TLFeBOOK
Electrical and Electronic Principles and
Technology
TLFeBOOK
To Sue
TLFeBOOK
Electrical and Electronic Principles
and Technology
Second edition
JOHN BIRD, BSc(Hons) CEng CMath MIEE FIMA FIIE(ELEC) FCollP
OXFORD AMSTERDAM BOSTON LONDON NEW YORK PARIS
SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO
TLFeBOOK
Newnes
An imprint of Elsevier Science
Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP
200 Wheeler Rd, Burlington MA 01803
Previously published as Electrical Principles and Technology for Engineering
Reprinted 2001
Second edition 2003
Copyright 2000, 2003, John Bird. All rights reserved
The right of John Bird to be identified as the author of this work
has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988
No part of this publication may be
reproduced in any material form (including
photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic
means and whether or not transiently or incidentally
to some other use of this publication) without the
written permission of the copyright holder except
in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a
licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd,
90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England W1T 4LP.
Applications for the copyright holder’s written permission
to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed
to the publisher
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 0 7506 5778 2
For information on all Newnes publications visit our website at www.newnespress.com
Typeset by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India
Printed and bound in Great Britain
TLFeBOOK
Contents
Preface ix
SECTION 1 Basic Electrical and
Electronic Engineering Principles 1
1 Units associated with basic electrical
quantities 3
1.1 SI units 3
1.2 Charge 3
1.3 Force 4
1.4 Work 4
1.5 Power 4
1.6 Electrical potential and e.m.f. 5
1.7 Resistance and conductance 5
1.8 Electrical power and energy 6
1.9 Summary of terms, units and their
symbols 7
2 An introduction to electric circuits 9
2.1 Electrical/electronic system block
diagrams 9
2.2 Standard symbols for electrical
components 10
2.3 Electric current and quantity of
electricity 10
2.4 Potential difference and
resistance 12
2.5 Basic electrical measuring
instruments 12
2.6 Linear and non-linear devices 12
2.7 Ohm’s law 13
2.8 Multiples and sub-multiples 13
2.9 Conductors and insulators 14
2.10 Electrical power and energy 15
2.11 Main effects of electric
current 17
2.12 Fuses 18
3 Resistance variation 20
3.1 Resistance and resistivity 20
3.2 Temperature coefficient of
resistance 22
3.3 Resistor colour coding and ohmic
values 25
4 Chemical effects of electricity 29
4.1 Introduction 29
4.2 Electrolysis 29
4.3 Electroplating 30
4.4 The simple cell 30
4.5 Corrosion 31
4.6 E.m.f. and internal resistance of a
cell 31
4.7 Primary cells 34
4.8 Secondary cells 34
4.9 Cell capacity 35
Assignment 1 38
5 Series and parallel networks 39
5.1 Series circuits 39
5.2 Potential divider 40
5.3 Parallel networks 42
5.4 Current division 45
5.5 Wiring lamps in series and in
parallel 49
6 Capacitors and capacitance 52
6.1 Electrostatic field 52
6.2 Electric field strength 53
6.3 Capacitance 54
6.4 Capacitors 54
6.5 Electric flux density 55
6.6 Permittivity 55
6.7 The parallel plate capacitor 57
6.8 Capacitors connected in parallel
and series 59
6.9 Dielectric strength 62
6.10 Energy stored in capacitors 63
6.11 Practical types of capacitor 64
6.12 Discharging capacitors 66
7 Magnetic circuits 68
7.1 Magnetic fields 68
7.2 Magnetic flux and flux
density 69
7.3 Magnetomotive force and
magnetic field strength 70
7.4 Permeability and B–H curves 70
7.5 Reluctance 73
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CONTENTS
7.6 Composite series magnetic
circuits 74
7.7 Comparison between electrical
and magnetic quantities 77
7.8 Hysteresis and hysteresis loss 77
Assignment 2 81
8 Electromagnetism 82
8.1 Magnetic field due to an electric
current 82
8.2 Electromagnets 84
8.3 Force on a current-carrying
conductor 85
8.4 Principle of operation of a simple
d.c. motor 89
8.5 Principle of operation of a
moving-coil instrument 89
8.6 Force on a charge 90
9 Electromagnetic induction 93
9.1 Introduction to electromagnetic
induction 93
9.2 Laws of electromagnetic
induction 94
9.3 Inductance 97
9.4 Inductors 98
9.5 Energy stored 99
9.6 Inductance of a coil 99
9.7 Mutual inductance 101
10 Electrical measuring instruments and
measurements 104
10.1 Introduction 104
10.2 Analogue instruments 105
10.3 Moving-iron instrument 105
10.4 The moving-coil rectifier
instrument 105
10.5 Comparison of moving-coil,
moving-iron and moving-coil
rectifier instruments 106
10.6 Shunts and multipliers 106
10.7 Electronic instruments 108
10.8 The ohmmeter 108
10.9 Multimeters 109
10.10 Wattmeters 109
10.11 Instrument ‘loading’ effect 109
10.12 The cathode ray
oscilloscope 111
10.13 Waveform harmonics 114
10.14 Logarithmic ratios 115
10.15 Null method of
measurement 118
10.16 Wheatstone bridge 118
10.17
10.18
10.19
10.20
D.C. potentiometer 119
A.C. bridges 120
Q-meter 121
Measurement errors 122
11 Semiconductor diodes 127
11.1 Types of materials 127
11.2 Silicon and germanium 127
11.3 n-type and p-type materials 128
11.4 The p-n junction 129
11.5 Forward and reverse bias 129
11.6 Semiconductor diodes 130
11.7 Rectification 132
12 Transistors 136
12.1 The bipolar junction
transistor 136
12.2 Transistor action 137
12.3 Transistor symbols 139
12.4 Transistor connections 139
12.5 Transistor characteristics 140
12.6 The transistor as an
amplifier 142
12.7 The load line 144
12.8 Current and voltage gains 145
12.9 Thermal runaway 147
Assignment 3 152
Formulae for basic electrical and electronic
engineering principles 153
SECTION 2 Further Electrical and
Electronic Principles 155
13 D.C. circuit theory 157
13.1 Introduction 157
13.2 Kirchhoff’s laws 157
13.3 The superposition theorem 161
13.4 General d.c. circuit theory 164
13.5 Thévenin’s theorem 166
13.6 Constant-current source 171
13.7 Norton’s theorem 172
13.8 Thévenin and Norton equivalent
networks 175
13.9 Maximum power transfer
theorem 179
14 Alternating voltages and currents 183
14.1 Introduction 183
14.2 The a.c. generator 183
14.3 Waveforms 184
14.4 A.C. values 185
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CONTENTS
14.5 The equation of a sinusoidal
waveform 189
14.6 Combination of waveforms 191
14.7 Rectification 194
Assignment 4 197
15 Single-phase series a.c. circuits 198
15.1 Purely resistive a.c. circuit 198
15.2 Purely inductive a.c. circuit 198
15.3 Purely capacitive a.c. circuit 199
15.4 R –L series a.c. circuit 201
15.5 R –C series a.c. circuit 204
15.6 R –L –C series a.c. circuit 206
15.7 Series resonance 209
15.8 Q-factor 210
15.9 Bandwidth and selectivity 212
15.10 Power in a.c. circuits 213
15.11 Power triangle and power
factor 214
16 Single-phase parallel a.c. circuits 219
16.1 Introduction 219
16.2 R –L parallel a.c. circuit 219
16.3 R –C parallel a.c. circuit 220
16.4 L –C parallel a.c. circuit 222
16.5 LR–C parallel a.c. circuit 223
16.6 Parallel resonance and
Q-factor 226
16.7 Power factor improvement 230
17 Filter networks 236
17.1 Introduction 236
17.2 Two-port networks and
characteristic impedance 236
17.3 Low-pass filters 237
17.4 High-pass filters 240
17.5 Band-pass filters 244
17.6 Band-stop filters 245
18 D.C. transients 248
18.1 Introduction 248
18.2 Charging a capacitor 248
18.3 Time constant for a C–R
circuit 249
18.4 Transient curves for a C–R
circuit 250
18.5 Discharging a capacitor 253
18.6 Current growth in an L –R
circuit 255
18.7 Time constant for an L –R
circuit 256
18.8 Transient curves for an L –R
circuit 256
vii
18.9 Current decay in an L –R
circuit 257
18.10 Switching inductive circuits 260
18.11 The effects of time constant on a
rectangular waveform 260
19 Operational amplifiers 264
19.1 Introduction to operational
amplifiers 264
19.2 Some op amp parameters 266
19.3 Op amp inverting amplifier 267
19.4 Op amp non-inverting
amplifier 269
19.5 Op amp voltage-follower 270
19.6 Op amp summing amplifier 271
19.7 Op amp voltage comparator 272
19.8 Op amp integrator 272
19.9 Op amp differential
amplifier 274
19.10 Digital to analogue (D/A)
conversion 276
19.11 Analogue to digital (A/D)
conversion 276
Assignment 5 281
Formulae for further electrical and electronic
engineering principles 283
SECTION 3 Electrical Power
Technology 285
20 Three-phase systems 287
20.1 Introduction 287
20.2 Three-phase supply 287
20.3 Star connection 288
20.4 Delta connection 291
20.5 Power in three-phase
systems 293
20.6 Measurement of power in
three-phase systems 295
20.7 Comparison of star and delta
connections 300
20.8 Advantages of three-phase
systems 300
21 Transformers 303
21.1 Introduction 303
21.2 Transformer principle of
operation 304
21.3 Transformer no-load phasor
diagram 306
21.4 E.m.f. equation of
a transformer 308
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CONTENTS
21.5 Transformer on-load phasor
diagram 310
21.6 Transformer construction 311
21.7 Equivalent circuit of
a transformer 312
21.8 Regulation of a transformer 313
21.9 Transformer losses and
efficiency 314
21.10 Resistance matching 317
21.11 Auto transformers 319
21.12 Isolating transformers 321
21.13 Three-phase transformers 321
21.14 Current transformers 323
21.15 Voltage transformers 324
Assignment 6 327
22 D.C. machines 328
22.1 Introduction 328
22.2 The action of a commutator 329
22.3 D.C. machine construction 329
22.4 Shunt, series and compound
windings 330
22.5 E.m.f. generated in an armature
winding 330
22.6 D.C. generators 332
22.7 Types of d.c. generator and their
characteristics 333
22.8 D.C. machine losses 337
22.9 Efficiency of a d.c.
generator 337
22.10 D.C. motors 338
22.11 Torque of a d.c. motor 339
22.12 Types of d.c. motor and their
characteristics 341
22.13 The efficiency of a d.c.
motor 344
22.14 D.C. motor starter 347
22.15 Speed control of d.c. motors 347
22.16 Motor cooling 350
23 Three-phase induction motors 354
23.1 Introduction 354
23.2 Production of a rotating magnetic
field 354
22.3 Synchronous speed 356
23.4 Construction of a three-phase
induction motor 357
23.5 Principle of operation of a
three-phase induction motor 358
23.6 Slip 358
23.7 Rotor e.m.f. and frequency 359
23.8 Rotor impedance and
current 360
23.9 Rotor copper loss 361
22.10 Induction motor losses and
efficiency 361
23.11 Torque equation for an induction
motor 363
23.12 Induction motor torque-speed
characteristics 366
23.13 Starting methods for induction
motors 367
23.14 Advantages of squirrel-cage
induction motors 367
23.15 Advantages of wound rotor
induction motors 368
23.16 Double cage induction
motor 369
23.17 Uses of three-phase induction
motors 369
Assignment 7 372
Formulae for electrical power
technology 373
Answers to multi-choice questions
375
Index 377
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Preface
Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology, 2nd edition introduces the principles which
describe the operation of d.c. and a.c. circuits, covering both steady and transient states, and applies
these principles to filter networks (which is new for
this edition), operational amplifiers, three-phase supplies, transformers, d.c. machines and three-phase
induction motors.
This second edition of the textbook provides
coverage of the following:
(i) ‘Electrical and Electronic Principles (National
Certificate and National Diploma unit 6)
(ii) ‘Further Electrical and Electronic Principles’
(National Certificate and National Diploma
unit 17)
(iii) ‘Electrical and Electronic Principles’ (Advanced GNVQ unit 7)
(iv) ‘Further Electrical and Electronic Principles’
(Advanced GNVQ unit 13)
(v) ‘Electrical Power Technology’ (Advanced
GNVQ unit 27)
(vi) Electricity content of ‘Applied Science and
Mathematics for Engineering’ (Intermediate
GNVQ unit 4)
(vii) The theory within ‘Electrical Principles and
Applications’ (Intermediate GNVQ unit 6)
(viii) ‘Telecommunication Principles’ (City &
Guilds Technician Diploma in Telecommunications and Electronics Engineering)
(ix) Any introductory/Access/Foundation course
involving Electrical and Electronic Engineering
The text is set out in three main sections:
Part 1, comprising chapters 1 to 12, involves
essential Basic Electrical and Electronic Engineering Principles, with chapters on electrical units
and quantities, introduction to electric circuits, resistance variation, chemical effects of electricity, series
and parallel networks, capacitors and capacitance,
magnetic circuits, electromagnetism, electromagnetic induction, electrical measuring instruments
and measurements, semiconductors diodes and
transistors.
Part 2, comprising chapters 13 to 19, involves
Further Electrical and Electronic Principles, with
chapters on d.c. circuit theorems, alternating voltages and currents, single-phase series and parallel
networks, filter networks, d.c. transients and operational amplifiers.
Part 3, comprising chapters 20 to 23, involves
Electrical Power Technology, with chapters on
three-phase systems, transformers, d.c. machines
and three-phase induction motors.
Each topic considered in the text is presented
in a way that assumes in the reader little previous knowledge of that topic. Theory is introduced
in each chapter by a reasonably brief outline of
essential information, definitions, formulae, procedures, etc. The theory is kept to a minimum, for
problem solving is extensively used to establish and
exemplify the theory. It is intended that readers will
gain real understanding through seeing problems
solved and then through solving similar problems
themselves.
‘Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology’ contains over 400 worked problems, together
with 340 multi-choice questions (with answers at
the back of the book). Also included are over 420
short answer questions, the answers for which can
be determined from the preceding material in that
particular chapter, and some 560 further questions,
arranged in 142 Exercises, all with answers, in
brackets, immediately following each question; the
Exercises appear at regular intervals - every 3 or 4
pages - throughout the text. 500 line diagrams further enhance the understanding of the theory. All of
the problems - multi-choice, short answer and further questions - mirror practical situations found in
electrical and electronic engineering.
At regular intervals throughout the text are seven
Assignments to check understanding. For example,
Assignment 1 covers material contained in chapters
1 to 4, Assignment 2 covers the material contained
in chapters 5 to 7, and so on. These Assignments
do not have answers given since it is envisaged that
lecturers could set the Assignments for students to
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x
PREFACE
attempt as part of their course structure. Lecturers’
may obtain a complimentary set of solutions of the
Assignments in an Instructor’s Manual available
from the publishers via the internet – see below.
A list of relevant formulae are included at the
end of each of the three sections of the book.
‘Learning by Example’ is at the heart of Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology, 2nd
edition.
John Bird
University of Portsmouth
Instructor’s Manual
Full worked solutions and mark scheme for all the
Assignments are contained in this Manual, which is
available to lecturers only. To obtain a password
please e-mail J.Blackford@Elsevier.com with the
following details: course title, number of students,
your job title and work postal address.
To download the Instructor’s Manual visit
http://www.newnepress.com and enter the book title
in the search box, or use the following direct URL:
http://www.bh.com/manuals/0750657782/
TLFeBOOK
Electrical and Electronic Principles and
Technology
TLFeBOOK
Section 1
Basic Electrical and Electronic
Engineering Principles
TLFeBOOK
1
Units associated with basic electrical
quantities
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
ž state the basic SI units
ž recognize derived SI units
ž understand prefixes denoting multiplication and division
ž state the units of charge, force, work and power and perform simple calculations
involving these units
ž state the units of electrical potential, e.m.f., resistance, conductance, power and
energy and perform simple calculations involving these units
Acceleration – metres per second
squared (m/s2 )
1.1 SI units
The system of units used in engineering and science
is the Système Internationale d’Unités (International
system of units), usually abbreviated to SI units, and
is based on the metric system. This was introduced
in 1960 and is now adopted by the majority of
countries as the official system of measurement.
The basic units in the SI system are listed below
with their symbols:
Quantity
Unit
length
mass
time
electric current
thermodynamic temperature
luminous intensity
amount of substance
metre, m
kilogram, kg
second, s
ampere, A
kelvin, K
candela, cd
mole, mol
Derived SI units use combinations of basic units
and there are many of them. Two examples are:
Velocity – metres per second (m/s)
SI units may be made larger or smaller by using
prefixes which denote multiplication or division by a
particular amount. The six most common multiples,
with their meaning, are listed below:
Prefix
Name
Meaning
M
k
m
n
mega
kilo
milli
micro
nano
p
pico
multiply by 1 000 000 (i.e. ð 106 )
multiply by 1000 (i.e. ð 103 )
divide by 1000 (i.e. ð 103 )
divide by 1 000 000 (i.e. ð 106 )
divide by 1 000 000 000
(i.e. ð 109 )
divide by 1 000 000 000 000
(i.e. ð 1012 )
µ
1.2 Charge
The unit of charge is the coulomb (C) where
one coulomb is one ampere second. (1 coulomb D
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
6.24 ð 1018 electrons). The coulomb is defined as
the quantity of electricity which flows past a given
point in an electric circuit when a current of one
ampere is maintained for one second. Thus,
charge, in coulombs
Q = It
Mass D 200 g D 0.2 kg and acceleration due to
gravity, g D 9.81 m/s2
Force acting
D weight
downwards
D mass ð acceleration
D 0.2 kg ð 9.81 m/s2
where I is the current in amperes and t is the time
in seconds.
Problem 1. If a current of 5 A flows for
2 minutes, find the quantity of electricity
transferred.
Quantity of electricity Q D It coulombs
I D 5 A, t D 2 ð 60 D 120 s
Hence
D 1.962 N
1.4 Work
The unit of work or energy is the joule (J) where
one joule is one newton metre. The joule is defined
as the work done or energy transferred when a force
of one newton is exerted through a distance of one
metre in the direction of the force. Thus
work done on a body, in joules,
W = Fs
Q D 5 ð 120 D 600 C
where F is the force in newtons and s is the distance
in metres moved by the body in the direction of the
force. Energy is the capacity for doing work.
1.3 Force
The unit of force is the newton (N) where one
newton is one kilogram metre per second squared.
The newton is defined as the force which, when
applied to a mass of one kilogram, gives it an
acceleration of one metre per second squared. Thus,
force, in newtons
F = ma
where m is the mass in kilograms and a is the acceleration in metres per second squared. Gravitational
force, or weight, is mg, where g D 9.81 m/s2
Problem 2. A mass of 5000 g is accelerated
at 2 m/s2 by a force. Determine the force
needed.
Force D mass ð acceleration
1.5 Power
The unit of power is the watt (W) where one watt
is one joule per second. Power is defined as the rate
of doing work or transferring energy. Thus,
power, in watts,
P=
W
t
where W is the work done or energy transferred, in
joules, and t is the time, in seconds. Thus,
energy, in joules,
W = Pt
Problem 4. A portable machine requires a
force of 200 N to move it. How much work
is done if the machine is moved 20 m and
what average power is utilized if the
movement takes 25 s?
D 5 kg ð 2 m/s2 D 10 kg m/s2 D 10 N
Problem 3. Find the force acting vertically
downwards on a mass of 200 g attached to a
wire.
Work done D force ð distance
D 200 N ð 20 m
D 4000 Nm or 4 kJ
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UNITS ASSOCIATED WITH BASIC ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES
work done
time taken
4000 J
D
D 160 J=s = 160 W
25 s
Power D
Problem 5. A mass of 1000 kg is raised
through a height of 10 m in 20 s. What is
(a) the work done and (b) the power
developed?
(a) Work done D force ð distance
and force D mass ð acceleration
Hence,
D ⊲1000 kg ð 9.81 m/s2 ⊳ ð ⊲10 m⊳
work done
D 98 100 Nm
5
8 Determine the force acting downwards on
a mass of 1500 g suspended on a string.
[14.72 N]
9 A force of 4 N moves an object 200 cm in the
direction of the force. What amount of work
is done?
[8 J]
10 A force of 2.5 kN is required to lift a load.
How much work is done if the load is lifted
through 500 cm?
[12.5 kJ]
11 An electromagnet exerts a force of 12 N and
moves a soft iron armature through a distance
of 1.5 cm in 40 ms. Find the power consumed.
[4.5 W]
12 A mass of 500 kg is raised to a height of 6 m
in 30 s. Find (a) the work done and (b) the
power developed.
[(a) 29.43 kNm (b) 981 W]
D 98.1 kNm or 98.1 kJ
98100 J
work done
D
time taken
20 s
D 4905 J/s D 4905 W or 4.905 kW
(b) Power D
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 1 Further problems on charge,
force, work and power
1.6 Electrical potential and e.m.f.
The unit of electric potential is the volt (V), where
one volt is one joule per coulomb. One volt is
defined as the difference in potential between two
points in a conductor which, when carrying a current of one ampere, dissipates a power of one
watt, i.e.
(Take g D 9.81 m/s2 where appropriate)
volts D
1 What quantity of electricity is carried by
[1000 C]
6.24 ð 1021 electrons?
2 In what time would a current of 1 A transfer
a charge of 30 C?
[30 s]
3 A current of 3 A flows for 5 minutes. What
charge is transferred?
[900 C]
4 How long must a current of 0.1 A flow so as
to transfer a charge of 30 C?
[5 minutes]
D
watts
joules/second
D
amperes
amperes
joules
joules
D
ampere seconds
coulombs
A change in electric potential between two points in
an electric circuit is called a potential difference.
The electromotive force (e.m.f.) provided by a
source of energy such as a battery or a generator
is measured in volts.
5 What force is required to give a mass of 20 kg
an acceleration of 30 m/s2 ?
[600 N]
6 Find the accelerating force when a car having
a mass of 1.7 Mg increases its speed with a
constant acceleration of 3 m/s2
[5.1 kN]
7 A force of 40 N accelerates a mass at 5 m/s2 .
Determine the mass.
[8 kg]
1.7 Resistance and conductance
The unit of electric resistance is the ohm.Z/,
where one ohm is one volt per ampere. It is defined
as the resistance between two points in a conductor
when a constant electric potential of one volt applied
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
at the two points produces a current flow of one
ampere in the conductor. Thus,
resistance, in ohms
R=
V
I
where V is the potential difference across the two
points, in volts, and I is the current flowing between
the two points, in amperes.
The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance
and is measured in siemens (S). Thus
conductance, in siemens
1
G=
R
Problem 7. A source e.m.f. of 5 V supplies
a current of 3 A for 10 minutes. How much
energy is provided in this time?
Energy D power ð time, and power D voltage ð
current. Hence
Energy D VIt D 5 ð 3 ð ⊲10 ð 60⊳
D 9000 Ws or J D 9 kJ
Problem 8. An electric heater consumes
1.8 MJ when connected to a 250 V supply for
30 minutes. Find the power rating of the
heater and the current taken from the supply.
where R is the resistance in ohms.
Problem 6. Find the conductance of a
conductor of resistance: (a) 10 (b) 5 k
(c) 100 m.
Power D
energy
1.8 ð 106 J
D
time
30 ð 60 s
D 1000 J/s D 1000 W
i.e. power rating of heater D 1 kW
1
1
siemen D 0.1 S
(a) Conductance G D D
R
10
1
1
(b) G D D
S D 0.2 ð 103 S D 0.2 mS
R
5 ð 103
(c) G D
1
1
103
D
S D 10 S
S
D
R
100 ð 103
100
1.8 Electrical power and energy
When a direct current of I amperes is flowing in an
electric circuit and the voltage across the circuit is
V volts, then
power, in watts
P = VI
Electrical energy D Power ð time
D VIt joules
Although the unit of energy is the joule, when
dealing with large amounts of energy, the unit used
is the kilowatt hour (kWh) where
1 kWh D 1000 watt hour
D 1000 ð 3600 watt seconds or joules
D 3 600 000 J
Power P D VI, thus I D
1000
P
D
D 4A
V
250
Hence the current taken from the supply is 4 A.
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 2 Further problems on e.m.f.,
resistance, conductance, power and energy
1 Find the conductance of a resistor of resistance
(a) 10 (b) 2 k (c) 2 m
[(a) 0.1 S (b) 0.5 mS (c) 500 S]
2 A conductor has a conductance of 50 µS. What
is its resistance?
[20 k]
3 An e.m.f. of 250 V is connected across a resistance and the current flowing through the resistance is 4 A. What is the power developed?
[1 kW]
4 450 J of energy are converted into heat in
1 minute. What power is dissipated? [7.5 W]
5 A current of 10 A flows through a conductor
and 10 W is dissipated. What p.d. exists across
the ends of the conductor?
[1 V]
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UNITS ASSOCIATED WITH BASIC ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES
6 A battery of e.m.f. 12 V supplies a current
of 5 A for 2 minutes. How much energy is
supplied in this time?
[7.2 kJ]
7 A d.c. electric motor consumes 36 MJ when
connected to a 250 V supply for 1 hour. Find
the power rating of the motor and the current
taken from the supply.
[10 kW, 40 A]
7
4 Define electric current in terms of charge and
time
5 Name the units used to measure:
(a) the quantity of electricity
(b) resistance
(c) conductance
6 Define the coulomb
7 Define electrical energy and state its unit
8 Define electrical power and state its unit
9 What is electromotive force?
1.9 Summary of terms, units and
their symbols
Quantity
Quantity
Symbol
Length
Mass
Time
Velocity
l
m
t
v
Acceleration
a
Force
Electrical
charge or
quantity
Electric current
Resistance
Conductance
Electromotive
force
Potential
difference
Work
Energy
Power
10 Write down a formula for calculating the
power in a d.c. circuit
Unit
Unit
Symbol
m
kg
s
m/s or
m s1
m/s2 or
m s2
F
Q
metre
kilogram
second
metres per
second
metres per
second
squared
newton
coulomb
I
R
G
E
ampere
ohm
siemen
volt
A
S
V
V
volt
V
W
E (or W)
P
joule
joule
watt
J
J
W
N
C
Now try the following exercises
Exercise 3 Short answer questions on
units associated with basic electrical
quantities
1 What does ‘SI units’ mean?
2 Complete the following:
Force D . . . . . . ð . . . . . .
3 What do you understand by the term ‘potential difference’?
11 Write down the symbols for the following
quantities:
(a) electric charge
(b) work
(c) e.m.f.
(d) p.d.
12 State which units the following abbreviations
refer to:
(a) A
(b) C
(c) J
(d) N
(e) m
Exercise 4 Multi-choice questions on units
associated with basic electrical quantities
(Answers on page 375)
1 A resistance of 50 k has a conductance of:
(a) 20 S
(b) 0.02 S
(c) 0.02 mS
(d) 20 kS
2 Which of the following statements is incorrect?
(a) 1 N D 1 kg m/s2
(b) 1 V D 1 J/C
(c) 30 mA D 0.03 A
(d) 1 J D 1 N/m
3 The power dissipated by a resistor of 10
when a current of 2 A passes through it is:
(a) 0.4 W (b) 20 W (c) 40 W (d) 200 W
4 A mass of 1200 g is accelerated at 200 cm/s2
by a force. The value of the force required
is:
(a) 2.4 N
(b) 2400 N
(c) 240 kN
(d) 0.24 N
5 A charge of 240 C is transferred in 2 minutes.
The current flowing is:
(a) 120 A (b) 480 A (c) 2 A
(d) 8 A
6 A current of 2 A flows for 10 h through a
100 resistor. The energy consumed by the
resistor is:
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8
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(a) 0.5 kWh
(c) 2 kWh
(b) 4 kWh
(d) 0.02 kWh
7 The unit of quantity of electricity is the:
(a) volt
(b) coulomb
(c) ohm
(d) joule
8 Electromotive force is provided by:
(a) resistance’s
(b) a conducting path
(c) an electric current
(d) an electrical supply source
9 The coulomb is a unit of:
(a) power
(b) voltage
(c) energy
(d) quantity of electricity
10 In order that work may be done:
(a) a supply of energy is required
(b) the circuit must have a switch
(c) coal must be burnt
(d) two wires are necessary
11 The ohm is the unit of:
(a) charge
(b) resistance
(c) power
(d) current
12 The unit of current is the:
(a) volt
(b) coulomb
(c) joule
(d) ampere
TLFeBOOK
2
An introduction to electric circuits
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
ž appreciate that engineering systems may be represented by block diagrams
ž recognize common electrical circuit diagram symbols
ž understand that electric current is the rate of movement of charge and is measured
in amperes
ž appreciate that the unit of charge is the coulomb
ž calculate charge or quantity of electricity Q from Q D It
ž understand that a potential difference between two points in a circuit is required for
current to flow
ž appreciate that the unit of p.d. is the volt
ž understand that resistance opposes current flow and is measured in ohms
ž appreciate what an ammeter, a voltmeter, an ohmmeter, a multimeter and a C.R.O.
measure
ž distinguish between linear and non-linear devices
ž state Ohm’s law as V D IR or I D V/R or R D V/I
ž use Ohm’s law in calculations, including multiples and sub-multiples of units
ž describe a conductor and an insulator, giving examples of each
ž appreciate that electrical power P is given by P D VI D I2 R D V2 /R watts
ž calculate electrical power
ž define electrical energy and state its unit
ž calculate electrical energy
ž state the three main effects of an electric current, giving practical examples of each
ž explain the importance of fuses in electrical circuits
2.1 Electrical/electronic system block
diagrams
An electrical/electronic system is a group of components connected together to perform a desired
function. Figure 2.1 shows a simple public address
system, where a microphone is used to collect
acoustic energy in the form of sound pressure waves
and converts this to electrical energy in the form
of small voltages and currents; the signal from
the microphone is then amplified by means of
an electronic circuit containing transistors/integrated
circuits before it is applied to the loudspeaker.
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10
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Thermostat
A.C. Supply
Error
Microphone
Loudspeaker
Amplifier
Enclosure
Temperature
of enclosure
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.1
A sub-system is a part of a system which performs an identified function within the whole system; the amplifier in Fig. 2.1 is an example of a
sub-system
A component or element is usually the simplest
part of a system which has a specific and welldefined function – for example, the microphone in
Fig. 2.1
The illustration in Fig. 2.1 is called a block diagram and electrical/electronic systems, which can
often be quite complicated, can be better understood
when broken down in this way. It is not always
necessary to know precisely what is inside each
sub-system in order to know how the whole system
functions.
As another example of an engineering system,
Fig. 2.2 illustrates a temperature control system containing a heat source (such as a gas boiler), a fuel
controller (such as an electrical solenoid valve), a
thermostat and a source of electrical energy. The
system of Fig. 2.2 can be shown in block diagram
form as in Fig. 2.3; the thermostat compares the
240 V
Gas
boiler
Solenoid
Fuel
supply
Thermostat
Set temperature
Radiators
Enclosed space
Figure 2.2
Heating
+
system
Temperature −
command
Actual
temperature
actual room temperature with the desired temperature and switches the heating on or off.
There are many types of engineering systems.
A communications system is an example, where
a local area network could comprise a file server,
coaxial cable, network adapters, several computers
and a laser printer; an electromechanical system is
another example, where a car electrical system could
comprise a battery, a starter motor, an ignition coil,
a contact breaker and a distributor. All such systems
as these may be represented by block diagrams.
2.2 Standard symbols for electrical
components
Symbols are used for components in electrical circuit diagrams and some of the more common ones
are shown in Fig. 2.4
2.3 Electric current and quantity of
electricity
All atoms consist of protons, neutrons and electrons. The protons, which have positive electrical
charges, and the neutrons, which have no electrical
charge, are contained within the nucleus. Removed
from the nucleus are minute negatively charged particles called electrons. Atoms of different materials
differ from one another by having different numbers
of protons, neutrons and electrons. An equal number
of protons and electrons exist within an atom and it
is said to be electrically balanced, as the positive and
negative charges cancel each other out. When there
are more than two electrons in an atom the electrons
are arranged into shells at various distances from the
nucleus.
All atoms are bound together by powerful forces
of attraction existing between the nucleus and its
electrons. Electrons in the outer shell of an atom,
however, are attracted to their nucleus less powerfully than are electrons whose shells are nearer the
nucleus.
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AN INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
11
current is said to be a current of one ampere.
Thus
1 ampere D 1 coulomb per second or
1 A D 1 C/s
Hence 1 coulomb D 1 ampere second or
1 C D 1 As
Generally, if I is the current in amperes and t the
time in seconds during which the current flows, then
I ð t represents the quantity of electrical charge
in coulombs, i.e. quantity of electrical charge transferred,
Q = I × t coulombs
Problem 1. What current must flow if
0.24 coulombs is to be transferred in 15 ms?
Since the quantity of electricity, Q D It, then
ID
Figure 2.4
It is possible for an atom to lose an electron;
the atom, which is now called an ion, is not now
electrically balanced, but is positively charged and
is thus able to attract an electron to itself from
another atom. Electrons that move from one atom
to another are called free electrons and such random
motion can continue indefinitely. However, if an
electric pressure or voltage is applied across any
material there is a tendency for electrons to move
in a particular direction. This movement of free
electrons, known as drift, constitutes an electric
current flow. Thus current is the rate of movement
of charge.
Conductors are materials that contain electrons
that are loosely connected to the nucleus and can
easily move through the material from one atom to
another.
Insulators are materials whose electrons are held
firmly to their nucleus.
The unit used to measure the quantity of electrical charge Q is called the coulomb C (where 1
coulomb D 6.24 ð 1018 electrons)
If the drift of electrons in a conductor takes place
at the rate of one coulomb per second the resulting
0.24
0.24 ð 103
Q
D
D
t
15 ð 103
15
240
D 16 A
D
15
Problem 2. If a current of 10 A flows for
four minutes, find the quantity of electricity
transferred.
Quantity of electricity, Q D It coulombs. I D 10 A
and t D 4 ð 60 D 240 s. Hence
Q D 10 ð 240 D 2400 C
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 5 Further problems on charge
1 In what time would a current of 10 A transfer
a charge of 50 C ?
[5 s]
2 A current of 6 A flows for 10 minutes. What
charge is transferred ?
[3600 C]
3 How long must a current of 100 mA flow so
as to transfer a charge of 80 C? [13 min 20 s]
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
2.4 Potential difference and resistance
For a continuous current to flow between two points
in a circuit a potential difference (p.d.) or voltage,
V, is required between them; a complete conducting
path is necessary to and from the source of electrical
energy. The unit of p.d. is the volt, V.
Figure 2.5 shows a cell connected across a filament lamp. Current flow, by convention, is considered as flowing from the positive terminal of the
cell, around the circuit to the negative terminal.
2.6 Linear and non-linear devices
Figure 2.5
The flow of electric current is subject to friction.
This friction, or opposition, is called resistance R
and is the property of a conductor that limits current.
The unit of resistance is the ohm; 1 ohm is defined
as the resistance which will have a current of 1
ampere flowing through it when 1 volt is connected
across it,
i.e.
resistance R =
current flowing through it a voltmeter must have a
very high resistance.
An ohmmeter is an instrument for measuring
resistance.
A multimeter, or universal instrument, may be
used to measure voltage, current and resistance. An
‘Avometer’ is a typical example.
The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) may be
used to observe waveforms and to measure voltages
and currents. The display of a CRO involves a spot
of light moving across a screen. The amount by
which the spot is deflected from its initial position
depends on the p.d. applied to the terminals of
the CRO and the range selected. The displacement
is calibrated in ‘volts per cm’. For example, if
the spot is deflected 3 cm and the volts/cm switch
is on 10 V/cm then the magnitude of the p.d. is
3 cm ð 10 V/cm, i.e. 30 V.
(See Chapter 10 for more detail about electrical
measuring instruments and measurements.)
Potential difference
current
Figure 2.6 shows a circuit in which current I can
be varied by the variable resistor R2 . For various
settings of R2 , the current flowing in resistor R1 ,
displayed on the ammeter, and the p.d. across R1 ,
displayed on the voltmeter, are noted and a graph
is plotted of p.d. against current. The result is
shown in Fig. 2.7(a) where the straight line graph
passing through the origin indicates that current is
directly proportional to the p.d. Since the gradient,
i.e. ⊲p.d.⊳/⊲current⊳ is constant, resistance R1 is
constant. A resistor is thus an example of a linear
device.
