7
Chlorophyll Fluorescence in Plant Biology
Amarendra Narayan Misra1,2, Meena Misra1,2 and Ranjeet Singh1,2
1Post-Graduate
Department of Biosciences & Biotechnology,
Fakir Mohan University, Balasore,
2Centre for Life Sciences, School of Natural Sciences,
Central University of Jharkhand, Ratu-Lohardaga Road, Brambe, Ranchi,
India
1. Introduction
1.1 Chlorophyll fluorescence: Basics
Several molecules absorb light energy which they emit after a time difference (lifetime) as
radiation energy. Molecules remain at a low energy level or the ground electronic singlet
state (So) or the lowest vibrational level at room temperature (Noomnarm and Clegg, 2009).
On absorption of a photon, the molecule is excited from So to the first electronic excited
singlet state S1 within < 10-15 s-1 (Figure 1). These molecules can also be transferred to
higher energy levels (S2 to Sn) also. These excited state molecules can relax to the S1
electronic state via vibrational relaxation within 10-12 s-1. The molecule will ultimately relax
to the So state through photon emission, which is called fluorescence emission. Also here,
the energy of the emitted photon must equal the changes in the energy levels.
Fig. 1. The basic principles of excitation and deexcitation phenomena and the differences
between excitation (absorption) spectra and emission (fluorescence) spectra of light
absorbing pigment molecules (Chlorophyll) in green plants.
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The molecular excitation follows the principle: ΔE = hv, with ΔE, energy difference between
ground and excited state; h, Planck quantum; and v, frequency of radiation (Rabinowitch &
Govindjee, 1969; Kumke & Löhmannsröben, 2009).
Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll, carotenoids and other pigment molecules present
in the photosynthetic antenna molecules present in the thylakoid membranes of green plants
(Strasser et al., 2000, 2004; Govindjee, 2004; Maxwell and Johnson, 2000; Falkowski & Raven,
2007). Absorption of a photon raises a chlorophyll a molecule to its lowest singlet excited
state, for which three internal decay pathways exist: fluorescence, in which the molecule
returns to the ground state with the emission of radiation; internal conversion, in which the
energy of the molecule is converted into vibrational energy; and intersystem crossing, in
which the singlet state is converted to the triplet state (Figure 2). If certain other molecules
are present along with the chlorophyll, external decay pathway(s) may also become
available in addition to the internal decay pathways. Such external pathways facilitate the
transfer of energy to a molecule with a similar energy gap or the transfer of an electron to or
from another molecule, such as in excitation energy transfer in light-harvesting antennae
and charge separation in photochemical reaction centers, respectively. All of these
downward processes competitively contribute to the decay of the chlorophyll excited state.
Accordingly, an increase in the rate of one of these processes would increase its share of the
decay process and lower the fluorescence yield (φf). The quantum yield of chlorophyll
fluorescence from the photosynthetic apparatus is therefore 0.6-3%, while chlorophyll a in an
organic solvent exhibits a high fluorescence yield of approximately 30% (Latimer et al., 1956;
Trissl et al., 1993). Oxygenic photosynthesis is endowed with the unique property of a
fluorescence emission. Light energy that is absorbed by chlorophyll in a photosynthetic
systems can undergo three fates: a) it can be used to drive photosynthesis (photochemistry), b)
it can be dissipated as heat or c) it can be re-emitted as red fluorescence (Figure 2). These three
processes occur in competition. Since the sum of rate constants is constant, any increase in the
efficiency of one process will result in a decrease in the yield of the other two. Therefore,
determining the yield of chlorophyll fluorescence will give information about changes in the
efficiency of photochemistry and heat dissipation (Figure 2).
Fig. 2. The origin of chlorophyll fluorescence: basic aspects.
The oxygenic photosynthesis involves two light reactions operating simultaneously at
photosystem (PS) II and PSI reaction centers (Figure 3). The light energy absorbed by the
light harvesting antenna (LHC) pigments distribute the energy to the two photosystems,
used to oxidize water to oxygen, reduce NADP+, and produce ATP (Rabinowitch &
Govindjee, 1969; Blankenship, 2002; Falkowski & Raven, 2007). Most of the chlorophyll a
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fluorescence, at room temperature, originates in the antenna complexes of PSII and originate
as fluorescence emission at 685nm (F685) (Govindjee, 2004). The absorption of photons by
antenna molecules is a very fast process and occurs within femtoseconds, leading to the
formation of excited chlorophylls (Chl*). The main function of the antenna (LHC) is to
transfer excitation energy to the photosynthetic reaction centers leading to photochemistry.
