Horse Control and the Bit

q HonsB CoNrnor AND rHe Brr Gail Brownrigg The tr'unction of the Bit schooled, "educated" animal that understands what is required of it. Anyone who has ridden a horse will know that the bridle and bit do not give instant control, like fitting brakes to a car. Only if it understands what is wanted will the animal stop or turn in response to pressure on its mouth. Many A bit is by no means essential. Bedouin prized mares wear a tasseled halter braided from brightly dyed wool and are guidedby a single rein. Penelope Morton gave awonderful display ofadvanced dressage at the Horse ofthe Year Show in London some 40 years ago riding Korbous with only a thin strap around his neck and without a bridle. Many show-jumpers perform best in a hackamore, including a competitor at the 2000 Olympics in Sydney. people make the mistake of thinking that pulling harder or using force will achieve mastery. This simply does not work - the horse's nafural reaction is to resist pressure. It will step sideways to the prod of a fingertip or spur, but if a person pushes on it, it will lean its weight against the person. It can be taught to arch its neck proudly to the lightest touch of the rein, yet if one pulls roughly it will throw up its head, open its mouth, and resist. Driving Ute Dietz (1992) first proposed the concept that bits were originally developed for driving, rather than riding. This idea was foreshadowed by other writers (Moorey 1970:44; Littauer 1969; Littauer and Crouwel 1979:91), who recognized the importance of the early cheekpieces If a horse does not understand or refuses to obey the rider's signals, the bit in itself is not enough to stop it; Victorian literature abounds with stories of runaways. To achieve obedience, the horse must be trained, and novice riders must leam to give commands correctly. The bit provides the means of finger-light communication to indicate changes of speed and direction, like the rapport between for steering. When equids were first hamessed, the yoke system devised for cattle was modified for them by the addition of a flexible collar and later the yoke fork. Draft animals were controlled through the use of individual lines ballroom dancing partners. Riding running to each animal's nose ring. Despite the fact that steering would have been extremely limited, they are shown four abreast, drawing both two- and four-wheeled vehicles (Littauer and Crouwel 1979,frg.6). Not always easy to identify, the earliest equids employed for draft in the Near East were probably donkeys or donkey/onager hybrids, since it is now believed that the onager itself was not domesticated or trained (Postgate 1986:194206). It is not until the end of the third millennium BC The rider can influence his mount by a shift of weight, pressure ofthe knee or heel, or a touch on the horse's neck with the rein or a stick. According to Arrian (Cynegetica i.4 23-24), the Libyans guided their horses with just a switch. Several Roman authors refer to the Numidians riding "without bridles", and a relief on Trajan's column shows that they used just a neck strap (Vigneron 1968:102107, pl. 39). Early representations from the Near East show riders with a stick in one hand while the other hand holds a single line leading to a ring in the animal's nose (Moorey 1970:41, pl. X[, XI[, Littauer and Crouwel 1979:47, figs. 37, 38). This method of control is still used in many parts of the world for oxen, yaks and camels. that domestic horses appear in Near Eastern iconography (Littauer and Crouwel 1979:43). Sometimes a muzzle or low noseband is depicted in early Near Eastern art, such as on the Standard ofUr and shell inlays from Susa and Mari (Littauer and Crouwel 1979, fi.g. 3, 6, l2).It is possible that attempts were made to attach a rein on each side of the noseband in order to turn the animals' heads and make them change direction, but there is no evidence for this. The noseband would have been poorly suited to the donkey for many reasons. It would have a tendency to slip around and any pull on the rein would necessarily be toward the rear and not to the side. These difficulties would be compounded by the inflexibility of the donkey's short, thick neck. Because they do not bend Old prints show horses being taught haute eicole with reins on the cavesson, to save the sensitive mouth from being spoiled by rough use. movements Horsemen of California once trained their mounts in a bosal (hackamore) for several months before putting a bit in their mouths. Nowadays, a snaffle is often introduced at n early stage in training, but the response at first is dull and crude compared to the light