RELS1000 A Notes - 2/3 (2019)

Christianity – Summary of Lecture Notes - Review for Test Early Religious and Political History Christ Born in Bethleham, Jesus founded a religious movement (out of Judaism), with twelve key disciples or Apostles, which eventually became the official religion of the Roman Empire. Although of Jewish background, Jesus was critical of what he saw to be the hypocrisy and pedantic legalism of the Pharisees (see text book). The tensions between Jesus and the Jewish establishment reached their climax when he was betrayed by Judas and crucified by the Roman authorities. After his death, the “Jesus movement” gained enough momentum to become a concern for the Roman Empire. Christians were accused of all kinds of gross indecencies (for example, cannibalism and atheism) to justify persecution. The stories of Jesus’s life were later recorded in the Gospels (Mathew, Mark, Luke and John), which open the “New Testament.” Paul of Tarsus; the “Apostle” Paul (d. 67) (previously known as Saul) He was a pivotal figure in the formative period of Christianity, considered by many to be the most important theological figure in Christianity, and even the real founder of the religion as we understand it today. Although he never met Jesus in person, he had a religious experience on his way to Damascus where he heard the voice of Christ (“Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me?”) which led to his conversion. Although initially a great opponent of Christianity, he later became an influential missionary for the faith. He contributed in particular to the spread of Christianity among non-Jews → did not require of non-Jews (Gentiles) to observe the Torah, i.e. Jewish Law. Roman Emperors and Persecution of Early Christians Until the advent of Constantine, the Christian movement experienced periods of persecution under various Roman Emperors. The emperor Nero (d. 68) was responsible for instituting the early persecutions against Christians. Peter, the disciple of Jesus, was executed for his role in the spread of early Christianity. The last significant wave of persecution against Christians began under the rule of Diocletian (d. 311), who also targeted Machicheans (perceived as a foreign, Persian threat). Although he abdicated his throne for reasons of ill health, Galerius continued his policies, until he too developed a painful bowel disease (possibly bowel cancer). Galerius took this to be a punishment for his persecution of Christians, and so rescinded and abolished his oppressive policies. He died shortly afterwards. Constantine (d. 337) Eventually Constantine (d. 337), son of Constantius, assumed power in the Roman Empire. In the beginning of the 4th century, he had a religious conversion experience in which he saw either a cross (or another symbol of Christ → chi-rho [see text]) in the sky, besides which were the words, “in this sign you shall conquer.” Since the vision occurred shortly before a decisive battle, he had crosses painted on the shields of his soldiers, believing it to be a sign or prophecy. He interpreted the victory which followed in the ensuing battle to be a confirmation of the prophetic nature of the vision as well as the truth of the Christian faith. The religious experience led to his conversion. He would eventually become the most influential political figure in the history of the religion, contributing to the eventual conversion of the Roman Empire, although the Empire did not officially adopt Christianity as state religion until later (see Theodosius below). Shortly following his conversion experience, Constantine issued the Edict of Milan which extended rights and privileges to Christians. Constantine’s sincerity – Some have questioned how genuine his conversion was. According to some pagan sources, Constantine adopted Christianity because pagan priests refused to absolve him for the crimes of killing his son and wife. Christian priests, on the other hand, were willing to grant him absolution and forgiveness. Consumed by guilt, he converted to Christianity desiring to wipe his conscience clean. Since however these motives are imputed to him by pagan sources, they have to be taken with a grain of salt. Constantine’s late baptism (see text book), shortly before he died, also has led some to question sincerity of his conversion. But, in his defense, it has been argued that he may have delayed his baptism to save the opportunity of “wiping his slate clean” until the last period of his life. St. Helena (Constantine’s mother) also converted to Christianity, and contributed, with Constantine, to the construction of important churches. → Some of the most important churches built under Constantine’s rule were the Church of the Nativity (site of Christ’s birth; actual place of birth marked by star), the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (site of death and burial of Christ), and St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. The Hagia Sophia in Istanbul (previously Constantinople) was also built by Constantine, but later rebuilt by Justinian. After Constantine Julian the Apostate (d. 363) later emerged as an Emperor, and tried unsuccessfully to reverse the Christianization of empire and restore the older pagan religion. He is the “Apostate” because he left Christianity, into which he was born, for paganism. (Apostasy = to leave a faith; opposite of conversion.) Julian was killed in battle. The Emperor Theodosius (d. 395) made Christianity (of the Nicene Creed) the official religion of Roman Empire. The empire split in two shortly after his death, with the eastern regions becoming the Byzantine Empire. Christianity would become a major political player, and would eventually confront the Islamic empire in the 7th century, in its eastern regions. Beliefs: Early Theological History Doctrine Orthodoxy (“correct doctrine” → from ortho [correct, straight] + doxa [opinion, doctrine]) within a given religious tradition is usually established in “hindsight,” after a religious tradition more or less establishes itself, usually a few generations after the founder of a religion. In the words of W. Oxtoby, “orthodoxy is the consensus one affirms with the wisdom of hindsight as having been intended all along.” Heterodoxy and Heresy (incorrect doctrine) generally refer to the positions of a minority, or minorities, within that religious tradition. Theology → literally the “science of God” or “science of things divine.” Used in a general sense to refer to the study of religious doctrines. One who specializes in the study of theology, as a believer, is a “theologian.” One who specializes without believing or identifying with the religion is simply a scholar of religious studies, a philosopher, or a historian of ideas. Theologians are responsible for the formulation of creed (a statement of one’s religious beliefs or doctrines). Development of Christian theology Paul of Tarsus played an important role in shaping and developing early Christian