But a part of the absorbed light energy is dissipated as heat and is emitted as fluorescence
(Figure 3). Primary charge separation occurs in PSI and PSII reaction centers involving P700
and P680, respectively. Photochemistry takes place within picoseconds, and further
reactions proceed independent of the presence of light (Stirbet & Govindjee, 2011). The
characteristic of fluorescence emission is determined by the absorbing pigment molecules,
the excitation energy transfer, and the orientation of the fluorescing pigments in the
photosynthetic membrane. Besides these characteristics, fluorescence is also affected by the
redox state of the donors and acceptors of photosystems, and thylakoid stacking etc.
(Strasser et al. 2005). Although fluorescence measurements are indicators of indirect effects,
still fluorescence is widely used as a luminescence signature for wide array of
photosynthetic events and alterations in the photosynthetic systems. There are different
types of fluorescence measurements used in plant biology and photosynthesis, which are
described below. Depending on the type of study and the suitability of the photosynthetic
system, different fluorescence techniques are used. The analysis of these fluorescence curves
or images and its analysis gives an insight to the photosynthetic energy transducing or
pigment protein orientation in the photosynthetic systems.
2. Types of chlorophyll fluorescence
Chlorophyll a fluorescence is a highly versatile tool, not only for researchers studying
photosynthesis, but also for those working in broader fields related to biophysics,
biochemistry and physiology of green plants. Chlorophyll fluorescence analysis is sensitive,
non-invasive, and relatively simple. With the advent of different instrumental techniques
and time resolved spectroscopy, fluorometry developed into various types with timescale of
signal capturing. The fluorescence measurements, that are conventionally used, are
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Room temperature fluorescence (Rabinowitch & Govindjee, 1969) ,
Low temperature fluorescence (77K fluorescence) (Rabinowitch & Govindjee, 1969),
Fluorescence temperature curve, (Ilik et al., 2003),
Variable Chl a fluorescence, differing in the manner by which the photochemistry is
saturated (e.g., shutterless and LED-based instruments) for direct fluorometry:
a. fast Chl fluorescence or plant efficiency analyser (PEA) (Strasser & Govindjee, 1991;
1992),
b. pulse amplitude modulation, PAM, fluorometry (Schreiber et al., 1986; Schreiber,
2004),
c. the pump and probe (P & P) fluorometry (Mauzeralla, 1972; Falkowski et al., 1986),
d. the fast repetition rate (FRR) fluorometry (Kolber et al. 1998),
e. the pump during probe (PDP) fluorometry (Olson et al., 1996), and several others
that are functionally similar, such as
f. the fluorescence induction and relaxation (FIRe) technique (Gorbunov &
Falkowski, 2005),
g. the background irradiance gradient single turnover (BIG-STf) fluorometry
(Johnson, 2004), and
h. advanced laser fluorometry (ALF) (Chekalyuk & Hafez, 2008).
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However, the working principle and the phenomenon for analysis are similar for these
instruments. In the present chapter we describe the commonly used room temperature
fluorescence, low temperature or 77 K fluorescence, fast Chl fluoresce and PAM
fluorescence. The other methods are useful but are not discussed due to their specialized use
in various fields. However, the techniques and principles described here are routinely used
in plant biology at present.
2.1 Room temperature fluorescence
Under a physiological state of active chloroplasts in green plants at room temperature,
chlorophyll fluorescence emission is a net result of heat dissipation, stimulation of dark
reduction of plastoquinone, and increased cyclic electron flow to light, also increases the
leakage of electrons from the thylakoid, there may be a deactivation of Rubisco (ribulose 1,5 biphosphatecarboxylase- oxygenase), and the generation of reactive oxygen species such as the
superoxide anion (O2-) and H2O2. The chlorophyll fluorescence emission spectra is taken as a
measure of the amount of chlorophyll content in the green plants (Buschmann, 2007). There
are two maxima for Chl fluorescence at room temperature, (i) in the red region at 685 nm
emitted by PS II and (ii) in the far-red region at 720-740 nm emitted by PS I. At higher
chlorophyll concentrations, chlorophyll fluorescence is mainly detected in the range of 720-740
nm. But the re-absorption of the emitted red fluorescence by the chlorophyll in PS II results in
a strong fluorescence emission band at 685 nm (Figure 4). The technique and the
instrumentation are simple. The fluorescence emission is measured at right angle (90°) or 45°
to the excitation beam of blue or red wavelength band of visible light. However, when cooled
to liquid nitrogen temperature (77K) the fluorescence emission at 685nm, 695nm and 735nm
can be resolved separately and can be analysed (see the section 77K fluorescence).