feel of a really well 165 Honses er.ro HuMAl.ts: THs EvoruloN or HuvaN-Equnr RelattoNsnns and yield to the rein, donkeys are notoriously difficult to steer. inside face. These have been found at Mycenae, as well as in Egypt, Palestine, Asia Minor, and Assyria (Pohatz 1966;Littauer 1969). in his reconstruction of the Sumerian "battle-car" pulled by two donkeys wearing only cavessons, managed to achieve a turning circle of 18 meters in walk and 33 meters in gallop with the help of Duncan Noble, runners on foot (Duncan Noble, personal communication 1978). However, the difficulties he encountered in both steering and stopping the donkeys were so great that he devised an emergency method of releasing the team from the vehicle as a safety measure. The Sumerians may have had more experience and more time to train their teams, but clearly there were problems to be overcome regarding control. Ancient Evidence for Control Iconographic Evidence Features that these two types of bit have in common are the spikes on the cheekpieces and the striking length of the mouthpiece. The mouthpiece from Gaza measures c. 25.5 cm and that from Tel Haror c. 24 cm(Liltauer and Crouwel 2001:330), which would give a width of approximately 2l cm between the cheekpieces. This is nearly twice as long as a modern bit for a small pony or donkey. Mary Littauer (1969) has pointed out that the long mouthpiece would produce a leverage eflect, still seen in the special "run-out" bit used for trotters that tend to veer to one side during hamess races. The spikes, clearly intended to make the beast turn its head, were incorporated into many bits of later design, and also have their modem counterpart in the brush "prickers" sometimes used today in racing circles. Evidently early bilmakers were preoccupied with steering. Can archaeology shed light on possible solutions to early control of equids? At the beginning of the second millennium BC, light two-wheeled vehicles with spoked wheels are depicted with a pair of draft animals instead of a team of four abreast. In the Syrian examples, the animals were driven from the box by means of two reins to each animal (Littauer and Crouwel 1919:71-2'). In It is interesting that the Tel Haror bit was apparently found beside the jawbone of a donkey, although this identification awaits confirmation from a specialist (Wapnish 1997:352). Stains ofcopper residue on the teeth probably indicate that donkeys at Tell Brak, in Syria (c. 2250 BC) may have also wom metal bits. (Clutton-Brock and Davis still ; Clutton-Brock 200 I ). contrast to the stately progress ofthe previous millennium, appropriate for a religious procession or a royal parade, 1993 :21 the pair was often urged on at full gallop. Their long manes and bushy tails indicate that these draft animals were by that time almost exclusively horses (Littauer and Crouwel 1979:58). Although horses continued to be mentioned in writing less often than donkeys throughout the second millennium BC (Wapnish 1997:336), textual as well as osteological evidence confirms their increasing importance. It is clear that horses were used both in harness and as valued gifts among royalty (Littauer and Crouwel 1979:56-9). The spiked cheekpieces from the Near East have their Archaeological Discoveries of Bits The earliest complete bits from datable contexts have been found in the Near East. The bronze bit from about the 16ft century BC from Tell el Ajjul (ancient Gaza) has been frequently illustrated (P otratz 1966, fi9.46b; Littauer 1969, fig.la; Littauer and Crouwel 1979, fi.9.48). It has circular cheekpieces, like a spoked wheel, with studs on the inner face and a central perforation to hold the long, rigid mouthpiece. Similar examples now in Jerusalem and 5 counterparts in perforated antler discs from eastern Europe, South Russia and Kazakhstan, dating from the early second millennium BC (Kuzmina 1980; Hiittel l98l:36ff, pls.2, 3; Gening, Zdanovich, and Gening 1992). Examples from the Volga-Ural region have three, or more often four pointed studs about a centimeter long that are either inserted as pegs in holes or carved as an integral part ofthe disc. Disk cheekpieces with smooth inner surfaces have been found in the Carpathian Basin (Htittel 1981). Ranging in size from 4 to 9 cm in diameter, they have a circular or rectangular central perforation, measuring 0.5 cm to I cm across, and smaller holes nearer the edge for attachment to the bridle. Some also have incised decoration on the outer face. The majority consists of single finds, but several pairs have come to light. The pairs strengthen the interpretation that they were cheekpieces, and they are