2.5 Basic electrical measuring
instruments
An ammeter is an instrument used to measure
current and must be connected in series with the
circuit. Figure 2.5 shows an ammeter connected
in series with the lamp to measure the current
flowing through it. Since all the current in the circuit
passes through the ammeter it must have a very low
resistance.
A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure
p.d. and must be connected in parallel with the part
of the circuit whose p.d. is required. In Fig. 2.5, a
voltmeter is connected in parallel with the lamp to
measure the p.d. across it. To avoid a significant
Figure 2.6
If the resistor R1 in Fig. 2.6 is replaced by a
component such as a lamp then the graph shown
in Fig. 2.7(b) results when values of p.d. are noted
for various current readings. Since the gradient is
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AN INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
13
2.8 Multiples and sub-multiples
Currents, voltages and resistances can often be
very large or very small. Thus multiples and submultiples of units are often used, as stated in chapter 1. The most common ones, with an example of
each, are listed in Table 2.1
Figure 2.7
changing, the lamp is an example of a non-linear
device.
Problem 4. Determine the p.d. which must
be applied to a 2 k resistor in order that a
current of 10 mA may flow.
Resistance R D 2 k D 2 ð 103 D 2000
2.7 Ohm’s law
Current I D 10 mA D 10 ð 103 A
10
10
A D 0.01 A
or 3 A or
1000
10
Ohm’s law states that the current I flowing in a
circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage
V and inversely proportional to the resistance R,
provided the temperature remains constant. Thus,
From Ohm’s law, potential difference,
V
V
I =
or V = IR or R =
R
I
Problem 3. The current flowing through a
resistor is 0.8 A when a p.d. of 20 V is
applied. Determine the value of the
resistance.
V D IR D ⊲0.01⊳⊲2000⊳ D 20 V
Problem 5. A coil has a current of 50 mA
flowing through it when the applied voltage
is 12 V. What is the resistance of the coil?
Resistance, R D
From Ohm’s law,
resistance R D
V
20
200
D
D
D 25 Z
I
0.8
8
D
12
V
D
I
50 ð 103
12 000
12 ð 103
D
D 240 Z
50
50
Table 2.1
Prefix
Name
Meaning
Example
M
mega
2 M D 2 000 000 ohms
k
kilo
multiply by 1 000 000
⊲i.e. ð 106 ⊳
multiply by 1000
⊲i.e. ð 103 ⊳
m
milli
divide by 1000
⊲i.e. ð 103 ⊳
µ
micro
divide by 1 000 000
⊲i.e. ð 106 ⊳
10 kV D 10 000 volts
25
A
1000
D 0.025 amperes
50
V
50 µV D
1 000 000
D 0.000 05 volts
25 mA D
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14
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Problem 6. A 100 V battery is connected
across a resistor and causes a current of
5 mA to flow. Determine the resistance of the
resistor. If the voltage is now reduced to
25 V, what will be the new value of the
current flowing?
Resistance R D
100
V
100 ð 103
D
D
I
5 ð 103
5
Figure 2.8
3
D 20 ð 10 D 20 kZ
Current when voltage is reduced to 25 V,
25
25
V
D
ð 103 D 1.25 mA
D
ID
3
R
20 ð 10
20
Problem 7. What is the resistance of a coil
which draws a current of (a) 50 mA and
(b) 200 µA from a 120 V supply?
120
V
D
I
50 ð 103
12 000
120
D
D
0.05
5
D 2400 Z or 2.4 kZ
120
120
D
(b) Resistance R D
6
200 ð 10
0.0002
1 200 000
D 600 000 Z
D
2
or 600 kZ or 0.6 MZ
(a) Resistance R D
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 6 Further problems on
Ohm’s law
1 The current flowing through a heating element
is 5 A when a p.d. of 35 V is applied across it.
Find the resistance of the element.
[7 ]
2 A 60 W electric light bulb is connected to a
240 V supply. Determine (a) the current flowing in the bulb and (b) the resistance of the
bulb.
[(a) 0.25 A (b) 960 ]
3 Graphs of current against voltage for two resistors P and Q are shown in Fig. 2.9 Determine
the value of each resistor.
[2 m, 5 m]
Problem 8. The current/voltage relationship
for two resistors A and B is as shown in
Fig. 2.8 Determine the value of the
resistance of each resistor.
Figure 2.9
For resistor A,
V
20 V
20
2000
D
D
D
I
20 mA
0.02
2
D 1000 Z or 1 kZ
RD
4 Determine the p.d. which must be applied to a
5 k resistor such that a current of 6 mA may
flow.
[30 V]
For resistor B,
V
16 V
16
16 000
D
D
D
I
5 mA
0.005
5
D 3200 Z or 3.2 kZ
RD
2.9 Conductors and insulators
A conductor is a material having a low resistance
which allows electric current to flow in it. All metals
TLFeBOOK
AN INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
are conductors and some examples include copper,
aluminium, brass, platinum, silver, gold and carbon.
An insulator is a material having a high resistance which does not allow electric current to flow in
it. Some examples of insulators include plastic, rubber, glass, porcelain, air, paper, cork, mica, ceramics
and certain oils.
15
Problem 10. Calculate the power dissipated
when a current of 4 mA flows through a
resistance of 5 k.
Power P D I2 R D ⊲4 ð 103 ⊳2 ⊲5 ð 103 ⊳
D 16 ð 106 ð 5 ð 103
D 80 ð 103
2.10 Electrical power and energy
D 0.08 W or 80 mW
Electrical power
Power P in an electrical circuit is given by the
product of potential difference V and current I,
as stated in Chapter 1. The unit of power is the
watt, W.
Alternatively, since I D 4 ð 103 and R D 5 ð 103
then from Ohm’s law, voltage
V D IR D 4 ð 103 ð 5 ð 103 D 20 V
Hence,
Hence
⊲1⊳
P = V × I watts
power P D V ð I D 20 ð 4 ð 103
From Ohm’s law, V D IR. Substituting for V in
equation (1) gives:
Problem 11. An electric kettle has a
resistance of 30 . What current will flow
when it is connected to a 240 V supply? Find
also the power rating of the kettle.
P D ⊲IR⊳ ð I
i.e.
P = I 2 R watts
Also, from Ohm’s law, I D V/R. Substituting for I
in equation (1) gives:
PDVð
i.e.
P=
V
R
240
V
D
D 8A
R
30
D 1.92 kW D power rating of kettle
There are thus three possible formulae which may
be used for calculating power.
Problem 9. A 100 W electric light bulb is
connected to a 250 V supply. Determine
(a) the current flowing in the bulb, and
(b) the resistance of the bulb.
P
V
100
10
2
D
D D 0.4 A
250
25
5
250
2500
V
D
D
D 625 Z
(b) Resistance R D
I
0.4
4
(a) Current I D
Current, I D
Power, P D VI D 240 ð 8 D 1920 W
V2
watts
R
Power P D V ð I, from which, current I D
D 80 mW
Problem 12. A current of 5 A flows in the
winding of an electric motor, the resistance
of the winding being 100 . Determine
(a) the p.d. across the winding, and (b) the
power dissipated by the coil.
(a) Potential difference across winding,
V D IR D 5 ð 100 D 500 V
(b) Power dissipated by coil,
P D I2 R D 52 ð 100
D 2500 W or 2.5 kW
(Alternatively, P D V ð I D 500 ð 5
D 2500 W or 2.5 kW⊳
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16
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Problem 13. The hot resistance of a 240 V
filament lamp is 960 . Find the current
taken by the lamp and its power rating.
From Ohm’s law,
V
240
D
R
960
1
24
D A or 0.25 A
D
96
4
Power rating P D VI D ⊲240⊳ 14 D 60 W
Problem 16. Electrical equipment in an
office takes a current of 13 A from a 240 V
supply. Estimate the cost per week of
electricity if the equipment is used for
30 hours each week and 1 kWh of energy
costs 6p.
current I D
Power D VI watts D 240 ð 13
D 3120 W D 3.12 kW
Energy used per week D power ð time
D ⊲3.12 kW⊳ ð ⊲30 h⊳
D 93.6 kWh
Electrical energy
Electrical energy = power × time
If the power is measured in watts and the time in
seconds then the unit of energy is watt-seconds or
joules. If the power is measured in kilowatts and the
time in hours then the unit of energy is kilowatthours, often called the ‘unit of electricity’. The
‘electricity meter’ in the home records the number
of kilowatt-hours used and is thus an energy meter.
Cost at 6p per kWh D 93.6 ð 6 D 561.6p. Hence
weekly cost of electricity = £5.62
Problem 17. An electric heater consumes
3.6 MJ when connected to a 250 V supply for
40 minutes. Find the power rating of the
heater and the current taken from the supply.
Power D
Problem 14. A 12 V battery is connected
across a load having a resistance of 40 .
Determine the current flowing in the load,
the power consumed and the energy
dissipated in 2 minutes.
V
12
Current I D
D
D 0.3 A
R
40
Power consumed, P D VI D ⊲12⊳⊲0.3⊳ D 3.6 W.
Energy dissipated D power ð time
D ⊲3.6 W⊳⊲2 ð 60 s⊳
D 432 J (since1 J D 1 Ws⊳
Problem 15. A source of e.m.f. of 15 V
supplies a current of 2 A for 6 minutes. How
much energy is provided in this time?
3.6 ð 106 J
energy
D
(or W) D 1500 W
time
40 ð 60 s
i.e. Power rating of heater D 1.5 kW.
Power P D VI,
thus
ID
P
1500
D
D 6A
V
250
Hence the current taken from the supply is 6 A.
Problem 18. Determine the power
dissipated by the element of an electric fire
of resistance 20 when a current of 10 A
flows through it. If the fire is on for 6 hours
determine the energy used and the cost if
1 unit of electricity costs 6.5p.
Power P D I2 R D 102 ð 20
D 100 ð 20 D 2000 W or 2 kW.
(Alternatively, from Ohm’s law,
Energy D power ð time, and power D voltage ð
current. Hence
energy D VIt D 15 ð 2 ð ⊲6 ð 60⊳
D 10 800 Ws or J D 10.8 kJ
V D IR D 10 ð 20 D 200 V,
hence power
P D V ð I D 200 ð 10 D 2000 W D 2 kW).
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AN INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
Energy used in 6 hours D powerðtime D 2 kWð
6 h D 12 kWh.
1 unit of electricity D 1 kWh; hence the number
of units used is 12. Cost of energy D 12ð6.5 D 78p
Problem 19. A business uses two 3 kW
fires for an average of 20 hours each per
week, and six 150 W lights for 30 hours each
per week. If the cost of electricity is 6.4p per
unit, determine the weekly cost of electricity
to the business.
Energy D power ð time.
Energy used by one 3 kW fire in 20 hours D
3 kW ð 20 h D 60 kWh.
Hence weekly energy used by two 3 kW fires D
2 ð 60 D 120 kWh.
Energy used by one 150 W light for 30 hours D
150 W ð 30 h D 4500 Wh D 4.5 kWh.
Hence weekly energy used by six 150 W lamps D
6 ð 4.5 D 27 kWh.
Total energy used per week D 120 C 27 D
147 kWh.
1 unit of electricity D 1 kWh of energy. Thus
weekly cost of energy at 6.4p per kWh D 6.4 ð
147 D 940.8p D £9.41.
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 7 Further problems on power
and energy
1 The hot resistance of a 250 V filament lamp
is 625 . Determine the current taken by the
lamp and its power rating. [0.4 A, 100 W]
2 Determine the resistance of a coil connected
to a 150 V supply when a current of
(a) 75 mA (b) 300 µA flows through it.
[(a) 2 k (b) 0.5 M]
3 Determine the resistance of an electric fire
which takes a current of 12 A from a 240 V
supply. Find also the power rating of the fire
and the energy used in 20 h.
[20 , 2.88 kW, 57.6 kWh]
17
6 A current of 4 A flows through a conductor and 10 W is dissipated. What p.d. exists
across the ends of the conductor?
[2.5 V]
7 Find the power dissipated when:
(a) a current of 5 mA flows through a resistance of 20 k
(b) a voltage of 400 V is applied across a
120 k resistor
(c) a voltage applied to a resistor is 10 kV
and the current flow is 4 mA
[(a) 0.5 W (b) 1.33 W (c) 40 W]
8 A battery of e.m.f. 15 V supplies a current of
2 A for 5 min. How much energy is supplied
in this time?
[9 kJ]
9 A d.c. electric motor consumes 72 MJ when
connected to 400 V supply for 2 h 30 min.
Find the power rating of the motor and the
current taken from the supply. [8 kW, 20 A]
10 A p.d. of 500 V is applied across the winding
of an electric motor and the resistance of
the winding is 50 . Determine the power
dissipated by the coil.
[5 kW]
11 In a household during a particular week three
2 kW fires are used on average 25 h each and
eight 100 W light bulbs are used on average
35 h each. Determine the cost of electricity
for the week if 1 unit of electricity costs 7p.
[£12.46]
12 Calculate the power dissipated by the element
of an electric fire of resistance 30 when
a current of 10 A flows in it. If the fire
is on for 30 hours in a week determine the
energy used. Determine also the weekly cost
of energy if electricity costs 6.5p per unit.
[3 kW, 90 kWh, £5.85]
2.11 Main effects of electric current
The three main effects of an electric current are:
4 Determine the power dissipated when a current of 10 mA flows through an appliance
having a resistance of 8 k.
[0.8 W]
(a) magnetic effect
(b) chemical effect
(c) heating effect
5 85.5 J of energy are converted into heat in
9 s. What power is dissipated?
[9.5 W]
Some practical applications of the effects of an
electric current include:
TLFeBOOK
18
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Magnetic effect: bells, relays, motors, generators, transformers, telephones,
car-ignition and lifting magnets
(see Chapter 8)
Chemical effect: primary and secondary cells and
electroplating (see Chapter 4)
Heating effect: cookers, water heaters, electric
fires, irons, furnaces, kettles and
soldering irons
Exercise 8 Further problem on fuses
1 A television set having a power rating of
120 W and electric lawnmower of power rating
1 kW are both connected to a 250 V supply.
If 3 A, 5 A and 10 A fuses are available
state which is the most appropriate for each
appliance.
[3 A, 5 A]
Exercise 9 Short answer questions on the
introduction to electric circuits
2.12 Fuses
A fuse is used to prevent overloading of electrical
circuits. The fuse, which is made of material having
a low melting point, utilizes the heating effect of an
electric current. A fuse is placed in an electrical
circuit and if the current becomes too large the
fuse wire melts and so breaks the circuit. A circuit
diagram symbol for a fuse is shown in Fig. 2.1, on
page 11.
Problem 20. If 5 A, 10 A and 13 A fuses
are available, state which is most appropriate
for the following appliances which are both
connected to a 240 V supply: (a) Electric
toaster having a power rating of 1 kW
(b) Electric fire having a power rating of
3 kW.
1 Draw the preferred symbols for the following components used when drawing electrical
circuit diagrams:
(a) fixed resistor
(b) cell
(c) filament lamp
(d) fuse
(e) voltmeter
2 State the unit of
(a) current
(b) potential difference
(c) resistance
3 State an instrument used to measure
(a) current
(b) potential difference
(c) resistance
4 What is a multimeter?
5 State Ohm’s law
Power P D VI, from which, current I D
P
V
(a) For the toaster,
current I D
P
1000
100
D
D
D 4.17 A
V
240
24
Hence a 5 A fuse is most appropriate
(b) For the fire,
current I D
3000
300
P
D
D
D 12.5 A
V
240
24
Hence a 13 A fuse is most appropriate
Now try the following exercises
6 Give one example of
(a) a linear device
(b) a non-linear device
7 State the meaning of the following abbreviations of prefixes used with electrical units:
(a) k
(b) µ
(c) m
(d) M
8 What is a conductor? Give four examples
9 What is an insulator? Give four examples
10 Complete the following statement:
‘An ammeter has a . . . resistance and must
be connected . . . with the load’
11 Complete the following statement:
‘A voltmeter has a . . . resistance and must be
connected . . . with the load’
12 State the unit of electrical power. State three
formulae used to calculate power
TLFeBOOK
AN INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
13 State two units used for electrical energy
14 State the three main effects of an electric
current and give two examples of each
19
(d) An electrical insulator has a high resistance
15 What is the function of a fuse in an electrical
circuit?
7 A current of 3 A flows for 50 h through a 6
resistor. The energy consumed by the resistor
is:
(a) 0.9 kWh
(b) 2.7 kWh
(c) 9 kWh
(d) 27 kWh
Exercise 10 Multi-choice problems on the
introduction to electric circuits (Answers on
page 375)
8 What must be known in order to calculate the
energy used by an electrical appliance?
(a) voltage and current
(b) current and time of operation
(c) power and time of operation
(d) current and resistance
1 60 µs is equivalent to:
(a) 0.06 s
(c) 1000 minutes
(b) 0.00006 s
(d) 0.6 s
2 The current which flows when 0.1 coulomb
is transferred in 10 ms is:
(a) 1 A
(b) 10 A
(c) 10 mA
(d) 100 mA
3 The p.d. applied to a 1 k resistance in order
that a current of 100 µA may flow is:
(a) 1 V
(b) 100 V (c) 0.1 V (d) 10 V
4 Which of the following formulae for electrical power is incorrect?
V2
V
(c) I2 R
(d)
(a) VI
(b)
I
R
5 The power dissipated by a resistor of 4
when a current of 5 A passes through it is:
(a) 6.25 W
(b) 20 W
(c) 80 W
(d) 100 W
6 Which of the following statements is true?
(a) Electric current is measured in volts
(b) 200 k resistance is equivalent to 2 M
(c) An ammeter has a low resistance and
must be connected in parallel with a
circuit
9 Voltage drop is the:
(a) maximum potential
(b) difference in potential between two points
(c) voltage produced by a source
(d) voltage at the end of a circuit
10 A 240 V, 60 W lamp has a working resistance
of:
(a) 1400 ohm
(b) 60 ohm
(c) 960 ohm
(d) 325 ohm
11 The largest number of 100 W electric light
bulbs which can be operated from a 240 V
supply fitted with a 13 A fuse is:
(a) 2
(b) 7
(c) 31
(d) 18
12 The energy used by a 1.5 kW heater in
5 minutes is:
(a) 5 J
(b) 450 J
(c) 7500 J
(d) 450 000 J
13 When an atom loses an electron, the atom:
(a) becomes positively charged
(b) disintegrates
(c) experiences no effect at all
(d) becomes negatively charged
TLFeBOOK
3
Resistance variation
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
ž appreciate that electrical resistance depends on four factors
ž appreciate that resistance R D l/a, where is the resistivity
ž recognize typical values of resistivity and its unit
ž perform calculations using R D l/a
ž define the temperature coefficient of resistance, ˛
ž recognize typical values for ˛
ž perform calculations using R D R0 ⊲1 C ˛⊳
ž determine the resistance and tolerance of a fixed resistor from its colour code
ž determine the resistance and tolerance of a fixed resistor from its letter and digit
code
3.1 Resistance and resistivity
The resistance of an electrical conductor depends on
four factors, these being: (a) the length of the conductor, (b) the cross-sectional area of the conductor,
(c) the type of material and (d) the temperature of
the material. Resistance, R, is directly proportional
to length, l, of a conductor, i.e. R / l. Thus, for
example, if the length of a piece of wire is doubled,
then the resistance is doubled.
Resistance, R, is inversely proportional to crosssectional area, a, of a conductor, i.e. R / 1/a. Thus,
for example, if the cross-sectional area of a piece of
wire is doubled then the resistance is halved.
Since R / l and R / 1/a then R / l/a. By
inserting a constant of proportionality into this relationship the type of material used may be taken into
account. The constant of proportionality is known
as the resistivity of the material and is given the
symbol (Greek rho). Thus,
resistance
R=
rl
ohms
a
is measured in ohm metres ( m). The value of
the resistivity is that resistance of a unit cube of
the material measured between opposite faces of the
cube.
Resistivity varies with temperature and some typical values of resistivities measured at about room
temperature are given below:
Copper 1.7 ð 108 m (or 0.017 µ m⊳
Aluminium 2.6 ð 108 m (or 0.026 µ m⊳
Carbon (graphite) 10 ð 108 m ⊲0.10 µ m⊳
TLFeBOOK
RESISTANCE VARIATION
Glass 1 ð 1010 m (or 104 µ m⊳
Mica 1 ð 1013 m (or 107 µ m⊳
Note that good conductors of electricity have a low
value of resistivity and good insulators have a high
value of resistivity.
Problem 1. The resistance of a 5 m length
of wire is 600 . Determine (a) the
resistance of an 8 m length of the same wire,
and (b) the length of the same wire when the
resistance is 420 .
(a) Resistance, R, is directly proportional to length,
l, i.e. R / l. Hence, 600 / 5 m or
600 D ⊲k⊳⊲5⊳, where k is the coefficient of
proportionality.
600
Hence, k D
D 120
5
When the length l is 8 m, then resistance
R D kl D ⊲120⊳⊲8⊳ D 960 Z
(b) When the resistance is 420 , 420 D kl, from
which,
420
420
length l D
D
D 3.5 m
k
120
21
(b) When the resistance is 750 then
1
750 D ⊲k⊳
a
from which
cross-sectional area, a D
k
600
D
750
750
D 0.8 mm2
Problem 3. A wire of length 8 m and
cross-sectional area 3 mm2 has a resistance
of 0.16 . If the wire is drawn out until its
cross-sectional area is 1 mm2 , determine the
resistance of the wire.
Resistance R is directly proportional to length l, and
inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area, a,
i.e.
R / l/a or R D k⊲l/a⊳, where k is the coefficient
of proportionality.
Since R D 0.16, l D 8 and a D 3, then 0.16 D
⊲k⊳⊲8/3⊳, from which k D 0.16 ð 3/8 D 0.06
If the cross-sectional area is reduced to 1/3 of its
original area then the length must be tripled to 3ð8,
i.e. 24 m
l
24
New resistance R D k
D 0.06
a
1
D 1.44 Z
Problem 2. A piece of wire of
cross-sectional area 2 mm2 has a resistance
of 300 . Find (a) the resistance of a wire of
the same length and material if the
cross-sectional area is 5 mm2 , (b) the
cross-sectional area of a wire of the same
length and material of resistance 750 .
Resistance R is inversely proportional to crosssectional area, a, i.e. R / l/a
Hence
300 / 12 mm2 or 300 D ⊲k⊳⊲ 12 ⊳,
Problem 4. Calculate the resistance of a
2 km length of aluminium overhead power
cable if the cross-sectional area of the cable
is 100 mm2 . Take the resistivity of
aluminium to be 0.03 ð 106 m.
Length l D 2 km D 2000 m, area a D 100 mm2 D
100 ð 106 m2 and resistivity D 0.03 ð 106 m.
l
Resistance R D
a
D
⊲0.03 ð 106 m⊳⊲2000 m⊳
⊲100 ð 106 m2 ⊳
D
0.03 ð 2000
D 0.6 Z
100
from which, the coefficient of proportionality, k D
300 ð 2 D 600
2
(a) When the cross-sectional area a D 5 mm then
R D ⊲k⊳⊲ 15 ⊳
D ⊲600⊳⊲ 15 ⊳ D 120 Z
(Note that resistance has decreased as the crosssectional is increased.)
Problem 5. Calculate the cross-sectional
area, in mm2 , of a piece of copper wire,
40 m in length and having a resistance of
0.25 . Take the resistivity of copper as
0.02 ð 106 m.
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22
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Resistance R D l/a hence cross-sectional area
l
⊲0.02 ð 106 m⊳⊲40 m⊳
aD
D
R
0.25
D 3.2 ð 106 m2
D ⊲3.2 ð 106 ⊳ ð 106 mm2 D 3.2 mm2
Problem 6. The resistance of 1.5 km of
wire of cross-sectional area 0.17 mm2 is
150 . Determine the resistivity of the wire.
Resistance, R D l/a hence
Ra
l
resistivity D
⊲150 ⊳⊲0.17 ð 106 m2 ⊳
⊲1500 m⊳
D
D 0.017 × 10−6 Z m
or 0.017 mZ m
Problem 7. Determine the resistance of
1200 m of copper cable having a diameter of
12 mm if the resistivity of copper is
1.7 ð 108 m.
Cross-sectional area of cable,
a D r 2 D
12
2
2
D 36 mm2 D 36 ð 106 m2
Resistance R D
D
Exercise 11 Further problems on
resistance and resistivity
1 The resistance of a 2 m length of cable is
2.5 . Determine (a) the resistance of a 7 m
length of the same cable and (b) the length of
the same wire when the resistance is 6.25 .
[(a) 8.75 (b) 5 m]
2 Some wire of cross-sectional area 1 mm2 has
a resistance of 20 .
Determine (a) the resistance of a wire of the
same length and material if the cross-sectional
area is 4 mm2 , and (b) the cross-sectional area
of a wire of the same length and material if
the resistance is 32
[(a) 5 (b) 0.625 mm2 ]
3 Some wire of length 5 m and cross-sectional
area 2 mm2 has a resistance of 0.08 . If the
wire is drawn out until its cross-sectional area
is 1 mm2 , determine the resistance of the wire.
[0.32 ]
4 Find the resistance of 800 m of copper cable
of cross-sectional area 20 mm2 . Take the resistivity of copper as 0.02 µ m
[0.8 ]
5 Calculate the cross-sectional area, in mm2 , of
a piece of aluminium wire 100 m long and
having a resistance of 2 . Take the resistivity
of aluminium as 0.03 ð 106 m [1.5 mm2 ]
6 The resistance of 500 m of wire of crosssectional area 2.6 mm2 is 5 . Determine the
resistivity of the wire in µ m
[0.026 µ m]
7 Find the resistance of 1 km of copper cable
having a diameter of 10 mm if the resistivity
of copper is 0.017 ð 106 m
[0.216 ]
l
a
⊲1.7 ð 108 m⊳⊲1200 m⊳
⊲36 ð 106 m2 ⊳
1.7 ð 1200 ð 106
108 ð 36
1.7 ð 12
D
D 0.180 Z
36
D
Now try the following exercise
3.2 Temperature coefficient of
resistance
In general, as the temperature of a material
increases, most conductors increase in resistance,
insulators decrease in resistance, whilst the
resistance of some special alloys remain almost
constant.
The temperature coefficient of resistance of a
material is the increase in the resistance of a 1
TLFeBOOK
RESISTANCE VARIATION
resistor of that material when it is subjected to a
rise of temperature of 1° C. The symbol used for
the temperature coefficient of resistance is ˛ (Greek
alpha). Thus, if some copper wire of resistance 1
is heated through 1° C and its resistance is then measured as 1.0043 then ˛ D 0.0043 /° C for copper. The units are usually expressed only as ‘per
° C’, i.e. ˛ D 0.0043/° C for copper. If the 1
resistor of copper is heated through 100° C then the
resistance at 100° C would be 1 C 100 ð 0.0043 D
1.43 Some typical values of temperature coefficient of resistance measured at 0° C are given
below:
23
Problem 9. An aluminium cable has a
resistance of 27 at a temperature of 35° C.
Determine its resistance at 0° C. Take the
temperature coefficient of resistance at 0° C
to be 0.0038/° C.
Resistance at ° C, R D R0 ⊲1 C ˛0 ⊳. Hence resistance at 0° C,
R0 D
27
R
D
⊲1 C ˛0 ⊳
[1 C ⊲0.0038⊳⊲35⊳]
27
1 C 0.133
27
D 23.83 Z
D
1.133
D
Copper
Nickel
Constantan
Aluminium
Carbon
Eureka
0.0043/° C
0.0062/° C
0
0.0038/° C
0.00048/° C
0.00001/° C
(Note that the negative sign for carbon indicates
that its resistance falls with increase of temperature.)
If the resistance of a material at 0° C is known
the resistance at any other temperature can be determined from:
Problem 10. A carbon resistor has a
resistance of 1 k at 0° C. Determine its
resistance at 80° C. Assume that the
temperature coefficient of resistance for
carbon at 0° C is 0.0005/° C.
Resistance at temperature ° C,
R D R0 ⊲1 C ˛0 ⊳
Rq = R0 .1 + a0 q/
i.e.
R D 1000[1 C ⊲0.0005⊳⊲80⊳]
where R0 D resistance at 0° C
R D resistance at temperature
° C
D 1000[1 0.040] D 1000⊲0.96⊳ D 960 Z
˛0 D temperature coefficient of resistance
at 0° C
Problem 8. A coil of copper wire has a
resistance of 100 when its temperature is
0° C. Determine its resistance at 70° C if the
temperature coefficient of resistance of
copper at 0° C is 0.0043/° C.
Resistance R D R0 ⊲1 C ˛0 ⊳. Hence resistance at
100° C,
If the resistance of a material at room temperature (approximately 20° C), R20 , and the temperature
coefficient of resistance at 20° C, ˛20 , are known then
the resistance R at temperature ° C is given by:
Rq = R20 [1 + a20 .q − 20/]
Problem 11. A coil of copper wire has a
resistance of 10 at 20° C. If the temperature
coefficient of resistance of copper at 20° C is
0.004/° C determine the resistance of the coil
when the temperature rises to 100° C.
R100 D 100[1 C ⊲0.0043⊳⊲70⊳]
D 100[1 C 0.301]
D 100⊲1.301⊳ D 130.1 Z
Resistance at ° C,
R D R20 [1 C ˛20 ⊲ 20⊳]
TLFeBOOK
24
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Hence resistance at 100° C,
R100 D 10[1 C ⊲0.004⊳⊲100 20⊳]
D 10[1 C ⊲0.004⊳⊲80⊳]
D 10[1 C 0.32]
D 10⊲1.32⊳ D 13.2 Z
Problem 12. The resistance of a coil of
aluminium wire at 18° C is 200 . The
temperature of the wire is increased and the
resistance rises to 240 . If the temperature
coefficient of resistance of aluminium is
0.0039/° C at 18° C determine the temperature
to which the coil has risen.
Let the temperature rise to ° C. Resistance at ° C,
R D R18 [1 C ˛18 ⊲ 18⊳]
Problem 13. Some copper wire has a
resistance of 200 at 20° C. A current is
passed through the wire and the temperature
rises to 90° C. Determine the resistance of the
wire at 90° C, correct to the nearest ohm,
assuming that the temperature coefficient of
resistance is 0.004/° C at 0° C.
R20 D 200 , ˛0 D 0.004/° C
[1 C ˛0 ⊲20⊳]
R20
D
R90
[1 C ˛0 ⊲90⊳]
and
Hence
R90 D
D
200[1 C 90⊲0.004⊳]
[1 C 20⊲0.004⊳]
D
200[1 C 0.36]
[1 C 0.08]
D
200⊲1.36⊳
D 251.85 Z
⊲1.08⊳
i.e.
240 D 200[1 C ⊲0.0039⊳⊲ 18⊳]
240 D 200 C ⊲200⊳⊲0.0039⊳⊲ 18⊳
240 200 D 0.78⊲ 18⊳
40 D 0.78⊲ 18⊳
40
D 18
0.78
51.28 D 18, from which,
D 51.28 C 18 D 69.28° C
R20 [1 C 90˛0 ]
[1 C 20˛0 ]
i.e. the resistance of the wire at 90° C is 252 Z,
correct to the nearest ohm
Now try the following exercises
Hence the temperature of the coil increases to
69.28° C
Exercise 12 Further problems on the
temperature coefficient of resistance
If the resistance at 0° C is not known, but is known
at some other temperature 1 , then the resistance at
any temperature can be found as follows:
1 A coil of aluminium wire has a resistance of
50 when its temperature is 0° C. Determine
its resistance at 100° C if the temperature coefficient of resistance of aluminium at 0° C is
0.0038/° C
[69 ]
R1 D R0 ⊲1 C ˛0 1 ⊳
and
R2 D R0 ⊲1 C ˛0 2 ⊳
Dividing one equation by the other gives:
R1
1 + a0 q1
=
R2
1 + a0 q2
where R2 D resistance at temperature 2
2 A copper cable has a resistance of 30 at
a temperature of 50° C. Determine its resistance at 0° C. Take the temperature coefficient
of resistance of copper at 0° C as 0.0043/° C
[24.69 ]
3 The temperature coefficient of resistance for
carbon at 0° C is 0.00048/° C. What is the
significance of the minus sign? A carbon resistor has a resistance of 500 at 0° C. Determine
its resistance at 50° C.
[488 ]
TLFeBOOK
RESISTANCE VARIATION
4 A coil of copper wire has a resistance of
20 at 18° C. If the temperature coefficient
of resistance of copper at 18° C is 0.004/° C,
determine the resistance of the coil when the
temperature rises to 98° C
[26.4 ]
5 The resistance of a coil of nickel wire at
20° C is 100 . The temperature of the wire
is increased and the resistance rises to 130 .
If the temperature coefficient of resistance of
nickel is 0.006/° C at 20° C, determine the
temperature to which the coil has risen.
[70° C]
6 Some aluminium wire has a resistance of 50
at 20° C. The wire is heated to a temperature
of 100° C. Determine the resistance of the
wire at 100° C, assuming that the temperature
coefficient of resistance at 0° C is 0.004/° C
[64.8 ]
7 A copper cable is 1.2 km long and has a crosssectional area of 5 mm2 . Find its resistance at
80° C if at 20° C the resistivity of copper is
0.02ð106 m and its temperature coefficient
of resistance is 0.004/° C
[5.95 ]
3.3 Resistor colour coding and ohmic
values
(a) Colour code for fixed resistors
The colour code for fixed resistors is given in
Table 3.1
(i) For a four-band fixed resistor (i.e. resistance
values with two significant figures):
yellow-violet-orange-red indicates 47 k with
a tolerance of š2%
(Note that the first band is the one nearest the
end of the resistor)
(ii) For a five-band fixed resistor (i.e. resistance
values with three significant figures): redyellow-white-orange-brown indicates 249 k
with a tolerance of š1%
(Note that the fifth band is 1.5 to 2 times wider
than the other bands)
25
Table 3.1
Colour
Significant
Figures
Silver
Gold
Black
Brown
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Grey
White
None
–
–
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
–
Multiplier
102
101
1
10
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
–
Tolerance
š10%
š5%
–
š1%
š2%
–
–
š0.5%
š0.25%
š0.1%
–
–
š20%
Problem 14. Determine the value and
tolerance of a resistor having a colour coding
of: orange-orange-silver-brown.
The first two bands, i.e. orange-orange, give 33 from
Table 3.1
The third band, silver, indicates a multiplier of
102 from Table 3.1, which means that the value of
the resistor is 33 ð 102 D 0.33
The fourth band, i.e. brown, indicates a tolerance
of š1% from Table 3.1 Hence a colour coding of
orange-orange-silver-brown represents a resistor of
value 0.33 Z with a tolerance of ±1%
Problem 15. Determine the value and
tolerance of a resistor having a colour coding
of: brown-black-brown.
The first two bands, i.e. brown-black, give 10 from
Table 3.1
The third band, brown, indicates a multiplier of
10 from Table 3.1, which means that the value of
the resistor is 10 ð 10 D 100
There is no fourth band colour in this case; hence,
from Table 3.1, the tolerance is š20% Hence a
colour coding of brown-black-brown represents a
resistor of value 100 Z with a tolerance of ±20%
Problem 16. Between what two values
should a resistor with colour coding
brown-black-brown-silver lie?
TLFeBOOK
26
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
From Table 3.1, brown-black-brown-silver indicates
10 ð 10, i.e. 100 , with a tolerance of š10%
This means that the value could lie between
Tolerance is indicated as follows: F D š1%,
G D š2%, J D š5%, K D š10% and M D š20%
Thus, for example,
⊲100 10% of 100⊳
R33M D 0.33 š 20%
⊲100 C 10% of 100⊳
4R7K D 4.7 š 10%
i.e. brown-black-brown-silver indicates any value
between 90 Z and 110 Z
390RJ D 390 š 5%
and
Problem 17. Determine the colour coding
for a 47 k having a tolerance of š5%.
Problem 19. Determine the value of a
resistor marked as 6K8F.
From Table 3.2, 6K8F is equivalent to: 6.8 k Z± 1%
3
From Table 3.1, 47 k D 47 ð 10 has a colour
coding of yellow-violet-orange. With a tolerance of
š5%, the fourth band will be gold.