Fig. 3. Schematic illustration of primary conversion in photosynthesis which governs in vivo
chlorophyll fluorescence yield. Variable fluorescence originates almost exclusively from
PSII. Maximal fluorescence yield is lowered by photochemical charge separation and
dissipation.
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Fig. 4. A typical room temperature fluorescence emission by green to leaf.
2.2 77K fluorescence
The fluorescence at liquid-nitrogen temperature from algal cells and isolated thylakoid
membranes to show a distinct spectral bands at approximately 685, 695, and 735 nm (Murata
et al., 1966; Boardman et al., 1966; Govindjee et al., 1967). The two bands at approximately
685 and 695 nm corresponded to fluorescence emitted from Chl in PSII, while the band at
735 (usually a broad band between 715–740 nm) correspond to the fluorescence from the Chl
in PSI (Figure 5). This study led to the discovery of state transitions, which is a regulatory
mechanism for balancing the distribution of light energy between PSI and PS II. When algal
cells were illuminated with light wavelength (567nm) exciting the pigment molecules in PS
II named as ‘light II,’ and then frozen to liquid-nitrogen temperature (77K), the fluorescence
at 685 nm and 695 nm was repressed and the emission at 715 nm was enhanced (Murata et
al., 1966).
To the contrary, illumination with ‘light I’ at 405 nm plus 435 nm, which was absorbed by
PSI, enhanced the emission at 685 nm from PSII (Murata et al., 1966). A regulatory
mechanism existed in the algal cells that balanced the distribution of light energy to PSI and
PSII depending on the energy of excitation or the quality of light. With an elegant and
simultaneous measurement of changes in the oxygen-evolving activity and the fluorescence
yield of Chlorella pyrenoidosa under ‘light I’ and ‘light II,’ Bonaventura and Myers (1969)
proposed the concept of - state transitions. This concept is routinely used for decades as
‘state 1’, referring to photosynthetic organisms exposed to light that is preferentially
absorbed by PSI (light I) and ‘state 2’ to describe photosynthetic organisms exposed to light
that is preferentially absorbed by PSII (light II) (Murata, 1970). This phenomena is extended
to the energized state of thylakoid membranes. In the presence of ATP, the membranes
seemed to establish state 2 and vice-versa. Subsequently, divalent and trivalent ion
dependent distribution of light energy between the two photosystems in isolated thylakoid
membranes were reported (Murata, 2009).
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Fluorescence intensity, rel.
Biophysics
77K fluorescence
1.5
1
0.5
0
670
720
770
Wavelength, nm
Fig. 5. 77K fluorescence spectrum of a healthy green leaf.
It is now known that under state II light illumination, LHCII becomes phosphorylated by
thylakoid membrane localized protein kinase(s), which is regulated by the redox state of the
plastoquinone pool (Misra & Biswal, 2000; Zer et al., 2003). The phosphorylated fraction of
LHCII then dissociates from PSII and binds to PSI. Reversal of light to state I results in
inactivation of the kinase(s), and the LHCII antennae becomes dephosphorylated by
constitutively active phosphatases. The (dephosphorylated) LHCII complexes migrate to
stacked regions of the grana and re-associate with PSII, restoring its original capacity to
absorb light (Allen, 1992; Aro & Ohad, 2003; Mullineaux & Emlyn-Jones, 2005; Rochaix,
2007). This leads to structural changes in the thylakoid membrane itself (Anderson, 1999;
Garab & Mustardy, 1999; Dekker & Boekema, 2005). Taking into account of recent
developments in several microscopic techniques to study the morphological changes that
occur in thylakoid membranes of higher plant chloroplasts during state transitions,
Chuartzman et al. (2008) reported that the rearrangements in membrane architecture occurs
during the state transition, and involves both granal and stroma lamellar domains.
