Topic: A Study of Dunhuang and Silk Routes

Mid-Term Paper: Fall Semester 2016 REL 641: Dunhuang Studies Presented to: Dr. Darui Long Topic: A Study of Dunhuang and Silk Routes By: Pisit Maneewong Submitted: October 11, 2016. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- A Study of Dunhuang and Silk Routes 1. Introduction The purpose of this paper is to present a documentation of Dunhuang and Silk Route which is the part of REL 641: Dunhuang Studies, it is not a specific topic. It gives the broad information of Dunhuang and Silk Route, the history and its importance. As we know that Buddhism also came with the maritime route because the group of missionary monks propagated Buddhism along the maritime route. After, Buddhism disappeared from India and flourished in South Asia areas such as Sri Lanka, China. At that time, Sri Lanka was the center of study and promotion of Buddhism. The other main route was the Silk Route as the land transportation which connected between the East and the West. Without this route, I cannot imagine that how Buddhism propagate and spread into this present world. The introduction of Buddhism in China, which appeared in the later Han dynasty (A.D.25-220), also presented in the earliest reliable textual and archaeological evidence. The first translators and missionaries were virtually all Central Asians, and the importance of Central Asia and China’s north-western frontiers and trade routes is crucial. Although China traditionally looked inward, from the former Han (206 BC-AD 23) to the Tang (618-907) China’s relations with the outside world, along Central Asian routes were of considerable economic importance. Dunhuang and Silk Route. 2 With the advent of Buddhist missionaries, they became routes also for Indian and Greek-Roman art forms into China as well as for Buddhist travelers in search of Indian scriptures.1 The gateway to China for both Buddhism and trade from the West to the East was through Gansu in northwest China, an area that corresponds to the present day, the province of Gansu and a portion of the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region. Gansu was the only passageway connecting the overland routes, popularly known as the Silk Road, from the desert regions of the west with China’s heartland and its imperial cities of Chang’an, the ancient capital city of China (present day Xi’an) and Luoyang. Across this region graveled Buddhist monks, foreign merchants, and nomads carrying the ideas and objects that profoundly affected the history and culture of China.2 Therefore, my research emphasizes the study of the historical of Silk Route related to Dunhuang. 2. The History of the Silk Routes The Great Silk Route not only developed and enhanced trade and commerce between the East and the West but was also a significant factor in facilitating cultural and social interaction across continence from time to time. There is related to the historical of early Buddhism, the Second council occurred a century after Buddha passed way by the time of King Asoka in the third century B.E. The Saṅgha began to split into two groups of monks. The form of Buddhism, which spread to the South of India, called Theravāda, flourished under King Asoka. They are 1 Zwalf, W. Buddhism Art and Faith. (London: Published by British Museum Publications Ltd. for the Trustees of the British Museum and the British Library Board, 1985), p. 18. 2 Juliano, Annette L., Judith A. Lerner, and Michael Alram. Monks and merchants: Silk Road treasures from Northwest China Gansu and Ningxia 4th-7th century. (New York, N.Y.: Harry N. Abrams with the Asia Society, 2001), p. 15 Dunhuang and Silk Route. 3 known as the teaching of the Elders; the earliest of Buddha’s teaching are to be found in Pāli literature, which is orthodox according to Theravādins. 3 In the first century B.C., Buddhism had already been established in Central Asia, and it was in power expanding the populous and civilized centers of China in the Han Empire. 4 First Kumārajīva (350-413), completed translations of ninety-eight texts, many of which became the most important sutras for sects of Chinese Buddhism. Second, a Chinese Buddhist monk made an arduous pilgrimage to India to gather Buddhist sutras. His name was Faxian (Fa-hsien; fourthfifth centuries), who spent fifteen years on his journey and wrote a book, which has provided historians with valuable information about India during this period. Third, the most famous of Chinese Buddhist Missionary monk was Xuan Zang (Hsuan-Tsang; 602-64), who left an important record of his pilgrimage from Chang’an to India, where he studied at the Buddhist University of Nālandā and traveled around the country. He also brought back many sutras and translated about seventy-five of them back to China.5 Some of the pilgrims first used the maritime route, and some groups used silk route as a land transport. Since the early years of the Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220), have served as trading links between China and the cultures to the west. Early accounts suggest that some were founded by peoples from the Indian Sub-continent, and it was these peoples and their descendants who introduced Buddhism to the area and left the great monuments. This area has been known in the past by several other names such as Chinese Tartary, Chinese Turkestan, Eastern Turkestan and Serindia. This region sometimes called Chinese Central Asia is bounded 3 “The Buddhists School.” Theravada (The Teachings of the Elders). http://www.buddhanet.net/elearning/buddhistworld/schools1.htm. Accessed on October 4, 2016. 