards was suggesting something similar to what Morris had put forward years before in his 1922 annual report. In other words, the broad level of agreement seemed to be that the New Scholarship and the inclusion of an extended range of technical education into the secondary education level had not generated sufficient parental ambition for a form of higher education that was deemed relevant to the interests and educational needs of most parents. The pedagogic family was not yet a sufficiently widespread phenomenon to satisfy the governmental ambitions of the New Scholarship. Why would the new pedagogic arrangement governing the educational ladder not have been attractive or relevant? How important was it for the State to seek collaboration with the family to implement the New Scholarship? Was it simply a question of parents needing educating or persuading as both Edwards and Morris had suggested in their earlier reports? The response to these questions by Edwards in his later 1927 Report (L.D. Edwards, "Report of the Chief Inspector of Schools", in QPP, 1927), however, would seem to take a different tack. In broad terms, Edwards had formulated the natural-bent of the pupil into specific attributes of an academic or practical bent. Moreover, Edwards was suggesting that the system of secondary education required alteration to suit those pupils with a practical bent. In other words, Edwards was characterising the vocational and academic attributes of the boy and the girl in terms of an academic or practical bent and suggesting that the educational system should be altered to reflect these natural-bents of pupils. Blair's characterisation of the natural-bent had thus been transformed by a mirrored reflection of new vocational distributions and characterised as a population of norms of interests, capacities and types of ability. For Edwards, the weakness of secondary education was that formal instruction was too academic (12) for all students and not particularly suitable for boys or girls with a practical bent. The same weakness, he also suggested, was apparent to some extent in the work of the primary schools. The weakness was characteristic not only of Queensland education but of schooling systems in other parts of the world. There was movement in favour of broadening the curriculum in the interests of those who were to pursue more constructive work. Greater importance attached to manual work not only for those who proposed to take up manual work in - 87 skilled trades or in the home, but also for those who intended to enter the professions. Edwards suggested that there was intellectual benefit in doing manual work which involved the application of ideas, practical measurement and the development of manual dexterity. The value of using the hand as an aid to intellectual development, he noted, had long been recognised in the kindergarten schools but had been lost sight of in the upper classes of the schools: The work is too often divorced entirely from the realities of life, it has not been given a bearing sufficiently practical, and it appears to be undertaken in many cases simply as an exercise in mental gymnastics, when the same value, so far as mental training is concerned, could be derived from problems which have a utilitarian value and a practical application. (L.D. Edwards, "Report of the Chief Inspector of Schools", in QPP, 1928, v.z, p.689) Edwards suggested that what was needed was to move in the direction of liberalising the curriculum by bringing it closer to the world of real things thus making provision for those pupils whose bent was practical rather than academic. Edwards then outlined a comprehensive new scheme of efficiency designed to rectify the academic bias weakness, to bring about the greatest good to the greatest number, and to reduce the outward drift from the secondary schools (13). This new scheme revolved around forming a new Syllabus for Primary Schools. The scheme also included significant changes to the structure of the schooling system into primary, intermediate and secondary stages, and the classification of pupils into grades. Two years were to be allocated to the first grade. The work of second grade would be undertaken by children from seven to eight years of age and a year would be spent in each of the subsequent grades so that the normal child who commenced school at the age of five years would have completed the work of the sixth grade at the age of twelve years. This would mark termination of the primary school course. Pupils would then move to specially organised schools or classes to be known as intermediate schools or classes. A two years' course of post-primary education would bring the pupil to the Scholarship level. With the majority of students having passed the Scholarship examination at the age of fourteen years, the pupil would then have a choice among the following courses: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) General course; Commercial course; Domestic Arts (or Home Science) course; Agricultural course; Industrial course. It is important to note that in this new pedagogic arrangement, the term professional had been replaced by general but still represented the only route on the educational ladder leading to the university and beyond into the professions. Edwards further stated that up until this proposed re-arrangement of the secondary curriculum, the facilities for academic type work had been out of all proportion to the number whose needs such education had met: The secondary schools have been mostly an avenue to the professions and to commerce. The bias has been too much in favour of the "black-coated" occupations - hence the need for the Agricultural and the Industrial Junior courses. To meet the requirements of the Industrial Junior Examination, a new type of secondary school - the Industrial High School - will be instituted. (L.D. Edwards, "Report of the Chief Inspector of Schools", in QPP, 1928, v.z, p.691) The University had decided to accede to the request by the Department through the Public Service Commissioner that recognition be given in the Junior Public Examination to the more practical and less abstract subjects. The Industrial High Schools were held to give, not a vocational training, but a vocational bias to academic work. It was also proposed to reduce the Junior course from two and a half years to two years. There were a number of other alterations which Edwards regarded as essential to ensuring the complete success of the re-organisation of secondary education. Among them was the assumption by the State of the control of the grammar schools (14). Edwards listed nine reasons the grammar schools should and would be taken over by the State. Most of them related directly to the necessity to achieve co-ordination, efficiency and economy. The ninth reason was that: "The man who pays the piper has the right to call the tune. State aid rightly means State control" (L.D. Edwards, "Report of the Chief Inspector of Schools", in QPP, 1928, v.z, p. 691). In regard to the implementation of what we might now term a subject-centred pedagogy or a curriculum-driven scheme, Edwards listed seven advantages. Edwards proposed the idea of vocational guidance within State - 88 primary schools as incidental to one of the advantages of the curriculum-driven scheme of reorganisation. Under advantage item number five of the Vocational Guidance Scheme, Edwards stated: The schools will give an opportunity to make general the training of boys in woodwork and of girls in domestic arts. The broad curriculum will provide opportunities for pupils to show their bent, and will assist the teachers in distinguishing different types of ability so that pupils may be advised to attend the secondary schools which are most suited to their interests and capacities. Vocational guidance will be regarded as one of the functions of the school. (L.D. Edwards, "Report of the Chief Inspector of Schools", in QPP, 1928, v.z, p.689) The idea of the teacher being required to place the student on the educational ladder was re-formulated as a strategy of efficiency within the Queensland State primary school classroom. As we will recall, this formulation of governmental efficiency now labelled vocational guidance had first been proposed some fourteen years earlier by J.W. Blair as Secretary for Public Instruction. Like Blair's "sagax, capax, and efficax" scheme of identifying the natural-bent of the modern vocational personality, Edwards's vocational guidance scheme was also aimed at matching the natural-bent of the right pegs with the right holes, now identified as academic or practical. The significant difference between the two schemes was that individual psychology had by now emerged from the governance of retardation with a broader claim of being able to provide new scientific techniques of measuring, calculating and inscribing the vocational personality in accordance with its natural-bent, such techniques as intelligence testing and the cumulative record card. Accordingly, Edwards referred to the strength and weakness of the child as being ascertained by the classroom teacher with the results being checked by such intelligence tests and vocational tests as may be devised. Such activities by teachers had only recently been incorporated into the professional training of the teacher. In regard to subject selection at the Teachers' Training College, Mr J. Morris, the College Principal, had stated in the late 1920s: Such subjects as Drawing, Music, Drill, School Method, Needlework, Psychology, Education, latest developments in educational thought and practice (such as intelligence tests, Dalton plan &c.) are for the teacher part of his stock in trade, and may for him be considered professional or vocational subjects. (J. Morris, "Report of the Principal of the Teacher's Training College", in QPP, 1927, v.z, p.832) In regard to vocational testing, however, the practice of providing full or even partial psychological services did not arrive for over twenty years in the Queensland primary school classroom of the average child. A number of years earlier, individual psychology had begun to assist the classroom teacher and the medical practitioner in the ascertainment of feeble-mindedness after having migrated from the earlier experimental practices in the classrooms of Europe pioneered by Binet and Simon in France and Cyril Burt in England (15). Moreover, the trained psychologist was accorded a peripheral status, as part of an array of sites and agencies that were considered capable of assisting the teacher in the experiment of vocational guidance. It is recognised that much valuable aid and advice could be given to the Department by those engaged in the different occupations, and that as the study of an occupation is to some extent a psychological one, the trained psychologist could also give assistance. Consequently, it is proposed to invite the co-operation of employer and employee organisations, welfare associations, educational institutions other than those controlled by the Department, educational associations, and the Department of Psychology of the University. It is hoped that a committee representative of these interests will be formed to act in an advisory capacity to the Department. ("Proposed Introduction of a Scheme of Vocational Guidance into Queensland Schools", in QDPI, 1930, v.32, p.299) After having introduced vocational guidance two years earlier as part of a seven point plan in a curriculum review, Edwards introduced it to the Queensland public again in his 1929 Annual Report as a new technology of efficiency, under the heading of Vocational Guidance. Edwards firstly addressed a number of key questions relating to the educational ladder in general. What was the purpose and function of secondary education? Was it to enable a boy to become a clerk, a teacher or a professional man? Or was not the aim rather to raise the general average of intelligence and culture in the community? Who was to benefit, the individual or the community? Edwards was thus not only reformulating the perennial question of whether the value of education should be instrumental or cultural, specialist or - 89 general, but was drawing the boundaries of vocational capacities of the individual pupil to which new vocational guidance techniques could be applied: The State, through its schools, should discover, develop, and release ability for the benefit of the community, but this ability does not happen to flow in stereotyped channels. Different individuals have different capacities, and furthermore, the very necessities of the case demand that a larger number, whether they have higher education or not, should engage in some form of productive work, and that fewer should take up sedentary occupations. Nor is there anything superior about the latter type of work. Those who hold "white collar" positions have no more justification for assuming an air of superiority than those engaged in manual occupations have for arrogating to themselves the sole right to the use of the name "worker". (L.D. Edwards, "Report of the Chief Inspector of Schools", in QPP, 1930, p.763) As the provider of educational