generally assumed to have been for a bit with an organic mouthpiece that has since decayed without trace. the Metropolitan Museum of Art, in New York, cannot be dated as accurately (Littauer and Crouwel 1982:178, pl. XV[; Littauer and Crouwel 1986:163-167). Recently, however, another almost identical bit has come to light at Tel Haror, in the northem Negev, in excavations of a temple courtyard from the lTth century BC (Oren 1997, fig. 8.17; Littauer and Crouwel 2001). Another type of bit has a jointed mouthpiece that runs through cheekpieces of narrow rectangular form also with pointed studs on the Apart from the fact that these cheekpieces must have been designed to press on either side ofthe horse's face, it is not exactly clear how they would have been held in place, nor how effective their action might have been. Indeed, there is no direct evidence that they were used with a mouthpiece at all. They might have come into being as reinforcements or links for a noseband. Practical experiments seem to be the best way to find out how these discs could have functioned. 166 Gut Baowxrucc: Honss CoNrnor Frcunr 1. Bnrorn l. THs nops cout-D BE pASSED THRoucH Functional Experiments with Early eNn rnn Brr TI{E MourH oR UNDER THE CHIN. Cheekpiece Design By reconstructing different types of bridles using reproduction cheekpieces, it has been possible to experiment with various ways in which they might have been used. The experimental cheekpieces were precise replicas of antler ones from the Middle Bronze Age site of Utevka, a late Middle Bronze Age Potapovka-culture cemetery near Samara, Russia, dated to between 2000- I 800 BC (calibrated) (Vasilev et al. 1995). Similar ones have been found across Eastem Europe, Russia, and northem Kazakhstan. The originals were measured in terms of their thickness, diameter, and hole sizes. Clay replicas were then made, duplicating all metric and morphological aspects as closely as possible. Rubber molds of the clay replicas were made and epoxy casts were poured from the molds. The epoxy casts were even stained to resemble the original antler cheekpieces. The weights ofthe epoxy casts are very comparable to the antler ones. It is possible that the epoxy might be somewhat more durable and resistant to breakage than antler, but otherwise, should yield the same results. Bridle I: Bridle with Soft Bit A basic design was used to create a reinforced halter and a bridle with a "soft" bit (Figures I and 2). The initial experiments showed that if the cheek pieces were supported by a headpiece alone the rope passing through the central hole would cause the cheek pieces to twist l, wITH TrrE RopE AS A "soFT" MourHpIECE. TnE crnprprpcEs ARE HELD IN pLACE By A HEADpIEcE AND A FIcuns 2. Bruorp outwards. As they tumed, the points no longer touched the horse's cheeks and the bridle did not remain in position. A HALF NOSEBAND. 167 Honses eNu HurrmNs: TuB EvorurIoN or HuvaN-Equmr RrrerloNsnns noseband, however, kept the discs flat against the horse's head and held the bridle more firmly in place. Since there appea$ to be only one row of holes for attachment, these perforations were used tojoin the cheek piece to a form of headpiece derived from a simple halter. Such basic halters were probably invented for leading horses long before disc cheekpieces appeared. A bridle of similar type, consisting of a half-nose-band (only across the front of the horse's face rather than encircling the whole jaw) attached to the headpiece, was in use throughout antiquity and can still be found today in Mongolia, Tibet, and Kazakhstan. operating at right angles to the perforations. In my opinion, when a long mouthpiece was used, it may have been placed projecting to one side in order to give maximum results in only one direction, perhaps because an animal was difficult, or habitually positioned to the outside. This would also reduce the risk of getting caught up with the adjacent horse or even poking a teammate in the eye. It is Although this bridle was hied on various horses, the most interesting results were observed when trying it for the first time on a mare that had become rather temperamental and uncooperative before an audience at the "Horses and Humans" Symposium in Pittsburgh in October, 2000. At first, it was fitted as a "bitless bridle", passing the rope under her chin like a halter. She was driven from behind, using a long rein on either side. Although it was possible to guide her by pulling on one rein to tum her, Ftcunr 3, Bn ron Bp.rtrr 2, wttrt A RIGID wooDEN MourHpIECE. Irs rorer LENGTH (25crra) IS BASED oN A sECoND MILLENNruM BRONZE BIT FROM GAZA. TgE EARLIEST BIT FROM A DATABLE