However, due to experimental set-up, repeatability of the experiments and pigment
concentration that affects the shape and characteristic of 77K fluorescence, this technique is
used to a limited extent and is not as routine as the fast chlorophyll fluorescence or PAM
fluorometry as described in the following sections. 77K finds its applications only for
conformation of certain temporal and structural orientation of the pigment protein
complexes in the thylakoid membranes and energy tunneling within the two photosystems.
2.3 Fast chlorophyll fluorescence
Illumination of dark adapted photosynthetic materials emit, Chl a fluorescence with a
characteristic induction or transient which was discovered by Hans Kautsky and is named
after him as the Kautsky curve ( Kautsky & Hirsh, 1931). Chl a fluorescence induction curve
measured under continuous light has a fast (less than a second) exponential phase, and a
slow decay phase (few minutes duration). Kautsky curve of a healthy green leaf is shown in
Figure 6. The expansion of the fast rise phase gives rise to the exponential ‘OJIP’ curve
(Figure 6). The analysis of the OJIP curve taking the theoretical assumptions and
probabilities derives different photosynthetic parameters for the dark adapted state of the
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Fluorescence intensity (rel.)
Chlorophyll Fluorescence in Plant Biology
5.0
P S
4.0
I
3.0
J
M
2.0
T
O
1.0
0.0
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
140000
Fluorescence intensity, rel.
Time, ms
P
I
3500
3000
J
2500
2000
1500
O
1000
500
0
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
1000
Time, ms
Fig. 6. Kautsky curve of a healthy green leaf and the expansion of the fast rise phase to the
exponential ‘OJIP’ curve. The analysis of the OJIP curve gives rise to different parameters
for the dark adapted state of the photosynthetic systems (details in text and also refer
Strasser et al., 2004; Stirbet & Govindjee, 2011).
photosynthetic systems (Strasser et al., 2000, 2004; Stirbet & Govindjee, 2011). The slow
phase is known as ‘SMT’ and is assigned to a various factors like energy transduction, ATP
synthesis, CO2 fixation, State transition, non-photochemical Chl a fluorescence quenching
etc. (Stirbet & Govindjee, 2011). The nomenclature for ‘OJIP’ is O for origin or F0 level
measured at 20-50µs after illumination, J and I are intermediate states measured after 2ms
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and 30 ms, and P is the peak or FM (maximal fluorescence). In contrast to the angiosperms,
the foraminifers, zooxanthellae and lichens, show an additional G peak and H (=P) peak
(Tsimilli-Michael et al., 1998; Ilik et al., 2006). The origin G peak is assigned to an early
activation of the ferredoxin-NADP+-reductase, FNR, (Ilik et al., 2006). In heat-stressed
samples, another peak arises between F0 and FJ at 300 µs which is designated as K peak
(Guisse et al., 1995; Srivastava et al., 1997; Strasser, 1997; Misra et al., 2001b, 2007).
The OJIP curve from F0 to FM (=FP) is correlated with the primary photochemical reactions of
PS II (Duysens & Sweers, 1963) and the fluorescence yield is controlled by a PSII acceptor
quencher (called ‘‘Q’’ = QA) (van Gorkom, 1986). Thus, the OJIP transient can be used for
the titration of the photochemical quantum yield of PSII photochemistry, and the electron
transport properties. As such the OJIP fluorescence curve analysis is routinely used to
monitor the effect of various photosynthetic inhibitors, climatic stress, and photosynthetic
mutations altering the structure, architecture and function of the photosynthetic apparatus
(Misra et al., 2001a, b, 2007; Strasser et al., 2004).
The photosynthetic samples kept in darkness, have the electron acceptor side of PSII in
the oxidized state, as there is no electron flow in the photosynthetic electron transport
chain and water oxidation by PS II. So the PSII reaction centers remain open, and the
fluorescence intensity is minimum, i.e. equal to Fo (=’O’ level in OJIP curve). On
illumination with a strong intensity of light that can theoretically excite all the pigment
molecules in the pigment protein bed of the thylakoid membrane, a fast electron transport
process takes place and is recorded by a O-J transition or rise within 2 ms. This is followed
by slow phases J–I and I–P rise, which are known as thermo sensitive or thermal phases.
The FM level (=P) or Fmax is attained within 1s, representing a closed PS II centres or
complete reduction of all the primary electron acceptor in PS II, the QA molecules and
saturating the electron flow on the acceptor side of PS II (Schansker et al., 2005). This
chapter explains the OJIP curve analysis under saturating light intensities and its use in
photosynthetic studies.