facilities, the State was entitled to know that it was getting value for money spent on education. Vocational guidance was expected to provide the State with the technical instrument for such an evaluation: Ultimately, that value must be expressed in terms of the capability of the young people who are trained under the State's educational system. The State will probably get fuller value for its expenditure when it is able to ascertain the different types of capacity displayed by the children attending the schools. With this end in view, the Department proposes to institute a scheme of vocational guidance. (L.D. Edwards, "Report of the Chief Inspector of Schools", in QPP, 1930, p.764) This experimental scheme was eventually introduced during the Great Depression - as Edwards noted at a time when the avenues of employment were limited. But while noting this incongruity, Edwards expressed the hope that under this new scheme there would be fewer square pegs in round holes and that boys and girls leaving schools could be reliably informed as to the kind of work in which they could most effectively use their abilities with pleasure to themselves and satisfaction to the employer. The apparent incongruity between the introduction of vocational guidance and the significant reduction of employment is further allayed by the strong link between this technology and the management of familial norms and parental ambitions. Edwards comments on the role of the family in shaping the vocational personality, comments more than likely precipitated by the Great Depression and the consequent loss of employment opportunities. Edwards was formulating a guidance strategy to ensure that the governmental imperative of efficiency was paramount. Parents needed to be mindful of the limitations of the capacity of the educational distribution, particularly in such times as the Great Depression. Accordingly, the primary school teacher as government official was to include the explain and contain function of vocational guidance to the family, managing parents' inflated expectations and modifying their disillusionment. Edwards suggested that the ambition of parents to see their children rise in the world was natural, but their views should not be merely materialistic. Having had the advantage of secondary education, he argued, many parents believed their children must of necessity take up one of the black-coated professions. However, this parental logic ignored the economics of supply and demand, the employer's prerogative, and his or her need to match the most suitable person (scholastically, personally, and physically) to the employer's purpose. All areas of employment, teaching, the public service, professions and commercial houses could not be expected to employ a greater number than that required to carry on their work effectively. On the one hand, Edwards argued that parents should be ambitious on their children's behalf, not for specific vocational ambitions but for a pre-vocational or intrinsic cultural benefit that derived from education: While parents regarded secondary education as having a value in itself, as merely pre-vocational, as offering opportunities for the development of powers of reason and will, and as a general preparation for life, the State as a whole benefited, and disappointments were few (L.D. Edwards, "Report of the Chief Inspector of Schools", in QPP, 1930, p.763) On the other hand, there were shortsighted parents who would continue to blame the State for their disappointed educational ambitions: They [the parents] seem to imply that the community has been guilty of false pretences in providing liberal facilities for secondary education. They contend that it has given the boy the opportunity of - 90 - advanced education, but has not granted him the opportunity to use his education effectively in its service. They fail to see that the State does not provide secondary education for the purpose of fitting a boy for a particular form of employment. (L.D. Edwards, "Report of the Chief Inspector of Schools", in QPP, 1930, p.763) The fallacy of argument that in the days when education was less democratic than it was in the late 1920s, Edwards further argued, resided in the belief that people should not be educated beyond their station in life and that higher education should be reserved for the sons of gentlemen. The more modern and democratic view, he claimed, was that a person's occupation should depend on his capacity, as revealed in the process of education, which included vocational guidance by the teacher. Edwards' proposal for vocational guidance, as contained in his reports as Chief Inspector of Schools, thus represented vocational guidance as an extension of the pedagogic expertise of the primary school classroom teacher, as a practical skill and routinised application. Vocational guidance was regarded as a classroom and primary school activity where the teacher and the head teacher were to be responsible for the implementation and administration of the proposed vocational guidance scheme. The objectives of this scheme were reported by Edwards in his 1929 Report: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) to discover what the child's bent is, and to ascertain whether his occupational bent is difficult to discover or well marked, and whether his aspirations to enter this or that occupation are justified. For this purpose, records of the child's progress in the different subjects of the school curriculum will be kept; his strength and weakness will be noted, and the results of the school examinations will be checked by such intelligence and vocational tests as may be devised; to undertake a survey of the different forms of occupation that are available, to ascertain the main facts regarding remuneration and prospects, the average number annually absorbed by each form of industry or occupation, the requirements for entry into each, and the best type of school to attend for preliminary instruction; to give information to parents in regard to the prospects of employment in different occupations and to advise them whether, in view of the child's capacity and bent, a change of school or an alteration of the course of study would be desirable; to advise and guide students in the selection of occupation; to give employers concise information that will assist them in the wise selection of employees; to keep in touch with employers in order to ascertain the accuracy or otherwise of the diagnostic examination in each case. ("Report of the Chief Inspector of Schools", in QPP, 1930, p.763) This formalised vocational guidance scheme was introduced in 1930 directly to the teaching profession in the official government publication, The Education Office Gazette Queensland ("Proposed Introduction of a Scheme of Vocational Guidance into Queensland Schools", in QDPI, 1930, pp.298-300), as part of a drive for efficiency and economy by lauding this new technology which would result in fewer square pegs in round holes. The relevant article began by stating that the choice of a career for a boy or a girl was one of the most serious decisions a parent was called upon to make. In normal times, it was suggested, most boys and girls were able to exercise some measure of selection when deciding upon the occupation that would become their life's work: But their choice is often unwise. A boy - for it is the case of the boy that concerns us most - often finds himself harnessed for life to a vocation that to him is uninteresting and uncongenial. He is the "square peg in the round hole," his work becomes a drudgery; he is embittered and develops a contorted outlook and attitude towards life. ("Proposed Introduction of a Scheme of Vocational Guidance into Queensland Schools", in QDPI, 1930, p.298) The parent, it was noted, had limited capacity, experience and expertise in assisting the child or in ensuring that the boy did not automatically follow in his father's footsteps. There may well have been other employment opportunities of which the parent's knowledge was necessarily incomplete. From the daily contact with the boy, daily estimation of his intelligence, daily observation of his personal characteristics, aptitudes, and interests, and from examination tests in the whole gamut of school subjects, the classroom teacher was the person best able to develop an opinion on the type of vocation the boy should follow. Teachers in the past had performed this guidance function faithfully and well, but with the growing complexity of industrial conditions, it had become increasingly difficult for the teacher to be informed about the - 91 requirements of the different vocations. This need for specialisation had led to the world-wide recognition of vocational guidance as a necessary function in a modern educational system: Vocational guidance may be defined briefly as the giving of information and advice in regard to choosing an occupation, preparing for it, and progressing in it. It therefore involves the study of the boy and of the job - of the boy, to discover his aptitudes, his interests, and his dispositions; and of the job, to discover the abilities demanded, the method of entry, and the best preparation for it. ("Proposed Introduction of a Scheme of Vocational Guidance into Queensland Schools", in QDPI, 1930, p.298) There was no doubt that with vocational guidance the misfits that were known to exist in every occupation could be eliminated: "It is the misfit, the man who finds no pleasure in his work, the person who is unfitted by aptitude or attainments for the job he has undertaken, who becomes the malcontent and the menace to industrial peace" ("Proposed Introduction of a Scheme of Vocational Guidance into Queensland Schools", in QDPI, 1930, p.298). Thus a vocational guidance scheme expected to promote industrial peace and harmony was eventually introduced in March 1931, some four years after it was first proposed by Edwards, but only on a limited and experimental basis (Giles, 1932 and QDPI, 1932). A Vocational Guidance Committee was formed by the Minister, but this particular committee consisted solely of departmental officers and teachers who were appointed to introduce the scheme. Moreover, the appointed Committee felt that, rather than attempting to implement the scheme in its entirety, it was wiser to experiment first with that portion of the scheme in which the schools could function. Accordingly, the Committee limited the activities of the scheme to the nature of a small experiment in four Brisbane based State primary schools, sufficiently varied in character, it was stated, to provide a fair average sample of the types of children likely to be met in the metropolitan area. The Committee decided that: 1. 2. 3. 4. The recorded study of the child should commence at the age of 12 years or the sixth grade, whichever is the earlier in the child's life, two years before leaving school. That a suitable card system to define the information deemed most useful for the vocational study of the child should be devised. That the aim of the study should be to afford satisfactory educational guidance to those proceeding to a secondary course and to afford definite vocational guidance to those entering employment at 14 years. Provision should be made for follow-up work in the case of those who pass into employment direct from the primary school, principally to assist those who have entered dead-end occupations to find suitable and stable employment. (Giles, 1932) The method of procedure adopted by the four primary head teachers was not uniform. A psychological examination was also included in the experiment. Each child was tested by the same intelligence test as was used by the National Institute of Industrial Psychology. Each child was subject to the group test of clerical ability, the one devised and employed by Dr Philips at the Vocational Guidance Bureau in Sydney. A third test, a group test of mechanical ability, was arranged and administered to all pupils. These tests were found to be of the greatest assistance to teachers in coming to conclusions regarding vocational fitness (Giles, 1932). This experiment of the four schools was considered a success (16) which led the Minister to decide upon a further experiment - to cover a larger number of schools and to extend over a period of years. The further experiment had as its object the determination of the extent to which a complete scheme of vocational guidance could have been applied to Queensland schools, of the assistance which psychological tests could provide, and of the prospects for developing a technique which could be carried out by a school staff with little outside assistance. This further experiment was also limited to schools within the Brisbane area for the stated purpose of effective control (QDPI, 1932, p.28). This experiment was to include an intelligence test in Grade VI as well as a medical inspection: The plans in this State (Queensland) will be watched with interest, as they differ from all others in the emphasis placed on psychological and medical examination as the basis of guidance, and the attempt to provide expert assistance to every child in the