coNrExr (17 she became increasingly more upset by the pressure of the rope under her chin. The rope would not release because of the friction caused by the small size of the perforation in the cheekpieces. She began to throw her head in irritation, pull against the rein pressure, and become very diffrcult to crNrunv BC), rnorra Ter Hanon, Is SIMILAR IN DESIGN, manage. The rope was then placed in her mouth as a "soft" bit. The transformation was immediate. Walking behind her, I was able to turn her by the slightest pressure ofone rein. I could stop her by a voice command and a light pull on both reins simultaneously. Although she had been trained to ride, the mare had never been driven previously. She was clearly accustomed to wearing a bit and understood the signals given through the reins. When ridden, she normally would respond to the rider's weight and leg pressure. Yet with the bit and the disc cheekpieces, I felt that I could not only control her from behind, but that I could precisely manage each step that she took. The pointed studs pressing on her cheeks and on either side ofher lips did not seem to upset her or cause her any discomfort as long as she responded obediently to slight rein pressure. Probably if she had misbehaved, the effect of the studs would have been even more effective. An important factor was the use of an instant release ofpressure as a reward for obedience. Bridle 2: Bridle with Rigid Mouthpiece A rigid mouthpiece made from a thick twig was used in this case (Figures 3 and 4). Based on the dimensions of the early bits from Gaza and Tel Haror (Littauer and Crouwel 2001), the mouthpiece was 25 cm in length. As a result, it projected some distance outside the horse's Frcunr 4. Brurrp 2. Tns pnorscrlNc mouth, giving a strong leverage effect, as Littauer (1969) predicted. Although the mouthpiece could slide through the cheekpieces, it did not move freely when backward pressure was applied to the reins because the reins were END oF THE LoNG MOUTHPIECE MAY IIAVE PROVIDED LEVERAGE IN AN EFFORT TO IMpRovE STEERING. Cnaplor rEAMS WERE yoKED IN PAIRS, so THIS LONG END MAY IIAVE BEEN TO THE OUTSIDE. r68 G,ut BnowNrucc: Honsp CoNrnor, eNo firs Brr have the effect of compressing the horse's jaw that was produced by the flexible mouthpiece of Bridle l, but acted more on the bars (the diastema between the incisors and the premolars where a bit is placed in a horse's mouth). Although the extended mouthpiece gave a stronger important to remember that paired draft under a yoke was the usual method of hamessing and that single draft was apparently rare in antiquity. Ateam offour equids abreast seems to have become less common by the end of the third millennium BC, probably due to improved hamess design and the need for increased maneuverability. Quadrigas do not reappear until the introduction of the heavier Assyrian chariot and the Greek racing chariot, both using different hamessing systems, in the 76 century BC. effect through leverage, it should be remembered that the harshness of any bit depends on the way the reins are handled, as well as on its mechanical effect. The apparent severity of action may result in a clearer signal transmitted to the horse. Surprisingly, the pony used for this trial did not bite through the wooden mouthpiece. Horses do chew on fwigs of quite large diameter to extract the sap; however, to do this they must be able to break the twig and push it back to the molar teeth. Equids sometimes lift the mouthpiece with their tongue and bite on it when they are neryous or excited, although the animals used for these trials did not exhibit the behavior. Neither the braided sisal rope, nor the wooden mouthpiece showed signs of abrasion after use. Bridle 3: Bridle with a Broad Nosebond For the third bridle, the discs were used to reinforce a broad leather noseband (Figures 5 and 6). Initially, the cheekpieces were fitted so that the noseband was on the inside. However, it was found that unless holes were made in the noseband to accommodate the studs on the inner face of the cheekpieces, the studs would be made ineffective. On the other hand, the decoration on the outside of The pony was easy to control using this bit. I was able to observe the position of the bar in the mouth of both a horse and a donkey, and note the action of the reins. It was particularly significant that in my reconstruction, the backward pull of the reins did not move the mouthpiece sideways through the cheekpieces. It therefore did not several discs would seem to preclude the noseband being fitted against the outer faces ofthe cheekpieces. A broad noseband would therefore have to be