The fluorescence induction curve, from photosynthetic samples kept in darkness, are used
empirically and commonly using F0 or FM values. The difference between FM and F0, known
as the variable fluorescence, FV, and the ratio FV/FM in a healthy plant ranging from 0.78–
0.84 (Bjorkman & Demmig 1987) is used extensively as the maximum quantum yield of
primary PSII photochemistry (Butler & Kitajima, 1975; Palliton, 1976). Considering the
connectivity parameter or the excitation energy migration among PSIIs (Butler, 1978) and
using the relative variable fluorescence at time t, Vt = (Ft – F0)/(FM – F0), the fraction of
closed PSII centers (Bt) can be calculated as
Bt =[QA-]/ [QA-]total, since Vt = Bt/[1 + C (1 - Bt)],
where C is probability of connectivity among the PSIIs. When C = 0, or there is no
connectivity, Vt = Bt. This’separate package model of PSII units’ is the fundamental
postulate of the JIP test (Strasser et al., 2000; 2004; Tsimilli-Michael & Strasser, 2008). In a
recent chapter, Stirbet & Govindjee (2011) revised the JIP-test including the connectivity
parameters, as described above, and given a revision of calculations for fluxes and PSII
performances as shown in Table 1.
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QA
Table 1. Equations and definitions of JIP parameters by Strasser et al. (2004; 2010) and
modified by Stirbet & Govindjee (2011)
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2.4 PAM fluorescence
The widely used chlorophyll fluorescence technique is the so-called quenching analysis of
modulated fluorescence by the saturation pulse method. In this type of measurement system
instead of using a continuous light, a high intensity light mimicking the ‘sun light intensity’
is switched on and off (pulse) at high frequency and the detector is tuned to measure the
fluorescence emission only, thereby providing a more efficient and more powerful system to
measure fluorescence emission in presence of background measuring light (Bradbury &
Baker, 1981; Quick & Horton, 1984; Schreiber et al., 1986; Schreiber, 2004). A leaf is dark
adapted for at least 10-15 min prior to the measurement. The ground fluorescence (Fo) in
darkness is measured by a weak modulating light beam (ML). Then the application of a
saturating pulse (SP) (about 8000 µmol m-2 s-1 for 0.6 - 1 s), raises the fluorescence to a
maximum value, Fm. This measurement allows the determination of the maximum quantum
efficiency of photosystem II (PSII) primary photochemistry, given as Fv/Fm, as described for
the fast chlorophyll fluorescence measurements described in earlier section. This parameter
is often called as ‘intrinsic quantum yield’ (Kitajima & Butler, 1975). Initially after this first
light pulse the actinic light (AL) is switched on (photosynthetic samples are illuminated)
and SP is turned on repeatedly. This induced Fm’ (fluorescence maxima at light adapted
state). The Fm’ increases initially with few pulses and then starts declining (quenching) after
few minutes. The intial phase of rise in fluorescence in light adapted state is called
‘photochemical quenching’ which is ascribed to the photochemical phenomena in
generating reductants and subsequent reduction of carbon dioxide pool in the leaves (van
Kooten & Snell, 1990; Edwards & Baker, 1993) subsequent pulses of saturating light
interrupted with dark period gradually reduces the intensity of fluorescence emission
otherwise known as ‘non-photochemical fluorescence quenching’ or NPQ (Walter & Horton,
1991; Johnson et al., 1993; Oxbrough & Baker, 1997, Niyogi et al., 1997). A typical PAM
fluorescence measurement is shown in Figure 7. The calculation of quenching parameters
Fig. 7. A typical PAM fluorescence signal of a leaf disc. The fluorescence in dark adapted
leaves are denoted by F and in the light adapted state F’ are recorded and different
quenching parameters are measured (see Text).
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needs either a shift from NPQ to photochemical quenching or vice versa. It is not practicable
to shift completely away from NPQ to a complete photochemical quenching situation, so the
alternative of complete shift from photochemical quenching to a NPQ stage is suggested by
many workers (Bradbury & Baker, 1981; Quick & Horton, 1984). The terminology suggested
by van Kooten & Snell (1990) and then modified by Maxwell & Johnson (2000) and Baker
(2008) is used widely.
The sample is first dark adapted. The test is started and Fo, or minimal fluorescence, is
measured without actinic light. Then a saturation pulse (SP) completely closes all the
primary electron acceptors (QA) in PSII by completely reducing PSII. So maximal
fluorescence, Fm, is the result. After the saturation pulse, an actinic light is turned on and the
fluorescent signal declines slowly with the onset of CO2 fixation until it reaches steady state.