metropolitan area without the establishment of a costly central office. (Giles, 1932, p.542) The idea behind this second experiment, however, was subsequently stated as establishing the possibility of - 92 basing any subsequent scheme adopted on the self-activity of the child. Each child would be required to make an investigation of the conditions of particular occupations with the investigation being assisted by class discussions (QDPI, 1932, p.28). Vocational guidance thus re-emerged in the late 1920s in the Queensland primary school as an experimental activity in response to the governmental imperative of efficiency and avoiding wastage of natural talent. It was, however, an experiment within the existing pedagogic framework of a subject-centred classroom. The technology of individual psychology, previously used in the confirmation of the classroom teacher's ascertainment of mental deficiency, was proposed to be mainstreamed into the normal classroom to similarly confirm the classroom teacher's evaluation of the pupil's natural talents, expressed by Chief Inspector Edwards in broad terms as academic or practical. CONCLUSION In this chapter, we have examined the impact that post-colonial policy changes leading to the New Scholarship had on transforming the un-coordinated colonial educational system in Queensland. Through these governmental reforms, this educational system was transformed into an articulated educational ladder leading from primary through secondary to university levels co-ordinated with other sections of education - technical, domestic and agricultural. As a result of this re-structured educational system, new demands were placed on the primary school teacher to establish the natural bent and talents of the vocational personality so as to avoid wastage of square pegs in round holes and to generate ambition in the family for the mentally fit child to proceed with an education higher than primary level. Contrary to those progressive histories which locate the beginnings of vocational guidance in the psychological services of the late 1920s, vocational guidance thus had emerged nearly twenty years earlier as an extension of the bureaucratic-pastoral practices of the primary school teacher in shaping the good citizen within the Christian mutuality between work and society. This chapter has also reviewed the brief progressive history of this period in the Radford Report (1970) which characterises the incipient and radical beginnings of a child-centred pedagogy in the New Scholarship. As we will see throughout this thesis, these progressive histories were entirely consistent with the utopian optimism proselytised about the progressive and child-centred pedagogy. From the early 1930s, this pedagogy was actively promoted as the New Education through an assemblage of institutions and agencies seeking to import this pedagogy and allied psychological technologies from the United States of America into transforming the backwardness of the Australian education systems (see Andrew Spaull, 1882, Australian Education and the Second World War, Brisbane, University of Queensland Press, referred to in Irving et al, 1995, p.48). The agency at the centre of this assemblage was the ACER (see Connell, 1980). During this germination period from the early 1930s, State controlled schools and post-secondary institutions, teachers and governmental administrators would be targeted by a newly formed private and non-government organisation based in Melbourne and sponsored by the Carnegie Corporation in America, the ACER. While this organisation will be discussed in Part Two of this thesis, some brief reference to its enormous influence on Queensland education will be useful to contextualise the differing origins of vocational guidance between those as described in this thesis and those appearing in progressive histories of education. In addition this reference to the influence of the ACER will orient subsequent discussions on guidance and counselling practices, in particular, the formation in 1949 of the R&G Branch under the leadership of Mr W. Wood and the Director-General of Education, Mr L.D. Edwards. Australian State school teachers, their pedagogic and administrative practices would now become the target of a campaign to recruit personnel who might be in sympathy with secular, progressive and child-centred cultural norms of the ACER, the Carnegie Corporation in the United States and individual psychology. The ACER and the Carnegie Corporation provided generous study and research grants for overseas travel and for research and publishing within the editorial control of the ACER (see Connell, 1980, pp.84-9) on various aspects of education in Australia and overseas. This was an approach to education that advocated the application of science to a psychologically-based child-centred pedagogy targeting the State Education Departments and key personnel so as to facilitate the migration of a New Education into the Australian education systems. This strategy proved to be highly successful in Queensland, with the full scale migration of individual psychology into the Queensland governmental apparatus, initially through the R&G Branch's activities and subsequently through the implementation of the psychologically-based Radford Scheme into all Queensland secondary schools. This targeting of key personnel by the ACER in Queensland included Mr W. Wood, Mr J.J. Pratt and Mr L.D. Edwards. It was Mr W. Wood who was the first Queensland teacher to be seconded from the Department of Public Instruction to work for the ACER from 1932 until 1935 on various projects such as the standardisation of achievement and intelligence tests. In 1939, Mr Pratt was seconded by - 93 the Department to work in similar fashion as had Mr Wood for the ACER. Mr L.D. Edwards as the Chief Inspector of Schools was also able to travel in 1935 to the United States on a grant from the Carnegie Corporation, the American organisation which sponsored the establishment of the ACER. In addition, the ACER was to target State controlled schools around Australia for the purposes of gaining free access to pupils for research projects involving psychological experimentation. This period of experimentation and germination of a gradual intrusion into the government of the good citizen by a progressive child-centred pedagogy and individual psychology through the objectives of the ACER, however, would reflect the efficiency and purpose of two of its key personnel - J.J. Cunningham and W.C. Radford. It would be a period of concentrated and quiet determination aptly captured in the text of a Brisbane newspaper article in 1945: Few people realize that education in Australia is... being probed scientifically by a body few people have heard of, but whose work is rapidly becoming more comprehensive. The Australian Council for Educational Research is like the British Navy - it works silently. (Telegraph, Brisbane, August 1st, 1945, quoted in Connell, 1980, p.123) Our genealogy of the modern vocational personality thus identifies and includes these progressive histories aligned to the assemblage of agencies proselytising the norms and values of a progressive child-centred culture, as representative of and contributing to the tensions between the traditional subject-centred and progressive child-centred pedagogies. On the one hand, the subject-centred pedagogy was based on visible curriculumbased standards; it evaluated scholastic performance through external public examinations; and it produced failure as a necessary consequence of those visible curriculum-based standards. On the other hand, the childcentred pedagogy was to promote the centrality of the individual as the whole personality in the classroom, with failure consequently being neutralised or abolished from the child-centred curriculum and classroom. As we will see in Part Two of this thesis, this migration of a progressive child-centred pedagogy would take place in Queensland predominantly through guidance and counselling practices absorbed into the post-war governmental strategy of reconstructing the modern vocational personality. Both the graded curriculum-based standards and failure would become the target of the agencies promoting a progressive and child-centred pedagogy, as individual psychology migrated into the post Second World war classroom, school and curriculum. Having identified problems in existing progressive histories, we have thus begun to build an alternative account. Contrary to Woods's account (see Wood, 1951) of the origins of vocational guidance appearing in the late 1920s, we have in this Chapter traced the origins of vocational guidance to the guiding and matching scheme first mooted by Blair as Secretary for Public Instruction in 1913, a scheme which was launched in an atmosphere of governmental calls for national efficiency and economy amidst considerable global change and disruptions within the Queensland governmental apparatus. This guiding and matching scheme was made coherent and comprehensive by Edwards in 1929 as a vocational guidance scheme and was lauded by him as a technology committed to the reduction of educational waste. When this scheme was implemented two years later, it was reduced to a cost-efficient programme of a self-guiding-activity which was dependent upon the initiative of the classroom teacher or head teacher. It is this germinating period of self-guiding-activity during the 1930s which, as we will see in the final chapter of this thesis, bears a striking similarity to the contemporary self-matching technology of vocational guidance. It was not until the late 1930s before the Queensland primary school teacher would be transformed into the teacher-psychologist. The first teacher-psychologist employed by the Queensland Education Department was Mr J.J. Pratt, appointed in 1941 as the first governmental officer specially employed full time to establish a State wide system of vocational guidance and of teacher training in this new technology. Throughout this germination period from the early 1930s in Queensland education, the grade seven (the Scholarship grade) classroom in the State primary or intermediate school would continue to function as a pedagogic locus of supervised, cost-efficient self-activity described above, which would help shape the image of the vocational personality further secularised by the New Scholarship and adjusted to the fluctuations of labour market realities. However, by the mid-1930s, a new governmental agency had arisen partly in response to a chronic imbalance in the juvenile labour market between city and country. A new locus of governance of the modern vocational personality would emerge in the formation of the JEB which would incorporate vocational guidance technologies as part of its operations. Vocational guidance was thus redeployed within a Manpower model as a part of an governmental economic and welfare practice in that part of the State Employment Exchange system responsible for youth employment, the JEB. Part Two of this thesis now turns to the intervention by the Queensland State government into the problems of youth unemployment in the Great Depression by examining the emergence of vocational guidance, not as a pedagogic experiment within the primary school, but as a bureaucratic-pastoral practice seeking to remedy the Boy Problem. - 94 - NOTES 1. In contemporary terms, this history of technical and continuing education also represents the overlapping histories of Queensland's TAFE sector and the new technical universities which were formerly the CAEs. In Brisbane, for example, many of the technical courses within the QUT have their historical antecedents in the government endowed, but privately organised, Brisbane School of Arts and later in the Brisbane Technical College. The College had at its time of incorporation at the turn of the century over two thousand day and evening students attending individual classes (1,448 students enrolled) in courses organised into five Departments: Department of Science, Engineering, and Trades; Department of Art and Design; Department of Business; Department of Domestic Science and Arts; Department of Manual Training. The proportions of groups of students' occupations were shown as follows: Professional 16.7%; Mercantile and Clerical 16.5%; Wage-earning 25.3%; Scholars 9.1%; under Home Duties 29.4%; and Minors and Unclassified 3%. The fees paid for individual classes for a fourteen week term ranged from five shillings to five pounds, five shillings. The government grant represented slightly less than fifty percent of the total operating income of the College (see "Report on Brisbane Technical College, 1900-1901" (QPP, 1902, v.1, pp.747-66). 