Hence 47 k š 5% has a colour coding of: yellowviolet-orange-gold.
Problem 18. Determine the value and
tolerance of a resistor having a colour coding
of: orange-green-red-yellow-brown.
orange-green-red-yellow-brown is a five-band fixed
resistor and from Table 3.1, indicates: 352 ð 104
with a tolerance of š1%
352 ð 104 D 3.52 ð 106 , i.e. 3.52 M
Hence orange-green-red-yellow-brown indicates
3.52 M Z ± 1%
Problem 20. Determine the value of a
resistor marked as 4M7M.
From Table 3.2, 4M7M is equivalent to: 4.7 M Z
±20%
Problem 21. Determine the letter and digit
code for a resistor having a value of
68 k š 10%.
From Table 3.2, 68 k š 10% has a letter and digit
code of: 68 KK
Now try the following exercises
(b) Letter and digit code for resistors
Another way of indicating the value of resistors is
the letter and digit code shown in Table 3.2
1 Determine the value and tolerance of a resistor having a colour coding of: blue-greyorange-red
[68 k š 2%]
Table 3.2
Resistance
Value
0.47
1
4.7
47
100
1k
10 k
10 M
Exercise 13 Further problems on resistor
colour coding and ohmic values
Marked as:
R47
1R0
4R7
47R
100R
1K0
10 K
10 M
2 Determine the value and tolerance of a resistor having a colour coding of: yellow-violetgold
[4.7 š 20%]
3 Determine the value and tolerance of a resistor having a colour coding of: blue-whiteblack-black-gold
[690 š 5%]
4 Determine the colour coding for a 51 k
resistor having a tolerance of š2%
[green-brown-orange-red]
TLFeBOOK
RESISTANCE VARIATION
5 Determine the colour coding for a 1 M
resistor having a tolerance of š10%
[brown-black-green-silver]
27
8 Explain briefly the colour coding on resistors
9 Explain briefly the letter and digit code for
resistors
6 Determine the range of values expected for a
resistor with colour coding: red-black-greensilver
[1.8 M to 2.2 M ]
7 Determine the range of values expected for
a resistor with colour coding: yellow-blackorange-brown
[39.6 k to 40.4 k ]
8 Determine the value of a resistor marked as
(a) R22G (b) 4K7F
[(a) 0.22 š 2% (b) 4.7 k š 1%]
9 Determine the letter and digit code for a
resistor having a value of 100 k š 5%
[100 KJ]
10 Determine the letter and digit code for a
resistor having a value of 6.8 M š 20%
[6 M8 M]
Exercise 14 Short answer questions on
resistance variation
1 Name four factors which can effect the resistance of a conductor
2 If the length of a piece of wire of constant
cross-sectional area is halved, the resistance
of the wire is . . . . . .
3 If the cross-sectional area of a certain length
of cable is trebled, the resistance of the cable
is . . . . . .
4 What is resistivity? State its unit and the symbol used.
5 Complete the following:
Good conductors of electricity have a . . . . . .
value of resistivity and good insulators have
a . . . . . . value of resistivity
6 What is meant by the ‘temperature coefficient
of resistance ? State its units and the symbols
used.
7 If the resistance of a metal at 0° C is R0 ,
R is the resistance at ° C and ˛0 is the
temperature coefficient of resistance at 0° C
then: R D . . . . . .
Exercise 15 Multi-choice questions on
resistance variation (Answers on page 375)
1 The unit of resistivity is:
(a) ohms
(b) ohm millimetre
(c) ohm metre
(d) ohm/metre
2 The length of a certain conductor of resistance
100 is doubled and its cross-sectional area
is halved. Its new resistance is:
(a) 100
(b) 200
(c) 50
(d) 400
3 The resistance of a 2 km length of cable of
cross-sectional area 2 mm2 and resistivity of
2 ð 108 m is:
(a) 0.02
(b) 20
(c) 0.02 m
(d) 200
4 A piece of graphite has a cross-sectional area
of 10 mm2 . If its resistance is 0.1 and its
resistivity 10 ð 108 m, its length is:
(a) 10 km
(b) 10 cm
(c) 10 mm
(d) 10 m
5 The symbol for the unit of temperature coefficient of resistance is:
(a) /° C
(b)
(c) ° C
(d) /° C
6 A coil of wire has a resistance of 10 at 0° C.
If the temperature coefficient of resistance for
the wire is 0.004/° C, its resistance at 100° C is:
(a) 0.4
(b) 1.4
(c) 14
(d) 10
7 A nickel coil has a resistance of 13 at 50° C.
If the temperature coefficient of resistance at
0° C is 0.006/° C, the resistance at 0° C is:
(a) 16.9
(b) 10
(c) 43.3
(d) 0.1
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28
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
8 A colour coding of red-violet-black on a resistor indicates a value of:
(a) 27 š 20%
(c) 270 š 20%
(b) 270
(d) 27 š 10%
9 A resistor marked as 4K7G indicates a value of:
(a) 47 š 20%
(b) 4.7 k š 20%
(c) 0.47 š 10%
(d) 4.7 k š 2%
TLFeBOOK
4
Chemical effects of electricity
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
ž understand electrolysis and its applications, including electroplating
ž appreciate the purpose and construction of a simple cell
ž explain polarisation and local action
ž explain corrosion and its effects
ž define the terms e.m.f., E, and internal resistance, r, of a cell
ž perform calculations using V D E Ir
ž determine the total e.m.f. and total internal resistance for cells connected in series
and in parallel
ž distinguish between primary and secondary cells
ž explain the construction and practical applications of the Leclanché, mercury,
lead–acid and alkaline cells
ž list the advantages and disadvantages of alkaline cells over lead–acid cells
ž understand the term ‘cell capacity’ and state its unit
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Electrolysis
A material must contain charged particles to be
able to conduct electric current. In solids, the current
is carried by electrons. Copper, lead, aluminium,
iron and carbon are some examples of solid conductors. In liquids and gases, the current is carried
by the part of a molecule which has acquired an
electric charge, called ions. These can possess a
positive or negative charge, and examples include
hydrogen ion HC , copper ion CuCC and hydroxyl
ion OH . Distilled water contains no ions and is
a poor conductor of electricity, whereas salt water
contains ions and is a fairly good conductor of
electricity.
Electrolysis is the decomposition of a liquid compound by the passage of electric current through
it. Practical applications of electrolysis include the
electroplating of metals (see Section 4.3), the refining of copper and the extraction of aluminium from
its ore.
An electrolyte is a compound which will undergo
electrolysis. Examples include salt water, copper
sulphate and sulphuric acid.
The electrodes are the two conductors carrying
current to the electrolyte. The positive-connected
electrode is called the anode and the negativeconnected electrode the cathode.
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30
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Table 4.1 Part of the
electrochemical series
When two copper wires connected to a battery are
placed in a beaker containing a salt water solution,
current will flow through the solution. Air bubbles
appear around the wires as the water is changed into
hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis.
Potassium
sodium
aluminium
zinc
iron
lead
hydrogen
copper
silver
carbon
4.3 Electroplating
Electroplating uses the principle of electrolysis to
apply a thin coat of one metal to another metal.
Some practical applications include the tin-plating of
steel, silver-plating of nickel alloys and chromiumplating of steel. If two copper electrodes connected
to a battery are placed in a beaker containing copper
sulphate as the electrolyte it is found that the cathode
(i.e. the electrode connected to the negative terminal
of the battery) gains copper whilst the anode loses
copper.
4.4 The simple cell
The purpose of an electric cell is to convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
A simple cell comprises two dissimilar conductors (electrodes) in an electrolyte. Such a cell is
shown in Fig. 4.1, comprising copper and zinc electrodes. An electric current is found to flow between
the electrodes. Other possible electrode pairs exist,
including zinc–lead and zinc–iron. The electrode
potential (i.e. the p.d. measured between the electrodes) varies for each pair of metals. By knowing
the e.m.f. of each metal with respect to some standard electrode, the e.m.f. of any pair of metals may
be determined. The standard used is the hydrogen
electrode. The electrochemical series is a way of
listing elements in order of electrical potential, and
Table 4.1 shows a number of elements in such a
series.
Figure 4.1
In a simple cell two faults exist – those due to
polarisation and local action.
Polarisation
If the simple cell shown in Fig. 4.1 is left connected
for some time, the current I decreases fairly rapidly.
This is because of the formation of a film of hydrogen bubbles on the copper anode. This effect is
known as the polarisation of the cell. The hydrogen
prevents full contact between the copper electrode
and the electrolyte and this increases the internal
resistance of the cell. The effect can be overcome by
using a chemical depolarising agent or depolariser,
such as potassium dichromate which removes the
hydrogen bubbles as they form. This allows the cell
to deliver a steady current.
Local action
When commercial zinc is placed in dilute sulphuric
acid, hydrogen gas is liberated from it and the zinc
dissolves. The reason for this is that impurities, such
as traces of iron, are present in the zinc which set up
small primary cells with the zinc. These small cells
are short-circuited by the electrolyte, with the result
that localised currents flow causing corrosion. This
action is known as local action of the cell. This may
be prevented by rubbing a small amount of mercury
on the zinc surface, which forms a protective layer
on the surface of the electrode.
When two metals are used in a simple cell the
electrochemical series may be used to predict the
behaviour of the cell:
(i) The metal that is higher in the series acts as the
negative electrode, and vice-versa. For example,
the zinc electrode in the cell shown in Fig. 4.1
is negative and the copper electrode is positive.
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CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY
(ii) The greater the separation in the series between
the two metals the greater is the e.m.f. produced
by the cell.
The electrochemical series is representative of
the order of reactivity of the metals and their
compounds:
(i) The higher metals in the series react more
readily with oxygen and vice-versa.
31
i.e. approximately 1 M, hence no current flows and
the cell is not loaded.
The voltage available at the terminals of a cell
falls when a load is connected. This is caused by
the internal resistance of the cell which is the
opposition of the material of the cell to the flow of
current. The internal resistance acts in series with
other resistances in the circuit. Figure 4.2 shows a
cell of e.m.f. E volts and internal resistance, r, and
XY represents the terminals of the cell.
(ii) When two metal electrodes are used in a simple
cell the one that is higher in the series tends to
dissolve in the electrolyte.
4.5 Corrosion
Corrosion is the gradual destruction of a metal in a
damp atmosphere by means of simple cell action.
In addition to the presence of moisture and air
required for rusting, an electrolyte, an anode and
a cathode are required for corrosion. Thus, if metals
widely spaced in the electrochemical series, are used
in contact with each other in the presence of an
electrolyte, corrosion will occur. For example, if a
brass valve is fitted to a heating system made of
steel, corrosion will occur.
The effects of corrosion include the weakening
of structures, the reduction of the life of components
and materials, the wastage of materials and the
expense of replacement.
Corrosion may be prevented by coating with
paint, grease, plastic coatings and enamels, or by
plating with tin or chromium. Also, iron may be
galvanised, i.e., plated with zinc, the layer of zinc
helping to prevent the iron from corroding.
4.6 E.m.f. and internal resistance of a
cell
The electromotive force (e.m.f.), E, of a cell is the
p.d. between its terminals when it is not connected
to a load (i.e. the cell is on ‘no load’).
The e.m.f. of a cell is measured by using a high
resistance voltmeter connected in parallel with the
cell. The voltmeter must have a high resistance
otherwise it will pass current and the cell will not
be on ‘no-load’. For example, if the resistance of a
cell is 1 and that of a voltmeter 1 M then the
equivalent resistance of the circuit is 1 M C 1 ,
Figure 4.2
When a load (shown as resistance R) is not
connected, no current flows and the terminal p.d.,
V D E. When R is connected a current I flows
which causes a voltage drop in the cell, given by
Ir. The p.d. available at the cell terminals is less
than the e.m.f. of the cell and is given by:
V = E − Ir
Thus if a battery of e.m.f. 12 volts and internal
resistance 0.01 delivers a current of 100 A, the
terminal p.d.,
V D 12 ⊲100⊳⊲0.01⊳
D 12 1 D 11 V
When different values of potential difference V
across a cell or power supply are measured for
different values of current I, a graph may be plotted
as shown in Fig. 4.3 Since the e.m.f. E of the cell
or power supply is the p.d. across its terminals on
no load (i.e. when I D 0), then E is as shown by
the broken line.
Since V D E Ir then the internal resistance may
be calculated from
r=
E −V
I
When a current is flowing in the direction shown
in Fig. 4.2 the cell is said to be discharging
(E > V).
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32
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
E
Total internal resistance of 8 cells
1
D ð internal resistance of one cell
8
1
D ð 0.2 D 0.025 Z
8
Terminal p.d., V
Ir
V
0
Current, I
Problem 2. A cell has an internal resistance
of 0.02 and an e.m.f. of 2.0 V. Calculate its
terminal p.d. if it delivers (a) 5 A (b) 50 A.
Figure 4.3
When a current flows in the opposite direction to
that shown in Fig. 4.2 the cell is said to be charging
(V > E).
A battery is a combination of more than one cell.
The cells in a battery may be connected in series or
in parallel.
(i) For cells connected in series:
Total e.m.f. D sum of cell’s e.m.f.s
Total internal resistance D sum of cell’s internal
resistances
(ii) For cells connected in parallel:
If each cell has the same e.m.f. and internal
resistance:
Total e.m.f. D e.m.f. of one cell
Total internal resistance of n cells
1
D ð internal resistance of one cell
n
Problem 1. Eight cells, each with an
internal resistance of 0.2 and an e.m.f. of
2.2 V are connected (a) in series, (b) in
parallel. Determine the e.m.f. and the internal
resistance of the batteries so formed.
(a) When connected in series, total e.m.f
D sum of cell’s e.m.f.
D 2.2 ð 8 D 17.6 V
Total internal resistance
D sum of cell’s internal resistance
D 0.2 ð 8 D 1.6 Z
(b) When connected in parallel, total e.m.f
D e.m.f. of one cell
D 2.2 V
(a) Terminal p.d. V D E Ir where E D e.m.f.
of cell, I D current flowing and r D internal
resistance of cell
E D 2.0 V, I D 5 A and r D 0.02
Hence terminal p.d.
V D 2.0 ⊲5⊳⊲0.02⊳ D 2.0 0.1 D 1.9 V
(b) When the current is 50 A, terminal p.d.,
V D E Ir D 2.0 50⊲0.02⊳
i.e.
V D 2.0 1.0 D 1.0 V
Thus the terminal p.d. decreases as the current
drawn increases.
Problem 3. The p.d. at the terminals of a
battery is 25 V when no load is connected
and 24 V when a load taking 10 A is
connected. Determine the internal resistance
of the battery.
When no load is connected the e.m.f. of the battery,
E, is equal to the terminal p.d., V, i.e. E D 25 V
When current I D 10 A and terminal p.d.
V D 24 V, then V D E Ir
i.e.
24 D 25 ⊲10⊳r
Hence, rearranging, gives
10r D 25 24 D 1
and the internal resistance,
rD
1
D 0.1 Z
10
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CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY
Problem 4. Ten 1.5 V cells, each having an
internal resistance of 0.2 , are connected in
series to a load of 58 . Determine (a) the
current flowing in the circuit and (b) the p.d.
at the battery terminals.
(a) For ten cells, battery e.m.f., E D 10 ð 1.5 D
15 V, and the total internal resistance, r D
10 ð 0.2 D 2 . When connected to a 58 load
the circuit is as shown in Fig. 4.4
e.m.f.
total resistance
15
D
58 C 2
15
D 0.25 A
D
60
Current I D
33
3 The p.d. at the terminals of a battery is 16 V
when no load is connected and 14 V when a
load taking 8 A is connected. Determine the
internal resistance of the battery.
[0.25 ]
4 A battery of e.m.f. 20 V and internal resistance 0.2 supplies a load taking 10 A. Determine the p.d. at the battery terminals and the
resistance of the load.
[18 V, 1.8 ]
5 Ten 2.2 V cells, each having an internal resistance of 0.1 are connected in series to a
load of 21 . Determine (a) the current flowing in the circuit, and (b) the p.d. at the battery
terminals
[(a) 1 A (b) 21 V]
6 For the circuits shown in Fig. 4.5 the resistors
represent the internal resistance of the batteries. Find, in each case:
(i) the total e.m.f. across PQ
(ii) the total equivalent internal resistances of
the batteries.
[(i) (a) 6 V (b) 2 V (ii) (a) 4 (b) 0.25 ]
Figure 4.4
(b) P.d. at battery terminals, V D E Ir
i.e. V D 15 ⊲0.25⊳⊲2⊳ D 14.5 V
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 16 Further problems on e.m.f.
and internal resistance of a cell
1 Twelve cells, each with an internal resistance
of 0.24 and an e.m.f. of 1.5 V are connected
(a) in series, (b) in parallel. Determine the
e.m.f. and internal resistance of the batteries so
formed.
[(a) 18 V, 2.88 (b) 1.5 V, 0.02 ]
2 A cell has an internal resistance of 0.03 and
an e.m.f. of 2.2 V. Calculate its terminal p.d.
if it delivers
(a) 1 A,
(b) 20 A,
(c) 50 A
[(a) 2.17 V (b) 1.6 V (c) 0.7 V]
Figure 4.5
7 The voltage at the terminals of a battery is
52 V when no load is connected and 48.8 V
when a load taking 80 A is connected. Find the
internal resistance of the battery. What would
be the terminal voltage when a load taking
20 A is connected?
[0.04 , 51.2 V]
TLFeBOOK
34
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
4.7 Primary cells
Primary cells cannot be recharged, that is, the
conversion of chemical energy to electrical energy
is irreversible and the cell cannot be used once the
chemicals are exhausted. Examples of primary cells
include the Leclanché cell and the mercury cell.
constant for a relatively long time. Its main advantages over the Lechlanché cell is its smaller size
and its long shelf life. Typical practical applications
include hearing aids, medical electronics, cameras
and for guided missiles.
4.8 Secondary cells
Lechlanché cell
A typical dry Lechlanché cell is shown in Fig. 4.6
Such a cell has an e.m.f. of about 1.5 V when
new, but this falls rapidly if in continuous use due
to polarisation. The hydrogen film on the carbon
electrode forms faster than can be dissipated by
the depolariser. The Lechlanché cell is suitable
only for intermittent use, applications including
torches, transistor radios, bells, indicator circuits,
gas lighters, controlling switch-gear, and so on. The
cell is the most commonly used of primary cells,
is cheap, requires little maintenance and has a shelf
life of about 2 years.
Secondary cells can be recharged after use, that
is, the conversion of chemical energy to electrical energy is reversible and the cell may be used
many times. Examples of secondary cells include
the lead–acid cell and the alkaline cell. Practical
applications of such cells include car batteries, telephone circuits and for traction purposes – such as
milk delivery vans and fork lift trucks.
Lead–acid cell
A typical lead–acid cell is constructed of:
(i) A container made of glass, ebonite or plastic.
(ii) Lead plates
(a) the negative plate (cathode) consists of
spongy lead
(b) the positive plate (anode) is formed by
pressing lead peroxide into the lead grid.
The plates are interleaved as shown in the
plan view of Fig. 4.8 to increase their effective
cross-sectional area and to minimize internal
resistance.
Separators
Figure 4.6
Positive plate
(anode)
Container
Negative plate
(cathode)
Mercury cell
A typical mercury cell is shown in Fig. 4.7 Such
a cell has an e.m.f. of about 1.3 V which remains
PLAN VIEW OF LEAD ACID CELL
Figure 4.8
(iii) Separators made of glass, celluloid or wood.
(iv) An electrolyte which is a mixture of sulphuric
acid and distilled water.
Figure 4.7
The relative density (or specific gravity) of a lead–
acid cell, which may be measured using a hydrometer, varies between about 1.26 when the cell is fully
charged to about 1.19 when discharged. The terminal
p.d. of a lead–acid cell is about 2 V.
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CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY
When a cell supplies current to a load it is said
to be discharging. During discharge:
(i) the lead peroxide (positive plate) and the spongy
lead (negative plate) are converted into lead
sulphate, and
(ii) the oxygen in the lead peroxide combines with
hydrogen in the electrolyte to form water.
The electrolyte is therefore weakened and the
relative density falls.
35
are separated by insulating rods and assembled in
steel containers which are then enclosed in a nonmetallic crate to insulate the cells from one another.
The average discharge p.d. of an alkaline cell is
about 1.2 V.
Advantages of an alkaline cell (for example, a
nickel–cadmium cell or a nickel–iron cell) over a
lead–acid cell include:
(i) More robust construction
(ii) Capable of withstanding heavy charging and
discharging currents without damage
The terminal p.d. of a lead–acid cell when fully
discharged is about 1.8 V. A cell is charged by
connecting a d.c. supply to its terminals, the pos- (iii) Has a longer life
itive terminal of the cell being connected to the (iv) For a given capacity is lighter in weight
positive terminal of the supply. The charging current flows in the reverse direction to the discharge (v) Can be left indefinitely in any state of charge or
discharge without damage
current and the chemical action is reversed. During
charging:
(vi) Is not self-discharging
(i) the lead sulphate on the positive and negative
plates is converted back to lead peroxide and
lead respectively, and
(ii) the water content of the electrolyte decreases
as the oxygen released from the electrolyte
combines with the lead of the positive plate. The
relative density of the electrolyte thus increases.
The colour of the positive plate when fully charged
is dark brown and when discharged is light brown.
The colour of the negative plate when fully charged
is grey and when discharged is light grey.
Alkaline cell
There are two main types of alkaline cell – the
nickel–iron cell and the nickel–cadmium cell. In
both types the positive plate is made of nickel
hydroxide enclosed in finely perforated steel tubes,
the resistance being reduced by the addition of pure
nickel or graphite. The tubes are assembled into
nickel–steel plates.
In the nickel–iron cell, (sometimes called the
Edison cell or nife cell), the negative plate is made
of iron oxide, with the resistance being reduced by
a little mercuric oxide, the whole being enclosed in
perforated steel tubes and assembled in steel plates.
In the nickel–cadmium cell the negative plate is
made of cadmium. The electrolyte in each type of
cell is a solution of potassium hydroxide which
does not undergo any chemical change and thus the
quantity can be reduced to a minimum. The plates
Disadvantages of an alkaline cell over a lead–acid
cell include:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Is relatively more expensive
Requires more cells for a given e.m.f.
Has a higher internal resistance
Must be kept sealed
Has a lower efficiency
Alkaline cells may be used in extremes of temperature, in conditions where vibration is experienced
or where duties require long idle periods or heavy
discharge currents. Practical examples include traction and marine work, lighting in railway carriages,
military portable radios and for starting diesel and
petrol engines.
However, the lead–acid cell is the most common
one in practical use.
4.9 Cell capacity
The capacity of a cell is measured in ampere-hours
(Ah). A fully charged 50 Ah battery rated for 10 h
discharge can be discharged at a steady current of
5 A for 10 h, but if the load current is increased to
10 A then the battery is discharged in 3–4 h, since
the higher the discharge current, the lower is the
effective capacity of the battery. Typical discharge
characteristics for a lead–acid cell are shown in
Fig. 4.9
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Terminal p.d. (volts)
36
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
18 State three typical applications of primary
cells
2.2
2.0
1.8
Discharge at
10h rate
Discharge at
twice 10 h rate
0
2
4
6
8
10
19 State three typical applications of secondary
cells
20 In what unit is the capacity of a cell measured?
Discharge time (hours)
Figure 4.9
Now try the following exercises
Exercise 17 Short answer questions on the
chemical effects of electricity
1 What is electrolysis?
2 What is an electrolyte?
3 Conduction in electrolytes is due to . . . . . .
4 A positive-connected electrode is called the
. . . . . . and the negative-connected electrode
the . . . . . .
5 State two practical applications of electrolysis
6 The purpose of an electric cell is to convert
. . . . . . to . . . . . .
7 Make a labelled sketch of a simple cell
8 What is the electrochemical series?
9 With reference to a simple cell, explain
briefly what is meant by
(a) polarisation (b) local action
10 What is corrosion? Name two effects of corrosion and state how they may be prevented
11 What is meant by the e.m.f. of a cell? How
may the e.m.f. of a cell be measured?
12 Define internal resistance
13 If a cell has an e.m.f. of E volts, an internal
resistance of r ohms and supplies a current I
amperes to a load, the terminal p.d. V volts
is given by: V D . . . . . .
14 Name the two main types of cells
15 Explain briefly the difference between primary and secondary cells
16 Name two types of primary cells
17 Name two types of secondary cells
Exercise 18 Multi-choice questions on the
chemical effects of electricity (Answers on
page 375)
1 A battery consists of:
(a) a cell
(b) a circuit
(c) a generator
(d) a number of cells
2 The terminal p.d. of a cell of e.m.f. 2 V and
internal resistance 0.1 when supplying a
current of 5 A will be:
(a) 1.5 V
(b) 2 V
(c) 1.9 V
(d) 2.5 V
3 Five cells, each with an e.m.f. of 2 V and
internal resistance 0.5 are connected in
series. The resulting battery will have:
(a) an e.m.f. of 2 V and an internal resistance
of 0.5
(b) an e.m.f. of 10 V and an internal resistance of 2.5
(c) an e.m.f. of 2 V and an internal resistance
of 0.1
(d) an e.m.f. of 10 V and an internal resistance of 0.1
4 If the five cells of question 2 are connected
in parallel the resulting battery will have:
(a) an e.m.f. of 2 V and an internal resistance
of 0.5
(b) an e.m.f. of 10 V and an internal resistance of 2.5
(c) an e.m.f. of 2 V and an internal resistance
of 0.1
(d) an e.m.f. of 10 V and an internal resistance of 0.1
5 Which of the following statements is false?
(a) A Leclanché cell is suitable for use in
torches
(b) A nickel–cadnium cell is an example of
a primary cell
(c) When a cell is being charged its terminal
p.d. exceeds the cell e.m.f.
(d) A secondary cell may be recharged
after use
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CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY
6 Which of the following statements is false?
When two metal electrodes are used in a
simple cell, the one that is higher in the
electrochemical series:
(a) tends to dissolve in the electrolyte
(b) is always the negative electrode
(c) reacts most readily with oxygen
(d) acts an an anode
7 Five 2 V cells, each having an internal resistance of 0.2 are connected in series to a
load of resistance 14 . The current flowing
in the circuit is:
(a) 10 A (b) 1.4 A (c) 1.5 A (d) 23 A
8 For the circuit of question 7, the p.d. at the
battery terminals is:
(a) 10 V (b) 9 31 V (c) 0 V
(d) 10 23 V
9 Which of the following statements is true?
(a) The capacity of a cell is measured in
volts
(b) A primary cell converts electrical energy
into chemical energy
37
(c) Galvanising iron helps to prevent corrosion
(d) A positive electrode is termed the cathode
10 The greater the internal resistance of a cell:
(a) the greater the terminal p.d.
(b) the less the e.m.f.
(c) the greater the e.m.f.
(d) the less the terminal p.d.
11 The negative pole of a dry cell is made of:
(a) carbon
(b) copper
(c) zinc
(d) mercury
12 The energy of a secondary cell is usually
renewed:
(a) by passing a current through it
(b) it cannot be renewed at all
(c) by renewing its chemicals
(d) by heating it
TLFeBOOK
Assignment 1
This assignment covers the material contained in Chapters 1 to 4.
The marks for each question are shown in brackets at the end of each question.
1 An electromagnet exerts a force of 15 N and
moves a soft iron armature through a distance of
12 mm in 50 ms. Determine the power consumed.
(5)
2 A d.c. motor consumes 47.25 MJ when connected
to a 250 V supply for 1 hour 45 minutes. Determine the power rating of the motor and the current
taken from the supply.
(5)
3 A 100 W electric light bulb is connected to a
200 V supply. Calculate (a) the current flowing
in the bulb, and (b) the resistance of the bulb.
(4)
4 Determine the charge transferred when a current
of 5 mA flows for 10 minutes.
(4)
5 A current of 12 A flows in the element of an
electric fire of resistance 10 . Determine the
power dissipated by the element. If the fire is on
for 5 hours every day, calculate for a one week
period (a) the energy used, and (b) cost of using
the fire if electricity cost 7p per unit.
(6)
6 Calculate the resistance of 1200 m of copper cable
of cross-sectional area 15 mm2 . Take the resistivity of copper as 0.02 µ m
(5)
7 At a temperature of 40° C, an aluminium cable has
a resistance of 25 . If the temperature coefficient
of resistance at 0° C is 0.0038/° C, calculate its
resistance at 0° C
(5)
8 (a) Determine the values of the resistors with the
following colour coding:
(i) red-red-orange-silver
(ii) orange-orange-black-blue-green
(b) What is the value of a resistor marked as
47 KK?
(6)
9 Four cells, each with an internal resistance of
0.40 and an e.m.f. of 2.5 V are connected in
series to a load of 38.4 . (a) Determine the
current flowing in the circuit and the p.d. at the
battery terminals. (b) If the cells are connected in
parallel instead of in series, determine the current
flowing and the p.d. at the battery terminals.
(10)
TLFeBOOK
5
Series and parallel networks
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
ž calculate unknown voltages, current and resistances in a series circuit
ž understand voltage division in a series circuit
ž calculate unknown voltages, currents and resistances in a parallel network
ž calculate unknown voltages, currents and resistances in series-parallel networks
ž understand current division in a two-branch parallel network
ž describe the advantages and disadvantages of series and parallel connection of lamps
5.1 Series circuits
Figure 5.1 shows three resistors R1 , R2 and R3
connected end to end, i.e. in series, with a battery
source of V volts. Since the circuit is closed a
current I will flow and the p.d. across each resistor
may be determined from the voltmeter readings V1 ,
V2 and V3 .
From Ohm’s law: V1 D IR1 , V2 D IR2 , V3 D IR3
and V D IR where R is the total circuit resistance.
Since V D V1 C V2 C V3 then IR D IR1 C IR2 C IR3 .
Dividing throughout by I gives
R = R1 + R2 + R3
Thus for a series circuit, the total resistance is
obtained by adding together the values of the separate resistance’s.
Problem 1. For the circuit shown in
Fig. 5.2, determine (a) the battery voltage V,
(b) the total resistance of the circuit, and
(c) the values of resistors R1 , R2 and R3 ,
given that the p.d.’s across R1 , R2 and R3 are
5 V, 2 V and 6 V respectively.
Figure 5.1
In a series circuit
(a) the current I is the same in all parts of the circuit
and hence the same reading is found on each of
the ammeters shown, and
(b) the sum of the voltages V1 , V2 and V3 is equal
to the total applied voltage, V,
i.e.
V = V1 + V2 + V3
Figure 5.2
(a) Battery voltage V D V1 C V2 C V3
D 5 C 2 C 6 D 13 V
TLFeBOOK
40
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(b) Total circuit resistance R D
13
V
D
D 3.25 Z
I
4
5
V1
D D 1.25 Z
I
4
V2
2
Resistance R2 D
D D 0.5 Z
I
4
6
V3
D D 1.5 Z
Resistance R3 D
I
4
(Check: R1 C R2 C R3 D 1.25 C 0.5 C 1.5
D 3.25 D R⊳
(c) Resistance R1 D
Figure 5.4
which is the current in the 9 resistor.
P.d. across the 9 resistor,
V1 D I ð 9 D 0.5 ð 9 D 4.5 V
Power dissipated in the 11 resistor,
Problem 2. For the circuit shown in
Fig. 5.3, determine the p.d. across resistor
R3 . If the total resistance of the circuit is
100 , determine the current flowing through
resistor R1 . Find also the value of resistor R2 .
P D I2 R D ⊲0.5⊳2 ⊲11⊳
D ⊲0.25⊳⊲11⊳ D 2.75 W
5.2 Potential divider
The voltage distribution for the circuit shown in
Fig. 5.5(a) is given by:
R2
R1
V and V2 =
V
V1 =
R1 + R2
R1 + R2
Figure 5.3
P.d. across R3 , V3 D 25 10 4 D 11 V
Current I D
25
V
D
D 0.25 A,
R
100
which is the current flowing in each resistor
Resistance R2 D
V2
4
D
D 16 Z
I
0.25
Problem 3. A 12 V battery is connected in
a circuit having three series-connected
resistors having resistance’s of 4 , 9 and
11 . Determine the current flowing through,
and the p.d. across the 9 resistor. Find also
the power dissipated in the 11 resistor.
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 5.4
Total resistance R D 4 C 9 C 11 D 24
Current I D
V
12
D
D 0.5 A,
R
24
Figure 5.5
The circuit shown in Fig. 5.5(b) is often referred
to as a potential divider circuit. Such a circuit
can consist of a number of similar elements in
series connected across a voltage source, voltages
TLFeBOOK
SERIES AND PARALLEL NETWORKS
41
being taken from connections between the elements.
Frequently the divider consists of two resistors as
shown in Fig. 5.5(b), where
VOUT =
R2
R1 + R2
VIN
Problem 4. Determine the value of voltage
V shown in Fig. 5.6
Figure 5.8
Value of unknown resistance,
Rx D 8 2 D 6 Z
(b) P.d. across 2 resistor,
V1 D IR1 D 3 ð 2 D 6 V
Alternatively, from above,
Figure 5.6
Figure 5.6 may be redrawn as shown in Fig. 5.7,
and
6
voltage V D
⊲50⊳ D 30 V
6C4
R1
V1 D
V
R1 C Rx
2
D
⊲24⊳ D 6 V
2C6
Energy used D power ð time
D ⊲V ð I⊳ ð t
D ⊲24 ð 3 W⊳⊲50 h⊳
D 3600 Wh D 3.6 kWh
Figure 5.7
Problem 5. Two resistors are connected in
series across a 24 V supply and a current of
3 A flows in the circuit. If one of the
resistors has a resistance of 2 determine
(a) the value of the other resistor, and (b) the
p.d. across the 2 resistor. If the circuit is
connected for 50 hours, how much energy
is used?
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 5.8
(a) Total circuit resistance
RD
24
V
D
D 8
I
3
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 19 Further problems on series
circuits
1 The p.d’s measured across three resistors connected in series are 5 V, 7 V and 10 V, and the
supply current is 2 A. Determine (a) the supply voltage, (b) the total circuit resistance and
(c) the values of the three resistors.
[(a) 22 V (b) 11 (c) 2.5 , 3.5 , 5 ]
2 For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.9, determine
the value of V1 . If the total circuit resistance
is 36 determine the supply current and the
value of resistors R1 , R2 and R3
[10 V, 0.5 A, 20 , 10 , 6 ]
3 When the switch in the circuit in Fig. 5.10
is closed the reading on voltmeter 1 is 30 V
TLFeBOOK
42
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
and that on voltmeter 2 is 10 V. Determine
the reading on the ammeter and the value of
resistor Rx
[4 A, 2.5 ]
Figure 5.9
Figure 5.12
In a parallel circuit:
(a) the sum of the currents I1 , I2 and I3 is equal to
the total circuit current, I,
Figure 5.10
4 Calculate the value of voltage V in Fig. 5.11
[45 V]
I = I1 + I2 + I3
i.e.
and
(b) the source p.d., V volts, is the same across each
of the resistors.
3Ω
From Ohm’s law:
V
5Ω
72 V
I1 D
V
V
V
V
, I2 D
, I3 D
and I D
R1
R2
R3
R
where R is the total circuit resistance. Since
Figure 5.11
5 Two resistors are connected in series across an
18 V supply and a current of 5 A flows. If one
of the resistors has a value of 2.4 determine
(a) the value of the other resistor and (b) the
p.d. across the 2.4 resistor.
[(a) 1.2 (b) 12 V]
I D I1 C I2 C I3 then
V
V
V
V
D
C
C
R
R1
R2
R3
Dividing throughout by V gives:
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
R
R1
R2
R3
This equation must be used when finding the total
resistance R of a parallel circuit. For the special case
of two resistors in parallel
5.3 Parallel networks
Figure 5.12 shows three resistors, R1 , R2 and R3
connected across each other, i.e. in parallel, across
a battery source of V volts.
1
1
1
R2 C R1
D
C
D
R
R1
R2
R1 R2
Hence
R1 R2
R=
R1 + R2
product
i.e.
sum
TLFeBOOK
44
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Problem 9. Given four 1 resistors, state
how they must be connected to give an
overall resistance of (a) 14 (b) 1 (c) 1 31
(d) 2 12 , all four resistors being connected
in each case.