Photochemical quenching a measure of open PSII centers, photo-protective nonphotochemical quenching and other heat dissipation mechanisms occur. Saturation pulses
during steady state photosynthesis provide Fm', maximal fluorescence in light adapted state,
after NPQ has reached equilibrium with photochemistry. qP, or qL, now represents the
fraction of PSII receptors that remain open or oxidized. F’ (or Fs) represents fluorescence
related to current steady state photochemical levels. Then the actinic light is turned off, and
simultaneously far red (FR) illumination is turned on to allow the transfer of electrons
quickly to reduce PSI, and allow the re-oxidation of PSII. Fo' represents this value with unrelaxed non-photochemical quenching. The rising values of the saturation pulses after the
actinic light has been turned off represent the relaxation of NPQ over time. A portion of
NPQ, qE (or Y(NPQ), represents photo-protection mechanisms of thylakoid lumen ΔpH and
the xanthophyll cycle. The remainder of NPQ represents qT, and qI, (or Y(NO). qT is
quenching due to state 1 and state 2 transitions and is negligible in higher plants. qI
represent photo-inhibition and photo-damage (adapted from Fracheboud & Leipner 2003;
http://www.ab.ipw.agrl.ethz.ch/ ~yfracheb/ flex.htm).
2.4.1 Photochemical quenching
As shown in the fast Chl fluorescence measurement, the maximum quantum efficiency of
PSII photochemistry is calculated as:
Fv/Fm = (Fm-Fo) / Fm
A decrease in Fm and/or an increase in Fo results in a decrease in Fv/Fm. The Fo increase is
provoked by dissociation of LHCII from the PSII core complex and is reported to be due to
the free pigments (Misra & Terashima, 2003; Misra et al., 2001a,b, 1998, 2007).
In natural conditions, sun light far exceeds the quantum requirements for photochemistry in
photosynthesis, commonly referred as ‘photoinhibition’ (Misra, 1993; Misra et al. 1997; 2001;
2007). Under these conditions, the PSII RC undergoes photoinduced damages of the D1
protein. The first turn-over of this polypeptide copes up with the photoinhibitory situations.
However, under severe stress, the capacity for repair of damaged PSII RC becomes
suboptimal and an irreversible inhibition of PSII can be detected in vivo as a decrease in the
chlorophyll fluorescence ratio Fv/Fm. So Fv/Fm is often used as a useful parameter to
estimate the extent of photoinhibition of photosynthesis. However, when NPQ induces a
decrease in Fv/Fm, this quantification can be erroneous. However, under photoinhibitory
conditions, NPQ is lowered due to low Fm signal (Misra et al., 2006, 2011). Since
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photoinhibition will reduce the excitation pressure on the reducing site of PSI, these leaves
are often characterised by higher values of Fq'/Fv' (Misra et al. 2003, 2006, 2011).
The application of a SP in the presence of AL allows the determination of the maximum
fluorescence in the light-adapted state (Fm') or of the PSII ‘open centres’. But Fm' shows a
decrease compared to that of Fm value, indicating the presence of NPQ. Genty et al. (1989)
proposed the ‘photochemical quenching’ which later became popularly known as ‘Genty
parameter’ and is calculated as:
Fq'/Fm' = (Fm'-F') / Fm'
Theoretically ‘Genty parameter’ is proportional to the quantum efficiency of PSII
photochemistry in the light adapted state (PSII quantum efficiency = ΦPSII), which is
affected by the level of electron acceptors, e.g. NADP+, available at the acceptor side of
PSI (Oxborough & Baker, 1997). However, Fq'/Fm' is greatly affected by the light intensity.