doctrine. Peter, the Apostle of Christ → the first bishop of Rome. The Pope in Catholicism traces himself back to Christ through Peter. The Church Fathers were responsible for the theological formulation of early Christian doctrine. Although important as leading intellectual figures, they were not necessarily “saints,” though none lived impious or licentious lives while Christian. Apostolic Fathers (approximately 50 CE-150 CE) - Earliest of church fathers, some of whom met the Apostles of Christ directly. None met the historical Christ. Origen (d. 254) – An important church father, born to pious Christian parents; seeks martyrdom at hands of Roman authorities after father’s execution but persuaded against such a course of action by his pious Christian mother. He is an important figure in the development of the science of biblical exegesis (= science of interpretation, of determining the correct meaning of a text → in the context of religion, exegesis usually refers to understanding sacred scripture). Origen also develops Christian philosophy; articulates Christian doctrine through the language of Greek philosophy. Although considered a Church father, some of his ideas are later rejected by the church, such as his doctrine of universal salvation (= apocatastis [know this term] → that all souls will eventually be saved, including heathens, non-Christians and even demons), as well as the doctrine of the preexistence of souls. Arian Controversy Very early on in Christianity, Christian theologians were confronted with the task of determining Christian doctrine, particularly the nature of Christ, the incarnation, and the Trinity. A council eventually met in the beginning of the 4th century in Nicea to determine and delineate Christian doctrine. The impetus for this council came because of the theological controversy surrounding the teachings of Arius (d. 336) What did Arius teach? He denied that Christ was God, i.e. that he was divine. Only God, for Arius, was pre-eternal. Christ was created “out of nothing.” Among the reasons for his rejection of the divinity of Christ was his desire to preserve the unity of God, as well as (in his view) the absence of persuasive scriptural evidence for claims of Christ’s divinity. Arius did however affirm a number of other positions that were held by his opponents, such as (1) the Virgin Birth; (2) Christ as the “intermediary” through which God created the world, (3) Christ as Logos or Word of God, (5) the death and resurrection of Christ, including atonement of sins through his death. In other words, he felt there were both theological and Scriptural reasons for denying that Christ was God. The controversy his ideas initiated in the 4th century came be known as the “Trinitarian controversy.” Arius was opposed by a number of authorities, chief among them Athanasius. Among his reasons for rejecting Arianism Not to be confused with “Aryanism” (!) = Nazi doctrine of race. (= the position of Arius) were that (1) a practice of worshipping Christ had already developed, and that (2) only a God, it was believed, could die and atone for the sins of the world (→ no mortal could carry the burdens of humankind’s sins.). Like Arius, Athanasius and those who supported him felt there were theological and Scriptural reasons for affirming the divinity and pre-eternity of Christ. At the theological level, a denial of Christ’s divinity would threaten the inner-coherency and overall logic of Christian doctrine. Nicene Creed Nicene Creed – Established Christian “orthodoxy.” It was the result of the first council of its kind (Council of Nicea in 325), which brought together 200-300 bishops (Arius was not invited). The result of the Council → Rejection of Arius’s doctrines concerning non-divine nature of Christ, as well as the first official formulation of Christian creed. All major Christian denominations today accept the Nicene Creed → hence the importance attached to it. The creed unites, doctrinally, the Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant Churches as well as the “Oriental” Churches of the Near and Middle-East (→ Monophysites and Nestorians [see below]) Text of Nicene Creed (325 CE): [know this well, as well as commentary from class. There are very specific questions from the creed on the test] “We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker [or Creator] of all things visible and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father the only-begotten; that is, of the essence of the Father, God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father; by whom all things were made both in heaven and on earth; who for us men, and for our salvation, came down and was incarnate and was made man; he suffered, and the third day he rose again, ascended into heaven; from thence he shall come to judge the living and the dead. And in the Holy Ghost. But those who say: 'There was a time when he was not;' and 'He was not before he was made;' and 'He was made out of nothing,' or 'He is of another substance' or 'essence,' or 'The Son of God is created,' or 'changeable,' or 'alterable' — they are condemned by the holy catholic and apostolic Church.” After Nicene Creed of 325. Next great controversy → “Christological controversy” → develops in the 5th century and centers on determining the exact nature of Christ: To what extent was he human, to what extent was he divine? How did the divine and the human meet in Christ? Three responses were formulated: Nestorian position → Christ is two separate persons, one divine and one human person. The two do not interpenetrate. For Nestorians, God, in Christ, does not suffer, does not die, and is not born. It is only the human Christ that suffers, is born, and then dies. For Nestorians, Mary is not the “Mother of God” but instead the mother of the human Christ. This position is later rejected by the emerging Church. For Nestorians Christ is in a sense like a “china doll,” in which a human Christ encloses and contains a divine Christ. The two are separate. Nestorians were exiled to the Near and Middle-East. Monophysite Position → Christ is one person, with only a divine Nature (Monophysite → from “mono” (one) + physis (nature). For Monophysites, Christ is like a divine ocean into which a drop of humanity falls. Only the ocean remains, only God remains → hence one divine nature. This position is rejected by the emerging Church. Monophysites were exiled to the Near and Middle-East. View of the Latin and Greek Churches → Christ is one person, with both a divine and a human nature. Both of these natures are united and interpenetrate, so that Christ is both fully man and fully God at once. This is position accepted by Catholics, Protestants, and Orthodox Christians. Later Divisions Break within the Church leads to emergence of Catholic and the Orthodox Church. Break with Catholicism leads to Protestantism → led by Martin Luther. (read text on three branches) PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 1