1
1 1 1
3
D C C D ,
R
1 1 1
1
i.e. R D
1
1
3
and
1
3
in series with 1 gives
(d) Two in parallel, in series with two in series
(see Fig. 5.19), since for the two in parallel
(a) All four in parallel (see Fig. 5.16), since
1
1 1 1 1
4
1
D C C C D i.e. R D
R
1 1 1 1
1
4
Figure 5.19
RD
and
1
2
1ð1
1
D ,
1C1
2
, 1 and 1 in series gives 2 12
Problem 10. Find the equivalent resistance
for the circuit shown in Fig. 5.20
Figure 5.16
(b) Two in series, in parallel with another two
in series (see Fig. 5.17), since 1 and 1 in
series gives 2 , and 2 in parallel with 2
gives
4
2ð2
D D 1
2C2
4
Figure 5.20
R3 , R4 and R5 are connected in parallel and their
equivalent resistance R is given by
1
1 1
1
6C3C1
10
D C C
D
D
R
3 6 18
18
18
hence R D ⊲18/10⊳ D 1.8 . The circuit is now
equivalent to four resistors in series and the equivalent circuit resistance D 1 C 2.2 C 1.8 C 4 D 9 Z
Figure 5.17
(c) Three in parallel, in series with one (see
Fig. 5.18), since for the three in parallel,
Figure 5.18
Problem 11. Resistances of 10 , 20 and
30 are connected (a) in series and (b) in
parallel to a 240 V supply. Calculate the
supply current in each case.
(a) The series circuit is shown in Fig. 5.21
The equivalent resistance
RT D 10 C 20 C 30 D 60
V
240
Supply current I D
D 4A
D
RT
60
TLFeBOOK
SERIES AND PARALLEL NETWORKS
45
5.4 Current division
For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.23, the total circuit
resistance, RT is given by
RT D
Figure 5.21
R 1 R2
R1 C R2
(b) The parallel circuit is shown in Fig. 5.22
The equivalent resistance RT of 10 , 20
and 30 resistance’s connected in parallel is
given by:
Figure 5.23
and
Current
Figure 5.22
1
1
1
1
6C3C2
11
D
C
C
D
D
RT
10 20 30
60
60
60
hence RT D
11
Similarly,
current
Supply current
ID
240
240 ð 11
V
D 44 A
D
D
60
RT
60
11
240
V
D 24 A,
D
R1
10
V
240
D 12 A
D
I2 D
R2
20
and I3 D
240
V
D 8A
D
R3
30
For a parallel circuit I D I1 C I2 C I3
D 24 C 12 C 8 D 44 A, as above)
R1 R2
I
V
D
R2
R2 R1 C R2
R1
.I/
D
R1 + R2
I2 D
Summarising, with reference to Fig. 5.23
(Check:
I1 D
R 1 R2
V D IRT D I
R1 C R2
R1 R2
V
I
I1 D
D
R1
R1 R1 C R2
R2
.I/
D
R1 + R2
and
I1 =
R2
R1 + R2
.I/
I2 =
R1
R1 + R2
.I/
Problem 12. For the series-parallel
arrangement shown in Fig. 5.24, find (a) the
supply current, (b) the current flowing
through each resistor and (c) the p.d. across
each resistor.
TLFeBOOK
46
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
p.d. across R1 , i.e.
V1 D IR1 D ⊲25⊳⊲2.5⊳ D 62.5 V
p.d. across Rx , i.e.
Figure 5.24
(a) The equivalent resistance Rx of R2 and R3 in
parallel is:
Rx D
6ð2
DD 1.5
6C2
The equivalent resistance RT of R1 , Rx and R4
in series is:
RT D 2.5 C 1.5 C 4 D 8
Vx D IRx D ⊲25⊳⊲1.5⊳ D 37.5 V
p.d. across R4 , i.e.
V4 D IR4 D ⊲25⊳⊲4⊳ D 100 V
Hence the p.d. across R2
D p.d. across R3 D 37.5 V
Problem 13. For the circuit shown in
Fig. 5.26 calculate (a) the value of resistor
Rx such that the total power dissipated in the
circuit is 2.5 kW, (b) the current flowing in
each of the four resistors.
Supply current
ID
200
V
D 25 A
D
RT
8
(b) The current flowing through R1 and R4 is 25 A.
The current flowing through
R3
2
25
ID
R2 D
R2 C R3
6C2
D 6.25 A
The current flowing through
R2
I
R3 D
R2 C R3
6
D
25 D 18.75 A
6C2
(Note that the currents flowing through R2 and
R3 must add up to the total current flowing into
the parallel arrangement, i.e. 25 A)
(c) The equivalent circuit of Fig. 5.24 is shown in
Fig. 5.25
Figure 5.26
(a) Power dissipated P D VI watts, hence
2500 D ⊲250⊳⊲I⊳
i.e. I D
2500
D 10 A
250
From Ohm’s law,
RT D
250
V
D
D 25 ,
I
10
where RT is the equivalent circuit resistance.
The equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 in parallel is
15 ð 10
150
D
D 6
15 C 10
25
Figure 5.25
The equivalent resistance of resistors R3 and Rx
in parallel is equal to 25 6 , i.e. 19 .
TLFeBOOK
SERIES AND PARALLEL NETWORKS
There are three methods whereby Rx can be
determined.
V2 D 250 V 60 V D 190 V
D p.d. across R3
R1
15
⊲10⊳
ID
R1 C R2
15 C 10
3
⊲10⊳ D 6 A
D
5
Current I2 D
Method 1
The voltage V1 D IR, where R is 6 , from above,
i.e. V1 D ⊲10⊳⊲6⊳ D 60 V. Hence
47
From part (a), method 1, I3 = I4 = 5 A
Problem 14. For the arrangement shown in
Fig. 5.27, find the current Ix .
D p.d. across Rx
I3 D
V2
190
D 5 A.
D
R3
38
Thus I4 D 5 A also, since I D 10 A. Thus
Rx D
V2
190
D
D 38 Z
I4
5
Figure 5.27
Method 2
Since the equivalent resistance of R3 and Rx in
parallel is 19 ,
38Rx
product
19 D
i.e.
38 C Rx
sum
Commencing at the right-hand side of the arrangement shown in Fig. 5.27, the circuit is gradually
reduced in stages as shown in Fig. 5.28(a)–(d).
Hence
19⊲38 C Rx ⊳ D 38Rx
722 C 19Rx D 38Rx
722 D 38Rx 19Rx D 19Rx
D 19Rx
Thus
Rx D
722
D 38 Z
19
Method 3
When two resistors having the same value are connected in parallel the equivalent resistance is always
half the value of one of the resistors. Thus, in
this case, since RT D 19 and R3 D 38 , then
Rx D 38 could have been deduced on sight.
R2
(b) Current I1 D
I
R1 C R2
10
⊲10⊳
D
15 C 10
2
⊲10⊳ D 4 A
D
5
Figure 5.28
From Fig. 5.28(d),
ID
17
D 4A
4.25
From Fig. 5.28(b),
9
9
I1 D
⊲I⊳ D
⊲4⊳ D 3 A
9C3
12
From Fig. 5.27
2
2
Ix D
⊲I1 ⊳ D
⊲3⊳ D 0.6 A
2C8
10
TLFeBOOK
48
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 20
networks
Further problems on parallel
1 Resistances of 4 and 12 are connected
in parallel across a 9 V battery. Determine
(a) the equivalent circuit resistance, (b) the
supply current, and (c) the current in each
resistor.
[(a) 3 (b) 3 A (c) 2.25 A, 0.75 A]
2 For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.29 determine
(a) the reading on the ammeter, and (b) the
value of resistor R
[2.5 A, 2.5 ]
Figure 5.30
plete circuit expends a power of 0.36 kW,
find the total current flowing.
[2.5 , 6 A]
7 (a) Calculate the current flowing in the 30
resistor shown in Fig. 5.31 (b) What additional value of resistance would have to be
placed in parallel with the 20 and 30
resistors to change the supply current to 8 A,
the supply voltage remaining constant.
[(a) 1.6 A (b) 6 ]
Figure 5.29
3 Find the equivalent resistance when the following resistances are connected (a) in series
(b) in parallel (i) 3 and 2 (ii) 20 k and
40 k (iii) 4 , 8 and 16 (iv) 800 ,
4 k and 1500
[(a)
(i)
(iii)
(b) (i)
(iii)
5
28
1.2
2.29
(ii)
(iv)
(ii)
(iv)
60 k
6.3 k
13.33 k
461.54 k]
4 Find the total resistance between terminals A
and B of the circuit shown in Fig. 5.30(a)
[8 ]
5 Find the equivalent resistance between terminals C and D of the circuit shown in
Fig. 5.30(b)
[27.5 ]
6 Resistors of 20 , 20 and 30 are connected in parallel. What resistance must be
added in series with the combination to
obtain a total resistance of 10 . If the com-
Figure 5.31
8 For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.32, find (a) V1 ,
(b) V2 , without calculating the current flowing.
[(a) 30 V (b) 42 V]
5Ω
7Ω
V1
V2
72 V
Figure 5.32
TLFeBOOK
SERIES AND PARALLEL NETWORKS
9 Determine the currents and voltages indicated
in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.33
[I1 D 5 A, I2 D 2.5 A, I3 D 1 32 A, I4 D 56 A
I5 D 3 A, I6 D 2 A, V1 D 20 V, V2 D 5 V,
V3 D 6 V]
10 Find the current I in Fig. 5.34
[1.8 A]
49
now has ⊲240/4⊳ V, i.e. 60 V across it and each
now glows even more dimly.
(iii) If a lamp is removed from the circuit or if a
lamp develops a fault (i.e. an open circuit) or if
the switch is opened, then the circuit is broken,
no current flows, and the remaining lamps will
not light up.
(iv) Less cable is required for a series connection
than for a parallel one.
The series connection of lamps is usually limited to
decorative lighting such as for Christmas tree lights.
Parallel connection
Figure 5.36 shows three similar lamps, each rated at
240 V, connected in parallel across a 240 V supply.
Figure 5.33
Figure 5.34
Figure 5.36
5.5 Wiring lamps in series and in
parallel
Series connection
Figure 5.35 shows three lamps, each rated at 240 V,
connected in series across a 240 V supply.
(i) Each lamp has only ⊲240/3⊳ V, i.e. 80 V across
it and thus each lamp glows dimly.
(ii) If another lamp of similar rating is added in
series with the other three lamps then each lamp
(i) Each lamp has 240 V across it and thus each
will glow brilliantly at their rated voltage.
(ii) If any lamp is removed from the circuit or
develops a fault (open circuit) or a switch is
opened, the remaining lamps are unaffected.
(iii) The addition of further similar lamps in parallel
does not affect the brightness of the other
lamps.
(iv) More cable is required for parallel connection
than for a series one.
The parallel connection of lamps is the most widely
used in electrical installations.
Problem 15. If three identical lamps are
connected in parallel and the combined
resistance is 150 , find the resistance of one
lamp.
Figure 5.35
TLFeBOOK
50
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Let the resistance of one lamp be R, then
1
1
1
1
3
D C C D ,
150
R R R
R
from which, R D 3 ð 150 D 450 Z
Problem 16. Three identical lamps A, B
and C are connected in series across a 150 V
supply. State (a) the voltage across each
lamp, and (b) the effect of lamp C failing.
(a) Since each lamp is identical and they are connected in series there is 150/3 V, i.e. 50 V across
each.
(b) If lamp C fails, i.e. open circuits, no current will
flow and lamps A and B will not operate.
1
1
1
1
D
C
C
R
R1
R2
R3
5 Explain the potential divider circuit
6 Compare the merits of wiring lamps in
(a) series (b) parallel
Exercise 23 Multi-choice questions on
series and parallel networks (Answers on
page 375)
1 If two 4 resistors are connected in series
the effective resistance of the circuit is:
(a) 8
(b) 4
(c) 2
(d) 1
2 If two 4 resistors are connected in parallel
the effective resistance of the circuit is:
(a) 8
(b) 4
(c) 2
(d) 1
3 With the switch in Fig. 5.37 closed, the
ammeter reading will indicate:
(a) 1 A
(b) 75 A (c) 13 A (d) 3 A
Now try the following exercises
Exercise 21 Further problems on wiring
lamps in series and in parallel
3Ω
Exercise 22 Short answer questions on
series and parallel networks
1 Name three characteristics of a series circuit
2 Show that for three resistors R1 , R2 and R3
connected in series the equivalent resistance R
is given by R D R1 C R2 C R3
3 Name three characteristics of a parallel network
4 Show that for three resistors R1 , R2 and R3
connected in parallel the equivalent resistance
R is given by
7Ω
A
1 If four identical lamps are connected in parallel and the combined resistance is 100 , find
the resistance of one lamp.
[400 ]
2 Three identical filament lamps are connected
(a) in series, (b) in parallel across a 210 V supply. State for each connection the p.d. across
each lamp.
[(a) 70 V (b) 210 V]
5Ω
5V
Figure 5.37
4 The effect of connecting an additional parallel load to an electrical supply source is to
increase the
(a) resistance of the load
(b) voltage of the source
(c) current taken from the source
(d) p.d. across the load
5 The equivalent resistance when a resistor
of 13 is connected in parallel with a 41
resistance is:
1
(a) 71
(b) 7
(c) 12
(d) 34
6 With the switch in Fig. 5.38 closed the ammeter reading will indicate:
(c) 3 A
(d) 4 35 A
(a) 108 A (b) 13 A
7 A 6 resistor is connected in parallel with
the three resistors of Fig. 5.38. With the
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SERIES AND PARALLEL NETWORKS
switch closed the ammeter reading will indicate:
(a) 43 A
(b) 4 A
(c) 14 A
(d) 1 31 A
10 The total resistance of two resistors R1 and
R2 when connected in parallel is given by:
1
1
C
R1
R2
R1 R2
(d)
R1 C R2
(b)
(a) R1 C R2
2Ω
6Ω
10 Ω
(c)
A
6V
Figure 5.38
51
R1 C R2
R 1 R2
11 If in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.39, the reading on the voltmeter is 5 V and the reading
on the ammeter is 25 mA, the resistance of
resistor R is:
(a) 0.005
(b) 5
(c) 125
(d) 200
R
A
8 A 10 resistor is connected in parallel with
a 15 resistor and the combination in series
with a 12 resistor. The equivalent resistance of the circuit is:
(a) 37 (b) 18 (c) 27 (d) 4
9 When three 3 resistors are connected in
parallel, the total resistance is:
(a) 3
(b) 9
(c) 1
(d) 0.333
V
Figure 5.39
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6
Capacitors and capacitance
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
ž describe an electrostatic field
ž appreciate Coulomb’s law
ž define electric field strength E and state its unit
ž define capacitance and state its unit
ž describe a capacitor and draw the circuit diagram symbol
ž perform simple calculations involving C D Q/V and Q D It
ž define electric flux density D and state its unit
ž define permittivity, distinguishing between εo , εr and ε
ž perform simple calculations involving
DD
V
D
Q
,E D
and
D εo εr
A
d
E
ž understand that for a parallel plate capacitor,
CD
ε0 εr A⊲n 1⊳
d
ž perform calculations involving capacitors connected in parallel and in series
ž define dielectric strength and state its unit
ž state that the energy stored in a capacitor is given by W D 21 CV2 joules
ž describe practical types of capacitor
ž understand the precautions needed when discharging capacitors
6.1 Electrostatic field
Figure 6.1 represents two parallel metal plates, A
and B, charged to different potentials. If an electron
that has a negative charge is placed between the
plates, a force will act on the electron tending to
push it away from the negative plate B towards the
positive plate, A. Similarly, a positive charge would
be acted on by a force tending to move it toward
the negative plate. Any region such as that shown
between the plates in Fig. 6.1, in which an electric
charge experiences a force, is called an electrostatic
field. The direction of the field is defined as that
of the force acting on a positive charge placed
in the field. In Fig. 6.1, the direction of the force
is from the positive plate to the negative plate.
Such a field may be represented in magnitude and
direction by lines of electric force drawn between
the charged surfaces. The closeness of the lines is
TLFeBOOK
CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE
Figure 6.1
an indication of the field strength. Whenever a p.d.
is established between two points, an electric field
will always exist.
Figure 6.2(a) shows a typical field pattern for
an isolated point charge, and Fig. 6.2(b) shows
the field pattern for adjacent charges of opposite
polarity. Electric lines of force (often called electric flux lines) are continuous and start and finish
on point charges; also, the lines cannot cross each
other. When a charged body is placed close to an
uncharged body, an induced charge of opposite sign
appears on the surface of the uncharged body. This
is because lines of force from the charged body terminate on its surface.
53
the magnitude of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance separating
them, i.e.
q1 q2
force / 2
d
or
force = k
q1 q2
d2
where constant k ³ 9 ð 109 . This is known as
Coulomb’s law.
Hence the force between two charged spheres in
air with their centres 16 mm apart and each carrying
a charge of C1.6 µC is given by:
force D k
6 2
q1 q2
9 ⊲1.6 ð 10 ⊳
³
⊲9
ð
10
⊳
d2
⊲16 ð 103 ⊳2
D 90 newtons
6.2 Electric field strength
Figure 6.3 shows two parallel conducting plates separated from each other by air. They are connected
to opposite terminals of a battery of voltage V volts.
There is therefore an electric field in the space
between the plates. If the plates are close together,
the electric lines of force will be straight and parallel and equally spaced, except near the edge where
fringing will occur (see Fig. 6.1). Over the area in
which there is negligible fringing,
Electric field strength, E =
V
volts/metre
d
where d is the distance between the plates. Electric
field strength is also called potential gradient.
Figure 6.2
The concept of field lines or lines of force is
used to illustrate the properties of an electric field.
However, it should be remembered that they are
only aids to the imagination.
The force of attraction or repulsion between
two electrically charged bodies is proportional to
Figure 6.3
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54
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
6.3 Capacitance
Static electric fields arise from electric charges,
electric field lines beginning and ending on electric
charges. Thus the presence of the field indicates
the presence of equal positive and negative electric
charges on the two plates of Fig. 6.3. Let the charge
be CQ coulombs on one plate and Q coulombs on
the other. The property of this pair of plates which
determines how much charge corresponds to a given
p.d. between the plates is called their capacitance:
Q
capacitance C =
V
The unit of capacitance is the farad F (or more
usually µF D 106 F or pF D 1012 F), which is
defined as the capacitance when a p.d. of one volt
appears across the plates when charged with one
coulomb.
where I is the current in amperes and t the time in
seconds.
Problem 1. (a) Determine the p.d. across a
4 µF capacitor when charged with 5 mC
(b) Find the charge on a 50 pF capacitor
when the voltage applied to it is 2 kV.
(a) C D 4 µF D 4 ð 106 F and
Q D 5 mC D 5 ð 103 C.
Since C D
Q
5 ð 103
Q
then V D
D
V
C
4 ð 106
5 ð 106
5000
D
4 ð 103
4
Hence p.d. V D 1250 V or 1.25 kV
D
(b) C D 50 pF D 50 ð 1012 F and
V D 2 kV D 2000 V
Q D CV D 50 ð 1012 ð 2000
6.4 Capacitors
Every system of electrical conductors possesses
capacitance. For example, there is capacitance
between the conductors of overhead transmission
lines and also between the wires of a telephone
cable. In these examples the capacitance is
undesirable but has to be accepted, minimized or
compensated for. There are other situations where
capacitance is a desirable property.
Devices specially constructed to possess capacitance are called capacitors (or condensers, as they
used to be called). In its simplest form a capacitor consists of two plates which are separated by
an insulating material known as a dielectric. A
capacitor has the ability to store a quantity of static
electricity.
The symbols for a fixed capacitor and a variable
capacitor used in electrical circuit diagrams are
shown in Fig. 6.4
Figure 6.4
5ð2
D 0.1 ð 106
108
Hence, charge Q D 0.1 mC
D
Problem 2. A direct current of 4 A flows
into a previously uncharged 20 µF capacitor
for 3 ms. Determine the p.d. between
the plates.
I D 4 A, C D 20 µF D 20 ð 106 F and t D 3 ms D
3 ð 103 s. Q D It D 4 ð 3 ð 103 C.
VD
D
4 ð 3 ð 103
Q
D
C
20 ð 106
12 ð 106
D 0.6 ð 103 D 600 V
20 ð 103
Hence, the p.d. between the plates is 600 V
Problem 3. A 5 µF capacitor is charged so
that the p.d. between its plates is 800 V.
Calculate how long the capacitor can provide
an average discharge current of 2 mA.
The charge Q stored in a capacitor is given by:
Q = I × t coulombs
C D 5 µF D 5 ð 106 F, V D 800 V and
I D 2 mA D 2 ð 103 A.
Q D CV D 5 ð 106 ð 800 D 4 ð 103 C
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CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE
55
Also, Q D It. Thus,
4 ð 103
Q
D
D 2s
tD
I
2 ð 103
Hence, the capacitor can provide an average
discharge current of 2 mA for 2 s.
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 24 Further problems on
capacitors and capacitance
1 Find the charge on a 10 µF capacitor when the
applied voltage is 250 V
[2.5 mC]
2 Determine the voltage across a 1000 pF capacitor to charge it with 2 µC
[2 kV]
3 The charge on the plates of a capacitor is 6 mC
when the potential between them is 2.4 kV.
Determine the capacitance of the capacitor.
[2.5 µF]
4 For how long must a charging current of 2 A
be fed to a 5 µF capacitor to raise the p.d.
between its plates by 500 V.
[1.25 ms]
5 A direct current of 10 A flows into a previously
uncharged 5 µF capacitor for 1 ms. Determine
the p.d. between the plates.
[2 kV]
6 A 16 µF capacitor is charged at a constant
current of 4 µA for 2 min. Calculate the final
p.d. across the capacitor and the corresponding
charge in coulombs.
[30 V, 480 µC]
7 A steady current of 10 A flows into a previously uncharged capacitor for 1.5 ms when the
p.d. between the plates is 2 kV. Find the capacitance of the capacitor.
[7.5 µF]
electric flux density, D =
Q
coulombs/metre2
A
Electric flux density is also called charge density, .
6.6 Permittivity
At any point in an electric field, the electric field
strength E maintains the electric flux and produces
a particular value of electric flux density D at that
point. For a field established in vacuum (or for
practical purposes in air), the ratio D/E is a constant
ε0 , i.e.
D
= e0
E
where ε0 is called the permittivity of free space or
the free space constant. The value of ε0 is
8.85 ð 1012 F/m.
When an insulating medium, such as mica, paper,
plastic or ceramic, is introduced into the region of
an electric field the ratio of D/E is modified:
D
= e0 er
E
where εr , the relative permittivity of the insulating
material, indicates its insulating power compared
with that of vacuum:
relative permittivity,
er =
flux density in material
flux density in vacuum
6.5 Electric flux density
Unit flux is defined as emanating from a positive charge of 1 coulomb. Thus electric flux
is measured in coulombs, and for a charge of Q
coulombs, the flux D Q coulombs.
Electric flux density D is the amount of
flux passing through a defined area A that is
perpendicular to the direction of the flux:
εr has no unit. Typical values of εr include air, 1.00;
polythene, 2.3; mica, 3–7; glass, 5–10; water, 80;
ceramics, 6–1000.
The product ε0 εr is called the absolute permittivity, ε, i.e.
e = e0 er
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56
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
The insulating medium separating charged surfaces
is called a dielectric. Compared with conductors,
dielectric materials have very high resistivities. They
are therefore used to separate conductors at different potentials, such as capacitor plates or electric
power lines.
Electric field strength
ED
V
200
D
D 250 kV=m
d
0.8 ð 103
(a) For air: εr D 1 and
Problem 4. Two parallel rectangular plates
measuring 20 cm by 40 cm carry an electric
charge of 0.2 µC. Calculate the electric flux
density. If the plates are spaced 5 mm apart
and the voltage between them is 0.25 kV
determine the electric field strength.
2
4
Area D 20 cm ð 40 cm D 800 cm D 800 ð 10
and charge Q D 0.2 µC D 0.2 ð 106 C,
Electric flux density
Hence electric flux density
D D Eε0 εr
D ⊲250 ð 103 ð 8.85 ð 1012 ð 1⊳ C/m2
2
m
Q
0.2 ð 106
0.2 ð 104
DD
D
D
A
800 ð 104
800 ð 106
2000
ð 106 D 2.5 mC=m2
D
800
Voltage V D 0.25 kV D 250 V and plate spacing,
d D 5 mm D 5 ð 103 m.
Electric field strength
ED
V
250
D
D 50 kV=m
d
5 ð 103
Problem 5. The flux density between two
plates separated by mica of relative
permittivity 5 is 2 µC/m2 . Find the voltage
gradient between the plates.
Flux density D D 2 µC/m2 D 2 ð 106 C/m2 ,
ε0 D 8.85 ð 1012 F/m and εr D 5.
D/E D ε0 εr , hence voltage gradient,
6
ED
D
2 ð 10
D
V/m
ε0 εr
8.85 ð 1012 ð 5
D 45.2 kV=m
Problem 6. Two parallel plates having a
p.d. of 200 V between them are spaced
0.8 mm apart. What is the electric field
strength? Find also the electric flux density
when the dielectric between the plates is
(a) air, and (b) polythene of relative
permittivity 2.3
D
D ε0 εr
E
D 2.213 mC=m2
(b) For polythene, εr D 2.3
Electric flux density
D D Eε0 εr
D ⊲250 ð 103 ð 8.85 ð 1012 ð 2.3⊳ C/m2
D 5.089 mC=m2
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 25 Further problems on electric
field strength, electric flux density and
permittivity
(Where appropriate take ε0 as 8.85 ð 1012 F/m)
1 A capacitor uses a dielectric 0.04 mm thick
and operates at 30 V. What is the electric field
strength across the dielectric at this voltage?
[750 kV/m]
2 A two-plate capacitor has a charge of 25 C. If
the effective area of each plate is 5 cm2 find
the electric flux density of the electric field.
[50 kC/m2 ]
3 A charge of 1.5 µC is carried on two parallel
rectangular plates each measuring 60 mm by
80 mm. Calculate the electric flux density. If
the plates are spaced 10 mm apart and the
voltage between them is 0.5 kV determine the
electric field strength.
[312.5 µC/m2 , 50 kV/m]
4 Two parallel plates are separated by a dielectric and charged with 10 µC. Given that the
TLFeBOOK
CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE
57
area of each plate is 50 cm2 , calculate the electric flux density in the dielectric separating
the plates.
[2 mC/m2 ]
5 The electric flux density between two plates
separated by polystyrene of relative permittivity 2.5 is 5 µC/m2 . Find the voltage gradient
between the plates.
[226 kV/m]
6 Two parallel plates having a p.d. of 250 V
between them are spaced 1 mm apart. Determine the electric field strength. Find also
the electric flux density when the dielectric
between the plates is (a) air and (b) mica of
relative permittivity 5
[250 kV/m (a) 2.213 µC/m2 (b) 11.063 µC/m2 ]
Figure 6.5
6.7 The parallel plate capacitor
For a parallel-plate capacitor, as shown in
Fig. 6.5(a), experiments show that capacitance C
is proportional to the area A of a plate, inversely
proportional to the plate spacing d (i.e. the dielectric
thickness) and depends on the nature of the
dielectric:
Capacitance, C =
e0 er A
farads
d
where ε0 D 8.85 ð 1012 F/m (constant)
εr D relative permittivity
Problem 7. (a) A ceramic capacitor has an
effective plate area of 4 cm2 separated by
0.1 mm of ceramic of relative permittivity
100. Calculate the capacitance of the
capacitor in picofarads. (b) If the capacitor in
part (a) is given a charge of 1.2 µC what will
be the p.d. between the plates?
(a) Area A D 4 cm2 D 4 ð 104 m2 ,
d D 0.1 mm D 0.1 ð 103 m,
ε0 D 8.85 ð 1012 F/m and εr D 100
Capacitance,
A D area of one of the plates, in m2 , and
d D thickness of dielectric in m
Another method used to increase the capacitance is
to interleave several plates as shown in Fig. 6.5(b).
Ten plates are shown, forming nine capacitors with
a capacitance nine times that of one pair of plates.
If such an arrangement has n plates then capacitance C / ⊲n 1⊳. Thus capacitance
e0 er A.n − 1/
C =
farads
d
C D
ε0 ε r A
farads
d
8.85 ð 1012 ð 100 ð 4 ð 104
F
0.1 ð 103
8.85 ð 4
D
F
1010
D
D
8.85 ð 4 ð 1012
pF D 3540 pF
1010
(b) Q D CV thus
V D
1.2 ð 106
Q
D
V D 339 V
C
3540 ð 1012
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58
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Problem 8. A waxed paper capacitor has
two parallel plates, each of effective area
800 cm2 . If the capacitance of the capacitor
is 4425 pF determine the effective thickness
of the paper if its relative permittivity is 2.5
2
4
2
2
A D 800 cm D 800 ð 10 m D 0.08 m , C D
4425 pF D 4425 ð 1012 F, ε0 D 8.85 ð 1012 F/m
and εr D 2.5. Since
CD
ε 0 εr A
ε 0 εA A
then d D
d
C
8.85 ð 1012 ð 2.5 ð 0.08
4425 ð 1012
D 0.0004 m
D
Hence, the thickness of the paper is 0.4 mm.
Problem 9. A parallel plate capacitor has
nineteen interleaved plates each 75 mm by
75 mm separated by mica sheets 0.2 mm
thick. Assuming the relative permittivity of
the mica is 5, calculate the capacitance of
the capacitor.
n D 19 thus n1 D 18, A D 75ð75 D 5625 mm2 D
5625 ð 106 m2 , εr D 5, ε0 D 8.85 ð 1012 F/m and
d D 0.2 mm D 0.2 ð 103 m. Capacitance,
CD
ε0 εr A⊲n 1⊳
d
8.85 ð 1012 ð 5 ð 5625 ð 106 ð 18
F
0.2 ð 103
D 0.0224 mF or 22.4 nF
D
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 26 Further problems on parallel
plate capacitors
(Where appropriate take ε0 as 8.85 ð 1012 F/m)
1 A capacitor consists of two parallel plates each
of area 0.01 m2 , spaced 0.1 mm in air. Calculate the capacitance in picofarads.
[885 pF]
2 A waxed paper capacitor has two parallel
plates, each of effective area 0.2 m2 . If the
capacitance is 4000 pF determine the effective
thickness of the paper if its relative permittivity is 2
[0.885 mm]
3 Calculate the capacitance of a parallel plate
capacitor having 5 plates, each 30 mm by
20 mm and separated by a dielectric 0.75 mm
thick having a relative permittivity of 2.3
[65.14 pF]
4 How many plates has a parallel plate capacitor
having a capacitance of 5 nF, if each plate
is 40 mm by 40 mm and each dielectric is
0.102 mm thick with a relative permittivity
of 6.
[7]
5 A parallel plate capacitor is made from 25
plates, each 70 mm by 120 mm interleaved
with mica of relative permittivity 5. If
the capacitance of the capacitor is 3000 pF
determine the thickness of the mica sheet.
[2.97 mm]
6 A capacitor is constructed with parallel plates
and has a value of 50 pF. What would be the
capacitance of the capacitor if the plate area
is doubled and the plate spacing is halved?
[200 pF]
7 The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
is 1000 pF. It has 19 plates, each 50 mm by
30 mm separated by a dielectric of thickness
0.40 mm. Determine the relative permittivity
of the dielectric.
[1.67]
8 The charge on the square plates of a multiplate
capacitor is 80 µC when the potential between
them is 5 kV. If the capacitor has twenty-five
plates separated by a dielectric of thickness
0.102 mm and relative permittivity 4.8, determine the width of a plate.
[40 mm]
9 A capacitor is to be constructed so that its
capacitance is 4250 pF and to operate at a p.d.
of 100 V across its terminals. The dielectric is
to be polythene ⊲εr D 2.3⊳ which, after allowing a safety factor, has a dielectric strength
of 20 MV/m. Find (a) the thickness of the
polythene needed, and (b) the area of a plate.
[(a) 0.005 mm (b) 10.44 cm2 ]
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CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE
59
6.8 Capacitors connected in parallel
and series
(a) Capacitors connected in parallel
Figure 6.6 shows three capacitors, C1 , C2 and C3 ,
connected in parallel with a supply voltage V
applied across the arrangement.
Figure 6.7
Figure 6.6
When the charging current I reaches point A it
divides, some flowing into C1 , some flowing into
C2 and some into C3 . Hence the total charge QT ⊲D
I ð t⊳ is divided between the three capacitors. The
capacitors each store a charge and these are shown
as Q1 , Q2 and Q3 respectively. Hence
QT D Q1 C Q 2 C Q 3
But QT D CV, Q1 D C1 V, Q2 D C2 V and Q3 D
C3 V. Therefore CV D C1 V C C2 V C C3 V where C
is the total equivalent circuit capacitance, i.e.
C D C1 C C2 C C3
It follows that for n parallel-connected capacitors,
C = C1 + C2 + C3 . . . . . . + Cn
i.e. the equivalent capacitance of a group of parallelconnected capacitors is the sum of the capacitances
of the individual capacitors. (Note that this formula is similar to that used for resistors connected
in series).
(b) Capacitors connected in series
Figure 6.7 shows three capacitors, C1 , C2 and C3 ,
connected in series across a supply voltage V. Let
the p.d. across the individual capacitors be V1 , V2
and V3 respectively as shown.
Let the charge on plate ‘a’ of capacitor C1 be
CQ coulombs. This induces an equal but opposite
charge of Q coulombs on plate ‘b’. The conductor
between plates ‘b’ and ‘c’ is electrically isolated
from the rest of the circuit so that an equal but
opposite charge of CQ coulombs must appear on
plate ‘c’, which, in turn, induces an equal and
opposite charge of Q coulombs on plate ‘d’, and
so on.
Hence when capacitors are connected in series the
charge on each is the same. In a series circuit:
V D V1 C V2 C V3
Since V D
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
then
D
C
C
C
C
C1
C2
C3
where C is the total equivalent circuit capacitance, i.e.
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
C
C1
C2
C3
It follows that for n series-connected capacitors:
1
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+ ... +
C
C1
C2
C3
Cn
i.e. for series-connected capacitors, the reciprocal
of the equivalent capacitance is equal to the sum of
the reciprocals of the individual capacitances. (Note
that this formula is similar to that used for resistors
connected in parallel).
For the special case of two capacitors in series:
1
1
C 2 C C1
1
D
C
D
C
C1
C2
C1 C2
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Hence
C D C1 C C 2 C C 3 C C 4
C =
C1 C2
C1 + C2
product
i.e.
sum
Problem 10. Calculate the equivalent
capacitance of two capacitors of 6 µF and
4 µF connected (a) in parallel and (b) in
series.
i.e. C D 1 C 3 C 5 C 6 D 15 mF
(b) Total charge QT D CV where C is the equivalent circuit capacitance i.e.
QT D 15 ð 106 ð 100 D 1.5 ð 103 C
D 1.5 mC
(c) The charge on the 1 µF capacitor
Q1 D C1 V D 1 ð 106 ð 100 D 0.1 mC
(a) In parallel, equivalent capacitance,
C D C1 C C2 D 6 µF C 4 µF D 10 mF
The charge on the 3 µF capacitor
(b) In series, equivalent capacitance C is given by:
Q2 D C2 V D 3 ð 106 ð 100 D 0.3 mC
CD
C1 C2
C1 C C2
The charge on the 5 µF capacitor
Q3 D C3 V D 5 ð 106 ð 100 D 0.5 mC
This formula is used for the special case of two
capacitors in series. Thus
The charge on the 6 µF capacitor
6ð4
24
C D
D
D 2.4 mF
6C4
10
[Check: In a parallel circuit
Q4 D C4 V D 6 ð 106 ð 100 D 0.6 mC
Q T D Q1 C Q 2 C Q 3 C Q 4 .
Problem 11. What capacitance must be
connected in series with a 30 µF capacitor for
the equivalent capacitance to be 12 µF?
Let C D 12 µF (the equivalent capacitance),
C1 D 30 µF and C2 be the unknown capacitance.
For two capacitors in series
1
1
1
D
C
C
C1
C2
Q1 C Q2 C Q3 C Q4 D 0.1 C 0.3 C 0.5 C 0.6
D 1.5 mC D QT ]
Problem 13. Capacitance’s of 3 µF, 6 µF
and 12 µF are connected in series across a
350 V supply. Calculate (a) the equivalent
circuit capacitance, (b) the charge on each
capacitor, and (c) the p.d. across each
capacitor.