laced to one edge of the disc. If used as a "bitless bridle," the part of the band that passes under the chin will pull too tight, causing irritation and uncooperative behavior as Bridle I did, BE PASSED UNDER THE HORSE,S CHIN INSTEAD oF TI{ROUGH ITS FIcunr 6. Bruorr 3. Trm NosBsaND NEEDS To BE suppoRrED To pREvENT rr FRoM DRopprNG DowN IN FRoNT. WrrEN rr rs usED wrru TIIE RopE TrrRoucH TrIE MourH AS A "soFT" BIT, TI{E MOUTH, BUT IN EACH CASE THE LATTER WAS MORE SUCCESSFUL. NOSEBAND IS LOW AND UNCOMFORIABLE FOR TTIE HORSE. FIcuns 5. Bnrorp 3, ustNc rrIE cHEEKrTEcES To RETNFoRCE A LEATIIER NOSEBAND. OW ATT OF TTIE BRIDLES, THE ROPE COULD 169 Honsss eNr HumNs: TnE EvorurIoN or HuuaN-Equme RnratloNsnrs unless it is fixed to prevent it from sliding through. If it is loose, there is also a tendency for the noseband to slip sideways. Rein pressure is effective for stopping, but in general this arrangement would be more suitable for riding and perhaps neck-reining than for driving from behind. Used with a bit, whether "soft" or rigid, the nose strap rests very low, pressing on the sensitive cartilage. While low nosebands as well as muzzles are depicted in the third millennium, for example on the "Standard ofUr," (Woolley 1954,p1.13; Littauer and Crouwel 1979,fi9.3), their effect must have hindered the animal's breathing. No doubt, as a result, their stopping power must have thus been extremely powerful. Several modem bridle accessories place pressure on the nose, particularly various "anti-pulling" devices, but none of them is designed to lie quite as low as this one did. For people who had just previously been using a nose ring, this may not have been perceived as a problem. It is true that even an inexperienced animal can be made to yield to pressure on the nose, especially if the reins are attached near the front of a reinforced noseband or cavesson. However, the sensitivity of a horse's mouth, once the animal is properly hained, cannot be matched by its responses to pressure on the nasal bone. Summary Iconographic evidence indicates that the use of paired reins on either side of each draft animal superseded the single line to a nose ring for driving in the Near East by the early second millennium BC. However, ridden animals continued to be depicted wearing nose rings (Littauer and Crouwel 1979). This is bome out by the two common Akkadian words for reins, derived in the one case from the word for nose (appatu), and in the other that for jaw @Ja@ (Moorey 197 0:42; Kendall 197 5:17 6-7). The spiked discs from South Russia function well as cheekpieces for bits. While the actual use of the smaller holes as a means of attachment has not been resolved, the size of the larger central perforation would be more suitable for a mouthpiece - either soft or rigid - than for cords/thongs of a headpiece or reins. We have no way of knowing whether they were preceded by a noseband or used in conjunction with one. However, it seems clear that they were designed to facilitate steering. The discs prevent the mouthpiece from being pulled right through the horse's mouth, while the internal spikes reinforce the signal to tum. The reins serye as a means of communication, through the pressure of the bit on the horse's sensitive jaw. with footmen in attendance, whether for ceremony or travel, and for messengers following a well-trodden path. The occupants of the cumbersome, four-wheeled vehicles of the third millennium and the ceremonial straddle-car (Littauer and Crouwel 1973) were drawn by teams of four abreast. They were presumably high-ranking members of society who were aristocratic or sacerdotal and were unlikely to have traveled without a retinue of attendants who could help to control the animals. The "battle-wagon" depicted on the Standard of Ur may have been used to intimidate the enemy as well as to impress, but without a pivoting front axle, sharp turns and swift maneuvers were not possible. With the inhoduction of the light chariot drawn by a pair of horses traveling at speed, some new means of control was needed. The answer seems to have been the bit. This innovation allowed a man standing more than two meters behind his team to steer them effectively. A rein on either side of each animal gave individual and definitive contact with each one. As the horses became more highly trained, a skilled charioteer could maneuver them with greater precision. The chariot would enable warriors to be carried swiftly into the battlefield or to give chase and the archer to be brought into range for his weapon and whisked away again. The invention ofthe bit, developed for the purpose of controlling draft animals at