4 Chʻen, Kenneth K. S. Buddhism in China, a historical survey. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1964), p. 18-20. 5 Perkins, Dorothy. Rea: the essential reference to China, its history and culture. (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000), p. 47. Dunhuang and Silk Route. 4 on the east by the Gobi and Lop deserts and on the south by the Nanshan and Kunlun mountain ranges to the west and north. This area today is known as the Xinjiang Autonomous Region of the People’s Republic of China.6 This city expanded and flourished as pilgrims and traders traveled across Central Asia in the early centuries AD. Beginning at Chang’an (the present day is Xi’an), which was for long periods the Chinese capital, the route to the west passed along the Gansu corridor, divining near Dunhuang into a northern route skirting the Tian’shan mountain range and a southern route running along the edge of the Kunlun range. The northern route passed through Hami, Turfan, Kucha, Aksu and Kashgar. The southern route passed through Miran, Khotan, and Yarkand with a subsidiary route looping across the Lop Desert and passing through Loulan to join the northern route west of Turfan. This great connecting route used for both trade and pilgrimages have come to be known collectively as the “Silk Route or Silk Road.”7 Professor Lothar von Falkenhausen notes, “Rather than the more common “Silk Road,” I prefer to use “Silk Routes.” For the term “Silk Road” suggests built roads, which never existed for the premodern caravan trade in Central Asia; and rather than s single road or route, the term “Silk Route” refer to a far-flung network of trade routes and connecting what is now Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China to all parts of Eurasia. 8 But in my paper, I prefer to use both terms, “Silk Road” and “Silk Routes.” Because mostly generals are familiar with the both terminologies which describe the same idea. 6 Whitfield, Roderick, Anne Farrer, S. J. Vainker, and Jessica Rawson. Caves of the thousand Buddhas: Chinese art from the silk route. (New York: George Braziller, 1990), pp. 9-10. 7 Whitfield, Roderick, Anne Farrer, S. J. Vainker, and Jessica Rawson. Ibid., p. 10. 8 Mair, Victor H., and E. J. W. Barber. Secrets of the Silk Road: an exhibition of discoveries from the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, China. (Santa Ana, Calif: Bowers Museum, 2010.), p.59. Dunhuang and Silk Route. 5 Therefore, the Silk Routes refer to trade routes that extended from Japan and China in East Asia across the Central Asia, south to India, and west across the Iranian plateau and other lands to Mediterranean. It was known that the Silk Routes linked to the western and eastern ends of Eurasia during ancient times. This historical network was at a height from about the second century B.C.E., when a Chinese envoy traveled into Central Asia, until the fourteen century, when the Mongols safeguarded northern land routes that crossed the Eurasian steppes.9 Moreover, Silk Road sites often show an intermingling of architectural or artistic styles that can be traced to the homelands of those travelers or caravansaries: China, the varying regions of Central Asia, India, and Iran, as well as the Roman world, among other regions. At this site, travelers were continually introduced to new and unfamiliar artistic and architectural styles and techniques, new lifestyles, and different religious traditions which related to Dunhuang as a central point for all religions. 3. History of Dunhuang In the ancient time till present day, the Central Asia has always been an important region for the world in the politically, strategically, culturally and commercially theme. The first recorded history of Dunhuang was a crucial station along the mythical of Silk Road, at that time it was related by Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-220). The modern archaeological findings indication the region’s history as far back as the Xia Dynasty (21st -16th century B.C.), during the Shang and Zhou Dynasties over the next 1,400 years, the area was inhabited by three nomadic tribes—the Qiang, Wusun, and Yuezhi (Rouzhi). At the end of the Qin Dynasty (221 B.C. – 206 B.C.), the Yuezhi conquered the other two tribes and occupied the entire Hexi 9 Ten Grotenhuis, Elizabeth. Along the Silk Road. (Washington, D.C.: Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution. 2002), p. 15. Dunhuang and Silk Route. 6 Corridor. This corridor (also called Gansu Corridor) was the primary segment of the ancient Silk Road.10 Its importance was first discovered by Emperor Wu of Han (140-87 B. C.) who established his forward posts here to fight China's archenemy from her northern neighborhood, the Hun (Xiongnu) tribes. The emperor sent out an important courtier, Zhang Qian, to strike alliances with the kingdoms in Central Asia. Following him, later military expeditions despatched from Dunhuang went further afield. It was at this juncture that the Dunhuang area fell under Han imperial administration. Dunhuang was the westernmost of the four new juns (provinces) of the Hexi Corridor established by Emperor Wu to break the backbone of the Hun tribes. A military command was established at Jiuquan which was flanked by Dunhuang on the west and the two other provinces of Wuwei and Zhangye on the east. 11 On the west rim of China and on the exchange point of four routes of the Silk Road that lead towards