Hence
1
1
1
C1 C
D
D
C2
C C1
CC1
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 6.8.
and
C2 D
12 ð 30
360
CC1
D
D
D 20 mF
C1 C
30 12
18
Problem 12. Capacitance’s of 1 µF, 3 µF,
5 µF and 6 µF are connected in parallel to a
direct voltage supply of 100 V. Determine
(a) the equivalent circuit capacitance, (b) the
total charge and (c) the charge on
each capacitor.
(a) The equivalent capacitance C for four capacitors
in parallel is given by:
Figure 6.8
(a) The equivalent circuit capacitance C for three
capacitors in series is given by:
1
1
1
1
C
C
D
C
C1
C2
C3
i.e.
1 1
1
4C2C1
7
1
D C C
D
D
C
3 6 12
12
12
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CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE
Hence the equivalent circuit capacitance
5
12
D 1 mF or 1.714 mF
C D
7
7
(b) Total charge QT D CV, hence
12
ð 106 ð 350
7
D 600 µC or 0.6 mC
Since the capacitors are connected in series
0.6 mC is the charge on each of them.
(c) The voltage across the 3 µF capacitor,
QT D
V1 D
Q
C1
0.6 ð 103
D 200 V
3 ð 106
The voltage across the 6 µF capacitor,
D
V2 D
Q
C2
0.6 ð 103
D
D 100 V
6 ð 106
The voltage across the 12 µF capacitor,
V3 D
Q
C3
0.6 ð 103
D 50 V
12 ð 106
[Check: In a series circuit V D V1 C V2 C V3 .
V1 C V2 C V3 D 200 C 100 C 50 D 350 V D
supply voltage]
D
In practice, capacitors are rarely connected in series
unless they are of the same capacitance. The reason
for this can be seen from the above problem where
the lowest valued capacitor (i.e. 3 µF) has the highest
p.d. across it (i.e. 200 V) which means that if all the
capacitors have an identical construction they must
all be rated at the highest voltage.
Figure 6.9
The equivalent capacitance of 5 F in series
with 15 µF is given by
5 ð 15
75
µF D
µF D 3.75 mF
5 C 15
20
(b) The charge on each of the capacitors shown in
Fig. 6.10 will be the same since they are connected in series. Let this charge be Q coulombs.
Then
i.e.
Q D C1 V1 D C2 V2
5V1 D 15V2
V1 D 3V2
Also
⊲1⊳
V1 C V2 D 240 V
Hence 3V2 C V2 D 240 V from equation (1)
Thus
V2 D 60 V and V1 D 180 V
Hence the voltage across QR is 60 V
Figure 6.10
(c) The charge on the 15 µF capacitor is
Problem 14. For the arrangement shown in
Fig. 6.9 find (a) the equivalent capacitance of
the circuit, (b) the voltage across QR, and
(c) the charge on each capacitor.
C2 V2 D 15 ð 106 ð 60 D 0.9 mC
The charge on the 2 µF capacitor is
2 ð 106 ð 180 D 0.36 mC
The charge on the 3 µF capacitor is
(a) 2 µF in parallel with 3 µF gives an equivalent
capacitance of 2 µF C 3 µF D 5 µF. The circuit
is now as shown in Fig. 6.10.
3 ð 106 ð 180 D 0.54 mC
TLFeBOOK
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 27 Further problems on
capacitors in parallel and series
1 Capacitors of 2 µF and 6 µF are connected
(a) in parallel and (b) in series. Determine the
equivalent capacitance in each case.
[(a) 8 µF (b) 1.5 µF]
2 Find the capacitance to be connected in series
with a 10 µF capacitor for the equivalent
capacitance to be 6 µF
[15 µF]
3 What value of capacitance would be obtained
if capacitors of 0.15 µF and 0.10 µF are connected (a) in series and (b) in parallel
[(a) 0.06 µF (b) 0.25 µF]
4 Two 6 µF capacitors are connected in series
with one having a capacitance of 12 µF. Find
the total equivalent circuit capacitance. What
capacitance must be added in series to obtain
a capacitance of 1.2 µF?
[2.4 µF, 2.4 µF]
5 Determine the equivalent capacitance when
the following capacitors are connected (a) in
parallel and (b) in series:
(i) 2 µF, 4 µF and 8 µF
(ii) 0.02 µF, 0.05 µF and 0.10 µF
(iii) 50 pF and 450 pF
(iv) 0.01 µF and 200 pF
[(a) (i) 14 µF
(ii) 0.17 µF
(iii) 500 pF
(iv) 0.0102 µF
(b)
(i) 1.143 µF (ii) 0.0125 µF
(iii) 45 pF
(iv) 196.1 pF]
6 For the arrangement shown in Fig. 6.11 find
(a) the equivalent circuit capacitance and
(b) the voltage across a 4.5 µF capacitor.
[(a) 1.2 µF (b) 100 V]
charge on each capacitor and (c) the p.d.
across each capacitor.
[(a) 4 µF (b) 3 mC (c) 250 V]
8 If two capacitors having capacitances of
3 µF and 5 µF respectively are connected
in series across a 240 V supply, determine
(a) the p.d. across each capacitor and (b) the
charge on each capacitor.
[(a) 150 V, 90 V (b) 0.45 mC on each]
9 In Fig. 6.12 capacitors P, Q and R are identical and the total equivalent capacitance of
the circuit is 3 µF. Determine the values of
P, Q and R
[4.2 µF each]
Figure 6.12
10 Capacitances of 4 µF, 8 µF and 16 µF are
connected in parallel across a 200 V supply.
Determine (a) the equivalent capacitance,
(b) the total charge and (c) the charge on
each capacitor.
[(a) 28 µF (b) 5.6 mC
(c) 0.8 mC, 1.6 mC, 3.2 mC]
11 A circuit consists of two capacitors P and Q
in parallel, connected in series with another
capacitor R. The capacitances of P, Q and R
are 4 µF, 12 µF and 8 µF respectively. When
the circuit is connected across a 300 V d.c.
supply find (a) the total capacitance of the
circuit, (b) the p.d. across each capacitor
and (c) the charge on each capacitor.
[(a) 5.33 µF (b) 100 V across P, 100 V across
Q, 200 V across R (c) 0.4 mC on P, 1.2 mC
on Q, 1.6 mC on R]
6.9 Dielectric strength
Figure 6.11
7 Three 12 µF capacitors are connected in
series across a 750 V supply. Calculate (a) the equivalent capacitance, (b) the
The maximum amount of field strength that a dielectric can withstand is called the dielectric strength of
the material. Dielectric strength,
Em =
Vm
d
TLFeBOOK
CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE
Problem 15. A capacitor is to be
constructed so that its capacitance is 0.2 µF
and to take a p.d. of 1.25 kV across its
terminals. The dielectric is to be mica which,
after allowing a safety factor of 2, has a
dielectric strength of 50 MV/m. Find (a) the
thickness of the mica needed, and (b) the
area of a plate assuming a two-plate
construction. (Assume εr for mica to be 6).
Problem 17. A 12 µF capacitor is required
to store 4 J of energy. Find the p.d. to which
the capacitor must be charged.
Energy stored
1
CV2
2
2W
V2 D
C
2W
2ð4
D
p.d. V D
c
12 ð 106
2 ð 106
D 816.5 V
D
3
WD
V
d
hence
1.25 ð 103
V
D
m
E
50 ð 106
D 0.025 mm
i.e.
dD
and
(b) Capacitance,
CD
ε0 εr A
d
hence
area A D
0.24
energy
D
W D 24 kW
time
10 ð 106
(b) Power D
(a) Dielectric strength,
ED
0.2 ð 106 ð 0.025 ð 103 2
Cd
m
D
ε0 εr
8.85 ð 1012 ð 6
2
2
D 0.09416 m D 941.6 cm
6.10 Energy stored in capacitors
Problem 18. A capacitor is charged with
10 mC. If the energy stored is 1.2 J find
(a) the voltage and (b) the capacitance.
Energy stored W D 12 CV2 and C D Q/V. Hence
1 Q
WD
V2
2 V
D 21 QV from which
The energy, W, stored by a capacitor is given by
VD
W =
63
1
CV 2 joules
2
Q D 10 mC D 10 ð 103 C
and
Problem 16. (a) Determine the energy
stored in a 3 µF capacitor when charged to
400 V (b) Find also the average power
developed if this energy is dissipated in a
time of 10 µs.
2W
Q
W D 1.2 J
(a) Voltage
VD
2 ð 1.2
2W
D
D 0.24 kV or 240 V
Q
10 ð 103
(b) Capacitance
(a) Energy stored
1
W D CV2 joules D 21 ð 3 ð 106 ð 4002
2
3
D ð 16 ð 102 D 0.24 J
2
Q
10 ð 103
10 ð 106
D
FD
µF
V
240
240 ð 103
D 41.67 mF
CD
TLFeBOOK
64
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 28 Further problems on energy
stored in capacitors
(Assume ε0 D 8.85 ð 1012 F/m)
1 When a capacitor is connected across a 200 V
supply the charge is 4 µC. Find (a) the capacitance and (b) the energy stored
[(a) 0.02 µF (b) 0.4 mJ]
plates rotate on a spindle as shown by the end
view of Fig. 6.13.
As the moving plates are rotated through half a
revolution, the meshing, and therefore the capacitance, varies from a minimum to a maximum
value. Variable air capacitors are used in radio
and electronic circuits where very low losses
are required, or where a variable capacitance is
needed. The maximum value of such capacitors
is between 500 pF and 1000 pF.
2 Find the energy stored in a 10 µF capacitor
when charged to 2 kV
[20 J]
3 A 3300 pF capacitor is required to store 0.5 mJ
of energy. Find the p.d. to which the capacitor
must be charged.
[550 V]
Figure 6.13
4 A capacitor is charged with 8 mC. If the energy
stored is 0.4 J find (a) the voltage and (b) the
capacitance.
[(a) 100 V (b) 80 µF]
2. Mica capacitors. A typical older type construction is shown in Fig. 6.14.
5 A capacitor, consisting of two metal plates
each of area 50 cm2 and spaced 0.2 mm apart
in air, is connected across a 120 V supply.
Calculate (a) the energy stored, (b) the electric
flux density and (c) the potential gradient
[(a) 1.593 µJ (b) 5.31 µC/m2 (c) 600 kV/m]
6 A bakelite capacitor is to be constructed to
have a capacitance of 0.04 µF and to have
a steady working potential of 1 kV maximum. Allowing a safe value of field stress
of 25 MV/m find (a) the thickness of bakelite
required, (b) the area of plate required if the
relative permittivity of bakelite is 5, (c) the
maximum energy stored by the capacitor and
(d) the average power developed if this energy
is dissipated in a time of 20 µs.
[(a) 0.04 mm (b) 361.6 cm2
(c) 0.02 J (d) 1 kW]
6.11 Practical types of capacitor
Practical types of capacitor are characterized by the
material used for their dielectric. The main types
include: variable air, mica, paper, ceramic, plastic,
titanium oxide and electrolytic.
1. Variable air capacitors. These usually consist
of two sets of metal plates (such as aluminium),
one fixed, the other variable. The set of moving
Figure 6.14
Usually the whole capacitor is impregnated with
wax and placed in a bakelite case. Mica is easily
obtained in thin sheets and is a good insulator.
However, mica is expensive and is not used in
capacitors above about 0.2 µF. A modified form
of mica capacitor is the silvered mica type. The
mica is coated on both sides with a thin layer
of silver which forms the plates. Capacitance
is stable and less likely to change with age.
Such capacitors have a constant capacitance with
change of temperature, a high working voltage
rating and a long service life and are used in high
frequency circuits with fixed values of capacitance up to about 1000 pF.
3. Paper capacitors. A typical paper capacitor is
shown in Fig. 6.15 where the length of the roll
corresponds to the capacitance required.
The whole is usually impregnated with oil or
wax to exclude moisture, and then placed in a
plastic or aluminium container for protection.
TLFeBOOK
CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE
65
Figure 6.17
Figure 6.15
Paper capacitors are made in various working
voltages up to about 150 kV and are used where
loss is not very important. The maximum value
of this type of capacitor is between 500 pF and
10 µF. Disadvantages of paper capacitors include
variation in capacitance with temperature change
and a shorter service life than most other types
of capacitor.
4. Ceramic capacitors. These are made in various
forms, each type of construction depending on
the value of capacitance required. For high values, a tube of ceramic material is used as shown
in the cross section of Fig. 6.16. For smaller values the cup construction is used as shown in
Fig. 6.17, and for still smaller values the disc
construction shown in Fig. 6.18 is used. Certain
ceramic materials have a very high permittivity
and this enables capacitors of high capacitance
to be made which are of small physical size with
a high working voltage rating. Ceramic capacitors are available in the range 1 pF to 0.1 µF and
may be used in high frequency electronic circuits
subject to a wide range of temperatures.
Figure 6.16
5. Plastic capacitors. Some plastic materials such
as polystyrene and Teflon can be used as
dielectrics. Construction is similar to the paper
capacitor but using a plastic film instead of paper.
Plastic capacitors operate well under conditions
of high temperature, provide a precise value of
Figure 6.18
capacitance, a very long service life and high
reliability.
6. Titanium oxide capacitors have a very high
capacitance with a small physical size when used
at a low temperature.
7 Electrolytic capacitors. Construction is similar
to the paper capacitor with aluminium foil used
for the plates and with a thick absorbent material, such as paper, impregnated with an electrolyte (ammonium borate), separating the plates.
The finished capacitor is usually assembled in
an aluminium container and hermetically sealed.
Its operation depends on the formation of a thin
aluminium oxide layer on the positive plate by
electrolytic action when a suitable direct potential is maintained between the plates. This oxide
layer is very thin and forms the dielectric. (The
absorbent paper between the plates is a conductor
and does not act as a dielectric.) Such capacitors must always be used on d.c. and must be
connected with the correct polarity; if this is not
done the capacitor will be destroyed since the
oxide layer will be destroyed. Electrolytic capacitors are manufactured with working voltage from
6 V to 600 V, although accuracy is generally not
very high. These capacitors possess a much larger
capacitance than other types of capacitors of similar dimensions due to the oxide film being only
a few microns thick. The fact that they can be
used only on d.c. supplies limit their usefulness.
TLFeBOOK
66
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
6.12 Discharging capacitors
When a capacitor has been disconnected from the
supply it may still be charged and it may retain this
charge for some considerable time. Thus precautions
must be taken to ensure that the capacitor is automatically discharged after the supply is switched off.
This is done by connecting a high value resistor
across the capacitor terminals.
Now try the following exercises
15 Three 3 µF capacitors are connected in series.
The equivalent capacitance is. . . .
16 State a disadvantage of series-connected
capacitors
17 Name three factors upon which capacitance
depends
18 What does ‘relative permittivity’ mean?
19 Define ‘permittivity of free space’
20 What is meant by the ‘dielectric strength’ of
a material?
21 State the formula used to determine the
energy stored by a capacitor
Exercise 29 Short answer questions on
capacitors and capacitance
1 Explain the term ‘electrostatics’
2 Complete the statements:
Like charges . . . . . . ; unlike charges . . . . . .
3 How can an ‘electric field’ be established
between two parallel metal plates?
4 What is capacitance?
5 State the unit of capacitance
6 Complete the statement:
ÐÐÐÐÐÐ
Capacitance D
ÐÐÐÐÐÐ
7 Complete the statements:
(a) 1 µF D . . . F
(b) 1 pF D . . . F
8 Complete the statement:
ÐÐÐÐÐÐ
Electric field strength E D
ÐÐÐÐÐÐ
9 Complete the statement:
ÐÐÐÐÐÐ
Electric flux density D D
ÐÐÐÐÐÐ
10 Draw the electrical circuit diagram symbol
for a capacitor
11 Name two practical examples where capacitance is present, although undesirable
12 The insulating material separating the plates
of a capacitor is called the . . . . . .
13 10 volts applied to a capacitor results in a
charge of 5 coulombs. What is the capacitance of the capacitor?
14 Three 3 µF capacitors are connected in parallel. The equivalent capacitance is. . . .
22 Name five types of capacitor commonly used
23 Sketch a typical rolled paper capacitor
24 Explain briefly the construction of a variable
air capacitor
25 State three advantages and one disadvantage
of mica capacitors
26 Name two disadvantages of paper capacitors
27 Between what values of capacitance are
ceramic capacitors normally available
28 What main advantages do plastic capacitors
possess?
29 Explain briefly the construction of an electrolytic capacitor
30 What is the main disadvantage of electrolytic
capacitors?
31 Name an important advantage of electrolytic
capacitors
32 What safety precautions should be taken
when a capacitor is disconnected from a supply?
Exercise 30 Multi-choice questions on
capacitors and capacitance (Answers on
page 375)
1 Electrostatics is a branch of electricity concerned with
(a) energy flowing across a gap between conductors
(b) charges at rest
(c) charges in motion
(d) energy in the form of charges
TLFeBOOK
CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE
2 The capacitance of a capacitor is the ratio
(a) charge to p.d. between plates
(b) p.d. between plates to plate spacing
(c) p.d. between plates to thickness of dielectric
(d) p.d. between plates to charge
3 The p.d. across a 10 µF capacitor to charge it
with 10 mC is
(a) 10 V
(b) 1 kV
(c) 1 V
(d) 10 V
4 The charge on a 10 pF capacitor when the
voltage applied to it is 10 kV is
(a) 100 µC
(b) 0.1 C
(c) 0.1 µC
(d) 0.01 µC
5 Four 2 µF capacitors are connected in parallel. The equivalent capacitance is
(a) 8 µF
(b) 0.5 µF
(c) 2 µF
(d) 6 µF
6 Four 2 µF capacitors are connected in series.
The equivalent capacitance is
(a) 8 µF
(b) 0.5 µF
(c) 2 µF
(d) 6 µF
7 State which of the following is false.
The capacitance of a capacitor
(a) is proportional to the cross-sectional area
of the plates
(b) is proportional to the distance between
the plates
(c) depends on the number of plates
67
(d) is proportional to the relative permittivity
of the dielectric
8 Which of the following statement is false?
(a) An air capacitor is normally a variable type
(b) A paper capacitor generally has a shorter
service life than most other types of
capacitor
(c) An electrolytic capacitor must be used
only on a.c. supplies
(d) Plastic capacitors generally operate satisfactorily under conditions of high temperature
9 The energy stored in a 10 µF capacitor when
charged to 500 V is
(a) 1.25 mJ
(b) 0.025 µJ
(c) 1.25 J
(d) 1.25 C
10 The capacitance of a variable air capacitor is
at maximum when
(a) the movable plates half overlap the fixed
plates
(b) the movable plates are most widely separated from the fixed plates
(c) both sets of plates are exactly meshed
(d) the movable plates are closer to one side
of the fixed plate than to the other
11 When a voltage of 1 kV is applied to a capacitor, the charge on the capacitor is 500 nC.
The capacitance of the capacitor is:
(a) 2 ð 109 F
(b) 0.5 pF
(c) 0.5 mF
(d) 0.5 nF
TLFeBOOK
7
Magnetic circuits
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
ž describe the magnetic field around a permanent magnet
ž state the laws of magnetic attraction and repulsion for two magnets in close
proximity
ž define magnetic flux, , and magnetic flux density, B, and state their units
ž perform simple calculations involving B D /A
ž define magnetomotive force, Fm , and magnetic field strength, H, and state their
units
ž perform simple calculations involving Fm D NI and H D NI/l
ž define permeability, distinguishing between 0 , r and
ž understand the B–H curves for different magnetic materials
ž appreciate typical values of r
ž perform calculations involving B D 0 r H
ž define reluctance, S, and state its units
ž perform calculations involving
m.m.f.
l
D
0 r A
ž perform calculations on composite series magnetic circuits
SD
ž compare electrical and magnetic quantities
ž appreciate how a hysteresis loop is obtained and that hysteresis loss is proportional
to its area
7.1 Magnetic fields
A permanent magnet is a piece of ferromagnetic
material (such as iron, nickel or cobalt) which has
properties of attracting other pieces of these materials. A permanent magnet will position itself in a
north and south direction when freely suspended.
The north-seeking end of the magnet is called the
north pole, N, and the south-seeking end the south
pole, S.
The area around a magnet is called the magnetic
field and it is in this area that the effects of the
magnetic force produced by the magnet can be
detected. A magnetic field cannot be seen, felt,
smelt or heard and therefore is difficult to represent.
Michael Faraday suggested that the magnetic field
could be represented pictorially, by imagining the
field to consist of lines of magnetic flux, which
enables investigation of the distribution and density
of the field to be carried out.
The distribution of a magnetic field can be investigated by using some iron filings. A bar magnet is
placed on a flat surface covered by, say, cardboard,
upon which is sprinkled some iron filings. If the
TLFeBOOK
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
69
cardboard is gently tapped the filings will assume a
pattern similar to that shown in Fig. 7.1. If a number
of magnets of different strength are used, it is found
that the stronger the field the closer are the lines
of magnetic flux and vice versa. Thus a magnetic
field has the property of exerting a force, demonstrated in this case by causing the iron filings to
move into the pattern shown. The strength of the
magnetic field decreases as we move away from
the magnet. It should be realized, of course, that the
magnetic field is three dimensional in its effect, and
not acting in one plane as appears to be the case in
this experiment.
Figure 7.2
Figure 7.1
If a compass is placed in the magnetic field in
various positions, the direction of the lines of flux
may be determined by noting the direction of the
compass pointer. The direction of a magnetic field at
any point is taken as that in which the north-seeking
pole of a compass needle points when suspended in
the field. The direction of a line of flux is from
the north pole to the south pole on the outside of
the magnet and is then assumed to continue through
the magnet back to the point at which it emerged at
the north pole. Thus such lines of flux always form
complete closed loops or paths, they never intersect
and always have a definite direction.
The laws of magnetic attraction and repulsion
can be demonstrated by using two bar magnets. In
Fig. 7.2(a), with unlike poles adjacent, attraction
takes place. Lines of flux are imagined to contract
and the magnets try to pull together. The magnetic field is strongest in between the two magnets,
shown by the lines of flux being close together. In
Fig. 7.2(b), with similar poles adjacent (i.e. two
north poles), repulsion occurs, i.e. the two north
poles try to push each other apart, since magnetic
flux lines running side by side in the same direction repel.
7.2 Magnetic flux and flux density
Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field
(or the number of lines of force) produced by a
magnetic source. The symbol for magnetic flux is
(Greek letter ‘phi’). The unit of magnetic flux is
the weber, Wb
Magnetic flux density is the amount of flux passing through a defined area that is perpendicular to
the direction of the flux:
Magnetic flux density D
magnetic flux
area
The symbol for magnetic flux density is B. The unit
of magnetic flux density is the tesla, T, where
1 T D 1 Wb/m2 . Hence
B=
8
tesla
A
where A⊲m2 ⊳ is the area
Problem 1. A magnetic pole face has a
rectangular section having dimensions
200 mm by 100 mm. If the total flux
emerging from the pole is 150 µWb, calculate
the flux density.
Flux D 150 µWb D 150 ð 106 Wb
Cross sectional area A D 200ð100 D 20 000 mm2 D
20 000 ð 106 m2 .
150 ð 106
D
A
20 000 ð 106
D 0.0075 T or 7.5 mT
Flux density, B D
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Problem 2. The maximum working flux
density of a lifting electromagnet is 1.8 T and
the effective area of a pole face is circular in
cross-section. If the total magnetic flux
produced is 353 mWb, determine the radius
of the pole face.
Flux density B D 1.8 T and flux D 353 mWb D
353 ð 103 Wb.
Since B D /A, cross-sectional area A D /B
D
353 ð 103 2
m D 0.1961 m2
1.8
The pole face is circular, hence area D r 2 , where r
is the radius. Hence r 2 D p
0.1961 from which, r 2 D
0.1961/ and radius r D ⊲0.1961/⊳ D 0.250 m
i.e. the radius of the pole face is 250 mm.
7.3 Magnetomotive force and magnetic
field strength
Magnetomotive force (m.m.f.) is the cause of the
existence of a magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit,
m.m.f. Fm = NI amperes
where N is the number of conductors (or turns)
and I is the current in amperes. The unit of mmf
is sometimes expressed as ‘ampere-turns’. However
since ‘turns’ have no dimensions, the S.I. unit of
m.m.f. is the ampere.
Magnetic field strength (or magnetising force),
H =
NI
ampere per metre
l
where l is the mean length of the flux path in metres.
Thus
m.m.f. = NI = Hl amperes
Problem 3. A magnetising force of
8000 A/m is applied to a circular magnetic
circuit of mean diameter 30 cm by passing a
current through a coil wound on the circuit.
If the coil is uniformly wound around the
circuit and has 750 turns, find the current in
the coil.
H D 8000 A/m, l D d D ð30ð102 m and N D
750 turns. Since H D NI/l, then
ID
8000 ð ð 30 ð 102
Hl
D
N
750
Thus, current I D 10.05 A
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 31 Further problems on
magnetic circuits
1 What is the flux density in a magnetic field
of cross-sectional area 20 cm2 having a flux of
3 mWb?
[1.5 T]
2 Determine the total flux emerging from a magnetic pole face having dimensions 5 cm by
6 cm, if the flux density is 0.9 T [2.7 mWb]
3 The maximum working flux density of a lifting
electromagnet is 1.9 T and the effective area
of a pole face is circular in cross-section. If
the total magnetic flux produced is 611 mWb
determine the radius of the pole face. [32 cm]
4 An electromagnet of square cross-section produces a flux density of 0.45 T. If the magnetic
flux is 720 µWb find the dimensions of the
electromagnet cross-section. [4 cm by 4 cm]
5 Find the magnetic field strength applied to a
magnetic circuit of mean length 50 cm when
a coil of 400 turns is applied to it carrying a
current of 1.2 A
[960 A/m]
6 A solenoid 20 cm long is wound with 500 turns
of wire. Find the current required to establish
a magnetising force of 2500 A/m inside the
solenoid.
[1 A]
7 A magnetic field strength of 5000 A/m is
applied to a circular magnetic circuit of mean
diameter 250 mm. If the coil has 500 turns find
the current in the coil.
[7.85 A]
7.4 Permeability and B–H curves
For air, or any non-magnetic medium, the ratio
of magnetic flux density to magnetising force is a
constant, i.e. B/H D a constant. This constant is
TLFeBOOK
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
71
0 , the permeability of free space (or the magnetic
space constant) and is equal to 4 ð 107 H/m, i.e.
for air, or any non-magnetic medium, the ratio
B
= m0
H
(Although all non-magnetic materials, including air,
exhibit slight magnetic properties, these can effectively be neglected.)
For all media other than free space,
B
= m 0 mr
H
where ur is the relative permeability, and is
defined as
mr =
flux density in material
flux density in a vacuum
r varies with the type of magnetic material and,
since it is a ratio of flux densities, it has no unit.
From its definition, r for a vacuum is 1.
m0 mr = m, called the absolute permeability
By plotting measured values of flux density B
against magnetic field strength H, a magnetisation curve (or B–H curve) is produced. For nonmagnetic materials this is a straight line. Typical
curves for four magnetic materials are shown in
Fig. 7.3
The relative permeability of a ferromagnetic
material is proportional to the slope of the B–H
curve and thus varies with the magnetic field
strength. The approximate range of values of
relative permeability r for some common magnetic
materials are:
Cast iron
Mild steel
Silicon iron
Cast steel
Mumetal
Stalloy
r
r
r
r
r
r
D 100–250
D 200–800
D 1000–5000
D 300–900
D 200–5000
D 500–6000
Problem 4. A flux density of 1.2 T is
produced in a piece of cast steel by a
magnetising force of 1250 A/m. Find the
relative permeability of the steel under these
conditions.
Figure 7.3
For a magnetic material: B D 0 r H
i.e. r D
1.2
B
D
D 764
0 H
⊲4 ð 107 ⊳⊲1250⊳
Problem 5. Determine the magnetic field
strength and the m.m.f. required to produce a
flux density of 0.25 T in an air gap of length
12 mm.
For air: B D 0 H (since r D 1⊳
Magnetic field strength,
H D
B
0.25
D 198 940 A/m
D
0
4 ð 107
m.m.f. D Hl D 198 940 ð 12 ð 103 D 2387 A
Problem 6. A coil of 300 turns is wound
uniformly on a ring of non-magnetic
material. The ring has a mean circumference
of 40 cm and a uniform cross-sectional area
of 4 cm2 . If the current in the coil is 5 A,
calculate (a) the magnetic field strength, (b)
the flux density and (c) the total magnetic
flux in the ring.
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(a) Magnetic field strength
Problem 8. A uniform ring of cast iron has
a cross-sectional area of 10 cm2 and a mean
circumference of 20 cm. Determine the
m.m.f. necessary to produce a flux of
0.3 mWb in the ring. The magnetisation
curve for cast iron is shown on page 71.
300 ð 5
NI
D
HD
l
40 ð 102
D 3750 A/m
(b) For a non-magnetic material r D 1, thus flux
density B D 0 H
B D 4 ð 107 ð 3750
i.e.
D 4.712 mT
A D 10 cm2 D 10 ð 104 m2 , l D 20 cm D 0.2 m
and D 0.3 ð 103 Wb.
(c) Flux D BA D ⊲4.712 ð 103 ⊳⊲4 ð 104 ⊳
Flux density B D
D 1.885 mWb
From the magnetisation curve for cast iron on
page 71, when B D 0.3 T, H D 1000 A/m, hence
m.m.f. D Hl D 1000 ð 0.2 D 200 A
A tabular method could have been used in this
problem. Such a solution is shown below in Table 1.
Problem 7. An iron ring of mean diameter
10 cm is uniformly wound with 2000 turns
of wire. When a current of 0.25 A is passed
through the coil a flux density of 0.4 T is set
up in the iron. Find (a) the magnetising force
and (b) the relative permeability of the iron
under these conditions.
Problem 9. From the magnetisation curve
for cast iron, shown on page 71, derive the
curve of r against H.
l D d D ð 10 cm D ð 10 ð 102 m,
N D 2000 turns, I D 0.25 A and B D 0.4 T
(a) H D
B D 0 r H, hence
NI
2000 ð 0.25
D
l
ð 10 ð 102
r D
D 1592 A/m
D
(b) B D 0 r H, hence r
D
0.3 ð 103
D
D 0.3 T
A
10 ð 104
0.4
B
D
D 200
0 H
⊲4 ð 107 ⊳⊲1592⊳
1
B
B
D
ð
0 H
0
H
107
B
ð
4
H
A number of co-ordinates are selected from the B–H
curve and r is calculated for each as shown in
Table 2.
Table 1
Part of
circuit
Material
(Wb)
A⊲m2 ⊳
Ring
Cast iron
0.3 ð 103
10 ð 104
BD
⊲T⊳
A
0.3
H from
graph
l⊲m⊳
m.m.f. D
Hl⊲A⊳
1000
0.2
200
Table 2
B⊲T⊳
0.04
0.13
0.17
0.30
0.41
0.49
0.60
0.68
0.73
0.76
0.79
H⊲A/m⊳
200
400
500
1000
1500
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
159
259
271
239
218
195
159
135
116
101
90
r D
107
B
ð
4
H
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MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
r is plotted against H as shown in Fig. 7.4.
The curve demonstrates the change that occurs in
the relative permeability as the magnetising force
increases.
73
5 Find the relative permeability of a piece of
silicon iron if a flux density of 1.3 T is produced by a magnetic field strength of 700 A/m
[1478]
6 A steel ring of mean diameter 120 mm is
uniformly wound with 1 500 turns of wire.
When a current of 0.30 A is passed through
the coil a flux density of 1.5 T is set up in
the steel. Find the relative permeability of the
steel under these conditions.
[1000]
7 A uniform ring of cast steel has a crosssectional area of 5 cm2 and a mean circumference of 15 cm. Find the current required
in a coil of 1200 turns wound on the ring to
produce a flux of 0.8 mWb. (Use the magnetisation curve for cast steel shown on page 71)
[0.60 A]
Figure 7.4
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 32 Further problems on
magnetic circuits
(Where appropriate, assume 0 D 4ð 107 H/m)
1 Find the magnetic field strength and the magnetomotive force needed to produce a flux density of 0.33 T in an air-gap of length 15 mm.
[(a) 262 600 A/m (b) 3939 A]
2 An air-gap between two pole pieces is 20 mm
in length and the area of the flux path across
the gap is 5 cm2 . If the flux required in the
air-gap is 0.75 mWb find the m.m.f. necessary.
[23 870 A]
3 (a) Determine the flux density produced in an
air-cored solenoid due to a uniform magnetic
field strength of 8000 A/m (b) Iron having a
relative permeability of 150 at 8000 A/m is
inserted into the solenoid of part (a). Find the
flux density now in the solenoid.
[(a) 10.05 mT (b) 1.508 T]
4 Find the relative permeability of a material if
the absolute permeability is 4.084ð104 H/m.
[325]
8 (a) A uniform mild steel ring has a diameter
of 50 mm and a cross-sectional area of 1 cm2 .
Determine the m.m.f. necessary to produce a
flux of 50 µWb in the ring. (Use the B–H
curve for mild steel shown on page 71) (b)
If a coil of 440 turns is wound uniformly
around the ring in Part (a) what current would
be required to produce the flux?
[(a) 110 A (b) 0.25 A]
9 From the magnetisation curve for mild steel
shown on page 71, derive the curve of relative
permeability against magnetic field strength.
From your graph determine (a) the value of r
when the magnetic field strength is 1200 A/m,
and (b) the value of the magnetic field strength
when r is 500
[(a) 590–600 (b) 2000]
7.5 Reluctance
Reluctance S (or RM ) is the ‘magnetic resistance’ of
a magnetic circuit to the presence of magnetic flux.
Reluctance,
S D
NI
Hl
l
l
FM
D
D
D
D
BA
⊲B/H⊳A
m0 mr A
The unit of reluctance is 1/H⊲or H1 ⊳ or A/Wb.
Ferromagnetic materials have a low reluctance
and can be used as magnetic screens to prevent
magnetic fields affecting materials within the screen.
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Problem 10. Determine the reluctance of a
piece of mumetal of length 150 mm and
cross-sectional area 1800 mm2 when the
relative permeability is 4 000. Find also the
absolute permeability of the mumetal.
Reluctance,
l
S D
0 r A
D
150 ð 103
⊲4 ð 107 ⊳⊲4000⊳⊲1800 ð 106 ⊳
D 16 580=H
Absolute permeability,
m D 0 r D ⊲4 ð 107 ⊳⊲4000⊳
D 5.027 × 10−3 H/m
Problem 11. A mild steel ring has a radius
of 50 mm and a cross-sectional area of
400 mm2 . A current of 0.5 A flows in a coil
wound uniformly around the ring and the
flux produced is 0.1 mWb. If the relative
permeability at this value of current is 200
find (a) the reluctance of the mild steel and
(b) the number of turns on the coil.
l D 2r D 2 ð ð 50 ð 103 m, A D 400 ð 106 m2 ,
I D 0.5 A, D 0.1 ð 103 Wb and r D 200
(a) Reluctance,
S D
D
l
0 r A
2 ð ð 50 ð 103
⊲4 ð 107 ⊳⊲200⊳⊲400 ð 106 ⊳
D 3.125 × 106 =H
m.m.f.
from which m.m.f.
D S i.e. NI D S
(b) S D
Hence, number of terms
3.125 ð 106 ð 0.1 ð 103
S
D
I
0.5
D 625 turns
N D
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 33 Further problems on
magnetic circuits
(Where appropriate, assume 0 D ð 107 H/m)
1 Part of a magnetic circuit is made from steel
of length 120 mm, cross sectional area 15 cm2
and relative permeability 800. Calculate (a) the
reluctance and (b) the absolute permeability of
the steel.
[(a) 79 580 /H (b) 1 mH/m]
2 A mild steel closed magnetic circuit has a
mean length of 75 mm and a cross-sectional
area of 320.2 mm2 . A current of 0.40 A flows
in a coil wound uniformly around the circuit
and the flux produced is 200 µWb. If the relative permeability of the steel at this value
of current is 400 find (a) the reluctance of
the material and (b) the number of turns of
the coil.