2. While the annual reports are stated to be for a particular year, quite often, as is exhibited here, the particular report includes matters that relate to the following year. The reason for this is simply that the annual reports were invariably prepared and presented many months into the subsequent year. 3. This history might represent a minor part of such policy projections and it can be asked whether or not it should be subject to the same kinds of criticisms as those directed to academic history-writing. This thesis is not concerned with examining the possible impact of this history on the outcome of such an enquiry or the correctness of its orientation and integrity. What is relevant to note here is the remarkable consistency of various progressive histories of the educational ladder in terms of promoting the ethical value of child-centredness as the basis of a pedagogy and the instrumental value of the techniques of individual psychology. 4. While receiving an annual grant from the government like that given to the State grammar schools, "The Brisbane Technical College" operated from 1882 until 1889 as part of the Brisbane School of Arts offering subsidised classes on a fee paying basis. In 1889, The Brisbane Technical College Incorporation Act of 1889 set up a Council consisting of six government representatives, three elected by the subscribers, and three elected by the certificated students. The Council controlled the college for the next ten years. In 1889, because the scope of the college had grown to such an extent a separate Secretary was appointed. D.R. McConnel was placed in charge of instruction at that time, and was regarded the father of technical education in Queensland. McConnel was to remain in control of the College for the subsequent twenty years ("Report of the Director-General of Education", in QPP, 1951, v.1, p.651; see also "Report on Brisbane Technical College, 1900-1901", in QPP, 1902, v.1, pp.747-66). 5. It could be argued that this also represented the beginnings of a new phase of secular government in Queensland extending non-sectarian Christian influences into private sector schooling. That is, the secularised adaptation of Christian bureaucratic-pastoral forms of governance in the State school classroom and the curriculum would become the yardstick for pedagogic performance against which sectarian Christian schools could be evaluated. As we will see in subsequent chapters, the bureaucratic, uniform approach and highly centralised model of education as existed in Australia would become the target of criticism from the 1930s, through the ACER, by the proponents of a progressive and child-centred pedagogy. 6. See Wood (1951) which represents a text currently located in the History Unit of the Queensland Department of Education and which does not make any reference to the government reports referred to here. Mr L.D. Edwards Parliamentary Report as Secretary for 1951 appears in the most part an exact copy of this text by Wood (1951). 7. The emphasis on the classroom teacher being the person best able to diagnose the intellectual capacity of the child is reiterated in the application of the most recent policy review of primary school classroom practices in Queensland, the Wiltshire Report (1994). In contrast to the graded or subject-centred classroom and related diagnostic technology, however, see QDE (1995) for the - 95 implementation by the classroom teacher of a child-centred psychologically driven diagnostic technology aimed at placing the individual child on a developmental continuum by monitoring and validation activities: "The aim of the (diagnostic) net is to identify those children: who are not performing to the same standard as that of the rest of the class; or who, developmentally, should probably be a phase or two further on. Children cannot 'fail' the net because it is not a test.... The classroom teacher is the person who sees the child every day and is the one who knows him or her best. By finding out about the problems early, both parents and teachers can work together to find a solution" (QDE, 1995a, p.5). 8. The League of the Empire was founded in 1901 with its head-quarters in London: "Since the inauguration of the League of the Empire, much valuable work has been done in furthering Imperial co-operation and a close association between the Educational Authorities and all interested in the work of education throughout the Empire has been effected. The sections into which this vast organisation is divided are characterised by very vigorous growth. The Correspondence Branch, for example, numbers 26,000 members and other interesting branches are proportionately strong." (QDPI, 1913, p.288) 9. The previous year the League had organised the first Imperial Conference of Teachers' Associations. It was reported that the conference was held at the Caxton Hall, Westminster, England with over 600 delegates and members who had registered at the Office of the League. Every part of the Empire was represented. At the various Session, the subjects considered were: Rural Education; Co-ordination in Education; The Training of Teachers; The Recognition of Teachers' Certificates; The Migration of Teachers; Classical Education; The Value of Practical Subjects, including Housecraft and Handicraft, in the Training of the Child; Technical Education; Local History and Nature Study; English Language and Literature; The Teaching of Geography; The Place of History in Education (from "Report of The Imperial Conference of Teachers' Associations, 1912", in QDPI, 1913, v.15, pp.84-5). 10. The question of the government's responsibility for labour market performance appears in many forms. For the purposes of this thesis, there are two specific matters related to this question. One is the historical account of the debate on over-education which features particularly in those histories of education that appear anxious to identify those events and characters which have inhibited educational reform towards usually the North American model of a child centred or progressive form of education. Such histories are represented by Goodman (1968) and Wyeth (1953) and appear in a great many publications produced by the ACER. This part of the question will be explored further in the Part Two of this thesis. The other related matter is the contemporary debate on the dominance of the universities and the professions in attracting an oversupply of qualified secondary school students. In particular see Finn (1991) and NBEET (1994). This will also be discussed further in the final chapter of the thesis. 11. It was the year 1910, however, which marked the effective beginning of Departmental control in the affairs of technical education in Queensland with significant policy changes reflecting governmental measures of efficiency and economy to bring further education more within the reach of all (see R. Riddel, "Report of the Inspector of Technical Colleges", in QPP, 1911-12, v.2, p.113). In line with these new policies arising from Departmental control, Diploma Courses were drawn up and designed to lead students to proficiency in their knowledge of a particular science or art. This new type of tertiary level course was to continue for the next sixty to seventy years as part of the technical education sector being modified into degree level courses after the advent of the CAEs. These Diploma courses preceded and were independent from courses at the University of Queensland which had its formal opening on 14th March in the following year with sixty students having matriculated and commenced classes. While Diploma course students at the Central Technical College alone in that same year totalled one hundred and sixteen with eighty four in their first year, there were five thousand, seven hundred and forty four different students who were enrolled in the State wide endowed and controlled college system (see "Thirty-Fifth Report of the Secretary for Public Instruction for the Year 1910", in QPP, 1911-12, v.1, pp.109-20). 12. We can see similarities to the restructuring of education in the 1960s with comparable references being made to the non-academic pupil as presenting new problems through the extension of compulsory education into the secondary level in the subject-centred classroom. This will be discussed in the final chapter. - 96 13. Throughout the 1980s and the 1990s, we have the reverse phenomenon of government attempting to increase the outward drift toward technical options. Edwards proposal, however, represents an early version of the convergence model of education as proposed in the Finn Report (1991). 14. See also L.D. Edwards in "Report of the Chief Inspector of Schools" (QPP, 1930, p.764) on the position of the grammar schools in the educational ladder: "They are semi-State institutions, endowed by the State and inspected by the State. As a Grammar School Headmaster once put it - while State High Schools are the 'children' of the State, the Grammar Schools are its 'foster children'.... The Grammar Schools are the eldest members of the State's family. Scholarships were originally called 'Grammar School scholarships'. On the 29th August, 1900, the Governor in Council, by Executive Minute, made the competition for Grammar School scholarships and bursaries open to all Queenslanders". 15. It is important to reiterate that in Australia, the forms of psychological testing pioneered by Binet and Simon were aimed at gaining insight into the child's nature intended primarily to serve as an aid in the diagnosis of mental deficiency. They were directed towards the testing of capacities in which the feeble-minded appear to be specifically lacking (Cunningham, 1916). 16. Giles (1932) does not state the basis upon which success was ascertained. - 241 - Appendix 1 Training Course of the G&SE Branch - 1973 The following are the texts used in the first formal training course of the Guidance and Special Education Branch in 1973 for School counsellors with specialisation in primary and secondary guidance fields. The list is reproduced exactly as in (G&SE, 1973). BOOKS SUGGESTED FOR SELECTIVE READING GUIDANCE Shelley, C. Stone and Bruce Shertzer (editors), Guidance Monograph Series; Martinson, R. and Smallenburg, H. Guidance in Elementary School; Margary, F.J., School Psychological Services in theory and practice; McDaniel, H.B., Lallas, J.E., Saum, J.A. and Gilmore, J.L., Readings in Guidance FOUNDATIONS OF GUIDANCE Mussen, P., Conger, J. and Kagen, J. Child Development and Personality; Kirk, S., Educating the Exceptional Child; Maier, H.W. Three Theories of Child Development; Cole, L. and Hall, I.N., Psychology of the Adolescent; Hurlock, E. Adolescent Development; Bigge, M.L. Learning Theories for Teachers; Downey, L. The Secondary Phase of Education; Hughes, F., Reading and Writing before School; Richmond, W.K. School Curriculum; Torrence, E.P. The Gifted Child in the Classroom; Silberman, C.E. Crisis in the Classroom; Silberman, C.E. The Experience of Schooling; Dunn, L. The Exceptional Children in the School; Tansley, A.E. and Gulliford, The Education of Slow Learning Children; Zytowski, D. Vocational Behaviour - Readings in Theory and Research; Crities, J.O. Vocational Psychology; Peters, H. and Hansen, J. (Editors) Vocational Guidance and Career; Development; Osipow, S.H. Theories of Career Development; Hospar, B. and Hayos, J. (Editors) The Theory and Practice of Vocational Guidance. KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS Cronback, L.J., The Essential of Psychological Testing; Tyler, L. Tests and Measurements; Mittler, P. The Assessment of Mentally and Physically Handicapped; Anastasi, A. Psychological Testing Vernon, P. Personality Assessment; Benjamin, A. The Helping Interview; Huber, J. Report Writing in Psychology and Psychiatry; Lang, Phillips and Lee. Interpersonal Perception; Cartwright and Zendler. Group Dynamics Research and Theory; Stefflre, B. Theories of Counselling; S.R.A. Counselling in Content and Process; Tyler, L. Psychology of Human Difference; Krumboltz, J.D. and Thorenson, C.E. Behavioural Counselling; Nossow, S. and From, W.H. Man, Work and Society; Borow, H. (Editor) Man in the World of Work; Norris, W., Zeran, F., Hatch, R. The Information Service in Guidance; Kerlinger, F. Foundations of Behavioural Research; Adams, G. Measurement and Evaluation; Bassett, W. Innovation in Primary Education; Moyle, D. and Moyle, L. Modern Innovation in Teaching of Reading. Selected Articles from the following Journals Academic Therapy; American Journal of Mental Deficiency; Australian Journal of Mental Retardation; Australian Journal of Psychology; British Journal of Psychology; British Journal of Disorders and Communication; Child Education; Education Research; Education and Training of the Mentally Handicapped; Exceptional Child; Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry; Journal of Counselling Psychology; Journal of Counselling Psychology; Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders; Occupational Psychology; Personnel and Guidance Journal; Remedial Education; Special Education; The Australian Teacher of the Deaf; Teaching Exceptional Children; The Teacher of the Deaf; The Reading Teacher. - 242 - Appendix 2 Prudent Chusing a Calling - 1699 Extract taken from Part I, Chapter 15 Of Education, Especially of Young Gentlemen, Sixth edition, 1699 (quoted in Brewer, 1942) OF PRUDENT CHUSING A CALLING, OR STATE OF LIFE Upon the discreet Choice of our Calling, or state of Life, depends our whole Content and Felicity: for if we chuse that which is agreeable to our Inclinations and Abilities, both of Body and Mind, we work cheerfully, our Life is pleasant, and we are constant to our purposes. But if, capable of better, we chuse a worse and lower, we espouse a continual Vexation; if we aim at what is above our Capacity, we despond and despair. Players contrive their Parts to their Persons; and let us exercise our selves in what we are most fit ... In chusing a Calling ... consider, 1. The Advantages or Disadvantages to our End, or its Contrary. 