the West and reach as far as Europe, Dunhuang was renowned as the heart of Asia in ancient times. This area particularly functioned as a platform for East-West cultural and economic exchange between Eastern Asia, Central Asia, and India. In 138 B.C.E., Shang Qian, one of Chinese official diplomat, was ordered travel from east to the West to conciliatory relations with Yuezhi with a hope of becoming a colleague. However, he did not successfully complete his mission. Anyway, he exposed the direction to the West for Chinese, trader and missionary monks to travel to the West. So, the Silk Road was formally in the Chinese History at that time.12 The resource shows us as a result; that Dunhuang is the area positioned at the beginning of the Silk Road and welcomed a great economic geography and cultural 10 “Travel China Guide.” Dunhuang History. https://www.travelchinaguide.com/cityguides/gansu/dunhuang/ . Accessed on October 9, 2016. 11 Duan, Wenjie, and Chung Tan. Dunhuang art: through the eyes of Duan Wenjie. (New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts, 1994), p. 14. 12 Rong Xinjiang. Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang. (Denvers: Brill, 2013), p. 51-55. Dunhuang and Silk Route. 7 transformation from the East and the West. Geographically, Dunhuang is the best area an oasis in the massive Taklamakan Desert. It is on the throat tunnel of the Silk Road. Therefore, with the accelerated development of the Silk Road and trade between the East and the West, Dunhuang became the center of culture and economics for Central and Eastern Asia. 13 Dunhuang's importance as a military fortress led to its becoming a prefecture in 177 B.C.. Concurrently, construction of the Yumenguan Pass and Yangguan Pass to the west of Dunhuang opened a new trade route between the central plains (Hexi) and the states in Xi Yu (literally the western regions, referring to most parts of Xinjiang and part of central Asia) namely the noted Silk Road. As more and more immigrants from the central plains settled here, this city gradually became a prosperous agricultural base as well as the key military installation on the Han's border frontier. For the next several centuries, it served as one of China's most important military, political and economic centers.14 Moreover, two well-known stories dating from Emperor Wu's westward expansion are connected to Dunhuang. The emperor obtained a gift of a special breed of horse known as "Hanxue Ma" (literally, "A horse that sweats blood"). The emperor was so elated that he christened the steed "Tianma" (Celestial Horse) and composed a song celebrating his booty. Long before the Dunhuang caves were carved out and celestial horses painted on their walls here had been a real "celestial horse" which had journeyed across Dunhuang on his way to the Han imperial stable.15 Dunhuang although internationally known is infrequently visited. The Mogao shrine at Dunhuang is a cluster of 492 caves, containing 45,000 square metres of frescoes and 2,415 stucco statues. This is a precious art heritage of the world. It has great historical and artistic 13 Rong Xinjiang. Ibid., p. 54-55. “Travel China Guide.” Dunhuang History. https://www.travelchinaguide.com/cityguides/gansu/dunhuang/ . Accessed on October 9, 2016. 15 Duan, Wenjie, and Chung Tan. Ibid., p. 14. 14 Dunhuang and Silk Route. 8 value. These caves were created, renovated and maintained continually with devotion and care from the 4th up to the 14th century. They were also maintained during the subsequent periods up till the 19th century. From the 7th to 9th century, culture and art enjoyed a golden period in China, so did Dunhuang Art. Among these ancient artworks, the theme of Buddhism is illustrated in the majority of them.16 4. Dunhuang on the Silk Routes The Great Silk Road encompassed certain sea routes and the loosed system trails that crossed the mountains and deserts of the Central Asia to connect East Asia and the Mediterranean. This historical network was at its height from about the second-century B.C.E until about the fourteen century which was in the heyday, the most cosmopolitan area on earth. By 500 B.C.E and for the next two thousand years, the Eurasian landmass linked four major centers of civilization: China, India. West Asia, and Europe. The Silk Road served the major conduit for the transportation of knowledge and material goods between the East and the West, Asia and Europe during these two thousand years. It is also probably fair to say that until about 1500 C.E., or the beginning of the early modern period, Europe was something of a backwater compared to China, India, and West Asia.17 As early as the Western Han dynasty, Emperor Wu (reigned 140-87 BC) established military colonies in the west of Dunhuang and protected them by an extension of the Great Wall. Chinese documents discovered by Stein describe the organization and provisioning of these distant posts. Large armies were sent across the Pamirs to Sogdiana and Ferghana, taking 16 Corzo, Miguel Angel. The future of Asia's past: preservation of the architectural heritage of Asia: summary of an international conference held in Chiang Mai, Thailand, January 11-14, 1995. ([Marina del Rey, Calif.]: Getty Conservation Institute, 1995), p. 17. 17 Ten Grotenhuis, Elizabeth. Along the Silk Road. Ibid., pp. 16-17. Dunhuang and Silk Route. 