So precaution has to be done during measurements under natural conditions where
changes in the incident sun light intensity is frequented. This terminology is also used in
the literature as ΦPSII, ΔF/Fm', (Fm'-Ft)/Fm' and (Fm'-Fs)/Fm' (where ΔF = Fq', and Ft and Fs is
equal to F'). Both, the changes in the electron flux on the reducing side of PSII and the
down-regulation of PSII affects Fq'/Fm', as this is the product of Fq'/Fv' (PSII quantum
efficiency factor = coefficient of photochemical quenching (qP) and Fv'/Fm' (maximum
quantum efficiency of PSII). Fv'/Fm' is affected by antenna quenching. Fq'/Fv' or qP is an
approximation of the redox state of the primary electron acceptor QA in the light adapted
state.
qP is a measure of the fraction of open PSII reaction centers and is defined as the coefficients
of photochemical fluorescence quenching (van Kooten & Snel, 1990). In cases where qN is
greater than 0.4 this may not be a good assumption. Under such a condition, the calculation
of qN and qP values are affected. So another parameter – Fod is introduced to minimize the
effect of qN on the calculation of qP (van Kooten & Snel, 1990). Kramer et al. (2004) used qL
as photochemical quenching parameter. It is a measure of the fraction of open PSII reaction
centers. 1- qP, reflects the proportion of closed centers or the “excitation pressure” on PS II
(Maxwell et al.,1994; Misra et al., 2006, 2011).
2.4.2 The rate of linear electron transport in PSII (ETR)
The electron transport rate in PSII (ETR) can be calculated as proposed by Fryer et al. (1998):
ETR = Fq'/Fm' · PFD · αL · (PSII/PSI)
Where:
PFD is the photosynthetic photon flux density in µmol quanta m-2 s-1, measured with a
quantometer;
aL the leaf absorbance, measured with an integrating sphere; and
PSII/PSI = proportion of light absorption by PSII and PSI (assumed value).
The maximum ETR is the sum total of all electron sinks in a chloroplast such as carbon
fixation, photorespiration, nitrate assimilation, Mehler reaction. A perturbation or change in
any of these parameters affects ETR.
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2.4.3 Non-photochemical quenching (NPQ)
Non-photochemical quenching of chlorophyll fluorescence is an indicative of the level of
non-radiative energy dissipation in the LHC II of PSII, which is ascribed to prevent overreduction of the electron transfer chain and, therefore, provides protection from
photodamage. The parameter NPQ is derived from the Stern-Volmer equation and can be
used to follow changes in apparent quencher concentration (Bilger & Bjorkman, 1990). NPQ
is related to the rate constant for excitation quenching by regulated thermal dissipation (k'N).
Non photochemical quenching is measured in plants by several methods depending on the
NPQ limitations. NPQ – the non-photochemical quenching is a measure of heat dissipation
and is the sum total for the photo-protective mechanisms, state transition quenching, and
photo-inhibition (Krause and Weis, 1991; Muller et al., 2001; Finazzi et al., 2006).
NPQ = qE + qT + qI.
NPQ is calculated as: NPQ = (Fm/Fm') - 1
NPQ can occur even at low light intensity. Stress conditions such as high light intensity or
photoinhibition, low internal CO2 concentration due to drought or chilling (low
temperature) accelerate NPQ. So NPQ serves as an index of stress. At moderate light
intensity, the NPQ steady state value is temperature dependent. However, NPQ saturates
after a specific temperature limiting the capacity of quencher, which is altered by
acclimation. Low temperature decreases the rate of NPQ development irrespective of the
light intensity. Bilger and Björkman (1991) demonstrated that the development of NPQ
upon exposure of leaves to excess light is, at least partially, determined by the rate of
zeaxanthin formation (Misra et al., 2006, 2011). In higher plants, NPQ is divided into two
different components (i) rapidly relaxing ΔpH- or energy-dependent NPQ, known as qE and
(ii) a slower photoinhibitory NPQ, known as qI. qE is ΔpH dependent and depends on the
xanthophyll cycle dependent photo-protective mechanisms in the leaf, qT value is negligible
in higher plants and so increasing value of qI indicates enhanced stress in higher plants
(Muller et al. 2001).
This is independent of Fo estimation or the quantification of ‘closed’ PSII RCs and reflects
heat-dissipation of 'excess excitation energy' in the antenna system.
qN is similar to NPQ but requires Fod (dark adapted state after a far-red illumination ) or
Fo’ (light adapted state) for estimation. qN is defined as the coefficient of nonphotochemical fluorescence quenching. The assumptions for using qN is that it affects
primarily the 'variable fluorescence' (Fv) and not the Fo and qN is not greater than 0.4. By
using the Far-Red source after actinic illumination, the PSII acceptors re-oxidized and PSI
is reduced. A new Fod value is measured and used for corrections to the quenching
coefficients (van Kooten & Snel, 1990). NPQ is relatively insensitive to the part of nonphotochemical quenching associated with qN values lower than 0.6 This range of qN is
affected by ΔPH of the thylakoid lumen which is an important aspect of photosynthetic
regulation. (Bilger & Björkman, 1990). Kramer et al. (2004) introduced new quenching
parameters such as Y(NPQ) that represents heat dissipation related to all photoprotective mechanisms and Y(NO) represents all other components that are not photoprotective.