[(a) 466 000 /H (b) 233]
7.6 Composite series magnetic circuits
For a series magnetic circuit having n parts, the total
reluctance S is given by: S = S1 + S2 + . . . + Sn
(This is similar to resistors connected in series in an
electrical circuit)
Problem 12. A closed magnetic circuit of
cast steel contains a 6 cm long path of
cross-sectional area 1 cm2 and a 2 cm path of
cross-sectional area 0.5 cm2 . A coil of 200
turns is wound around the 6 cm length of the
circuit and a current of 0.4 A flows.
Determine the flux density in the 2 cm path,
if the relative permeability of the cast steel
is 750.
For the 6 cm long path:
Reluctance S1 D
D
l1
0 r A1
⊲4 ð
6 ð 102
107 ⊳⊲750⊳⊲1
D 6.366 ð 105 /H
ð 104 ⊳
TLFeBOOK
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
For the air gap:
For the 2 cm long path:
Reluctance S2 D
D
l2
0 r A2
2 ð 102
⊲4 ð 107 ⊳⊲750⊳⊲0.5 ð104 ⊳
D 4.244 ð 105 /H
Total circuit reluctance S D S1 C S2
D ⊲6.366 C 4.244⊳ ð 105 D 10.61 ð 105 /H
m.m.f.
NI
m.m.f
i.e. D
D
SD
S
S
200 ð 0.4
D 7.54 ð 105 Wb
D
10.61 ð 105
Flux density in the 2 cm path,
BD
75
7.54 ð 105
D 1.51 T
D
A
0.5 ð 104
The flux density will be the same in the air gap as
in the iron, i.e. 1.4 T (This assumes no leakage or
fringing occurring). For air,
HD
B
1.4
D
D 1 114 000 A/m
0
4 ð 107
Hence the m.m.f. for the air gap D Hl D
1 114 000 ð 2 ð 103 D 2228 A.
Total m.m.f. to produce a flux of 0.6 mWb D
660 C 2228 D 2888 A.
A tabular method could have been used as shown
at the bottom of the page.
Problem 14. Figure 7.5 shows a ring
formed with two different materials – cast
steel and mild steel. The dimensions are:
Problem 13. A silicon iron ring of
cross-sectional area 5 cm2 has a radial air
gap of 2 mm cut into it. If the mean length of
the silicon iron path is 40 cm calculate the
magnetomotive force to produce a flux of
0.7 mWb. The magnetisation curve for
silicon is shown on page 71.
Figure 7.5
There are two parts to the circuit – the silicon iron
and the air gap. The total m.m.f. will be the sum of
the m.m.f.’s of each part.
For the silicon iron:
BD
Mild steel
Cast steel
0.7 ð 103
D 1.4 T
D
A
5 ð 104
From the B–H curve for silicon iron on page 71,
when B D 1.4 T, H D 1650 At/m Hence the m.m.f.
for the iron path D Hl D 1650 ð 0.4 D 660 A
mean length
cross-sectional
area
400 mm
300 mm
500 mm2
312.5 mm2
Find the total m.m.f. required to cause a flux
of 500 µWb in the magnetic circuit.
Determine also the total circuit reluctance.
Part of
circuit
Material
⊲Wb⊳
A⊲m2 ⊳
B⊲T⊳
H⊲A/m⊳
l⊲m⊳
Ring
Silicon iron
0.7 ð 103
5 ð 104
1.4
1650
(from graph)
0.4
Air-gap
Air
0.7 ð 103
5 ð 104
1.4
1.4
4 ð 107
D 1 114 000
Łm.m.f. D
ŁHl⊲A⊳
660
2 ð 103
Total:
2228
2888 A
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Part of
circuit
Material
⊲Wb⊳
A⊲m2 ⊳
B⊲T⊳
(D /A)
H⊲A/m⊳
(from
graphs page 71)
l⊲m⊳
m.m.f.
D Hl⊲A⊳
A
B
Mild steel
Cast steel
500 ð 106
500 ð 106
500 ð 106
312.5 ð 106
1.0
1.6
1400
4800
400 ð 103
300 ð 103
Total:
560
1440
2000 A
A tabular solution is shown above.
m.m.f.
Total circuit
S D
reluctance
D
For the air gap:
Reluctance, S2 D
2000
D 4 × 106 =H
500 ð 106
Problem 15. A section through a magnetic
circuit of uniform cross-sectional area 2 cm2
is shown in Fig. 7.6. The cast steel core has
a mean length of 25 cm. The air gap is 1 mm
wide and the coil has 5000 turns. The B–H
curve for cast steel is shown on page 71.
Determine the current in the coil to produce
a flux density of 0.80 T in the air gap,
assuming that all the flux passes through
both parts of the magnetic circuit.
l2
0 r A2
D
l2
(since r D 1 for air)
0 A2
D
1 ð 103
⊲4 ð 107 ⊳⊲2 ð 104 ⊳
D 3979 000/H
Total circuit reluctance
S D S1 C S2 D 1 172 000 C 3 979 000
D 5 151 000/H
Flux D BA D 0.80 ð 2 ð 104 D 1.6 ð 104 Wb
SD
m.m.f.
,
thus
m.m.f. D S hence NI D S
and
Figure 7.6
For the cast steel core, when B D 0.80 T,
H D 750 A/m (from page 71).
l1
Reluctance of core S1 D
and
0 r A1
B
.
since B D 0 r H, then r D
0 H
S1 D
D
0
S
⊲5 151 000⊳⊲1.6 ð 104 ⊳
D
N
5000
D 0.165 A
current I D
l1 H
l1
D
BA1
B
A1
0 H
⊲25 ð 102 ⊳⊲750⊳
D 1 172 000/H
⊲0.8⊳⊲2 ð 104 ⊳
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 34 Further problems on
composite series magnetic circuits
1 A magnetic circuit of cross-sectional area
0.4 cm2 consists of one part 3 cm long, of
material having relative permeability 1200,
and a second part 2 cm long of material having
relative permeability 750. With a 100 turn coil
TLFeBOOK
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
carrying 2 A, find the value of flux existing in
the circuit.
[0.195 mWb]
2 (a) A cast steel ring has a cross-sectional area
of 600 mm2 and a radius of 25 mm. Determine the mmf necessary to establish a flux of
0.8 mWb in the ring. Use the B–H curve for
cast steel shown on page 71. (b) If a radial air
gap 1.5 mm wide is cut in the ring of part (a)
find the m.m.f. now necessary to maintain the
same flux in the ring. [(a) 270 A (b)1860 A]
77
6 Figure 7.8 shows the magnetic circuit of a
relay. When each of the air gaps are 1.5 mm
wide find the mmf required to produce a flux
density of 0.75 T in the air gaps. Use the B–H
curves shown on page 71.
[2970 A]
3 A closed magnetic circuit made of silicon
iron consists of a 40 mm long path of crosssectional area 90 mm2 and a 15 mm long path
of cross-sectional area 70 mm2 . A coil of 50
turns is wound around the 40 mm length of
the circuit and a current of 0.39 A flows. Find
the flux density in the 15 mm length path if
the relative permeability of the silicon iron
at this value of magnetising force is 3 000.
[1.59 T]
4 For the magnetic circuit shown in Fig. 7.7 find
the current I in the coil needed to produce a
flux of 0.45 mWb in the air-gap. The silicon
iron magnetic circuit has a uniform crosssectional area of 3 cm2 and its magnetisation
curve is as shown on page 71.
[0.83 A]
Figure 7.7
5 A ring forming a magnetic circuit is made
from two materials; one part is mild steel of
mean length 25 cm and cross-sectional area
4 cm2 , and the remainder is cast iron of
mean length 20 cm and cross-sectional area
7.5 cm2 . Use a tabular approach to determine the total m.m.f. required to cause a flux
of 0.30 mWb in the magnetic circuit. Find
also the total reluctance of the circuit. Use
the magnetisation curves shown on page 71.
[550 A, 18.3 ð 105 /H]
Figure 7.8
7.7 Comparison between electrical and
magnetic quantities
Electrical circuit
Magnetic circuit
e.m.f. E (V)
current I (A)
resistance R ()
E
ID
R
l
RD
A
m.m.f. Fm (A)
flux (Wb)
reluctance S (H1 )
m.m.f.
D
S
l
SD
0 r A
7.8 Hysteresis and hysteresis loss
Hysteresis loop
Let a ferromagnetic material which is completely
demagnetised, i.e. one in which B D H D 0 be
subjected to increasing values of magnetic field
strength H and the corresponding flux density B
measured. The resulting relationship between B and
H is shown by the curve Oab in Fig. 7.9. At a
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
particular value of H, shown as Oy, it becomes
difficult to increase the flux density any further.
The material is said to be saturated. Thus by is the
saturation flux density.
The area of a hysteresis loop varies with the type
of material. The area, and thus the energy loss,
is much greater for hard materials than for soft
materials.
Figure 7.10 shows typical hysteresis loops for:
(a) hard material, which has a high remanence Oc
and a large coercivity Od
(b) soft steel, which has a large remanence and
small coercivity
(c) ferrite, this being a ceramic-like magnetic substance made from oxides of iron, nickel, cobalt,
magnesium, aluminium and mangenese; the hysteresis of ferrite is very small.
Figure 7.9
If the value of H is now reduced it is found
that the flux density follows curve bc. When H
is reduced to zero, flux remains in the iron. This
remanent flux density or remanence is shown as
Oc in Fig. 7.9. When H is increased in the opposite
direction, the flux density decreases until, at a value
shown as Od, the flux density has been reduced
to zero. The magnetic field strength Od required
to remove the residual magnetism, i.e. reduce B to
zero, is called the coercive force.
Further increase of H in the reverse direction
causes the flux density to increase in the reverse
direction until saturation is reached, as shown by
curve de. If H is varied backwards from Ox to Oy,
the flux density follows the curve efgb, similar to
curve bcde.
It is seen from Fig. 7.9 that the flux density
changes lag behind the changes in the magnetic field
strength. This effect is called hysteresis. The closed
figure bcdefgb is called the hysteresis loop (or the
B/H loop).
Hysteresis loss
A disturbance in the alignment of the domains (i.e.
groups of atoms) of a ferromagnetic material causes
energy to be expended in taking it through a cycle
of magnetisation. This energy appears as heat in the
specimen and is called the hysteresis loss
The energy loss associated with hysteresis is
proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop.
Figure 7.10
For a.c.-excited devices the hysteresis loop is
repeated every cycle of alternating current. Thus
a hysteresis loop with a large area (as with hard
steel) is often unsuitable since the energy loss
would be considerable. Silicon steel has a narrow
hysteresis loop, and thus small hysteresis loss, and is
suitable for transformer cores and rotating machine
armatures.
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MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
79
Now try the following exercises
Exercise 35 Short answer questions on
magnetic circuits
1 What is a permanent magnet?
2 Sketch the pattern of the magnetic field associated with a bar magnet. Mark the direction
of the field.
3 Define magnetic flux
4 The symbol for magnetic flux is . . . and the
unit of flux is the . . .
5 Define magnetic flux density
6 The symbol for magnetic flux density is . . .
and the unit of flux density is . . .
7 The symbol for m.m.f. is . . . and the unit of
m.m.f. is the . . .
8 Another name for the magnetising force is
. . . . . . ; its symbol is . . . and its unit is . . .
9 Complete the statement:
flux density
D ...
magnetic field strength
10 What is absolute permeability?
11 The value of the permeability of free space
is . . .
12 What is a magnetisation curve?
13 The symbol for reluctance is . . . and the unit
of reluctance is . . .
14 Make a comparison between magnetic and
electrical quantities
15 What is hysteresis?
16 Draw a typical hysteresis loop and on it
identify:
(a) saturation flux density
(b) remanence
(c) coercive force
17 State the units of (a) remanence (b) coercive
force
18 How is magnetic screening achieved?
19 Complete the statement: magnetic materials
have a . . . reluctance;non-magnetic materials
have a . . .. reluctance
20 What loss is associated with hysteresis?
Exercise 36 Multi-choice questions on
magnetic circuits (Answers on page 375)
1 The unit of magnetic flux density is the:
(a) weber
(b) weber per metre
(c) ampere per metre
(d) tesla
2 The total flux in the core of an electrical
machine is 20 mWb and its flux density is
1 T. The cross-sectional area of the core is:
(a) 0.05 m2
(b) 0.02 m2
2
(c) 20 m
(d) 50 m2
3 If the total flux in a magnetic circuit is 2 mWb
and the cross-sectional area of the circuit is
10 cm2 , the flux density is:
(a) 0.2 T (b) 2 T
(c) 20 T (d) 20 mT
Questions 4 to 8 refer to the following data:
A coil of 100 turns is wound uniformly
on a wooden ring. The ring has a mean
circumference of 1 m and a uniform crosssectional area of 10 cm2 . The current in the
coil is 1 A.
4 The magnetomotive force is:
(a) 1 A
(b) 10 A (c) 100 A (d) 1000 A
5 The magnetic field strength is:
(a) 1 A/m
(b) 10 A/m
(c) 100 A/m
(d) 1000 A/m
6 The magnetic flux density is:
(a) 800 T
(b) 8.85 ð 1010 T
7
(d) 40 µT
(c) 4 ð 10 T
7 The magnetic flux is:
(a) 0.04 µWb
(c) 8.85 µWb
(b) 0.01 Wb
(d) 4 µWb
8 The reluctance is:
108 1
H
4
2.5
(c)
ð 109 H1
(a)
(b) 1000 H1
(d)
108 1
H
8.85
9 Which of the following statements is false?
(a) For non-magnetic materials reluctance
is high
(b) Energy loss due to hysteresis is greater
for harder magnetic materials than for
softer magnetic materials
(c) The remanence of a ferrous material is
measured in ampere/metre
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(d) Absolute permeability is measured in
henrys per metre
10 The current flowing in a 500 turn coil wound
on an iron ring is 4 A. The reluctance of the
circuit is 2 ð 106 H. The flux produced is:
(a) 1 Wb
(b) 1000 Wb
(c) 1 mWb
(d) 62.5 µWb
11 A comparison can be made between magnetic
and electrical quantities. From the following
list, match the magnetic quantities with their
equivalent electrical quantities.
(a) current
(b) reluctance
(c) e.m.f.
(d) flux
(e) m.m.f.
(f) resistance
12 The effect of an air gap in a magnetic circuit
is to:
(a) increase the reluctance
(b) reduce the flux density
(c) divide the flux
(d) reduce the magnetomotive force
13 Two bar magnets are placed parallel to each
other and about 2 cm apart, such that the
south pole of one magnet is adjacent to the
north pole of the other. With this arrangement, the magnets will:
(a) attract each other
(b) have no effect on each other
(c) repel each other
(d) lose their magnetism
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Assignment 2
This assignment covers the material contained in Chapters 5 to 7.
The marks for each question are shown in brackets at the end of each question.
1 Resistances of 5 , 7 , and 8 are connected
in series. If a 10 V supply voltage is connected
across the arrangement determine the current
flowing through and the p.d. across the 7 resistor. Calculate also the power dissipated in the 8
resistor.
(6)
2 For the series-parallel network shown in
Fig. A2.1, find (a) the supply current, (b) the
current flowing through each resistor, (c) the p.d.
across each resistor, (d) the total power dissipated
in the circuit, (e) the cost of energy if the circuit is
connected for 80 hours. Assume electrical energy
costs 7.2p per unit.
(15)
in picofarads, if the relative permittivity of mica
is 5.
(7)
5 A 4 µF capacitor is connected in parallel with
a 6 µF capacitor. This arrangement is then connected in series with a 10 µF capacitor. A supply p.d. of 250 V is connected across the circuit.
Find (a) the equivalent capacitance of the circuit,
(b) the voltage across the 10 µF capacitor, and
(c) the charge on each capacitor.
(7)
3 The charge on the plates of a capacitor is 8 mC
when the potential between them is 4 kV. Determine the capacitance of the capacitor.
(2)
6 A coil of 600 turns is wound uniformly on a ring
of non-magnetic material. The ring has a uniform
cross-sectional area of 200 mm2 and a mean circumference of 500 mm. If the current in the coil
is 4 A, determine (a) the magnetic field strength,
(b) the flux density, and (c) the total magnetic
flux in the ring.
(5)
4 Two parallel rectangular plates measuring 80 mm
by 120 mm are separated by 4 mm of mica
and carry an electric charge of 0.48 µC. The
voltage between the plates is 500 V. Calculate
(a) the electric flux density (b) the electric field
strength, and (c) the capacitance of the capacitor,
7 A mild steel ring of cross-sectional area 4 cm2 has
a radial air-gap of 3 mm cut into it. If the mean
length of the mild steel path is 300 mm, calculate
the magnetomotive force to produce a flux of
0.48 mWb. (Use the B–H curve on page 71)
(8)
Figure A2.1
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8
Electromagnetism
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
ž understand that magnetic fields are produced by electric currents
ž apply the screw rule to determine direction of magnetic field
ž recognize that the magnetic field around a solenoid is similar to a magnet
ž apply the screw rule or grip rule to a solenoid to determine magnetic field direction
ž recognize and describe practical applications of an electromagnet, i.e. electric bell,
relay, lifting magnet, telephone receiver
ž appreciate factors upon which the force F on a current-carrying conductor depends
ž perform calculations using F D BIl and F D BIl sin
ž recognize that a loudspeaker is a practical application of force F
ž use Fleming’s left-hand rule to pre-determine direction of force in a current carrying
conductor
ž describe the principle of operation of a simple d.c. motor
ž describe the principle of operation and construction of a moving coil instrument
ž appreciate that force F on a charge in a magnetic field is given by F D QvB
ž perform calculations using F D QvB
8.1 Magnetic field due to an electric
current
Magnetic fields can be set up not only by permanent
magnets, as shown in Chapter 7, but also by electric
currents.
Let a piece of wire be arranged to pass vertically
through a horizontal sheet of cardboard on which is
placed some iron filings, as shown in Fig. 8.1(a). If a
current is now passed through the wire, then the iron
filings will form a definite circular field pattern with
the wire at the centre, when the cardboard is gently
tapped. By placing a compass in different positions
the lines of flux are seen to have a definite direction
as shown in Fig. 8.1(b).
Figure 8.1
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ELECTROMAGNETISM
If the current direction is reversed, the direction of
the lines of flux is also reversed. The effect on both
the iron filings and the compass needle disappears
when the current is switched off. The magnetic
field is thus produced by the electric current. The
magnetic flux produced has the same properties
as the flux produced by a permanent magnet. If
the current is increased the strength of the field
increases and, as for the permanent magnet, the
field strength decreases as we move away from the
current-carrying conductor.
In Fig. 8.1, the effect of only a small part of
the magnetic field is shown. If the whole length of
the conductor is similarly investigated it is found
that the magnetic field round a straight conductor
is in the form of concentric cylinders as shown
in Fig. 8.2, the field direction depending on the
direction of the current flow.
83
When dealing with magnetic fields formed by
electric current it is usual to portray the effect as
shown in Fig. 8.3 The convention adopted is:
(i) Current flowing away from the viewer, i.e. into
the paper, is indicated by ý. This may be
thought of as the feathered end of the shaft of
an arrow. See Fig. 8.3(a).
(ii) Current flowing towards the viewer, i.e. out
of the paper, is indicated by þ. This may
be thought of as the point of an arrow. See
Fig. 8.3(b).
Figure 8.3
Figure 8.2
The direction of the magnetic lines of flux is best
remembered by the screw rule which states that:
If a normal right-hand thread screw is screwed
along the conductor in the direction of the current, the direction of rotation of the screw is in the
direction of the magnetic field.
For example, with current flowing away from the
viewer (Fig. 8.3(a)) a right-hand thread screw driven
into the paper has to be rotated clockwise. Hence the
direction of the magnetic field is clockwise.
A magnetic field set up by a long coil, or solenoid,
is shown in Fig. 8.4(a) and is seen to be similar to that of a bar magnet. If the solenoid is
wound on an iron bar, as shown in Fig. 8.4(b), an
even stronger magnetic field is produced, the iron
Figure 8.4
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
becoming magnetised and behaving like a permanent magnet. The direction of the magnetic field
produced by the current I in the solenoid may be
found by either of two methods, i.e. the screw rule
or the grip rule.
(a) The screw rule states that if a normal righthand thread screw is placed along the axis of the
solenoid and is screwed in the direction of the
current it moves in the direction of the magnetic
field inside the solenoid. The direction of the
magnetic field inside the solenoid is from south
to north. Thus in Figures 4(a) and (b) the north
pole is to the right.
(b) The grip rule states that if the coil is gripped
with the right hand, with the fingers pointing
in the direction of the current, then the thumb,
outstretched parallel to the axis of the solenoid,
points in the direction of the magnetic field
inside the solenoid.
The magnetic field associated with the solenoid in
Fig. 8.5 is similar to the field associated with a bar
magnet and is as shown in Fig. 8.6 The polarity of
the field is determined either by the screw rule or by
the grip rule. Thus the north pole is at the bottom
and the south pole at the top.
8.2 Electromagnets
The solenoid is very important in electromagnetic
theory since the magnetic field inside the solenoid
is practically uniform for a particular current, and
is also versatile, inasmuch that a variation of the
current can alter the strength of the magnetic field.
An electromagnet, based on the solenoid, provides
the basis of many items of electrical equipment,
examples of which include electric bells, relays,
lifting magnets and telephone receivers.
(i) Electric bell
Problem 1. Figure 8.5 shows a coil of wire
wound on an iron core connected to a
battery. Sketch the magnetic field pattern
associated with the current carrying coil and
determine the polarity of the field.
Figure 8.5
Figure 8.6
There are various types of electric bell, including
the single-stroke bell, the trembler bell, the buzzer
and a continuously ringing bell, but all depend on
the attraction exerted by an electromagnet on a soft
iron armature. A typical single stroke bell circuit is
shown in Fig. 8.7 When the push button is operated
a current passes through the coil. Since the ironcored coil is energised the soft iron armature is
attracted to the electromagnet. The armature also
carries a striker which hits the gong. When the
circuit is broken the coil becomes demagnetised and
the spring steel strip pulls the armature back to its
original position. The striker will only operate when
the push button is operated.
Figure 8.7
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ELECTROMAGNETISM
(ii) Relay
A relay is similar to an electric bell except that
contacts are opened or closed by operation instead
of a gong being struck. A typical simple relay is
shown in Fig. 8.8, which consists of a coil wound
on a soft iron core. When the coil is energised
the hinged soft iron armature is attracted to the
electromagnet and pushes against two fixed contacts
so that they are connected together, thus closing
some other electrical circuit.
85
a protective non-magnetic sheet of material, R. The
load, Q, which must be of magnetic material is
lifted when the coils are energised, the magnetic flux
paths, M, being shown by the broken lines.
(iv) Telephone receiver
Whereas a transmitter or microphone changes
sound waves into corresponding electrical signals,
a telephone receiver converts the electrical waves
back into sound waves. A typical telephone receiver
is shown in Fig. 8.10 and consists of a permanent
magnet with coils wound on its poles. A thin,
flexible diaphragm of magnetic material is held in
position near to the magnetic poles but not touching
them. Variation in current from the transmitter varies
the magnetic field and the diaphragm consequently
vibrates. The vibration produces sound variations
corresponding to those transmitted.
Figure 8.8
(iii) Lifting magnet
Lifting magnets, incorporating large electromagnets,
are used in iron and steel works for lifting scrap
metal. A typical robust lifting magnet, capable of
exerting large attractive forces, is shown in the
elevation and plan view of Fig. 8.9 where a coil,
C, is wound round a central core, P, of the iron
casting. Over the face of the electromagnet is placed
Figure 8.10
8.3 Force on a current-carrying
conductor
If a current-carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field produced by permanent magnets,
then the fields due to the current-carrying conductor
and the permanent magnets interact and cause a
force to be exerted on the conductor. The force on
the current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field
depends upon:
(a) the flux density of the field, B teslas
(b) the strength of the current, I amperes,
(c) the length of the conductor perpendicular to the
magnetic field, l metres, and
(d) the directions of the field and the current.
When the magnetic field, the current and the
conductor are mutually at right angles then:
Figure 8.9
Force F = BIl newtons
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
When the conductor and the field are at an angle °
to each other then:
Force F = BIl sin q newtons
Since when the magnetic field, current and
conductor are mutually at right angles, F D BIl,
the magnetic flux density B may be defined by
B D ⊲F⊳/⊲Il⊳, i.e. the flux density is 1 T if the force
exerted on 1 m of a conductor when the conductor
carries a current of 1 A is 1 N.
Loudspeaker
A simple application of the above force is the
moving coil loudspeaker. The loudspeaker is used
to convert electrical signals into sound waves.
Figure 8.11 shows a typical loudspeaker having
a magnetic circuit comprising a permanent magnet
and soft iron pole pieces so that a strong magnetic
field is available in the short cylindrical airgap. A
moving coil, called the voice or speech coil, is
suspended from the end of a paper or plastic cone
so that it lies in the gap. When an electric current
flows through the coil it produces a force which
tends to move the cone backwards and forwards
according to the direction of the current. The cone
acts as a piston, transferring this force to the air, and
producing the required sound waves.
B D 0.9 T, I D 20 A and l D 30 cm D 0.30 m
Force F D BIl D ⊲0.9⊳⊲20⊳⊲0.30⊳ newtons when the
conductor is at right-angles to the field, as shown in
Fig. 8.12(a), i.e. F = 5.4 N.
Figure 8.12
When the conductor is inclined at 30° to the field,
as shown in Fig. 8.12(b), then
Force F D BIl sin
D ⊲0.9⊳⊲20⊳⊲0.30⊳ sin 30°
i.e. F D 2.7 N
If the current-carrying conductor shown in Fig. 8.3
(a) is placed in the magnetic field shown in
Fig. 8.13(a), then the two fields interact and cause
a force to be exerted on the conductor as shown in
Fig. 8.13(b) The field is strengthened above the conductor and weakened below, thus tending to move
the conductor downwards. This is the basic principle
of operation of the electric motor (see Section 8.4)
and the moving-coil instrument (see Section 8.5)
Figure 8.11
Problem 2. A conductor carries a current of
20 A and is at right-angles to a magnetic
field having a flux density of 0.9 T. If the
length of the conductor in the field is 30 cm,
calculate the force acting on the conductor.
Determine also the value of the force if the
conductor is inclined at an angle of 30° to
the direction of the field.
Figure 8.13
The direction of the force exerted on a conductor
can be pre-determined by using Fleming’s left-hand
rule (often called the motor rule) which states:
Let the thumb, first finger and second finger of the
left hand be extended such that they are all at rightangles to each other, (as shown in Fig. 8.14) If the
first finger points in the direction of the magnetic
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ELECTROMAGNETISM
field, the second finger points in the direction of the
current, then the thumb will point in the direction of
the motion of the conductor.
Summarising:
First finger - Field
SeCond finger - Current
87
Problem 4. A conductor 350 mm long
carries a current of 10 A and is at
right-angles to a magnetic field lying between
two circular pole faces each of radius 60 mm.
If the total flux between the pole faces is
0.5 mWb, calculate the magnitude of the
force exerted on the conductor.
ThuMb - Motion
l D 350 mm D 0.35 m, I D 10 A, area of pole
face A D r 2 D ⊲0.06⊳2 m2 and D 0.5 mWb D
0.5 ð 103 Wb
Force F D BIl, and B D
force F D
D
i.e.
Figure 8.14
Problem 3. Determine the current required
in a 400 mm length of conductor of an
electric motor, when the conductor is situated
at right-angles to a magnetic field of flux
density 1.2 T, if a force of 1.92 N is to be
exerted on the conductor. If the conductor is
vertical, the current flowing downwards and
the direction of the magnetic field is from left
to right, what is the direction of the force?
Force D 1.92 N, l D 400 mm D 0.40 m and
B D 1.2 T. Since F D BIl, then I D F/Bl hence
current I D
1.92
D 4A
⊲1.2⊳⊲0.4⊳
If the current flows downwards, the direction of
its magnetic field due to the current alone will
be clockwise when viewed from above. The lines
of flux will reinforce (i.e. strengthen) the main
magnetic field at the back of the conductor and
will be in opposition in the front (i.e. weaken the
field). Hence the force on the conductor will
be from back to front (i.e. toward the viewer).
This direction may also have been deduced using
Fleming’s left-hand rule.
hence
A
Il
A
⊲0.5 ð 103 ⊳
⊲10⊳⊲0.35⊳ newtons
⊲0.06⊳2
force D 0.155 N
Problem 5. With reference to Fig. 8.15
determine (a) the direction of the force on
the conductor in Fig. 8.15(a), (b) the
direction of the force on the conductor in
Fig. 8.15(b), (c) the direction of the current
in Fig. 8.15(c), (d) the polarity of the
magnetic system in Fig. 8.15(d).
Figure 8.15
(a) The direction of the main magnetic field is from
north to south, i.e. left to right. The current is
flowing towards the viewer, and using the screw
rule, the direction of the field is anticlockwise.
Hence either by Fleming’s left-hand rule, or
by sketching the interacting magnetic field as
shown in Fig. 8.16(a), the direction of the force
on the conductor is seen to be upward.
(b) Using a similar method to part (a) it is seen that
the force on the conductor is to the right – see
Fig. 8.16(b).
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
a single-turn coil. Hence force on coil side,
F D 300 BIl D 300 ð 0.0012 D 0.36 N
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 37 Further problems on the force
on a current-carrying conductor
1 A conductor carries a current of 70 A at rightangles to a magnetic field having a flux density
of 1.5 T. If the length of the conductor in the
field is 200 mm calculate the force acting on
the conductor. What is the force when the
conductor and field are at an angle of 45° ?
[21.0 N, 14.8 N]
Figure 8.16
(c) Using Fleming’s left-hand rule, or by sketching
as in Fig. 8.16(c), it is seen that the current is
toward the viewer, i.e. out of the paper.
(d) Similar to part (c), the polarity of the magnetic
system is as shown in Fig. 8.16(d).
Problem 6. A coil is wound on a
rectangular former of width 24 mm and
length 30 mm. The former is pivoted about
an axis passing through the middle of the
two shorter sides and is placed in a uniform
magnetic field of flux density 0.8 T, the axis
being perpendicular to the field. If the coil
carries a current of 50 mA, determine the
force on each coil side (a) for a single-turn
coil, (b) for a coil wound with 300 turns.
2 Calculate the current required in a 240 mm
length of conductor of a d.c. motor when the
conductor is situated at right-angles to the
magnetic field of flux density 1.25 T, if a force
of 1.20 N is to be exerted on the conductor.
[4.0 A]
3 A conductor 30 cm long is situated at rightangles to a magnetic field. Calculate the
strength of the magnetic field if a current of
15 A in the conductor produces a force on it
of 3.6 N.
[0.80 T]
4 A conductor 300 mm long carries a current
of 13 A and is at right-angles to a magnetic
field between two circular pole faces, each
of diameter 80 mm. If the total flux between
the pole faces is 0.75 mWb calculate the force
exerted on the conductor.
[0.582 N]
F D BIl D 0.8 ð 50 ð 103 ð 30 ð 103
5 (a) A 400 mm length of conductor carrying
a current of 25 A is situated at right-angles
to a magnetic field between two poles of an
electric motor. The poles have a circular crosssection. If the force exerted on the conductor
is 80 N and the total flux between the pole
faces is 1.27 mWb, determine the diameter of
a pole face.
(b) If the conductor in part (a) is vertical, the
current flowing downwards and the direction
of the magnetic field is from left to right, what
is the direction of the 80 N force?
[(a) 14.2 mm (b) towards the viewer]
(b) When there are 300 turns on the coil there are
effectively 300 parallel conductors each carrying a current of 50 mA. Thus the total force
produced by the current is 300 times that for
6 A coil is wound uniformly on a former having
a width of 18 mm and a length of 25 mm.
The former is pivoted about an axis passing
through the middle of the two shorter sides
and is placed in a uniform magnetic field of
(a) Flux density B D 0.8 T, length of conductor
lying at right-angles to field l D 30 mm D 30 ð
103 m and current I D 50 mA D 50 ð 103 A
For a single-turn coil, force on each coil side
D 1.2 ð 10−3 N, or 0.0012 N
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ELECTROMAGNETISM
flux density 0.75 T, the axis being perpendicular
to the field. If the coil carries a current of
120 mA, determine the force exerted on each
coil side, (a) for a single-turn coil, (b) for a coil
wound with 400 turns.
[(a) 2.25 ð 103 N (b) 0.9 N]
8.4 Principle of operation of a simple
d.c. motor
A rectangular coil which is free to rotate about
a fixed axis is shown placed inside a magnetic
field produced by permanent magnets in Fig. 8.17
A direct current is fed into the coil via carbon
brushes bearing on a commutator, which consists
of a metal ring split into two halves separated by
insulation. When current flows in the coil a magnetic
field is set up around the coil which interacts with
the magnetic field produced by the magnets. This
causes a force F to be exerted on the currentcarrying conductor which, by Fleming’s left-hand
rule, is downwards between points A and B and
upward between C and D for the current direction
shown. This causes a torque and the coil rotates
anticlockwise. When the coil has turned through 90°
from the position shown in Fig. 8.17 the brushes
connected to the positive and negative terminals of
the supply make contact with different halves of the
commutator ring, thus reversing the direction of the
current flow in the conductor. If the current is not
Figure 8.17
89
reversed and the coil rotates past this position the
forces acting on it change direction and it rotates in
the opposite direction thus never making more than
half a revolution. The current direction is reversed
every time the coil swings through the vertical
position and thus the coil rotates anti-clockwise for
as long as the current flows. This is the principle
of operation of a d.c. motor which is thus a device
that takes in electrical energy and converts it into
mechanical energy.
8.5 Principle of operation of a
moving-coil instrument
A moving-coil instrument operates on the motor
principle. When a conductor carrying current is
placed in a magnetic field, a force F is exerted on
the conductor, given by F D BIl. If the flux density
B is made constant (by using permanent magnets)
and the conductor is a fixed length (say, a coil) then
the force will depend only on the current flowing in
the conductor.
In a moving-coil instrument a coil is placed centrally in the gap between shaped pole pieces as
shown by the front elevation in Fig. 8.18(a). (The
air-gap is kept as small as possible, although for
clarity it is shown exaggerated in Fig. 8.18) The coil
is supported by steel pivots, resting in jewel bearings, on a cylindrical iron core. Current is led into
and out of the coil by two phosphor bronze spiral
hairsprings which are wound in opposite directions
to minimize the effect of temperature change and
to limit the coil swing (i.e. to control the movement) and return the movement to zero position
when no current flows. Current flowing in the coil
produces forces as shown in Fig. 8.18(b), the directions being obtained by Fleming’s left-hand rule.
The two forces, FA and FB , produce a torque which
will move the coil in a clockwise direction, i.e. move
the pointer from left to right. Since force is proportional to current the scale is linear.
When the aluminium frame, on which the coil
is wound, is rotated between the poles of the magnet, small currents (called eddy currents) are induced
into the frame, and this provides automatically the
necessary damping of the system due to the reluctance of the former to move within the magnetic
field. The moving-coil instrument will measure only
direct current or voltage and the terminals are
marked positive and negative to ensure that the current passes through the coil in the correct direction
to deflect the pointer ‘up the scale’.
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Figure 8.18
The range of this sensitive instrument is extended
by using shunts and multipliers (see Chapter 10)
8.6 Force on a charge
When a charge of Q coulombs is moving at a
velocity of v m/s in a magnetic field of flux density B
teslas, the charge moving perpendicular to the field,
then the magnitude of the force F exerted on the
charge is given by:
Exercise 38 Further problems on the force
on a charge
1 Calculate the force exerted on a charge of
2ð1018 C travelling at 2ð106 m/s perpendicular to a field of density 2 ð 107 T
[8 ð 1019 N]
2 Determine the speed of a 1019 C charge travelling perpendicular to a field of flux density
107 T, if the force on the charge is 1020 N
[106 m/s]
F = QvB newtons
Problem 7. An electron in a television tube
has a charge of 1.6 ð 1019 coulombs and
travels at 3 ð 107 m/s perpendicular to a field
of flux density 18.5 µT. Determine the force
exerted on the electron in the field.