2. The Temptations we are likely to undergo and meet 3. What Strength, Assistance, or Hopes we have to overcome them. But because it is not possible to judge of these but by Experience, which the Deliberant is supposed not to have, but in some lesser measure; it is therefore necessary for him, to ask Advice, first of God; then of wife, upright, and experienced persons. .. Many Men are not capable to chuse for themselves, being of weak Judgements, unexperienced, byassed with some Vice or Irregularity; these are to submit to the Counsel of their Friends; and the most disinterested, and nearest a-kin, are the likeliest to give best Counsel. ... Going to chuse, therefore, place your self as much as is possible in Equilibrio; and resolve to take the best as near as your own Discretion (the assistance of Gods Spirit implored) and the advice of Friends, shall suggest unto you. The best, I say, not simply, but the best for you; considering your Parts, Inclinations, bodily Health, and Strength, exterior Advantages, and the like. ... From the Consideration of which, and such like, these Rules maybe taken notice of. A good natur'd facil Man is not fit for such an Employment, wherein he must necessarily converse frequently with evil Persons. A melancholic Person is not fit to undertake a Profession of much Study or Solitariness. A timorous Spirit is not fit for Magistracy. A coveted Person in not to be a Merchant, or Banquier. A Man of bodily Strength and Choler will not be a good Officer in War. ... If you be consulted concerning a Person, either very inconstant, passionate, or vicious, give not your advice; it is in vain: for such will do only what shall please themselves. Never advise any one to a Calling, which is much against his Will or Inclination. - 243 - Appendix 3 Physical Defects and Intelligence - 1910 Tables showing effects of physical defects upon a child's intelligence - 1910 (Taken from "Report of the Medical Inspector of Schools", QPP, 1911-1912, v.2, p.97) - 244 - Appendix 4 General Intelligence and Home Conditions - 1923 The following tables have been extracted from "Report of the Head Master, Brisbane, Central (Practising) School" (in "Report of the Principal of the Training College", QPP, 1924, v.1. TABLE I. GENERAL INTELLIGENCE. ______________________________________________________________________________________ Per Cent Theoretical Discrepancy of Total Explanation Enrolment ______________________________________________________________________________________ Very Inferior Inferior Below Average Average Abover Average Superior Very Superior 0.2 2.5 17.0 54.8 20.9 3.7 0.9 ______ 0.2 4.0 24.0 43.6 24.0 4.0 0.2 ______ .. - 1.5 - 7.0 + 11.2 - 3.1 - 0.3 + 0.7 ______ 100.0 100.0 .. ______________________________________________________________________________________ _ Average (A.M.) Discrepancy = 3.4% TABLE II. HOME CONDITIONS. ______________________________________________________________________________________ _ Per Cent Theoretical Discrepancy of Total Explanation Enrolment ______________________________________________________________________________________ __ Very Inferior Inferior Below Average Average Abover Average Superior Very Superior 0.9 3.0 10.0 60.5 17.7 7.0 0.9 ________ 0.2 4.0 24.0 43.6 24.0 4.0 0.2 ______ + 0.7 - 1.0 - 14.0 + 16.9 - 6.3 - 3.0 + 0.7 _______ 100.0 100.0 .. ______________________________________________________________________________________ Average Discrepancy = 6% Note - The increase in the average discrepancy in home conditions is to be expected: for, to teachers, intellectual performance is under their observation continually, and this is not true for home conditions. - 245 - APPENDIX 5 Backward Children - 1928 ("From Mr. Bevington's Report", in QPP, 1929, p.787) ______________________________________________________________________________________ Schools Number Number Number Number who have returned who left remain. attended to their since School opening ______________________________________________________________________________________ South Brisbane 169 89 31 49 Petrie Terrace 199 68 68 63 Fortitude) Valley ) 177 72 73 32 New Farm 53 33 9 11 Ipswich 201 142 10 49 Toowoomba 58 35 7 16 Rockhampton 90 55 26 9 ____________________________________________________________________________ Totals 947 494 224 229 ____________________________________________________________________________ - 246 - Appendix 6 State Grammar School Pupils - 1900. Number of fee paying pupils and scholarship holders in The State Grammar Schools in the year 1900 (Extracted from (see V&P, 1901, v.1, p.1089 and p.1253) ______________________________________________________________________________________ __ School Grammar School Grammar School Total for Boys for Girls Grammar School Fee Schol Total Fee Schol Total Fee Schol Total Pay Hold Pay Hold Pay Hold ______________________________________________________________________________________ __ Brisbane 165 65 230 76 15 91 241 80 321 Ipswich 48 6 54 51 2 53 99 8 107 Rockhampton 59 3 62 130 2 132 189 5 194 Maryborough 58 7 65 48 5 53 106 12 118 Townsville 46 2 48 - - - 46 2 48 Toowoomba 38 2 40 - - - 38 2 40 ______________________________________________________________________________________ __ Total 414 85 499 305 24 329 719 109 828 ______________________________________________________________________________________ __ - 247 - Appendix 7 Juvenile Employment Bureau - 1935 to 1942 This appendix shows a yearly summary of registrations and placements thus giving some measure of the volume of operations from the beginnings of the State wide operations of the Bureau until it was declared a National Service Office under the provisions of Commonwealth Regulations. These provisions empowered: the Minister for Labour and National Service, on the recommendation of the Director General for Man-Power, to establish and maintain National Service Offices at such places as he thinks fit", and "to use in accordance with arrangements made between the Commonwealth and the States for that purpose, as he thinks necessary, the services or officers of any organisation, undertaking or Government Department in any State (L.D. Edwards, "Report of the Director General of Education", in QPP, 1943, p.496). ______________________________________________________________________________________ Year Metropolitan Country Total Reg. Place. Regis. Place. Regis. Place. ______________________________________________________________________________________ 1935... 4,826 2,908 - - 4,826 2,908 1936... 4,075 3,154 204 36 4,279 3,190 1937... 5,303 4,008 545 357 5,848 4,365 1938... 5,764 4,593 443 390 6,207 4,983 1939... 7,674 4,005 417 416 8,091 4,421 1940... 6,554 3,626 337 279 6,891 3,905 1941... 5,330 3,314 244 279 5,574 3,593 1942... 7,080 4,879 216 206 7,296 5,085 ______________________________________________________________________________________ TOTAL 46,606 30,487 2,406 1,963 49,012 32,450 ______________________________________________________________________________________ - 248 - APPENDIX 8 R&G Branch - 1959 to 1962 (Extracted from R&G Report, 1962) TESTED 1959 1960 1961 1962 Primary Secondary Research At Office 15,133 8,363 278 1,123 16,665 10,133 1,124 1,419 15,609 12,834 935 1,557 13,870 14,566 349 1,767 Total ------24,897 ------29,341 -----30,935 -----30,552 ------- ------- ------ ------ 869 582 247 -----1,698 686 716 323 -----1,725 795 680 415 -----1,890 698 693 193 -----1,584 ------ ------ ------ ------ 9,970 1,641 2,073 1,113 -----14,797 10,322 1,566 1,245 1,147 -----14,280 12,237 2,798 2,282 1,216 -----18,533 12,102 2,726 2,335 1,106 -----18,269 ------ ------ ------ ------ 7,553 1,647 2,499 458 ------12,157 ------- 8,189 2,026 2,949 442 ------13,606 ------- 8,871 2,140 3,126 350 -----14,487 ------ GROUP: INDIVIDUAL (CLINICAL): In Schools At Office Re-Tests at Office Total CHILDREN INTERVIEWED In Schools Re-Interviews in Schls At Office Re-Interviews at Office Total ADULTS INTERVIEWED Parents in Schools C'wealth Scholars Parents at Office Others Total 7,014 1,655 2,321 107 ------11,097 ------- - 249 - APPENDIX 8 [CONT] TESTED 1959 1960 1961 1962 2,305 1,437 2,224 1,746 2,823 2,246 3,141 2,567 968 900 917 790 45 15 30 50 19 33 51 22 36 SPEECH CORRECTION Speech Defectives Treated Parents Interviewed GUIDANCE TALKS SCHOOLS VISITED Metropolitan Primary Metropolitan Secon. Country Secondary 54 20 40 RESEARCH AND GUIDANCE STAFF FROM 1958 - 1964 Year Guidance Research CSS Clerical Spec Educ Total 1958 14 1 5 5 10 35 1959 17 3 6 5 15 46 1960 18 2 6 5 17 48 1961 20 2 6 6 20 54 1962 18 2 6 7 22 55 1963 21 2 6 7 25 61 1964 21 2 7 5 24 59 - 250 - APPENDIX 8 [CONT] TABLE V: SENIOR STUDENTS INTERVIEWED IN COUNTRY HIGH SCHOOLS, 1958 - 1962 (R&G Report, 1962, p.15) Senior Students Interviewed 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 120 277 324 498 630 25 43 56 74 72 Percentage of Students tested GUIDANCE STATISTICS - METROPOLITAN AND COUNTRY HIGH SCHOOLS 1959-64 (Extracted from R&G Reports, 1962-64) 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 TESTED Country 10,183 Metrop. 16,412 11,352 19,714 12,668 20,076 13,115 19,021 13,127 15,614 16,049 31,653 TOTAL 31,066 32,744 32,136 28,741 47,702 CHILDREN INTERVIEWED Country 3,257 Metrop. 11,540 3,572 10,708 4,480 14,053 5,000 13,269 4,938 14,158 4,476 12,666 TOTAL 14,280 18,533 18,269 19,096 17,142 ADULTS INTERVIEWED Country 2,944 Metrop. 8,153 3,221 8,936 3,863 9,743 4,452 10,035 4,413 10,315 3,987 6,670 Total 12,157 13,606 14,487 14,728 10,657 33 36 40 40 42 50 51 54 57 - 19 22 20 27 29 264 301 314 310 307 530 615 685 670 789 26,595 14,797 11,097 SCHOOLS VISITED Country Sec 30 Metrop (Prim) 45 Metrop (Sec) 30 COUNTRY Class talks 240 ManDays 458 - 251 - Appendix 9 Clinical Cases of R&G Branch - 1955 TABLE I: SOURCES OF REFERRAL OF CLINICAL CASES FOR 1955 Referred By Surveys Teachers Doctors and Hospitals Parents School Health Services Speech Correctionists Ascertainment Committee (Oral Deaf School) Department of Public Instruction Commonwealth Acoustic Laboratory Guidance Officers Spastic Centre Psychiatric Clinic Remedial Education Centre Bush Children's Health Scheme Soldiers' Children's Education Scheme M.L.A.'s Canteen Trust Fund TOTAL Number referred 528 406 97 96 46 31 17 14 13 11 9 9 7 6 3 3 1 1,297 TABLE II: REASONS FOR REFERRAL OF CLINICAL CASES 1955 Reason for Referral BACKWARDNESS General backwardness Specific Backwardness - (a) Verbal (b) Number PHYSICALLY HANDICAPPED General health defects Speech Deafness Spastic BEHAVIOUR PROBLEM At home At School SUITABILITY ASSESSMENT Opportunity school Oral Deaf School Montrose Home Educability Employability Number Referred TOTAL 1,297 267 34 19 38 68 3 22 27 41 718 22 9 25 4 - 252 - APPENDIX 10 Clinical Cases - 1957 to 1970 This Appendix reveals the shifts in and between the "normalising" distributions of a clinical guidance taxonomy over a fourteen year period (R&G Reports, 1957-70). REASONS FOR REFERRAL OF NEW CLINICAL CASES Reason for Referral 1957 1958 1959 1965 1970 BACKWARDNESS General backwardness Specific Backwardness 299 22 559 46 1,138 138 1,359 38 2,215 209 PHYSICALLY HANDICAPPED General health defects Deafness Spastic Oral Deaf Assessment Montrose School Assessment Blind Cootheringa School Assess. Multiple Handicap Defect of Hearing Spacticity Defect of Vision Other Physical Defects 13 2 18 * * * * * * * 4 1 3 14 18 * * * * * * * 4 9 28 19 13 2 6 * * * * * * 42 28 34 * 59 19 35 59 SPEECH Stammering Other Defects 22 22 11 24 11 25 - - Speech Defects * * * 19 9 BEHAVIOUR PROBLEM At home At School 73 15 - - - - Behaviour Disorder Habit Disorder * * * * * * 51 4 - EMOTIONAL INSTABILITY Emotionally Disturbed Behaviour Problem * * 39 68 36 67 - - Personality Problems Behaviour Disorder School Readiness Problems * * * * * * * * * 2 * * 4 54 44 - 253 - Appendix 10 [cont] NEW CLINICAL CASES REASON FOR REFERRAL 1957 1958 1959 1965 1970 Opportunity school 372 250 36 - - Oral Deaf School 12 - - - - Montrose Home 14 - - - - Educability 26 97 16 - - Employability 11 6 3 - - Mental Retardation * * * 27 27 921 1,140 1,451 1,665 2,374 SUITABILITY ASSESSMENT TOTAL * this category was not stated; - no further references made to the particular category Table IV: Enrolments in Opportunity Schools and Classes in 1958 (Extracted from R&G Report, 1959, p.17) School or Classes No. on Roll Dutton Park Opportunity School 140 Fortitude Valley Opportunity School 120 Rockhampton Opportunity School l60 Ipswich Opportunity School 37 Cairns Opportunity School 40 Townsville Opportunity School 40 Darling Point Opportunity School 34 Bundaberg Opportunity Classes 38 Petrie Terrace Opportunity Classes 61 Sandgate Opportunity Classes 40 TOTAL 610 - 254 - Appendix 11 Backwardness - 1958 Distributions of IQ's and ages of all Pupils enrolled in