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2.4.4 Calculations for quenching parameters
qP = (Fm’- F) / (Fm’-Fo’)
NPQ = (Fm - Fm’) / (Fm’)
NPQ = qE + qT + qI
qE = Fm’ after rapid relaxation is complete with the actinic light turned off usually one to
ten minutes - Fm’ during steady state fluorescence with actinic light on/Fm’ at steady state.
qT = Fm’ after rapid relaxation is complete usually with the actinic light turned off usually
one hour - Fm’ at qE /Fm’ at steady state.
qI = Fm-Fm’ at qT/ Fm’ at steady state.
qN = Fm - Fm’/ Fm-Fo
qL = qP(Fo’/F’)
Y(NO) = 1/NPQ +1 + qL((Fm/Fo)-1)
Y(NPQ) = 1 - Y - Y(NO)
1 = qL + Y(NPQ) + Y(NO)
3. Applications of chlorophyll fluorescence measurements in plant biology
The primary use of fluorescence has been the estimation of chlorophyll concentration and
pigment-protein interaction studies, stability of thylakoid membranes etc. However, the
relationship between chlorophyll and in vivo fluorescence varies with a wide range of time
and space. These processes included species changes, nutrient concentrations, incident
radiation, etc (Falkowski & Raven, 2007). The use of sun-stimulated fluorescence to estimate
primary productivity is suggested.
Not only that the fluorimetric techniques are used for aquatic plant productivity, but also these
chlorophyll fluorescence measurements, have a wide range application in the field of forestry,
crop or plant productivity estimates and in stress adaptation studies (for reviews see Sayed,
2003; Baker & Rosenquivst, 2004; Rohacek et al., 2008; Strasser et al., 2004; Tsimilli-Michael et
al., 1998; Tsimilli-Michael & Strasser,2008; Srivastava et al., 1995, 1997 ).
An extensive study is done on the application of fluorimetry especially PAM and fast Chl
fluorimetry on the stress adaptation studies in plants. The most widely studied stress is
‘photoinhibition’ as this process is related to the fundamental principle of fluorescence energy
quenching. The role of the xanthophyll cycle in non-photochemical quenching is the most
interesting out come of these photoinhibitory studies using fluorescence parameters (DemmigAdams, et al., 1996; Frank et al., 1994; Horton et al., 1994; Misra et al, 2003; 2006; 2011).
Recently, chlorophyll fluorescence is used as one of the sensitive parameters for biosensors
using thylakoid membranes or algal cells as the transducers (Apostolova et al., 2011;
Dobrikova et al. 2009; Giardi & Pace, 2005; Koblizek et al., 1998; Misra et al., 2003, 2006, 2011;
Raskov et al., 2011; Vladkova et al, 2009, 2011). Besides this fast Chl fluorescence can be used
as a sensitive device for detection of ion/ salt sensitivity and other environmental stress
factors (Misra et al., 2001a,b, 2007).
A consorted effort on the improvement of the instrumentation, miniaturization and
quickness of the data acquisition will help in further information flux in this field which still
has a wide scope and utility.
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4. Acknowledgements
This work was supported by funds from UGC-MRP No.36-302/2008(SR) and DST- INT/
BULGARIA/ B70/06 to ANM. MM acknowledges the award of DST-WoS and UGC PDF for
Women.
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reflecting the complexity of the biological systems. Although the field of biophysics is ever emerging and
innovative, the recent topics covered in this book are contemporary and application-oriented in the field of
biology, agriculture, and medicine. This book contains mainly reviews of photobiology, molecular motors,
medical biophysics such as micotools and hoemodynamic theory.
How to reference
In order to correctly reference this scholarly work, feel free to copy and paste the following:
Amarendra Narayan Misra, Meena Misra and Ranjeet Singh (2012). Chlorophyll Fluorescence in Plant Biology,
Biophysics, Dr. Prof. Dr. A.N. Misra (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-51-0376-9, InTech, Available from:
http://www.intechopen.com/books/biophysics/chlorophyll-fluorescence-in-plant-biology
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