From above, force F D QvB newtons, where Q D
charge in coulombs D 1.6 ð 1019 C, v D velocity
of charge D 3 ð 107 m/s, and B D flux density D
18.5 ð 106 T. Hence force on electron,
19
F D 1.6 ð 10
7
6
ð 3 ð 10 ð 18.5 ð 10
18
D 1.6 ð 3 ð 18.5 ð 10
D 88.8 ð 1018 D 8.88 ð 10−17 N
Now try the following exercises
Exercise 39 Short answer questions on
electromagnetism
1 The direction of the magnetic field around
a current-carrying conductor may be remembered using the . . . . . . rule.
2 Sketch the magnetic field pattern associated
with a solenoid connected to a battery and
wound on an iron bar. Show the direction of
the field.
3 Name three applications of electromagnetism.
4 State what happens when a current-carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field
between two magnets.
5 The force on a current-carrying conductor
in a magnetic field depends on four factors.
Name them.
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ELECTROMAGNETISM
6 The direction of the force on a conductor in
a magnetic field may be predetermined using
Fleming’s . . . . . . rule.
7 State three applications of the force on a
current-carrying conductor.
91
4 For the current-carrying conductor lying in
the magnetic field shown in Fig. 8.20(b), the
direction of the current in the conductor is:
(a) towards the viewer
(b) away from the viewer
8 Figure 8.19 shows a simplified diagram of
a section through the coil of a moving-coil
instrument. For the direction of current flow
shown in the coil determine the direction that
the pointer will move.
Figure 8.20
Figure 8.19
9 Explain, with the aid of a sketch, the action
of a simplified d.c. motor.
10 Sketch and label the movement of a movingcoil instrument. Briefly explain the principle
of operation of such an instrument.
5 Figure 8.21 shows a rectangular coil of wire
placed in a magnetic field and free to rotate
about axis AB. If the current flows into the
coil at C, the coil will:
(a) commence to rotate anti-clockwise
(b) commence to rotate clockwise
(c) remain in the vertical position
(d) experience a force towards the north pole
Exercise 40 Multi-choice questions on
electromagnetism (Answers on page 375)
1 A conductor carries a current of 10 A at
right-angles to a magnetic field having a
flux density of 500 mT. If the length of the
conductor in the field is 20 cm, the force on
the conductor is:
(a) 100 kN (b) 1 kN (c) 100 N (d) 1 N
2 If a conductor is horizontal, the current
flowing from left to right and the direction
of the surrounding magnetic field is from
above to below, the force exerted on the
conductor is:
(a) from left to right
(b) from below to above
(c) away from the viewer
(d) towards the viewer
3 For the current-carrying conductor lying in
the magnetic field shown in Fig. 8.20(a), the
direction of the force on the conductor is:
(a) to the left
(b) upwards
(c) to the right
(d) downwards
Figure 8.21
6 The force on an electron travelling at 107 m/s
in a magnetic field of density 10 µT is 1.6 ð
1017 N. The electron has a charge of:
(a) 1.6 ð 1028 C
(b) 1.6 ð 1015 C
19
(c) 1.6 ð 10 C
(d) 1.6 ð 1025 C
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
7 An electric bell depends for its action on:
(a) a permanent magnet
(b) reversal of current
(c) a hammer and a gong
(d) an electromagnet
in them is:
(a) in opposite directions
(b) in the same direction
(c) of different magnitude
(d) of the same magnitude
8 A relay can be used to:
(a) decrease the current in a circuit
(b) control a circuit more readily
(c) increase the current in a circuit
(d) control a circuit from a distance
10 The magnetic field due to a current-carrying
conductor takes the form of:
(a) rectangles
(b) concentric circles
(c) wavy lines
(d) straight lines radiating outwards
9 There is a force of attraction between two
current-carrying conductors when the current
TLFeBOOK
9
Electromagnetic induction
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
ž understand how an e.m.f. may be induced in a conductor
ž state Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction
ž state Lenz’s law
ž use Fleming’s right-hand rule for relative directions
ž appreciate that the induced e.m.f., E D Blv or E D Blv sin
ž calculate induced e.m.f. given B, l, v and and determine relative directions
ž define inductance L and state its unit
ž define mutual inductance
ž appreciate that emf
dI
d
D L
dt
dt
ž calculate induced e.m.f. given N, t, L, change of flux or change of current
E D N
ž appreciate factors which affect the inductance of an inductor
ž draw the circuit diagram symbols for inductors
ž calculate the energy stored in an inductor using W D 12 LI2 joules
ž calculate inductance L of a coil, given L D N/I
ž calculate mutual inductance using E2 D M⊲dI1 /dt⊳
9.1 Introduction to electromagnetic
induction
When a conductor is moved across a magnetic field
so as to cut through the lines of force (or flux),
an electromotive force (e.m.f.) is produced in the
conductor. If the conductor forms part of a closed
circuit then the e.m.f. produced causes an electric
current to flow round the circuit. Hence an e.m.f.
(and thus current) is ‘induced’ in the conductor
as a result of its movement across the magnetic
field. This effect is known as ‘electromagnetic
induction’.
Figure 9.1 (a) shows a coil of wire connected
to a centre-zero galvanometer, which is a sensitive
ammeter with the zero-current position in the centre
of the scale.
(a) When the magnet is moved at constant speed
towards the coil (Fig. 9.1(a)), a deflection is
noted on the galvanometer showing that a current has been produced in the coil.
TLFeBOOK
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
9.2 Laws of electromagnetic induction
Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction
state:
(i) An induced e.m.f. is set up whenever the magnetic field linking that circuit changes.
(ii) The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. in any circuit is proportional to the rate of change of the
magnetic flux linking the circuit.
Figure 9.1
(b) When the magnet is moved at the same speed as
in (a) but away from the coil the same deflection
is noted but is in the opposite direction (see
Fig. 9.1(b))
(c) When the magnet is held stationary, even within
the coil, no deflection is recorded.
(d) When the coil is moved at the same speed as
in (a) and the magnet held stationary the same
galvanometer deflection is noted.
Lenz’s law states:
The direction of an induced e.m.f. is always such that
it tends to set up a current opposing the motion or
the change of flux responsible for inducing that e.m.f.
An alternative method to Lenz’s law of determining relative directions is given by Fleming’s
Right-hand rule (often called the geneRator rule)
which states:
Let the thumb, first finger and second finger of the
right hand be extended such that they are all at right
angles to each other (as shown in Fig. 9.2). If the
first finger points in the direction of the magnetic
field and the thumb points in the direction of motion
of the conductor relative to the magnetic field, then
the second finger will point in the direction of the
induced e.m.f.
Summarising:
First finger - Field
ThuMb - Motion
SEcond finger - E.m.f.
(e) When the relative speed is, say, doubled, the
galvanometer deflection is doubled.
(f) When a stronger magnet is used, a greater galvanometer deflection is noted.
(g) When the number of turns of wire of the coil is
increased, a greater galvanometer deflection is
noted.
Figure 9.1(c) shows the magnetic field associated
with the magnet. As the magnet is moved towards
the coil, the magnetic flux of the magnet moves
across, or cuts, the coil. It is the relative movement
of the magnetic flux and the coil that causes an
e.m.f. and thus current, to be induced in the coil.
This effect is known as electromagnetic induction.
The laws of electromagnetic induction stated in
section 9.2 evolved from experiments such as those
described above.
Figure 9.2
TLFeBOOK
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
In a generator, conductors forming an electric circuit are made to move through a magnetic field. By
Faraday’s law an e.m.f. is induced in the conductors
and thus a source of e.m.f. is created. A generator
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
(The action of a simple a.c. generator is described
in Chapter 14).
The induced e.m.f. E set up between the ends of
the conductor shown in Fig. 9.3 is given by:
E = Blv volts
95
(a) If the ends of the conductor are open circuited
no current will flow even though 1.5 V has been
induced.
(b) From Ohm’s law,
ID
E
1.5
D
D 0.075 A or 75 mA
R
20
Problem 2. At what velocity must a
conductor 75 mm long cut a magnetic field
of flux density 0.6 T if an e.m.f. of 9 V is to
be induced in it? Assume the conductor, the
field and the direction of motion are
mutually perpendicular.
Induced e.m.f. E D Blv, hence velocity v D E/Bl
Thus
vD
9
⊲0.6⊳⊲75 ð 103 ⊳
9 ð 103
0.6 ð 75
D 200 m=s
D
Figure 9.3
where B, the flux density, is measured in teslas,
l, the length of conductor in the magnetic field, is
measured in metres, and v, the conductor velocity,
is measured in metres per second.
If the conductor moves at an angle ° to the magnetic field (instead of at 90° as assumed above) then
E = Blv sin q volts
Problem 1. A conductor 300 mm long
moves at a uniform speed of 4 m/s at
right-angles to a uniform magnetic field of
flux density 1.25 T. Determine the current
flowing in the conductor when (a) its ends
are open-circuited, (b) its ends are connected
to a load of 20 resistance.
When a conductor moves in a magnetic field it will
have an e.m.f. induced in it but this e.m.f. can only
produce a current if there is a closed circuit. Induced
e.m.f.
300
⊲4⊳ D 1.5 V
E D Blv D ⊲1.25⊳
1000
Problem 3. A conductor moves with a
velocity of 15 m/s at an angle of (a) 90°
(b) 60° and (c) 30° to a magnetic field
produced between two square-faced poles of
side length 2 cm. If the flux leaving a pole
face is 5 µWb, find the magnitude of the
induced e.m.f. in each case.
v D 15 m/s, length of conductor in magnetic field,
l D 2 cm D 0.02 m, A D 2 ð 2 cm2 D 4 ð 104 m2
and 8 D 5 ð 106 Wb
(a) E90 D Blv sin 90°
D
lv sin 90°
A
5 ð 106
⊲0.02⊳ ⊲15⊳ ⊲1⊳
D
4 ð 104
D 3.75 mV
(b) E60 D Blv sin 60° D E90 sin 60°
D 3.75 sin 60° D 3.25 mV
(c) E30 D Blv sin 30° D E90 sin 30°
D 3.75 sin 30° D 1.875 mV
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Problem 4. The wing span of a metal
aeroplane is 36 m. If the aeroplane is flying
at 400 km/h, determine the e.m.f. induced
between its wing tips. Assume the vertical
component of the earth’s magnetic field is
40 µT.
Induced e.m.f. across wing tips, E
B D 40 µT D 40 ð 106 T, l D 36 m and
D
Blv
m
1h
km
ð 1000
ð
h
km 60 ð 60 s
⊲400⊳⊲1000⊳
D
3600
4000
D
m/s
36
v D 400
Hence
4000
E D Blv D ⊲40 ð 106 ⊳⊲36⊳
36
D 0.16 V
Problem 5. The diagrams shown in Fig. 9.4
represents the generation of e.m.f’s.
Determine (i) the direction in which the
conductor has to be moved in Fig. 9.4(a),
(ii) the direction of the induced e.m.f. in
Fig. 9.4(b), (iii) the polarity of the magnetic
system in Fig. 9.4(c)
Figure 9.5
seen to reinforce to the left of the conductor.
Hence the force on the conductor is to the right.
However Lenz’s law states that the direction of
the induced e.m.f. is always such as to oppose
the effect producing it. Thus the conductor
will have to be moved to the left.
(ii) Using Fleming’s right-hand rule:
First finger - Field,
Figure 9.4
i.e. N ! S, or right to left;
ThuMb - Motion, i.e. upwards;
The direction of the e.m.f., and thus the current due
to the e.m.f. may be obtained by either Lenz’s law
or Fleming’s Right-hand rule (i.e. GeneRator rule).
(i) Using Lenz’s law: The field due to the magnet and the field due to the current-carrying
conductor are shown in Fig. 9.5(a) and are
SEcond finger - E.m.f.
i.e. towards the viewer or out of the paper,
as shown in Fig. 9.5(b)
(iii) The polarity of the magnetic system of
Fig. 9.4(c) is shown in Fig. 9.5(c) and is
obtained using Fleming’s right-hand rule.
TLFeBOOK
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 41
e.m.f.
Further problems on induced
1 A conductor of length 15 cm is moved at
750 mm/s at right-angles to a uniform flux
density of 1.2 T. Determine the e.m.f. induced
in the conductor.
[0.135 V]
2 Find the speed that a conductor of length
120 mm must be moved at right angles to a
magnetic field of flux density 0.6 T to induce
in it an e.m.f. of 1.8 V
[25 m/s]
3 A 25 cm long conductor moves at a uniform
speed of 8 m/s through a uniform magnetic
field of flux density 1.2 T. Determine the current flowing in the conductor when (a) its ends
are open-circuited, (b) its ends are connected
to a load of 15 ohms resistance.
[(a) 0 (b) 0.16 A]
4 A straight conductor 500 mm long is moved
with constant velocity at right angles both to
its length and to a uniform magnetic field.
Given that the e.m.f. induced in the conductor
is 2.5 V and the velocity is 5 m/s, calculate
the flux density of the magnetic field. If the
conductor forms part of a closed circuit of total
resistance 5 ohms, calculate the force on the
conductor.
[1 T, 0.25 N]
5 A car is travelling at 80 km/h. Assuming the
back axle of the car is 1.76 m in length and
the vertical component of the earth’s magnetic
field is 40 µT, find the e.m.f. generated in the
axle due to motion.
[1.56 mV]
6 A conductor moves with a velocity of 20 m/s
at an angle of (a) 90° (b) 45° (c) 30° , to a
magnetic field produced between two squarefaced poles of side length 2.5 cm. If the flux on
the pole face is 60 mWb, find the magnitude
of the induced e.m.f. in each case.
[(a) 48 V (b) 33.9 V (c) 24 V]
97
called self inductance, L When the e.m.f. is induced
in a circuit by a change of flux due to current
changing in an adjacent circuit, the property is called
mutual inductance, M. The unit of inductance is
the henry, H.
A circuit has an inductance of one henry when
an e.m.f. of one volt is induced in it by a current changing at the rate of one ampere per second
Induced e.m.f. in a coil of N turns,
E = −N
d8
volts
dt
where d is the change in flux in Webers, and dt is
the time taken for the flux to change in seconds (i.e.
d
is the rate of change of flux).
dt
Induced e.m.f. in a coil of inductance L henrys,
E = −L
dI
volts
dt
where dI is the change in current in amperes and dt
is the time taken for the current to change in seconds
(i.e. dI
dt is the rate of change of current). The minus
sign in each of the above two equations remind us
of its direction (given by Lenz’s law)
Problem 6. Determine the e.m.f. induced in
a coil of 200 turns when there is a change of
flux of 25 mWb linking with it in 50 ms.
Induced e.m.f. E D N
d
dt
D ⊲200⊳
25 ð 103
50 ð 103
D 100 volts
Problem 7. A flux of 400 µWb passing
through a 150-turn coil is reversed in 40 ms.
Find the average e.m.f. induced.
9.3 Inductance
Inductance is the name given to the property of a
circuit whereby there is an e.m.f. induced into the
circuit by the change of flux linkages produced by
a current change.
When the e.m.f. is induced in the same circuit as
that in which the current is changing, the property is
Since the flux reverses, the flux changes from
C400 µWb to 400 µWb, a total change of flux of
800 µWb.
Induced e.m.f. E D N
d
dt
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
D ⊲150⊳
D
800 ð 106
40 ð 103
150 ð 800 ð 103
40 ð 106
Hence, the average e.m.f. induced, E D 3 volts
Problem 8. Calculate the e.m.f. induced in
a coil of inductance 12 H by a current
changing at the rate of 4 A/s.
dI
D ⊲12⊳⊲4⊳
dt
D 48 volts
Induced e.m.f. E D L
Problem 9. An e.m.f. of 1.5 kV is induced
in a coil when a current of 4 A collapses
uniformly to zero in 8 ms. Determine the
inductance of the coil.
Change in current, dI D ⊲4 0⊳ D 4 A,
dt D 8 ms D 8 ð 103 s,
dI
4
4000
D
D
3
dt
8 ð 10
8
D 500 A/s
E D 1.5 kV D 1500 V
dI
Since
jEj D L ,
dt
jEj
1500
inductance, L D
D
D 3H
⊲dI/dt⊳
500
time dt D
LdI
⊲0.15⊳⊲12⊳
D
jEj
40
D 0.045 s or 45 ms
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 42 Further problems on
inductance
1 Find the e.m.f. induced in a coil of 200 turns
when there is a change of flux of 30 mWb
linking with it in 40 ms.
[150 V]
2 An e.m.f. of 25 V is induced in a coil of
300 turns when the flux linking with it changes
by 12 mWb. Find the time, in milliseconds, in
which the flux makes the change.
[144 ms]
3 An ignition coil having 10 000 turns has an
e.m.f. of 8 kV induced in it. What rate of
change of flux is required for this to happen?
[0.8 Wb/s]
4 A flux of 0.35 mWb passing through a 125turn coil is reversed in 25 ms. Find the magnitude of the average e.m.f. induced. [3.5 V]
5 Calculate the e.m.f. induced in a coil of inductance 6 H by a current changing at a rate of
15 A/s
[90 V]
and
(Note that jEj means the ‘magnitude of E’ which
disregards the minus sign)
Problem 10. An average e.m.f. of 40 V is
induced in a coil of inductance 150 mH when
a current of 6 A is reversed. Calculate the
time taken for the current to reverse.
jEj D 40 V, L D 150 mH D 0.15 H and change in
current, dI D 6 ⊲6⊳ D 12 A (since the current is
reversed).
dI
Since jEj D ,
dt
9.4 Inductors
A component called an inductor is used when the
property of inductance is required in a circuit. The
basic form of an inductor is simply a coil of wire.
Factors which affect the inductance of an inductor
include:
(i) the number of turns of wire – the more turns
the higher the inductance
(ii) the cross-sectional area of the coil of wire – the
greater the cross-sectional area the higher the
inductance
(iii) the presence of a magnetic core – when the coil
is wound on an iron core the same current sets
up a more concentrated magnetic field and the
inductance is increased
(iv) the way the turns are arranged – a short thick
coil of wire has a higher inductance than a long
thin one.
TLFeBOOK
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Two examples of practical inductors are shown in
Fig. 9.6, and the standard electrical circuit diagram
symbols for air-cored and iron-cored inductors are
shown in Fig. 9.7
Iron
core
Wire
(a)
Laminated
iron core
99
9.5 Energy stored
An inductor possesses an ability to store energy.
The energy stored, W, in the magnetic field of an
inductor is given by:
W = 12 LI 2 joules
Problem 11. An 8 H inductor has a current
of 3 A flowing through it. How much energy
is stored in the magnetic field of the
inductor?
Coil of
wire
Energy stored,
(b)
Figure 9.6
W D 12 LI2 D 21 ⊲8⊳ ⊲3⊳2 D 36 joules
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 43 Further problems on energy
stored
Figure 9.7
An iron-cored inductor is often called a choke
since, when used in a.c. circuits, it has a choking
effect, limiting the current flowing through it.
Inductance is often undesirable in a circuit. To
reduce inductance to a minimum the wire may be
bent back on itself, as shown in Fig. 9.8, so that the
magnetising effect of one conductor is neutralised
by that of the adjacent conductor. The wire may
be coiled around an insulator, as shown, without
increasing the inductance. Standard resistors may be
non-inductively wound in this manner.
1 An inductor of 20 H has a current of 2.5 A
flowing in it. Find the energy stored in the
magnetic field of the inductor.
[62.5 J]
2 Calculate the value of the energy stored when
a current of 30 mA is flowing in a coil of
inductance 400 mH
[0.18 mJ]
3 The energy stored in the magnetic field of an
inductor is 80 J when the current flowing in
the inductor is 2 A. Calculate the inductance
of the coil.
[40 H]
9.6 Inductance of a coil
If a current changing from 0 to I amperes, produces
a flux change from 0 to webers, then dI D I and
d D . Then, from section 9.3,
induced e.m.f. E D
N
LI
D
t
t
from which, inductance of coil,
L=
Figure 9.8
N8
henrys
I
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Problem 12. Calculate the coil inductance
when a current of 4 A in a coil of 800 turns
produces a flux of 5 mWb linking with the
coil.
Problem 15. A 750 turn coil of inductance
3 H carries a current of 2 A. Calculate the
flux linking the coil and the e.m.f. induced in
the coil when the current collapses to zero in
20 ms.
For a coil, inductance
N
⊲800⊳⊲5 ð 103 ⊳
D
D 1H
I
4
LD
Coil inductance, L D
D
Problem 13. A flux of 25 mWb links with a
1500 turn coil when a current of 3 A passes
through the coil. Calculate (a) the inductance
of the coil, (b) the energy stored in the
magnetic field, and (c) the average e.m.f.
induced if the current falls to zero in 150 ms.
⊲1500⊳⊲25 ð 103 ⊳
N
D
D 12.5 H
I
3
(b) Energy stored,
LD
W D
D
1
2
2 ⊲12.5⊳⊲3⊳
30
150 ð 103
D −250 V
(Alternatively,
d
dt
D ⊲1500⊳
25 ð 103
150 ð 103
D 250 V
since if the current falls to zero so does the flux)
Problem 14. When a current of 1.5 A flows
in a coil the flux linking with the coil is
90 µWb. If the coil inductance is 0.60 H,
calculate the number of turns of the coil.
ND
E D L
dI
D ⊲3⊳
dt
20
20 ð 103
D 300 V
E D N
d
D ⊲750⊳
dt
8 ð 103
20 ð 103
D 300 V⊳
Now try the following exercise
dI
E D L D ⊲12.5⊳
dt
For a coil, L D
Induced e.m.f.
D 56.25 J
(c) Induced emf,
E D N
LI
⊲3⊳⊲2⊳
D
D 8 ð 103 D 8 mWb
N
750
(Alternatively,
(a) Inductance,
1
2
2 LI
N
from which, flux
I
N
. Thus
I
⊲0.6⊳⊲1.5⊳
LI
D
D 10 000 turns
90 ð 106
Exercise 44 Further problems on the
inductance of a coil
1 A flux of 30 mWb links with a 1200 turn
coil when a current of 5 A is passing through
the coil. Calculate (a) the inductance of the
coil, (b) the energy stored in the magnetic
field, and (c) the average e.m.f. induced if
the current is reduced to zero in 0.20 s
[(a) 7.2 H (b) 90 J (c) 180 V]
2 An e.m.f. of 2 kV is induced in a coil when a
current of 5 A collapses uniformly to zero in
10 ms. Determine the inductance of the coil.
[4 H]
3 An average e.m.f. of 60 V is induced in a
coil of inductance 160 mH when a current of
7.5 A is reversed. Calculate the time taken for
the current to reverse.
[40 ms]
4 A coil of 2500 turns has a flux of 10 mWb
linking with it when carrying a current of 2 A.
Calculate the coil inductance and the e.m.f.
induced in the coil when the current collapses
to zero in 20 ms.
[12.5 H, 1.25 kV]
TLFeBOOK
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
5 Calculate the coil inductance when a current
of 5 A in a coil of 1000 turns produces a flux
of 8 mWb linking with the coil.
[1.6 H]
6 A coil is wound with 600 turns and has a self
inductance of 2.5 H. What current must flow
to set up a flux of 20 mWb ?
[4.8 A]
7 When a current of 2 A flows in a coil, the
flux linking with the coil is 80 µWb. If the
coil inductance is 0.5 H, calculate the number
of turns of the coil.
[12 500]
8 A coil of 1200 turns has a flux of 15 mWb
linking with it when carrying a current of 4 A.
Calculate the coil inductance and the e.m.f.
induced in the coil when the current collapses
to zero in 25 ms
[4.5 H, 720 V]
9 A coil has 300 turns and an inductance of
4.5 mH. How many turns would be needed
to produce a 0.72 mH coil assuming the same
core is used ?
[48 turns]
10 A steady current of 5 A when flowing in a
coil of 1000 turns produces a magnetic flux
of 500 µWb. Calculate the inductance of the
coil. The current of 5 A is then reversed in
12.5 ms. Calculate the e.m.f. induced in the
coil.
[0.1 H, 80 V]
101
Induced e.m.f. jE2 j D MdI1 /dt, i.e. 1.5 D M⊲200⊳.
Thus mutual inductance,
M D
1.5
D 0.0075 H or 7.5 mH
200
Problem 17. The mutual inductance
between two coils is 18 mH. Calculate the
steady rate of change of current in one coil
to induce an e.m.f. of 0.72 V in the other.
dI1
Induced e.m.f. jE2 j D M
dt
Hence rate of change of current,
dI1
jE2 j
0.72
D
D
D 40 A=s
dt
M
0.018
Problem 18. Two coils have a mutual
inductance of 0.2 H. If the current in one coil
is changed from 10 A to 4 A in 10 ms,
calculate (a) the average induced e.m.f. in
the second coil, (b) the change of flux linked
with the second coil if it is wound with
500 turns.
(a) Induced e.m.f.
9.7 Mutual inductance
Mutually induced e.m.f. in the second coil,
dI1
dt
10 4
D ⊲0.2⊳
D 120 V
10 ð 103
jE2 j D M
(b) Induced e.m.f.
E2 = −M
dI1
volts
dt
where M is the mutual inductance between two
coils, in henrys, and ⊲dI1 /dt⊳ is the rate of change
of current in the first coil.
The phenomenon of mutual inductance is used in
transformers (see chapter 21, page 303)
Problem 16. Calculate the mutual
inductance between two coils when a current
changing at 200 A/s in one coil induces an
e.m.f. of 1.5 V in the other.
jE2 jdt
d
, hence d D
dt
N
Thus the change of flux,
jE2 j D N
d D
⊲120⊳⊲10 ð 103 ⊳
D 2.4 mWb
500
Now try the following exercises
Exercise 45 Further problems on mutual
inductance
1 The mutual inductance between two coils is
150 mH. Find the magnitude of the e.m.f.
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
induced in one coil when the current in the
other is increasing at a rate of 30 A/s.
[4.5 V]
10 If a current of I amperes flowing in a coil of
N turns produces a flux of webers, the coil
inductance L is given by L D . . . . . . henrys
2 Determine the mutual inductance between two
coils when a current changing at 50 A/s in one
coil induces an e.m.f. of 80 mV in the other.
[1.6 mH]
11 The energy W stored by an inductor is given
by W D . . . . . . joules
3 Two coils have a mutual inductance of 0.75 H.
Calculate the magnitude of the e.m.f. induced
in one coil when a current of 2.5 A in the other
coil is reversed in 15 ms
[250 V]
4 The mutual inductance between two coils is
240 mH. If the current in one coil changes
from 15 A to 6 A in 12 ms, calculate (a) the
average e.m.f. induced in the other coil, (b) the
change of flux linked with the other coil if it
is wound with 400 turns.
[(a) 180 V (b) 5.4 mWb]
5 A mutual inductance of 0.06 H exists between
two coils. If a current of 6 A in one coil
is reversed in 0.8 s calculate (a) the average
e.m.f. induced in the other coil, (b) the number
of turns on the other coil if the flux change
linking with the other coil is 5 mWb
[(a) 0.9 V (b) 144]
Exercise 46 Short answer questions on
electromagnetic induction
1 What is electromagnetic induction?
2 State Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic
induction
3 State Lenz’s law
4 Explain briefly the principle of the generator
5 The direction of an induced e.m.f. in a generator may be determined using Fleming’s
. . . . . . rule
6 The e.m.f. E induced in a moving conductor may be calculated using the formula
E D Blv. Name the quantities represented
and their units
7 What is self-inductance? State its symbol
8 State and define the unit of inductance
9 When a circuit has an inductance L and the
current changes at a rate of ⊲di/dt⊳ then the
induced e.m.f. E is given by E D . . . . . . volts
12 What is mutual inductance ? State its symbol
13 The mutual inductance between two coils is
M. The e.m.f. E2 induced in one coil by the
current changing at ⊲dI1 /dt⊳ in the other is
given by E2 D . . . . . . volts
Exercise 47 Multi-choice questions on
electromagnetic induction (Answers on
page 375)
1 A current changing at a rate of 5 A/s in a coil
of inductance 5 H induces an e.m.f. of:
(a) 25 V in the same direction as the applied
voltage
(b) 1 V in the same direction as the applied
voltage
(c) 25 V in the opposite direction to the
applied voltage
(d) 1 V in the opposite direction to the applied
voltage
2 A bar magnet is moved at a steady speed
of 1.0 m/s towards a coil of wire which is
connected to a centre-zero galvanometer. The
magnet is now withdrawn along the same
path at 0.5 m/s. The deflection of the galvanometer is in the:
(a) same direction as previously, with the
magnitude of the deflection doubled
(b) opposite direction as previously, with the
magnitude of the deflection halved
(c) same direction as previously, with the
magnitude of the deflection halved
(d) opposite direction as previously, with the
magnitude of the deflection doubled
3 When a magnetic flux of 10 Wb links with a
circuit of 20 turns in 2 s, the induced e.m.f. is:
(a) 1 V
(b) 4 V
(c) 100 V (d) 400 V
4 A current of 10 A in a coil of 1000 turns
produces a flux of 10 mWb linking with the
coil. The coil inductance is:
(a) 106 H
(b) 1 H
(c) 1 µH
(d) 1 mH
5 An e.m.f. of 1 V is induced in a conductor
moving at 10 cm/s in a magnetic field of
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ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
0.5 T. The effective length of the conductor in
the magnetic field is:
(a) 20 cm
(b) 5 m
(c) 20 m
(d) 50 m
6 Which of the following is false ?
(a) Fleming’s left-hand rule or Lenz’s law
may be used to determine the direction
of an induced e.m.f.
(b) An induced e.m.f. is set up whenever
the magnetic field linking that circuit
changes
(c) The direction of an induced e.m.f. is
always such as to oppose the effect producing it
(d) The induced e.m.f. in any circuit is proportional to the rate of change of the
magnetic flux linking the circuit
7 The effect of inductance occurs in an electrical circuit when:
(a) the resistance is changing
(b) the flux is changing
(c) the current is changing
8 Which of the following statements is false?
The inductance of an inductor increases:
(a) with a short, thick coil
(b) when wound on an iron core
103
(c) as the number of turns increases
(d) as the cross-sectional area of the coil
decreases
9 The mutual inductance between two coils,
when a current changing at 20 A/s in one coil
induces an e.m.f. of 10 mV in the other, is:
(a) 0.5 H
(b) 200 mH
(c) 0.5 mH
(d) 2 H
10 A strong permanent magnet is plunged into
a coil and left in the coil. What is the effect
produced on the coil after a short time?
(a) There is no effect
(b) The insulation of the coil burns out
(c) A high voltage is induced
(d) The coil winding becomes hot
11 Self-inductance occurs when:
(a) the current is changing
(b) the circuit is changing
(c) the flux is changing
(d) the resistance is changing
12 Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction
are related to:
(a) the e.m.f. of a chemical cell
(b) the e.m.f. of a generator
(c) the current flowing in a conductor
(d) the strength of a magnetic field
TLFeBOOK
10
Electrical measuring instruments and
measurements
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
ž recognize the importance of testing and measurements in electric circuits
ž appreciate the essential devices comprising an analogue instrument
ž explain the operation of an attraction and a repulsion type of moving-iron instrument
ž explain the operation of a moving-coil rectifier instrument
ž compare moving-coil, moving-iron and moving coil rectifier instruments
ž calculate values of shunts for ammeters and multipliers for voltmeters
ž understand the advantages of electronic instruments
ž understand the operation of an ohmmeter/megger
ž appreciate the operation of multimeters/Avometers
ž understand the operation of a wattmeter
ž appreciate instrument ‘loading’ effect
ž understand the operation of a C.R.O. for d.c. and a.c. measurements
ž calculate periodic time, frequency, peak to peak values from waveforms on a C.R.O.
ž recognize harmonics present in complex waveforms
ž determine ratios of powers, currents and voltages in decibels
ž understand null methods of measurement for a Wheatstone bridge and d.c. potentiometer
ž understand the operation of a.c. bridges
ž understand the operation of a Q-meter
ž appreciate the most likely source of errors in measurements
ž appreciate calibration accuracy of instruments
10.1 Introduction
Tests and measurements are important in designing,
evaluating, maintaining and servicing electrical
circuits and equipment. In order to detect electrical
quantities such as current, voltage, resistance or
power, it is necessary to transform an electrical
quantity or condition into a visible indication. This
is done with the aid of instruments (or meters) that
indicate the magnitude of quantities either by the
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ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS
105
position of a pointer moving over a graduated scale
(called an analogue instrument) or in the form of a
decimal number (called a digital instrument).
10.2 Analogue instruments
All analogue electrical indicating instruments
require three essential devices:
(a) A deflecting or operating device. A mechanical
force is produced by the current or voltage
which causes the pointer to deflect from its zero
position.
(b) A controlling device. The controlling force acts
in opposition to the deflecting force and ensures
that the deflection shown on the meter is always
the same for a given measured quantity. It also
prevents the pointer always going to the maximum deflection. There are two main types of
controlling device – spring control and gravity
control.
(c) A damping device. The damping force ensures
that the pointer comes to rest in its final position
quickly and without undue oscillation. There
are three main types of damping used – eddycurrent damping, air-friction damping and fluidfriction damping.
There are basically two types of scale – linear and
non-linear. A linear scale is shown in Fig. 10.1(a),
where the divisions or graduations are evenly
spaced. The voltmeter shown has a range 0–100 V,
i.e. a full-scale deflection (f.s.d.) of 100 V. A nonlinear scale is shown in Fig. 10.1(b) where the scale
is cramped at the beginning and the graduations are
uneven throughout the range. The ammeter shown
has a f.s.d. of 10 A.
Figure 10.2
current flows in the solenoid, a pivoted softiron disc is attracted towards the solenoid and
the movement causes a pointer to move across
a scale.
(b) In the repulsion type moving-iron instrument
shown diagrammatically in Fig. 10.2(b), two
pieces of iron are placed inside the solenoid, one
being fixed, and the other attached to the spindle carrying the pointer. When current passes
through the solenoid, the two pieces of iron are
magnetized in the same direction and therefore
repel each other. The pointer thus moves across
the scale. The force moving the pointer is, in
each type, proportional to I2 and because of
this the direction of current does not matter. The
moving-iron instrument can be used on d.c. or
a.c.; the scale, however, is non-linear.
10.4 The moving-coil rectifier
instrument
Figure 10.1
10.3 Moving-iron instrument
(a) An attraction type of moving-iron instrument is
shown diagrammatically in Fig. 10.2(a). When
A moving-coil instrument, which measures only
d.c., may be used in conjunction with a bridge
rectifier circuit as shown in Fig. 10.3 to provide an
indication of alternating currents and voltages (see
Chapter 14). The average value of the full wave
rectified current is 0.637 Im . However, a meter being
used to measure a.c. is usually calibrated in r.m.s.
TLFeBOOK
106
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Type of instrument
Moving-coil
Moving-iron
Moving-coil rectifier
Suitable for
measuring
Direct current and
voltage
Direct and alternating
currents and voltage
(reading in rms value)
Scale
Method of control
Method of damping
Frequency limits
Linear
Hairsprings
Eddy current
Non-linear
Hairsprings
Air
20–200 Hz
Alternating current
and voltage (reads
average value but
scale is adjusted to
give rms value for
sinusoidal waveforms)
Linear
Hairsprings
Eddy current
20–100 kHz
Advantages
Disadvantages
–
1 Linear scale
2 High sensitivity
3 Well shielded
from stray
magnetic fields
4 Low power
consumption
1 Only suitable for
dc
2 More expensive
than moving iron
type
3 Easily damaged
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
5
Robust construction
Relatively cheap
Measures dc and ac
In frequency range
20–100 Hz reads
rms correctly
regardless of supply
wave-form
Non-linear scale
Affected by stray
magnetic fields
Hysteresis errors in
dc circuits
Liable to
temperature errors
Due to the
inductance of the
solenoid, readings
can be affected by
variation of
frequency
1 Linear scale
2 High sensitivity
3 Well shielded from
stray magnetic fields
4 Lower power
consumption
5 Good frequency
range
1 More expensive
than moving iron
type
2 Errors caused when
supply is
non-sinusoidal
10.5 Comparison of moving-coil,
moving-iron and moving-coil
rectifier instruments
See Table above. (For the principle of operation of
a moving-coil instrument, see Chapter 8, page 89).
Figure 10.3
values. For sinusoidal quantities the indication is
⊲0.707Im ⊳/⊲0.637Im ⊳ i.e. 1.11 times the mean value.
Rectifier instruments have scales calibrated in r.m.s.
quantities and it is assumed by the manufacturer that
the a.c. is sinusoidal.