opportunity schools and classes in Decemeber, 1958 AGE UNDER 50-9 60-9 70-9 80-9 90+ N 50 15+ 1 4 5 1 1 - 12 14 6/12 14 0/12 1 1 3 10 7 9 5 15 4 6 2 20 43 13 6/12 13 0/12 1 2 7 4 30 10 28 20 7 9 1 2 74 47 12 6/12 12 0/12 1 4 7 16 12 27 24 11 36 1 2 59 62 11 6/12 11 0/12 - 5 6 15 12 27 20 14 15 3 4 64 57 10 6/12 10 0/12 1 - 4 3 15 9 14 13 7 9 1 3 42 37 9 6/12 9 0/12 - 5 2 9 10 8 15 4 5 1 - 27 32 8 6/12 8 0/12 - 1 - 3 3 5 1 2 1 1 - 12 5 N 8 65 165 223 111 21 593 The above represents an abbreviation of Table V in the annual report of the R&G Branch wherein the average IQ was stated to be 71.6. The average IQs for the various schools ranged from 70 to 75. Over 250 children with an IQ score of 75 or more were enrolled in the opportunity schools throughout Queensland (R&G Report, 1959, p.18). - 255 - Appendix 12 League Table of Top Fifty Senior Students for 1961 This table was extracted from detailed information prepared in response to a request by the Commonwealth Office of Education seeking a listing of the top seventy students in Queensland (Australian Archives (Qld): (1961) ___________________________________________________________________________ GRAMM Pupils SHS Pupils F F M PRIV Pupils M F TOTAL M F M _____________________________________________________________________________ Bris Metrop 10 3 - 7 4 3 14 13 Other 1 1 1 15 2 3 4 19 ___________________________________________________________________________ Sub Total 11 4 1 22 6 6 18 32 ____________________________________________________________________________ TOTAL 15 23 12 50 ___________________________________________________________________________ % of Total 30% 46% 24% 100% ____________________________________________________________________________ No. of Schools 4 10 9 23 ____________________________________________________________________________ - 256 - Appendix 13 League Table of High Performance in Senior for 1994 This table was extracted from information appearing in Courier Mail (1995d and 1995e) ___________________________________________________________________________ GRAMM Pupils SHS Pupils PRIV Pupils TOTAL Pupils OP1 OP1-7 OP1 OP1-7 OP1 OP1-7 OP1 OP1-7 _____________________________________________________________________________ Brisbane -Ipswich 17 Brisbane-South Brisbane-North 115 63 28 242 292 33 25 35 430 301 350 57 49 80 516 538 757 90 137 946 1081 ___________________________________________________________________________ Sub-Total Brisbane Metropolitan 80 357 86 1023 141 1404 307 2784 ____________________________________________________________________________ Cairns Mackay Rockhampton Sunshine Coast Gold Coast Toowoomba Wide Bay Townsville 4 8 3 41 34 22 14 1 11 16 18 23 11 12 172 101 128 224 280 222 250 169 5 8 12 4 29 27 3 11 83 62 85 81 343 207 37 115 19 9 27 20 47 58 14 26 255 163 254 305 623 463 287 306 ____________________________________________________________________________ Sub-Total Non Metropolitan 15 97 106 1546 99 1013 220 2656 ___________________________________________________________________________ TOTAL 95 454 192 2569 240 % of TOTAL 18% 8% 36% 47% 46% No. of Schools 8 8 75 185 69 2417 527 5440 45% 100% 100% 116 152 309 - 257 - Bibliography 1. 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(1991), Premature Vocational Decision Making, a paper presented at the Australian and New Zealand Student Services Association 7th Triennial Conference, at University of Sydney, 21 - 25 January. Arthy, D, (1995). Beyond phrenology: The beginnings of vocational guidance in Queensland through “Sagax, Capax and Efficax". Australian Journal f 'Guidance and Counselling, 5(1), 1-11. Arthy, D, (1996), “Vocational guidance and government reconstruction of the good citizen: The emergence of vocational guidance in the great depression as a government practice addressing the box, problem”, paper in J. Scott, C. Manathunga & N. Kyle. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Australian and New Zealand History of Education 26tb Annual Conference, Vol. 1 (pp. 21-45). Brisbane: The Australian and New Zealand History of Education Society, Arthy, D, (1997a), “Governance of the vocational personality in the origins of vocational guidance”, Journal of Career Development, 24(2), 115-132. Arthy, D. 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(1949), Testing Schoolchildren, An Essay in Educational and Social Psychology, London, Longmans, Green and Co. Super, D.E. and Crites, J.O. (1962), Appraising Vocational Fitness by Means of Psychological Tests, Revised Edition, New York, Harper & Row Publishers. (first edition published in 1949). Sweet, R (1975), "Women and Vocational Misguidance", in Education News, vol.15, pp40-5. Tansley, A.E. and Gulliford, R. (1977), The Education of Slow Learning Children, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, (first published 1960), (see Appendix 1). Tate, F. (1935), "Some Problems of Administration", in Cole (1935). Taylor, H. (1994), "A Senior Practitioner's Perspective of Frank Parsons", in McDaniels and Watts (1994). Throssell, H. (ed), (1977-78), Grope, QIT Counselling Centre, newsletter publication, numbers 1-4, Brisbane. Torrance, E.P. (1965), Gifted Children in the Classroom, New York, The Macmillan Company, (see Appendix 1). Traxler, A.E., and North, R.D. (1957), Techniques of Guidance, 3rd Edition, New York, Harper & Row, (first published in 1945). Tronc, K. (1977), "Nurturing individuality programmes of pastoral care", in Education Australia, v.1, 3-4), 42-3. Tyler, L. E. (1971), Tests and Measurements, Second Edition, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, Inc, (see Appendix 1). Vernon, P.E. (1961), The Measurement of Abilities, London, University of London Press, (first published in 1940). Vernon, P.E. (1969), Personality Assessment, A Critical Survey, London, Methuen & Co Ltd, (first published in 1964), (see Appendix 1). Walker, E.R. (1931), "Some Economic Aspects of Vocational Guidance", Australasian Journal of Psychology and Philosophy, vol.9, no.2, pp.62-9. Wallin, J. and Ferguson, D. (1967), "The Development of School Psychological Services", in Magary (1967), pp.1-29, (see Appendix 1). Want, R.L. (1970), "The history of psychology in the Royal Australian Air Force", in Australian Psychologist, vol.5, no.1, pp.2-8. 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OFFICIAL AND SEMI-OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS (a) Queensland Acts of Parliament, Bills and Parliamentary Papers Backward Persons Bill Bill To Improve the Law relating to Education, 1873 Bill To Provide for the Protection and Better Government of the Aborigines of Queensland Education Act 1964 - 1974 Employment Co-ordination Bill, 1941 Grammar School Act, 1860, 24 Vic. No. 7. Grammar schools Act Amendment Act, 1900 Grammar School Act 1860 - 1900 Labour and Industry Bill, 1946 Polynesian Laborers Act of 1868 - 271 - Queensland Parliamentary Papers, (QPP), from 1902. Queensland Parliamentary Debates, Brisbane, Government Printer. Queensland Primary Education Act, 1860 Religious Instruction in State Schools Referendum Act of 1908 State Aid Discontinuance Act, 1860, 24 Vic. No. 3. State Education Acts, 1875 to 1900 The Aboriginal Preservation and Protection Act of 1939 The Aboriginals Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Acts, 1897. The Aboriginals Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Acts, 1897-1901. The Brisbane Technical College, Incorporation Act of 1889 The Co-ordination of Employment Facilities Act of 1941 The Education Act, 1860 The Employment Exchanges Acts, 1915 to 1941 The Freedom of Information Act, 1992 The Income (Unemployment Relief) Tax Act of 1930 The Infant Life Protection Act of 1905 The Juvenile Employment Bureau Constitution Act of 1941 The State Education Act of 1875 The Technical Instruction Act of 1908 The Technical Instruction Amendment Act of 1918 The Torres Strait Islanders Act of 1939 Votes and Proceedings of the Queensland Parliament, (V&P), from 1861 - 1901. (b) Queensland Department of Public Instruction/ Education Andrews, C. (1908), article entitled "The Individuality of the Child", an Address by the Inspector-General of Schools, Western Australia appearing in The Education Office Gazette, September, v.10, p.305. Berkeley, G.F. (1981), "The Place of Career Education in the Curriculum", Keynote address at Seminar for Non-Government Schools, Bardon, 17 August, in Selected Speeches of George G. Berkeley 1976-1986, Brisbane, Department of Education, unpublished. Blumenthal, G.A. (1896), "Phrenological and Physiognomical Chart of Character and Abilities", attached to Blumenthal (1896a). - 272 Blumenthal, G.A. (1896a), "Letter to the Hon. Minister for Education from G.A. de Blumenthal" dated 28 October, unpublished, filed at History Unit of the Queensland Department of Education, Brisbane. Brown, W.J. (1960), Research and Guidance Branch Report to the Director of Special Education Services of the Principal Research and Guidance Officer for the Year 1959, Brisbane, Department of Education. Brown, W. (1965), Research and Guidance Branch Report of the Principal Research and Guidance Officer for the Year Ending 31st December 1963, Brisbane, Department of Education, Queensland. Brown, W.J. (1966), Report on a Visit to the United States of America and England - 3rd September, 1965 to 20th March, 1966. Cameron, B. (1993), "Implications of Queensland Tertiary Entrance Arrangements for the Queensland School Curriculum", Tertiary Entrance Procedures Authority, October 1993, in Wiltshire Report (1994), v.3, pp.23-39. Guidance and Special Education Branch, (G&SE) (1973), Course of Training for Teachers Seconded for Guidance Duties, Handbook 1973, Brisbane, Department of Education, January. Guidance and Special Education Branch, (G&SE Report) (1966 to 1968), Guidance and Special Education Branch Annual Reports of the Principal Guidance Officer for the Year Ending 31st December, Brisbane, Department of Education. Guidance and Special Education Branch, (G&SE Report) (1969 to 1970), Guidance and Special Education Branch Annual Reports of the Staff Inspector, Brisbane, Department of Education. Guidance and Special Education Branch, (1973), Handbook 1973 - Course of Training for Teachers Seconded for Guidance Duties, Brisbane, Department of Education, January. Guidance Programme, (1949), The Guidance Programme in The Primary Schools, 1949, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction. Hughes Report (1991), Managing Curriculum Development in Queensland, Report submitted to the Minister for Education by the Principal Reviewer, Professor Phillip Hughes, Brisbane, Queensland Department of Education. Queensland Department of Education (QDE) (1961), Interim Report of the Committee Appointed to Enquire into Secondary Education in Queensland, Brisbane, 22nd September. Queensland Department of Education (QDE) (1968), Report of the Minister of Education and Cultural Activities 1968, Brisbane. Queensland Department of Education (QDE) (1969), Report of the Minister of Education and Cultural Activities 1969, Brisbane. Queensland Department of Education (QDE) (1990), Focus on Schools, The future organisation of educational services for students, Brisbane, October. Queensland Department of Education (QDE) (1992), School Advisory Councils a discussion paper influencing the decision making in schools, Brisbane, Publishing Services for Regional Operations Directorate, May Queensland Department of Education (QDE) (1993), Schools and Discipline, Managing Behaviour - 273 - in a Supportive School Environment, Policy, Brisbane. Queensland Department of Education (QDE) (1994), Schools and Discipline, Managing Behaviour in a Supportive School Environment, Readings, Brisbane. Queensland Department of Education (QDE) (1994a), Queensland Curriculum Review, Shaping the Future, Summary of Recommendations, Brisbane, Office of the Minister for Education, November. Queensland Department of Education (QDE) (1995), The Year 2 Diagnostic Net - Shaping the Future, Brisbane. Queensland Department of Education (QDE) (1995a), The Year 2 Diagnostic Net 1995, Cleveland State Primary School. Queensland Department of Public Instruction (QDPI) (1899-1914), The Education Office Gazette, Queensland, vols.1-14, Brisbane. Queensland Department of Public Instruction (QDPI) (1930), "Proposed introduction of a scheme of vocational guidance into Queensland Schools", in Education Office Gazette, Queensland, v.32, pp.198-300, Queensland Department of Public Instruction (QDPI) (1932), "Proposed introduction of a scheme of vocational guidance into Queensland Schools", in Education Office Gazette, Queensland, v.34, 27-8. Queensland Department of Public Instruction (QDPI) (1933), "Proposed introduction of a scheme of vocational guidance into Queensland Schools", in Education Office Gazette, Queensland, Vol 35, 69-70. Queensland Department of Public Instruction (QDPI) (1935), Education Office Gazette, Queensland, Vol 37. Queensland Department of Public Instruction, (QDPI) (1940), "Backward Children, Particulars Required", in Education Office Gazette, Queensland, v.42, p.129. Queensland Department of Public Instruction, (QDPI) (1950), "Guidance in Schools, 1949", in Education Office Gazette, Queensland, v.52, pp.62-3. Queensland Department of Public Instruction, (QDPI) (1954), Education Office Gazette, Queensland, "Commonwealth Scholarship Scheme", v.56, pp.158-9. Radford Report, (1970), Report of the Committee Appointed to Review the System of Public Examinations for Queensland Secondary School Students and to Make Recommendations for the Assessment of Students' Achievements, with W.C. Radford as Chairman, Brisbane, May. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1966), Bulletin Number 28, Studies in Primary School Reading, Brisbane, Department of Education, March. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1966a), Bulletin Number 29, An Evaluation of Achievement in and Attitudes Towards Grade 8 Science in Queensland, Brisbane, Department of Education, July. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1966b), Bulletin Number 30, Experimental Use of a Programmed Learning Course in Calculus at Matriculation Level, Brisbane, Department of Education, August. - 274 Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1966c), Bulletin Number 31, An Evaluation of a Non-Graded Organisation in a Large Queensland Primary School, Brisbane, Department of Education, August. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1967), Bulletin Number 32, An Evaluation of a Writing Skills Laboratory in a Queensland State High School, Brisbane, Department of Education, July. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1967a), Bulletin Number 33, Prediction of Success in Matriculation and University Mathematics, Brisbane, Department of Education, December. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin (R&C Bulletin) (1968), Bulletin Number 34, Prediction of Success in Matriculation and University Mathematics, Brisbane, Department of Education, May, (in collaboration with N.W.M. Hart, Senior Lecturer in Education, Kedron Park Teachers College). Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1968a), Bulletin Number 35, The Physical, Behavioural and Learning Patterns of Rubella-Affected Children Report No 1, Brisbane, Department of Education, August. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1969), Bulletin Number 36, Standards of Achievement in Reading, Spelling and Certain Study Skills of Queensland Grade 7 Pupils, Brisbane, Department of Education, January. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1970), Bulletin Number 37, Research Findings Relating to Some Aspect of the Commonealth Scholarship Scheme in Queensland, Brisbane, Department of Education, June. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1970a), Bulletin Number 38, A Follow Up Study of Entrants to Courses of Teacher Education in 1957, Brisbane, Department of Education, December. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1972), Bulletin Number 39, Improving Reading Through an Oral Language Program, Brisbane, Department of Education, April. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1972a), Bulletin Number 40, Predicting and Assessment of Success in the Senior Secondary School, Brisbane, Department of Education, August. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1972b), Bulletin Number 41, Survey of Standards of Reading Achievement of Grade 5 Pupils, Brisbane, Department of Education, August. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1974), Bulletin Number 42, Aspects of Mathematics in Grade 7, 8, 9, Brisbane, Department of Education, April. Research and Guidance Branch, (R&G) (1949), Premier's Policy Speech, handed to Mr Hill, Feb 6th, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction. Research and Guidance Branch, (R&G) (1960), Submission to The Committee of Inquiry into Secondary Education, Brisbane, September. Research and Guidance Branch, (R&G) (1965), Outline of Information for Ministerial Statement on Reorganization of Research and Guidance Branch, Brisbane, Department of Education. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1950), Bulletin Number 1, The Prediction of Secondary School Examination Success, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, - 275 June. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1950a), Bulletin Number 2, The Occupations Entered by Secondary School Leavers 1949, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, October. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1951), Bulletin Number 3, Research Findings on Some Fundamental Facts and Processes in Arithmetic, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, February. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1951a), Bulletin Number 4, Selection for Secondary Education in Queensland, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, June. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1951b), Bulletin Number 5, Summary of Test Research, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, December. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1952), Bulletin Number 6, Research Findings on Spelling, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, October. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1953), Bulletin Number 7, Research Findings on Arithmetic, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, April. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (R&G Bulletin) (1953a), Bulletin Number 8, Investigation on Clerical and Shorthand Aptitude, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, September. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1955), Bulletin Number 9, An Investigation of Methods of Teaching Reading in Infants Schools, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, March. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1956), Bulletin Number 10, Research Findings in Reading, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, February. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1956a), Bulletin Number 11, Tests and Examinations in the Prediction of Academic Success in the Secondary School, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, February. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1956b), Bulletin Number 12, Summary of Test Research, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, September. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1957), Bulletin Number 13, Reducing Wastage Among the Gifted, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, February. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1957a), Bulletin Number 14, Predicting Success in Electrical Apprenticeship Courses, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, March. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1957b), Bulletin Number 15, Predicting Success in Electrical Apprenticeship Courses, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, March. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1958), Bulletin Number 16, Studies in Spelling, Brisbane, Department of Education, March. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1958a), Bulletin Number 17, Reading Methods for Queensland Infant Schools, Brisbane, Department of Education, April. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1959), Bulletin Number 18, A Survey of - 276 - Teacher and Student Attitudes to Junior Public Examinations, Brisbane, Department of Education, April. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1959a), Bulletin Number 19, The Progress in Secondary Schools of Students Failing in the State Scholarship Examination, Brisbane, Department of Education, October. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1960), Bulletin Number 20, The College Achievement and Occupations Entered by Queensland Agricultural High School and College Leavers 1955 - 59, Brisbane, Department of Education, August. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1960a), Bulletin Number 21, Two Studies in Reading, Brisbane, Department of Education, December. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1961), Bulletin Number 22, A Survey of Migrant Children and Children of Migrants in Queensland State Schools 1959, Brisbane, Department of Education, June. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1962), Bulletin Number 23, An Evaluation of the Modified Course in Five Brisbane High Schools 1961, Brisbane, Department of Education, April. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1962a), Bulletin Number 24, The Wastage of Academically Talented Pupils in Queensland Schools, Brisbane, Department of Education, July. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1963), Bulletin Number 25, Standards of Achievement in the Basic Subjects - Queensland Grade 7 Pupils, Brisbane, Department of Education, August. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1965), Bulletin Number 26, A Comparative Study of Queensland Teachers College Students 1956 and 1964, Brisbane, Department of Education, March. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1965a), Bulletin Number 27, Studies in Primary School Mathematics, Brisbane, Department of Education, March. Research and Guidance Branch Report, (R&G Report) (1949 to 1956), Research and Guidance Branch Annual Reports of the Principal Research and Guidance Officer for the Year Ending 31st December, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction. Research and Guidance Branch Report, (R&G Report) (1957 to 1965), Research and Guidance Branch Annual Reports of the Principal Research and Guidance Officer, Brisbane, Department of Education. Richmond, C. (1994), "The Challenge: Managing Difficult Behaviours without Punishment", Guidance Officer, Beenleigh School Support Centre, in Department of Education, (1994), p.59. University of Queensland, (1962), Second Conference on School Administration, Brisbane. University of Queensland, (1963), Third Conference on School Administration, Brisbane. Viviani Report (1990), The Review of Tertiary Entrance in Queensland 1990, Report Submitted to the Minister of Education by the Tertiary Entrance Reviewer Professor Nancy Viviani, Brisbane, Queensland Department of Education. Wiltshire Report, (1994), Report of the Review of the Queensland School Curriculum 1994 - - 277 - SHAPING THE FUTURE, Volumes One to Three, Brisbane, Queensland Department of Education, March. Wood, W. (1948), Report on the Establishment of A Guidance Service in Queensland Schools, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, 31 July. Wood, W. (1948a), Report of Acting Senior Guidance Officer for 1947 - 48, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction. Wood, W. (1949), Guidance Programme in the Primary Schools, 1949., Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction. Wood, W. (1949a), Report of Principal Research and Guidance Officer 1948-49, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction. Wood, W. (1951), Notes on the History of Education in Queensland, Report to the Director General of Education on 75th Jubilee History, 1951, Principal Research and Guidance Officer, Research & Guidance Branch, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, 12th June. (c) Commonwealth of Australia Australian Archives (Qld) (1945): J1453/3 Box 16, Department of Labour and National Service, Staffing Policy Files, Confidential Memorandum to all Officers from Office of the Director General of Man Power, Sydney, "General Outline of the Proposed Organization and Method of Operation of the Commonwealth Employment Service", 28th September. Australian Archives (Qld) (1946): J1454/3, Box 29, Department of Labour and National Service, Establishment of Commonwealth Employment Service, K.F. Walker, Assistant Director Industrial Welfare Division, article "The Commonwealth Employment Service", undated c1946. Australian Archives (Qld) (1946a): BP81/3, 1/CP/1, Department of Education and Science, "Future Scheme of Financial Assistance, Confidential notes for Officers-in-Charge of Branch Offices", c1946. Australian Archives (Qld) (1948): BP81/3, 7/RP/L, Department of Education and Science, Policy Files, "Notes on Future Scheme of Financial Assistance", January. Australian Archives (Qld) (1950): 1/SP/B1PT, BP831/1, Department of Education and Science, letter from Secretary, Commonwealth Office of Education, Sydney to Universities Commission, Brisbane, 24th May. Australian Archives (Qld) (1950a): 1/SP/B1PT, BP831/1, Department of Education and Science, letter to Universities Commission from State Public Service Commissioners' Department, 28th September. Australian Archives (Qld) (1957): J1454, Box 16, Department of Labour and National Service (CES), Manual for Use with Filmstrip, "The Commonwealth Employment Service". Australian Archives (Qld) (1957a): BP339/2, B9 Special Cases, Department of Education and Science, letter from Mr E.J. Gaven to A/Officer-in-Charge, Commonwealth Scholarship Scheme, George St Brisbane, 27th February. Australian Archives (Qld) (1957b): BP339/4, Q4308/P, Department of Education and Science, Policy Files 1957-1960, letter from Director of the Commonwealth Office of Education, Sydney to the Director-General of Education, Queensland, 24th December. - 278 - Australian Archives (Qld) (1958): BP339/4, Q4308/P, Department of Education and Science, Benefits - Failures Policy, letter from J.J. Pratt, Acting Director of Commonwealth Office of Education to Director General of Education, Queensland dated 8th December 1958. Australian Archives (Qld) (1959): BP339/4, Q4308/P, Department of Education and Science, Benefits - Failure Policy, letter from Principal R&G Officer, W.J. Brown to Director, Commonwealth Office of Education, 7th December. Australian Archives (Qld) (1959a): J1454, Box 16, Department of Labour and National Service (CES), Manual for use with Filmstrip, "Choosing a Career". Australian Archives (Qld) (1961): BP339/2, Item B1, Department of Education and Science, Eligibility and Selection of Scholarships - all scholarships - general business, 1951-1964, letter to Director-General of Education Queensland from Director Commonwealth Office of Education, Sydney, 27th December. Australian Archives (Qld) (1961a): BP 339/2, Item B1, Department of Education and Science Policy Files, Eligibility and Selection of Scholarships - all scholarship - general business, 1951 - 1964, letter dated 15 Dec 1961 from Wm. J. Weeden, Director of Commonwealth of Australia Office of Education to Director-General of Education, Queensland. Australian Archives (Qld) (1963-1973): J1454, Box 25, Dept. of L.