9 Chinese arms as far as the shores of the Caspian Sea. But by the beginning of the later Han (AD 25-220) the Chinese had lost control of the area, and their rule was not re-established until the late 1st century AD. At that time, Dunhuang was established as a commandery in 111 BC. A line of military watch-towers built to the north and west of Dunhuang during the Han period. The end of 2nd century AD, Han Empire began to collapse under internal political strains and contact with Central Asia was lost. In several hundred years this area was subject to successive waves of invasions. However, with the reunification of China under the Sui (589-618) and then in the early years of the Tang dynasty (618-906), the Chinese reasserted their authority. By 661 Kashmir, Bokhara and the borders of eastern Iran were administered by Chinese officials. But the tide was turning again, and in 751 Chinese armies were defeated by an Arab force at the Talas River. After the chaos of the Lushan rebellion (755-63) the empire lacked the strength to maintain its westerly possession; the Tibetans even took the Chinese capital Chang’an in 763. Dunhuang itself passed into Tibetan control from 781 to 847. This meant that the Buddhist shrines there were largely untouched by the great suppression of Buddhism and other foreign religions that wrought such destruction in China between 842 and 845. 18 For centuries between the fifth century and lasted until the fourteenth century, Dunhuang flourished various cultural traditions, language, art, and religions gathered here. Dunhuang has more than 2000 years of history, in the dynasties of Qin and Han, a Great wall built in the north of Dunhuang, set up the Yang Guang Gate and Wang Men Gate in the west of Dunhuang. Since then Dunhuang became the important gateway from west to Central Plains. In order to consolidate the strategic location of Dunhuang, the government immigrants people from the mainland to Dunhuang, and dispatch soldiers to the garrison. The operation and 18 Whitfield, Roderick, Anne Farrer, S. J. Vainker, and Jessica Rawson. Ibid., p. 10. Dunhuang and Silk Route. 10 development of Dunhuang in the Western Han Dynasty established the important position of Dunhuang in history. After the Eastern Han Dynasty and King Cao Wei's regime to continue the operation and development, Dunhuang remained relatively stable for a long period of time, as the Silk Road on an important commodity trading center and food production base. The culture of the Central Plains took root and developed here, and the Confucian classics spread. The Buddhist culture Produced in India also reached Dunhuang. During this time, the art, ideas, and cultures of other civilizations such as Greece, India, and central and western Asia were imported into Dunhuang. Eminent Buddhist monks continued to come here to carry forward their dharma. The Magao Caves, the greatest example of Buddhist cultural significance, continued to house religious statuary and frescoes in its grottoes. As an important element in Asian religions, Buddhism, particularly of the Mahayana tradition, widely spread out along the routes of the Silk Road and rapidly developed in Central and Eastern Asia. Buddhist monastics and lay practitioners began to travel to Dunhuang for pilgrimages and other religious practices. Moreover, Buddhist artists from various regions and countries also set forth to Dunhuang, to accomplish their dream projects in Mogao Grotto. Moreover, the great mane Dunhuang gradually vanished during the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368 C.E.).19 19 Zhang, Xiaoyang. Buddhist art communication between Dunhuang and Japan: a study of a silk painting of Ks ̣itigarbha Bodhisattva found in Dunhuang. (CA: University of the West, 2015), p. 7. Dunhuang and Silk Route. 11 Conclusion In this paper, an attempt has been made to highlight the significance of Silk Route and Dunhuang which related to each other. The Silk Routes had served as a great source of unification, growth, and development of world culture. Through caravans, civilizations traveled and brisk exchanges of ideas, learning, culture, and collaborative fruitful ventures and active contacts could be made possible. Silk Routes contributed richly towards the growth and development of cities, irrigational system, handicrafts, sharing of information and culture among people, states, and civilizations. 20 Central Asia is supposed to have been the cradle of human civilization.21 Therefore, Dunhuang is the central point to connect between two worlds, the East and the West by using the Silk Road as the route of the great journey between two worlds. This route traverses China and some central and western Asian countries, such as Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Egypt. Therefore, we can say that this Silk Road and Dunhuang are the great civilization between two worlds, East and West. 20 Mansura Haidar. The silk road: trade, caravan serais, cultural exchanges and power games. (New Delhi : Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts : Aryan Books International, 2014.), p.39. 21 Puri, Baij Nath. Buddhism in Central Asia. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. 1987.), p.317. Dunhuang and Silk Route. 12 Bibliography Books: Chʻen, Kenneth K. S. Buddhism in China, a Historical Survey. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1964. Corzo, Miguel Angel. The future of Asia's past: preservation of the architectural heritage of Asia: summary of an international conference held in Chiang Mai, Thailand, January 1114, 1995. Marina del Rey, Calif.: Getty Conservation Institute, 1995. 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