speed from the box, allowed the horse-drawn chariot to bring a new dimension to warfare. Further research may help to clarifu the origin of spiked cheekpieces. Were they introduced to the Near East with the horse from the Eurasian steppe? Or was the bit invented to manage hard-to-steer donkeys after lighter, faster vehicles were developed, and then transferred to the more responsive horse team? The bit in the hands of a skilled driver would certainly enable the light chariot to achieve its optimum potential as a means of swift personal transport for hunting and war - a role it was to fulfill for a thousand years. Aclvtowledgments I am indebted to Ute Dietz, who first proposed the idea that the bit was invented for driving, which has brought together many pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. I wish to thank Sandra Olsen, who arranged for copies of the Russian cheekpieces to be made and encouraged me to experiment with them, and Mary Littauer for all her encouragement over many years ofcorrespondence and discussion on equine matters. Artist Daniel Pickering very kindly made the replicas of the Ut€vka cheekpieces used in these experiments. Conclusions References Cited Archaeological evidence indicates a clear association Clutton-Brock, between the horse, the spoke-wheeled chariot, and the use of bits. A nose ring can be used for leading an animal - ox, ass, or camel - or for riding it when precision is not required. This would be adequate for a priest or nobleman J. 2001 Ritual Burials of a Dog and Six Domestic Donkeys. In Excavations at Tbll Brak, Vol. 2: Nagar in the Third Millennium BC edited by D. t70 t G,ut BnowNRrcc: HoRSE Colqrnor eNo rlrB Brr l( Oates, J. Oates, and H. McDonald,pp.327-338. McDonald Institute Monographs, Cambridge. Clutton-Brock, J, and S. Davis 1993 More Donkeys from Tell Brak. Iraq 55:209-221. Moorey, P.R.S. 1970 Pictorial Evidence forthe History of Horse-riding in Iraq Before the Kassite Period. Iraq 32:36-50. Oren, E.D. (ed.) 1997 Dietz,U.L. 1992 Zur Frage vorbronzezeitlicher Trensenbelege in Europa. Germania 7 0:17 -36. Gening, V. F., Zdanovich, G.B. and Gening, V.V. 1992 Sintashta: Archeologicheskie Pamyatniki Ariyskikh Plemen Uralo-Kazakhstanskikh Stepy. Uralskoe Otdelenie Rossiyskoy Akademii Nauk i Chelyabinskiy Gosudarstvenniy Universitet, Chelyabinsk, Russia. Hiittel, H.-G. 1981 Bronzezeitliche Trensen in Mittel- und Osteuropa. Prdhistorische Bronzefunde I 6.2, Munich. Kendall, T.B. 1975 Warfare and Military Matters in the Nuzi Tablets. PA. Postgate, J.N. 1986 The Equids of Sumer, Again. In Equids in the Ancient World, Yol. 1, edited by R.H. Meadow and H.P. Uerpmann, pp. 194-206. Reichert Verlag, Wiesbaden. Potratz, J.A.H. Dr Ludwig 1966 Die Pferdetrensen des alten Orient. Analect Orientalia 41, Rome. Vasiliev, L B., P.F. Kuznetsov, andA. Seminova 1995 Pamyatniki Potapovskogo tipa v lesostepnom ln nry Ph.D dissertation, Brandeis University. Ann Povolzh'e. Arbor, Michigan, MI. Volgo-Ural'y a,pp. 5 -37 . Izdatel'stvo Samarskogo Gosudarstvennogo Pedagogicheskogo Univer- Kuzmina, E.E. 1980 The Hyl<sos: New Historical and Archaeological Perspectives, University Museum Monograph 96. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Esch€ Raz o Diskovidiykh Psalikh Evraziyskikh Stepy. Kratkie Soobshcheniya siteta, Samara. Institutq Vigneron, P. 1968 Le Cheval dans I'Antiquift Arkheologii 161: 8-21. Grhco-Romaine (des Guerres Mediques aw Grandes Invasions). Contribution d I'Histoire des Techniques (2 Littauer, M.A. 1969 Bits and Pieces. Antiquity 43:280-300. Littauer, M.A. and J.H. Crouwel 1973 The Vulture Stela and an Early Type of Twowheeled Vehicle. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 32:324-329. 1979 llheeled Vehicles and Ridden Animals in the Ancient Near East. E. J. Brill, Leiden. 1982 A Bridle Bit of the Second Millennium BC in Jerusalem. Levant 14:178, Pl. XV[. 1986 A Near Eastem Bridle Bit of the Drevnie Indoiranskie Kul vols.), pp. 102-107 . Annales de l'Est, publi6es par la Facultd des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines. Mdmoire No.35, Nancy. Wapnish, P. 1997 Middle Bronze Equid Burials at Tell Jemmeh and a Reexamination of a Purportedly 'Hyksos' Practice. In The Hyl<sos: New Historical and Archaeo lo gical P erspectives, editedby E.D. Oren, pp.335-367 . University Museum Monograph 96. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA. Woolley, Sir L. 1954 Excavations at Ur, a Record of Twelve Years' Work.Thomas Y. Crowell Co., NewYork, NY. Second Millennium BC in New York. Levant 18:163167. 2001 The Earliest Evidence for Early Bridle Bits. Oxford Journal of Archaeologt 20(4):329-338. 17t