& N.S. Queensland, Dept. News. Aulich Report (1990), Priorities for Reform in Higher Education, A report by the Senate Standing Committee on Employment, Education and Training, Chairman Senator Terry Aulich, Canberra, Australian Government Publishing Service, June. Commonwealth Department of Employment and Youth Affairs and The Department of Education Queensland, (1981), Vocational Guidance Services in Queensland, Brisbane, April. Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates (CPD), 1945, Vol. 182. Commonwealth Parliamentary Papers (CPP), 1945-46, Vol.4, "Full Employment in Australia", pp.1193-1211. Commonwealth Public Service Amendment Act, 1945 Department of Education and Employment, Queensland, (DEET), (1980), The Commonwealth Labour Departments in Queensland, Brisbane, a Commonwealth Employment Service publication. Finn Report (1991), Young People's Participation in Post-compulsory Educationa and Training, Report of the Australian Education Council Review Committee, Canberra, Australian Governmnet Publishing Service. Karmel Report, (1973), Schools in Australia, Report of the Interim Committee for the Australian Schools Commission, Canberra, Australian Government Publishing Service, Peter Karmel, Chairman. Murray Report, (1957), Report of the Committee on Australian Universities, Canberra, September. National Board of Employment, Education and Training, (NBEET) (1990), Careers Advisory Services in Higher Education Institutions, Canberra, Australian Government Publishing Service. National Board of Employment, Education and Training, (NBEET) (1991), Strengthening Careers Education in Schools, Canberra, Australian Government Publishing Service. - 279 - National Board of Employment, Education and Training, (NBEET) (1992), A National Training Framework for Careers Coordinators: A Proposal, Commissioned Report No. 14, Canberra, Australian Government Publishing Service. National Board of Employment and Education and Training, (NBEET) (1994), The Role of Schools in the Vocational Preparation of Australia's Senior Secondary Students, Discussion Paper, Canberra, Schools Council, Australian Government Publishing Service. National Security (Manpower Regulations), 1942 Re-establishment and Employment Bill, 1945 (d) Other Australian States and Governments Dettman Report (1972), Discipline in Secondary Schools in Western Australia, Perth, Government Secondary Schools Discipline Committee chaired by H.W. Dettman. Thomas Report, (1980), Self Discipline and Pastoral Care, A Report of the Committee of Inquiry into Pupil Behaviour and Discipline in Schools, Sydney, under the Chairmanship of Mr M.E. Thomas, (reprinted in Spencer, 1992). Votes and Proceedings, New South Wales Legislative Council, 21st June, 1844 Wolff Royal Commission (1942), Report of the Royal Commissioner, The Hon. Mr. Justice Wolff on the Administration of the University of Western Australia, Perth, Government Printer. Wyndham Report, (1957), Report of the Committee Appointed to Survey Secondary Education in New South Wales, Sydney. 3. THESES AND DISSERTATIONS Arthy, D. (1996), The Vocational Personality: Guidance and Counselling Practices in Queensland Education, Brisbane, an unpublished thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities, Griffith University. Arthy, D. (1980), The Counselling Practice and Sex Discrimination in Professional Employment, Brisbane, an unpublished dissertation submitted for a Bachelor of Arts Honours Degree, School of Humanities, Griffith University, 31st October. Arthy, D. (1983), Technology and Professional-Managerial Employment, Brisbane, an unpublished dissertation submitted for the M.Sc. in Science, Technology and Society at the School of Science, Griffith University, 14th November. Erickson, F.J. (1966), A Study of the Queensland Grammar School Movement: Its Origins and its Role in the Development of Secondary Education in Queensland before the First World War, Sydney, unpublished thesis submitted to the University of Sydney for the degree of Master of Education, 13th December. Kearney, G. (1966), Some Aspects of the General Cognitive Ability of Various Groups of Aboriginal Australians as Assessed by the Queensland Test, Brisbane, Department of Psychology, University of Queensland, November, being an unpublished report of an investigation submitted as a partial requirement of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Queensland. - 280 Smith, B. (1991), Governing Classrooms Privatisation and Discipline in Australian Schooling, Brisbane, unpublished thesis for Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Humanities, Griffith University, July. 4. NEWSPAPER ARTICLES Berry, D. (1951), "Scholarship Exam. on the way out? Cabinet to Consider", in Sunday Mail, Brisbane, June 17. Bryan, A.J. (1950), "Vocational Guidance Experts Use Science To Detect The Potential Misfit, Their Aim is: No Square Pegs in Round Holes", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, January 25. Bundaberg News-Mail (1956), "Career Planning Now More Difficult", Bundaberg, July 12. Butler, G. (1995), "Disabled kids row widens", "Parents fear student row at flashpoint", "It's too tough to cope in class: staff", in Courier Mail, August 11. Butler, G. (1995a), "Reading between the lines", in Courier Mail, August 19. Courier Mail (1949), "Case Histories of All Pupils", Brisbane, March 25. Courier Mail (1950), "New Education Branch Talent Test Helps Child", Brisbane, January 18. Courier Mail (1951), "State needs 2000 more teachers", Brisbane, June 19. Courier Mail (1960), "500 'Entrants' every week in talent quest", Brisbane, January 23. Courier Mail (1963), "Secondary school course should aid pupil's choice", Brisbane, December 18. Courier Mail (1992), "Editorial: We need to heed the basic rules", April 7. Courier Mail (1993), "Judgement was 'wrong'", Brisbane, March 10. Courier Mail (1993a), "Editorial: The Top Schools - the Order of Merit", Brisbane, March 10. Courier Mail (1994), "Call for external exams", Brisbane, December 2. Courier Mail (1995a) "Uni targets keep mature students out", Brisbane, February 7. Courier Mail (1995b), "Special Needs not being Met", Brisbane, January 31. Courier Mail (1995c), "Unis bid to scrap targets, concern over funds", Brisbane, February 20. Courier Mail (1995d), "The OP Lists", March 22. Courier Mail (1995e), "The OP Lists", March 23. Daily Mercury (1959), "Helping Students to Choose Their Careers", Mackay, July 1. Davies, K. (1990), "QUT Moves Towards General Education - New Corporate Trend Backs Liberal Arts", Brisbane, Communique, produced by Journalism students at QUT, Brisbane, June 8. Devine, F. (1990), "Schools Test and the Shocking Results of our Children - Why the state of our learning offers a sobering education", lead article in The Weekend Australian, Brisbane, October 27-28. Devine, F. (1990a), "Little learning is a Dangerous Thing", in Australian, Brisbane, October 29. - 281 Dibben, K. (1994), "Stop Drift Plea", in Sunday Mail, Brisbane, May 8. Dibben, K. and Hay, J. (1993), "Anguish for Students - Uproar as results bring real university challenge", in Sunday Mail, Brisbane, March 7. Hele, M. (1995), "The OP versus Reality", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, March 22. Lack, C. (1953), "Your Child Has Left School; Are You Guiding His Future?", in Telegraph, Brisbane, May 5. Johnson, B. (1992), "Prof lashes student's grammar", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, April 6. Ketchell, M. (1993), "Queensland's Top 20 Schools - Private schools top list", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, March 9. Koopman, D. (1991), "Falling standards a scandal, Education crisis in Australia: prof", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, August 2. Laws, E.F. (1961), "What Shall I Do? That vital Question for Parents and Children", by B.F. Lawes, Regional Director, Department of labour and National Service, in Courier Mail, Brisbane, January 28. LLoyd, G. (1995), "'The essential question is the parents' view about what they believe is appropriate for their child' CLASS RIGHTS", in Courier Mail, August 11. Moore, S. (1990), "Our Students lack essential knowledge", in The Weekend Australian, Brisbane, October 27-28. O'Brien, M. (1948), "Tinker, Tailor, Soldier or Sailor?", Courier Mail, Brisbane, November 9. O'Connor, T. and Ketchell, M. (1994), "Handle with care", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, March 16. O'Donnell, D. (1995), "A matter of results versus fair play", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, February 28. O'Malley, B. (1994), "Teaser test core skills, Students struggle to score uni places", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, September 3. Oliphant, J. and Maher, S. (1995), "School leavers loose uni priority", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, 16 September. Richards, A. (1960), "University failures are appalling waste", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, March 17. Rockhampton Bulletin (1959), "Parents Still Have a Big Responsibility", Rockhampton, July 10. Roma (1959), "Need for Higher Education for Girls Now Realised", Roma, October 13. Rowan, V. (1994), "Students need to be taught how to learn", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, December 15. Sleeman, A. (1960), "Our Thousand 'Geniuses'", Daily Mirror, Sydney, May 23. Smith, W. (1995), "Timebomb of the Disabled", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, March 23. Smith, W. (1995a), "CLASS RIGHTS, Good intentions not enough", in Courier Mail, August 11. Sunday Mail (1951), "Near Crisis in Schools", Brisbane, June 24. Sunday Mail (1951a), "To Extend Guidance", Brisbane, June 17. Sunday Mail (1994), Editorial "Core Skills", December 4. - 282 - Telegraph (1963), "Record Card for schools", Brisbane, December 19. Turner, M. (1995), "Class Wars - Problem children bring even bigger concerns for teachers who are becoming punching bags in disruptive classrooms. Megan Turner reports on the latest strategies educators are putting in place for behaviour management", in Courier Mail, December 26. Western Star 1959, "First Visit to Roma School by Research-Guidance Team", Friday, Oct 16 Williams, B. (1994), "Uni system produces ignorance: professor", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, June 4. 5. INTERVIEWS Counselling Interviews (1990 - 1994): fifty interviews with prospective QUT (Queensland University of Technology) and QUT students documented over a period of five years. Interview with Mr Michael Duran (1993), 15th February: Mr Duran was employed in the Department of Labour and National Service from the mid 1960s to 1973 as a Psychologist (Psyche) and a Vocational Guidance Officer (VGO). He was appointed to the Careers Reference Centre in Brisbane in 1973 as the Manager. Interview with Dr Howell (1994) 14th April: Dr Howell was appointed as Head Master of the Brisbane Grammar School in 1965. He pioneered the introduction of guidance and counselling practices in the private and independent sector of Queensland secondary level education. He was a member of the Radford Committee in 1969 which transformed the school-aged secondary level education assessment system in Queensland from external public examination to school based assessment moderated by then "experimental" psychological testing of ASAT (Australian Scholastic Aptitude Test). Interview with Mr Frank Hughes (1993), 8th February: Mr Hughes was a primary school teacher from 1948 to 1963. He was transferred to secondary teaching as a consequence of the abandonment of the scholarship examination in 1963. He taught at the secondary level from 1964 to 1967. In 1968 he was appointed as a trainee guidance officer. He worked as a Guidance Officer until 1973. In 1974, he moved into the Catholic Education system to establish guidance and counselling practices in the State wide Catholic Education system.