10.6 Shunts and multipliers
An ammeter, which measures current, has a low
resistance (ideally zero) and must be connected in
series with the circuit.
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ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS
A voltmeter, which measures p.d., has a high
resistance (ideally infinite) and must be connected
in parallel with the part of the circuit whose p.d. is
required.
There is no difference between the basic instrument used to measure current and voltage since both
use a milliammeter as their basic part. This is a
sensitive instrument which gives f.s.d. for currents
of only a few milliamperes. When an ammeter is
required to measure currents of larger magnitude, a
proportion of the current is diverted through a lowvalue resistance connected in parallel with the meter.
Such a diverting resistor is called a shunt.
From Fig. 10.4(a), VPQ D VRS .
Hence Ia ra D IS RS . Thus the value of the shunt,
RS =
Ia ra
ohms
IS
The milliammeter is converted into a voltmeter by
connecting a high value resistance (called a multiplier) in series with it as shown in Fig. 10.4(b).
From Fig. 10.4(b),
V D Va C VM D Ira C IRM
Thus the value of the multiplier,
RM =
V − Ira
ohms
I
107
Figure 10.5
current flowing in instrument D 40 mA D 0.04 A,
Is D current flowing in shunt and I D total circuit
current required to give f.s.d. D 50 A.
Since I D Ia C Is then Is D I Ia
D 50 0.04 D 49.96 A.
V D Ia ra D Is Rs , hence
Rs D
⊲0.04⊳⊲25⊳
Ia ra
D 0.02002
D
IS
49.96
= 20.02 mZ
Thus for the moving-coil instrument to be used as
an ammeter with a range 0–50 A, a resistance of
value 20.02 m needs to be connected in parallel
with the instrument.
Problem 2. A moving-coil instrument
having a resistance of 10 , gives a f.s.d.
when the current is 8 mA. Calculate the value
of the multiplier to be connected in series
with the instrument so that it can be used as
a voltmeter for measuring p.d.s. up to 100 V
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 10.6, where
ra D resistance of instrument D 10 , RM D
resistance of multiplier I D total permissible instrument current D 8 mA D 0.008 A, V D total p.d.
required to give f.s.d. D 100 V
Figure 10.4
Problem 1. A moving-coil instrument gives
a f.s.d. when the current is 40 mA and its
resistance is 25 . Calculate the value of the
shunt to be connected in parallel with the
meter to enable it to be used as an ammeter
for measuring currents up to 50 A
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 10.5, where
ra D resistance of instrument D 25 , Rs D
resistance of shunt, Ia D maximum permissible
V D Va C VM D Ira C IRM
i.e. 100 D ⊲0.008⊳⊲10⊳ C ⊲0.008⊳RM
or 100 0.08 D 0.008 RM , thus
RM D
99.92
D 12490 D 12.49 kZ
0.008
Figure 10.6
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108
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Hence for the moving-coil instrument to be used as
a voltmeter with a range 0–100 V, a resistance of
value 12.49 k needs to be connected in series with
the instrument.
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 48 Further problems on shunts
and multipliers
1 A moving-coil instrument gives f.s.d. for a
current of 10 mA. Neglecting the resistance
of the instrument, calculate the approximate
value of series resistance needed to enable the
instrument to measure up to (a) 20 V (b) 100 V
(c) 250 V
[(a) 2 k (b) 10 k (c) 25 k]
2 A meter of resistance 50 has a f.s.d. of
4 mA. Determine the value of shunt resistance required in order that f.s.d. should be
(a) 15 mA (b) 20 A (c) 100 A
[(a) 18.18 (b) 10.00 m (c) 2.00 m]
3 A moving-coil instrument having a resistance
of 20 , gives a f.s.d. when the current is
5 mA. Calculate the value of the multiplier to
be connected in series with the instrument so
that it can be used as a voltmeter for measuring
p.d.’s up to 200 V
[39.98 k]
4 A moving-coil instrument has a f.s.d. of 20 mA
and a resistance of 25 . Calculate the values of resistance required to enable the instrument to be used (a) as a 0–10 A ammeter,
and (b) as a 0–100 V voltmeter. State the
mode of resistance connection in each case.
[(a) 50.10 m in parallel
(b) 4.975 k in series]
5 A meter has a resistance of 40 and registers a maximum deflection when a current of 15 mA flows. Calculate the value of
resistance that converts the movement into
(a) an ammeter with a maximum deflection of
50 A (b) a voltmeter with a range 0–250 V
[(a) 12.00 m in parallel
(b) 16.63 k in series]
input resistance (some as high as 1000 M) and can
handle a much wider range of frequency (from d.c.
up to MHz).
The digital voltmeter (DVM) is one which
provides a digital display of the voltage being measured. Advantages of a DVM over analogue instruments include higher accuracy and resolution, no
observational or parallex errors (see section 10.20)
and a very high input resistance, constant on all
ranges.
A digital multimeter is a DVM with additional
circuitry which makes it capable of measuring a.c.
voltage, d.c. and a.c. current and resistance.
Instruments for a.c. measurements are generally
calibrated with a sinusoidal alternating waveform to
indicate r.m.s. values when a sinusoidal signal is
applied to the instrument. Some instruments, such
as the moving-iron and electro-dynamic instruments,
give a true r.m.s. indication. With other instruments
the indication is either scaled up from the mean
value (such as with the rectified moving-coil instrument) or scaled down from the peak value.
Sometimes quantities to be measured have complex waveforms (see section 10.13), and whenever a
quantity is non-sinusoidal, errors in instrument readings can occur if the instrument has been calibrated
for sine waves only. Such waveform errors can be
largely eliminated by using electronic instruments.
10.8 The ohmmeter
An ohmmeter is an instrument for measuring
electrical resistance. A simple ohmmeter circuit
is shown in Fig. 10.7(a). Unlike the ammeter or
voltmeter, the ohmmeter circuit does not receive the
energy necessary for its operation from the circuit
under test. In the ohmmeter this energy is supplied
by a self-contained source of voltage, such as a
battery. Initially, terminals XX are short-circuited
10.7 Electronic instruments
Electronic measuring instruments have advantages
over instruments such as the moving-iron or
moving-coil meters, in that they have a much higher
Figure 10.7
TLFeBOOK
ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS
and R adjusted to give f.s.d. on the milliammeter. If
current I is at a maximum value and voltage E is
constant, then resistance R D E/I is at a minimum
value. Thus f.s.d. on the milliammeter is made zero
on the resistance scale. When terminals XX are
open circuited no current flows and R ⊲D E/O⊳ is
infinity, 1.
The milliammeter can thus be calibrated directly
in ohms. A cramped (non-linear) scale results and is
‘back to front’, as shown in Fig. 10.7(b). When calibrated, an unknown resistance is placed between
terminals XX and its value determined from the
position of the pointer on the scale. An ohmmeter designed for measuring low values of resistance is called a continuity tester. An ohmmeter
designed for measuring high values of resistance
(i.e. megohms) is called an insulation resistance
tester (e.g. ‘Megger’).
10.9 Multimeters
Instruments are manufactured that combine a
moving-coil meter with a number of shunts and
series multipliers, to provide a range of readings
on a single scale graduated to read current and
voltage. If a battery is incorporated then resistance
can also be measured. Such instruments are
called multimeters or universal instruments or
multirange instruments. An ‘Avometer’ is a typical
example. A particular range may be selected either
by the use of separate terminals or by a selector
switch. Only one measurement can be performed at
a time. Often such instruments can be used in a.c. as
well as d.c. circuits when a rectifier is incorporated
in the instrument.
10.10 Wattmeters
A wattmeter is an instrument for measuring electrical power in a circuit. Fig. 10.8 shows typical connections of a wattmeter used for measuring power
109
supplied to a load. The instrument has two coils:
(i) a current coil, which is connected in series with
the load, like an ammeter, and
(ii) a voltage coil, which is connected in parallel
with the load, like a voltmeter.
10.11 Instrument ‘loading’ effect
Some measuring instruments depend for their operation on power taken from the circuit in which
measurements are being made. Depending on the
‘loading’ effect of the instrument (i.e. the current
taken to enable it to operate), the prevailing circuit
conditions may change.
The resistance of voltmeters may be calculated
since each have a stated sensitivity (or ‘figure of
merit’), often stated in ‘k per volt’ of f.s.d. A voltmeter should have as high a resistance as possible
(– ideally infinite). In a.c. circuits the impedance of
the instrument varies with frequency and thus the
loading effect of the instrument can change.
Problem 3. Calculate the power dissipated
by the voltmeter and by resistor R in
Fig. 10.9 when (a) R D 250
(b) R D 2 M. Assume that the voltmeter
sensitivity (sometimes called figure of merit)
is 10 k/V
Figure 10.9
(a) Resistance of voltmeter, Rv D sensitivity ð
f.s.d. Hence, Rv D ⊲10 k/V⊳ ð ⊲200 V⊳ D
2000 k D 2 M. Current flowing in voltmeter,
100
V
D
D 50 ð 106 A
Rv
2 ð 106
Power dissipated by voltmeter
Iv D
D VIv D ⊲100⊳⊲50 ð 106 ⊳ D 5 mW.
Figure 10.8
When R D 250 , current in resistor,
100
V
D
D 0.4 A
IR D
R
250
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110
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Power dissipated in load resistor R D VIR D
⊲100⊳⊲0.4⊳ D 40 W. Thus the power dissipated
in the voltmeter is insignificant in comparison
with the power dissipated in the load.
(b) When R D 2 M, current in resistor,
IR D
100
V
D
D 50 ð 106 A
R
2 ð 106
Power dissipated in load resistor R D VIR D
100ð50ð106 D 5 mW. In this case the higher
load resistance reduced the power dissipated
such that the voltmeter is using as much power
as the load.
Problem 4. An ammeter has a f.s.d. of
100 mA and a resistance of 50 . The
ammeter is used to measure the current in a
load of resistance 500 when the supply
voltage is 10 V. Calculate (a) the ammeter
reading expected (neglecting its resistance),
(b) the actual current in the circuit, (c) the
power dissipated in the ammeter, and (d) the
power dissipated in the load.
From Fig. 10.10,
Problem 5. A voltmeter having a f.s.d. of
100 V and a sensitivity of 1.6 k/V is used
to measure voltage V1 in the circuit of
Fig. 10.11 Determine (a) the value of voltage
V1 with the voltmeter not connected, and (b)
the voltage indicated by the voltmeter when
connected between A and B
Figure 10.11
(a) By voltage division,
40
100 D 40 V
V1 D
40 C 60
(b) The resistance of a voltmeter having a 100 V
f.s.d. and sensitivity 1.6 k/V is 100 V ð
1.6 k/V D 160 k. When the voltmeter is
connected across the 40 k resistor the circuit
is as shown in Fig. 10.12(a) and the equivalent
resistance of the parallel network is given by
Figure 10.10
(a) expected ammeter reading D V/R D 10/500 D
20 mA.
(b) Actual ammeter reading D V/⊲R C ra ⊳ D
10/⊲500 C 50⊳ D 18.18 mA. Thus the ammeter
itself has caused the circuit conditions to change
from 20 mA to 18.18 mA.
40 ð 160
40 C 160
40 ð 160
200
k i.e.
k D 32 k
The circuit is now effectively as shown in
Fig. 10.12(b). Thus the voltage indicated on the
voltmeter is
32
100 V D 34.78 V
32 C 60
A considerable error is thus caused by the loading effect of the voltmeter on the circuit. The error
is reduced by using a voltmeter with a higher
sensitivity.
(c) Power dissipated in the ammeter D I2 ra D
⊲18.18 ð 103 ⊳2 ⊲50⊳ D 16.53 mW.
(d) Power dissipated in the load resistor D I2 R D
⊲18.18 ð 103 ⊳2 ⊲500⊳ D 165.3 mW.
Figure 10.12
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ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS
Problem 6. (a) A current of 20 A flows
through a load having a resistance of 2 .
Determine the power dissipated in the load.
(b) A wattmeter, whose current coil has a
resistance of 0.01 is connected as shown in
Fig. 10.13 Determine the wattmeter reading.
111
3 A voltage of 240 V is applied to a circuit
consisting of an 800 resistor in series with
a 1.6 k resistor. What is the voltage across
the 1.6 k resistor? The p.d. across the 1.6 k
resistor is measured by a voltmeter of f.s.d.
250 V and sensitivity 100 /V. Determine the
voltage indicated.
[160 V; 156.7 V]
10.12 The cathode ray oscilloscope
Figure 10.13
(a) Power dissipated in the load, P D I2 R D
⊲20⊳2 ⊲2⊳ D 800 W
(b) With the wattmeter connected in the circuit the
total resistance RT is 2 C 0.01 D 2.01 . The
wattmeter reading is thus I2 RT D ⊲20⊳2 ⊲2.01⊳ D
804 W
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 49 Further problems on
instrument ‘loading’ effects
1 A 0–1 A ammeter having a resistance of 50
is used to measure the current flowing in a
1 k resistor when the supply voltage is 250 V.
Calculate: (a) the approximate value of current
(neglecting the ammeter resistance), (b) the
actual current in the circuit, (c) the power
dissipated in the ammeter, (d) the power dissipated in the 1 k resistor.
[(a) 0.250 A (b) 0.238 A
(c) 2.83 W (d) 56.64 W]
2 (a) A current of 15 A flows through a load
having a resistance of 4 . Determine the
power dissipated in the load. (b) A wattmeter,
whose current coil has a resistance of 0.02 is
connected (as shown in Fig. 10.13) to measure
the power in the load. Determine the wattmeter
reading assuming the current in the load is still
15 A.
[(a) 900 W (b) 904.5 W]
The cathode ray oscilloscope (c.r.o.) may be used
in the observation of waveforms and for the measurement of voltage, current, frequency, phase and
periodic time. For examining periodic waveforms
the electron beam is deflected horizontally (i.e. in
the X direction) by a sawtooth generator acting as
a timebase. The signal to be examined is applied to
the vertical deflection system (Y direction) usually
after amplification.
Oscilloscopes normally have a transparent grid
of 10 mm by 10 mm squares in front of the screen,
called a graticule. Among the timebase controls is
a ‘variable’ switch which gives the sweep speed as
time per centimetre. This may be in s/cm, ms/cm
or µs/cm, a large number of switch positions being
available. Also on the front panel of a c.r.o. is a
Y amplifier switch marked in volts per centimetre,
with a large number of available switch positions.
(i) With direct voltage measurements, only the
Y amplifier ‘volts/cm’ switch on the c.r.o. is
used. With no voltage applied to the Y plates
the position of the spot trace on the screen is
noted. When a direct voltage is applied to the
Y plates the new position of the spot trace is
an indication of the magnitude of the voltage.
For example, in Fig. 10.14(a), with no voltage
applied to the Y plates, the spot trace is in the
centre of the screen (initial position) and then
the spot trace moves 2.5 cm to the final position
shown, on application of a d.c. voltage. With the
‘volts/cm’ switch on 10 volts/cm the magnitude
of the direct voltage is 2.5 cm ð 10 volts/cm, i.e.
25 volts.
(ii) With alternating voltage measurements, let a
sinusoidal waveform be displayed on a c.r.o.
screen as shown in Fig. 10.14(b). If the time/cm
switch is on, say, 5 ms/cm then the periodic
time T of the sinewave is 5 ms/cm ð 4 cm, i.e.
20 ms or 0.02 s. Since frequency
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Turning it to zero ensures no signal is
applied to the X-plates. The Y-plate input
is left open-circuited.
(iii) Set the intensity, X-shift and Y-shift controls to about the mid-range positions.
(iv) A spot trace should now be observed on
the screen. If not, adjust either or both
of the X and Y-shift controls. The X-shift
control varies the position of the spot trace
in a horizontal direction whilst the Y-shift
control varies its vertical position.
(v) Use the X and Y-shift controls to bring the
spot to the centre of the screen and use the
focus control to focus the electron beam
into a small circular spot.
Figure 10.14
1
1
= 50 Hz
, frequency =
T
0.02
If the ‘volts/cm’ switch is on, say, 20 volts/cm
then the amplitude or peak value of the
sinewave shown is 20 volts/cmð2 cm, i.e. 40 V.
Since
fD
peak voltage
p
, (see Chapter 14),
2
40
r.m.s. voltage D p D 28.28 volts
2
Double beam oscilloscopes are useful whenever
two signals are to be compared simultaneously. The
c.r.o. demands reasonable skill in adjustment and
use. However its greatest advantage is in observing
the shape of a waveform – a feature not possessed
by other measuring instruments.
r.m.s. voltage D
Problem 7. Describe how a simple c.r.o. is
adjusted to give (a) a spot trace, (b) a
continuous horizontal trace on the screen,
explaining the functions of the various
controls.
(a) To obtain a spot trace on a typical c.r.o. screen:
(i) Switch on the c.r.o.
(ii) Switch the timebase control to off. This
control is calibrated in time per centimetres – for example, 5 ms/cm or 100 µs/cm.
(b) To obtain a continuous horizontal trace on the
screen the same procedure as in (a) is initially
adopted. Then the timebase control is switched
to a suitable position, initially the millisecond
timebase range, to ensure that the repetition rate
of the sawtooth is sufficient for the persistence
of the vision time of the screen phosphor to hold
a given trace.
Problem 8. For the c.r.o. square voltage
waveform shown in Fig. 10.15 determine (a)
the periodic time, (b) the frequency and (c)
the peak-to-peak voltage. The ‘time/cm’ (or
timebase control) switch is on 100 µs/cm and
the ‘volts/cm’ (or signal amplitude control)
switch is on 20 V/cm
Figure 10.15
(In Figures 10.15 to 10.18 assume that the squares
shown are 1 cm by 1 cm)
(a) The width of one complete cycle is 5.2 cm.
Hence the periodic time,
T D 5.2 cm ð 100 ð 106 s/cm D 0.52 ms.
(b) Frequency, f D
1
1
D
D 1.92 kHz.
T
0.52 ð 103
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(c) The peak-to-peak height of the display is 3.6 cm,
hence the peak-to-peak voltage
D 3.6 cm ð 20 V/cm D 72 V
Problem 9. For the c.r.o. display of a pulse
waveform shown in Fig. 10.16 the ‘time/cm’
switch is on 50 ms/cm and the ‘volts/cm’
switch is on 0.2 V/cm. Determine (a) the
periodic time, (b) the frequency, (c) the
magnitude of the pulse voltage.
113
(a) The width of one complete cycle is 4 cm. Hence
the periodic time, T is 4 cm ð 500 µs/cm, i.e.
2 ms.
1
1
Frequency, f D D
D 500 Hz
T
2 ð 103
(b) The peak-to-peak height of the waveform is
5 cm. Hence the peak-to-peak voltage
D 5 cm ð 5 V/cm D 25 V.
(c) Amplitude D
1
2
ð 25 V D 12.5 V
(d) The peak value of voltage is the amplitude, i.e.
12.5 V, and r.m.s.
peak voltage
12.5
p
voltage D
D p D 8.84 V
2
2
Problem 11. For the double-beam
oscilloscope displays shown in Fig. 10.18
determine (a) their frequency, (b) their r.m.s.
values, (c) their phase difference. The
‘time/cm’ switch is on 100 µs/cm and the
‘volts/cm’ switch on 2 V/cm.
Figure 10.16
(a) The width of one complete cycle is 3.5 cm.
Hence the periodic time, T D 3.5 cm ð
50 ms/cm D 175 ms.
(b) Frequency, f D
1
1
D
D 5.71 Hz.
T
0.52 ð 103
(c) The height of a pulse is 3.4 cm hence the magnitude of the pulse voltage D 3.4 cmð0.2 V/cm D
0.68 V.
Figure 10.18
Problem 10. A sinusoidal voltage trace
displayed by a c.r.o. is shown in Fig. 10.17
If the ‘time/cm’ switch is on 500 µs/cm and
the ‘volts/cm’ switch is on 5 V/cm, find, for
the waveform, (a) the frequency, (b) the
peak-to-peak voltage, (c) the amplitude,
(d) the r.m.s. value.
(a) The width of each complete cycle is 5 cm for
both waveforms. Hence the periodic time, T, of
each waveform is 5 cm ð 100 µs/cm, i.e. 0.5 ms.
Frequency of each waveform,
1
1
D 2 kHz
D
T
0.5 ð 103
(b) The peak value of waveform A is
2 cm ð 2 V/cm D 4 V, hence the r.m.s. value of
waveform A
p
D 4/⊲ 2⊳ D 2.83 V
fD
Figure 10.17
The peak value of waveform B is
2.5 cm ð 2 V/cm D 5 V, hence the r.m.s. value
of waveform B
p
D 5/⊲ 2⊳ D 3.54 V
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(c) Since 5 cm represents 1 cycle, then 5 cm represents 360° , i.e. 1 cm represents 360/5 D 72° .
The phase angle D 0.5 cm
D 0.5 cm ð 72° /cm D 36° .
3 For the sinusoidal waveform shown in
Fig. 10.21, determine (a) its frequency, (b) the
peak-to-peak voltage, (c) the r.m.s. voltage
[(a) 7.14 Hz (b) 220 V (c) 77.78 V]
Hence waveform A leads waveform B by 36°
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 50 Further problems on the
cathode ray oscilloscope
1 For the square voltage waveform displayed
on a c.r.o. shown in Fig. 10.19, find (a) its
frequency, (b) its peak-to-peak voltage
[(a) 41.7 Hz (b) 176 V]
Figure 10.21
10.13 Waveform harmonics
Figure 10.19
2 For the pulse waveform shown in Fig. 10.20,
find (a) its frequency, (b) the magnitude of the
pulse voltage
[(a) 0.56 Hz (b) 8.4 V]
Figure 10.20
(i) Let an instantaneous voltage v be represented
by v D Vm sin 2ft volts. This is a waveform
which varies sinusoidally with time t, has a
frequency f, and a maximum value Vm . Alternating voltages are usually assumed to have
wave-shapes which are sinusoidal where only
one frequency is present. If the waveform is
not sinusoidal it is called a complex wave,
and, whatever its shape, it may be split up
mathematically into components called the fundamental and a number of harmonics. This
process is called harmonic analysis. The fundamental (or first harmonic) is sinusoidal and has
the supply frequency, f; the other harmonics
are also sine waves having frequencies which
are integer multiples of f. Thus, if the supply
frequency is 50 Hz, then the third harmonic frequency is 150 Hz, the fifth 250 Hz, and so on.
(ii) A complex waveform comprising the sum of
the fundamental and a third harmonic of about
half the amplitude of the fundamental is shown
in Fig. 10.22(a), both waveforms being initially
in phase with each other. If further odd harmonic waveforms of the appropriate amplitudes
are added, a good approximation to a square
wave results. In Fig. 10.22(b), the third harmonic is shown having an initial phase displacement from the fundamental. The positive
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115
a mirror image of the positive cycle about
point B. In Fig. 10.22(f), a complex waveform comprising the sum of the fundamental, a second harmonic and a third harmonic
are shown with initial phase displacement. The
positive and negative half cycles are seen to be
dissimilar.
and negative half cycles of each of the complex waveforms shown in Figures 10.22(a) and
(b) are identical in shape, and this is a feature
of waveforms containing the fundamental and
only odd harmonics.
The features mentioned relative to Figures 10.22
(a) to (f) make it possible to recognize the harmonics present in a complex waveform displayed on
a CRO.
10.14 Logarithmic ratios
In electronic systems, the ratio of two similar quantities measured at different points in the system, are
often expressed in logarithmic units. By definition, if
the ratio of two powers P1 and P2 is to be expressed
in decibel (dB) units then the number of decibels,
X, is given by:
X = 10 lg
Figure 10.22
(iii) A complex waveform comprising the sum of
the fundamental and a second harmonic of
about half the amplitude of the fundamental is shown in Fig. 10.22(c), each waveform
being initially in phase with each other. If
further even harmonics of appropriate amplitudes are added a good approximation to a
triangular wave results. In Fig. 10.22(c), the
negative cycle, if reversed, appears as a mirror image of the positive cycle about point A.
In Fig. 10.22(d) the second harmonic is shown
with an initial phase displacement from the fundamental and the positive and negative half
cycles are dissimilar.
(iv) A complex waveform comprising the sum
of the fundamental, a second harmonic and
a third harmonic is shown in Fig. 10.22(e),
each waveform being initially ‘in-phase’. The
negative half cycle, if reversed, appears as
P2
P1
dB
⊲1⊳
Thus, when the power ratio, P2 /P1 D 1 then the
decibel power ratio D 10 lg 1 D 0, when the
power ratio, P2 /P1 D 100 then the decibel power
ratio D 10 lg 100 D C20 (i.e. a power gain), and
when the power ratio, P2 /P1 D 1/100 then the
decibel power ratio D 10 lg 1/100 D 20 (i.e. a
power loss or attenuation).
Logarithmic units may also be used for voltage
and current ratios. Power, P, is given by P D I2 R
or P D V2 /R. Substituting in equation (1) gives:
I22 R2
dB
X D 10 lg
I21 R1
V22 /R2
dB
or
X D 10 lg
V21 /R1
If
then
R1 D R2 ,
X D 10 lg
I22
I21
X D 10 lg
V22
V21
dB or
dB
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
i.e.
X = 20 lg
or
X = 20 lg
I2
I1
dB
V2
V1
dB
(from the laws of logarithms).
From equation (1), X decibels is a logarithmic
ratio of two similar quantities and is not an absolute
unit of measurement. It is therefore necessary to
state a reference level to measure a number of
decibels above or below that reference. The most
widely used reference level for power is 1 mW, and
when power levels are expressed in decibels, above
or below the 1 mW reference level, the unit given
to the new power level is dBm.
A voltmeter can be re-scaled to indicate the power
level directly in decibels. The scale is generally calibrated by taking a reference level of 0 dB when a
power of 1 mW is dissipated in a 600 resistor (this
being the natural impedance of a simple transmission line). The reference voltage V is then obtained
from
V2
PD
,
R
i.e.
3
1 ð 10
Figure 10.23
From above, the power ratio in decibels, X, is given
by: X D 10 lg ⊲P2 /P1 ⊳
(a) When
X D 10 lg ⊲3⊳ D 10⊲0.477⊳
D 4.77 dB
(b) When
D 13.0 dB
(c) When
P2
D 400,
P1
X D 10 lg ⊲400⊳ D 10⊲2.60⊳
D 26.0 dB
from which, V D 0.775 volts. In general, the number
of dBm,
V
X D 20 lg
0.775
0.2
Thus V D 0.20 V corresponds to 20 lg
0.775
V D 0.90 V corresponds to 20 lg
P2
D 20,
P1
X D 10 lg ⊲20⊳ D 10⊲1.30⊳
V2
D
600
D 11.77 dBm and
P2
D 3,
P1
0.90
0.775
D C1.3 dBm, and so on.
A typical decibelmeter, or dB meter, scale is shown
in Fig. 10.23. Errors are introduced with dB meters
when the circuit impedance is not 600 .
Problem 12. The ratio of two powers is
(a) 3 (b) 20 (c) 4 (d) 1/20. Determine the
decibel power ratio in each case.
(d) When
1
P2
D 0.05,
D
P1
20
X D 10 lg ⊲0.05⊳ D 10⊲1.30⊳
D −13.0 dB
(a), (b) and (c) represent power gains and (d) represents a power loss or attenuation.
Problem 13. The current input to a system
is 5 mA and the current output is 20 mA.
Find the decibel current ratio assuming the
input and load resistances of the system are
equal.
From above, the decibel current ratio is
20
I2
20 lg
D 20 lg
I1
5
D 20 lg 4 D 20⊲0.60⊳
D 12 dB gain
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Problem 14. 6% of the power supplied to a
cable appears at the output terminals.
Determine the power loss in decibels.
If P1 D input power and P2 D output power then
6
P2
D 0.06
D
P1
100
P2
Decibel
D 10 lg
D 10 lg ⊲0.06⊳
power ratio
P1
D 10⊲1.222⊳ D 12.22 dB
Hence the decibel power loss, or attenuation, is
12.22 dB.
Problem 15. An amplifier has a gain of
14 dB and its input power is 8 mW. Find its
output power.
Decibel power ratio D 10 lg ⊲P2 /P1 ⊳ where P1 D
input power D 8 mW, and P2 D output power.
Hence
P2
14 D 10 lg
P1
power ratio D 12 C 15 8 D 19 dB gain.
P2
Thus
19 D 10 lg
P1
P2
from which
1.9 D lg
P1
and
i.e.
P2
P1
P2 from the definition
of a logarithm
P1
P2
25.12 D
P1
101.4 D
Output power, P2 D 25.12 P1 D ⊲25.12⊳⊲8⊳ D
201 mW or 0.201 W
Problem 16. Determine, in decibels, the
ratio of output power to input power of a 3
stage communications system, the stages
having gains of 12 dB, 15 dB and 8 dB.
Find also the overall power gain.
The decibel ratio may be used to find the overall
power ratio of a chain simply by adding the decibel
power ratios together. Hence the overall decibel
101.9 D
and
P2
D 79.4
P1
Thus the overall power gain,
[For the first stage,
P2
12 D 10 lg
P1
P2
= 79.4
P1
from which
P2
D 101.2 D 15.85
P1
Similarly for the second stage,
P2
D 31.62
P1
and for the third stage,
P2
D 0.1585
P1
from which
1.4 D lg
117
The overall power ratio is thus
15.85 ð 31.62 ð 0.1585 D 79.4]
Problem 17. The output voltage from an
amplifier is 4 V. If the voltage gain is 27 dB,
calculate the value of the input voltage
assuming that the amplifier input resistance
and load resistance are equal.
Voltage gain in decibels D 27 D 20 lg ⊲V2 /V1 ⊳ D
20 lg ⊲4/V1 ⊳. Hence
27
4
D lg
20
V1
4
i.e.
1.35 D lg
V1
Thus
101.35 D
4
V1
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from which
4
101.35
4
D
22.39
D 0.179 V
3.8 dB. Calculate the overall gain in decibels
assuming that input and load resistances for
each stage are equal. If a voltage of 15 mV is
applied to the input of the system, determine
the value of the output voltage.
[8.5 dB, 39.91 mV]
V1 D
9 The scale of a voltmeter has a decibel scale
added to it, which is calibrated by taking a
reference level of 0 dB when a power of 1 mW
is dissipated in a 600 resistor. Determine
the voltage at (a) 0 dB (b) 1.5 dB (c) 15 dB
(d) What decibel reading corresponds to
0.5 V?
[(a) 0.775 V
(b) 0.921 V
(c) 0.138 V
(d) 3.807 dB]
Hence the input voltage V1 is 0.179 V.
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 51 Further problems on
logarithmic ratios
1 The ratio of two powers is (a) 3 (b) 10 (c) 20
(d) 10 000. Determine the decibel power ratio
for each.
[(a) 4.77 dB (b) 10 dB (c) 13 dB (d) 40 dB]
1
10
1
3
1
40
2 The ratio of two powers is (a)
(b) (c)
1
(d) 100 . Determine the decibel power ratio for
each.
[(a) 10 dB
(b) 4.77 dB
(c) 16.02 dB (d) 20 dB]
3 The input and output currents of a system are
2 mA and 10 mA respectively. Determine the
decibel current ratio of output to input current
assuming input and output resistances of the
system are equal.
[13.98 dB]
4 5% of the power supplied to a cable appears
at the output terminals. Determine the power
loss in decibels.
[13 dB]
5 An amplifier has a gain of 24 dB and its input
power is 10 mW. Find its output power.
[2.51 W]
6 Determine, in decibels, the ratio of the output
power to input power of a four stage system,
the stages having gains of 10 dB, 8 dB, 5 dB
and 7 dB. Find also the overall power gain.
[20 dB, 100]
7 The output voltage from an amplifier is 7 mV.
If the voltage gain is 25 dB calculate the value
of the input voltage assuming that the amplifier
input resistance and load resistance are equal.
[0.39 mV]
8 The voltage gain of a number of cascaded
amplifiers are 23 dB, 5.8 dB, 12.5 dB and
10.15 Null method of measurement
A null method of measurement is a simple, accurate and widely used method which depends on an
instrument reading being adjusted to read zero current only. The method assumes:
(i) if there is any deflection at all, then some current
is flowing;
(ii) if there is no deflection, then no current flows
(i.e. a null condition).
Hence it is unnecessary for a meter sensing current
flow to be calibrated when used in this way. A sensitive milliammeter or microammeter with centre zero
position setting is called a galvanometer. Examples
where the method is used are in the Wheatstone
bridge (see section 10.16), in the d.c. potentiometer
(see section 10.17) and with a.c. bridges (see section 10.18)
10.16 Wheatstone bridge
Figure 10.24 shows a Wheatstone bridge circuit
which compares an unknown resistance Rx with
others of known values, i.e. R1 and R2 , which have
fixed values, and R3 , which is variable. R3 is varied
until zero deflection is obtained on the galvanometer
G. No current then flows through the meter, VA D
VB , and the bridge is said to be ‘balanced’. At
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ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS
balance,
119
10.17 D.C. potentiometer
R1 Rx D R2 R3 i.e.
Rx =
R2 R3
ohms
R1
The d.c. potentiometer is a null-balance instrument used for determining values of e.m.f.’s and
p.d.s. by comparison with a known e.m.f. or p.d. In
Fig. 10.26(a), using a standard cell of known e.m.f.
E1 , the slider S is moved along the slide wire until
balance is obtained (i.e. the galvanometer deflection
is zero), shown as length l1 .
Figure 10.24
Problem 18. In a Wheatstone bridge
ABCD, a galvanometer is connected between
A and C, and a battery between B and D. A
resistor of unknown value is connected
between A and B. When the bridge is
balanced, the resistance between B and C is
100 , that between C and D is 10 and
that between D and A is 400 . Calculate the
value of the unknown resistance.
Figure 10.26
The standard cell is now replaced by a cell of
unknown e.m.f. E2 (see Fig. 10.26(b)) and again
balance is obtained (shown as l2 ). Since E1 / l1
and E2 / l2 then
l1
E1
D
E2
l2
The Wheatstone bridge is shown in Fig. 10.25 where
Rx is the unknown resistance. At balance, equating
the products of opposite ratio arms, gives:
⊲Rx ⊳⊲10⊳ D ⊲100⊳⊲400⊳
and
Rx D
⊲100⊳⊲400⊳
D 4000
10
Figure 10.25
Hence, the unknown resistance, Rx D 4 kZ.
and
E2 = E1
l2
volts
l1
A potentiometer may be arranged as a resistive twoelement potential divider in which the division ratio
is adjustable to give a simple variable d.c. supply.
Such devices may be constructed in the form of a
resistive element carrying a sliding contact which
is adjusted by a rotary or linear movement of the
control knob.
Problem 19. In a d.c. potentiometer,
balance is obtained at a length of 400 mm
when using a standard cell of 1.0186 volts.
Determine the e.m.f. of a dry cell if balance
is obtained with a length of 650 mm
E1 D 1.0186 V, l1 D 400 mm and l2 D 650 mm
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With reference to Fig. 10.26,
When the potential differences across Z3 and
Zx (or across Z1 and Z2 ) are equal in magnitude
and phase, then the current flowing through the
galvanometer, G, is zero. At balance, Z1 Zx D Z2 Z3
from which
E1
l1
D
E2
l2
from which,
E 2 D E1
l2
l1
D ⊲1.0186⊳
650
400
D 1.655 volts
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 52 Further problems on the
Wheatstone bridge and d.c. potentiometer
1 In a Wheatstone bridge PQRS, a galvanometer
is connected between Q and S and a voltage
source between P and R. An unknown resistor
Rx is connected between P and Q. When the
bridge is balanced, the resistance between Q
and R is 200 , that between R and S is 10
and that between S and P is 150 . Calculate
the value of Rx
[3 k]
Zx =
Z 2 Z3
Z
Z1
There are many forms of a.c. bridge, and these
include: the Maxwell, Hay, Owen and Heaviside
bridges for measuring inductance, and the De Sauty,
Schering and Wien bridges for measuring capacitance. A commercial or universal bridge is one
which can be used to measure resistance, inductance
or capacitance. A.c. bridges require a knowledge
p of
complex numbers (i.e. j notation, where j D 1).
A Maxwell-Wien bridge for measuring the inductance L and resistance r of an inductor is shown in
Fig. 10.28
2 Balance is obtained in a d.c. potentiometer at a
length of 31.2 cm when using a standard cell of
1.0186 volts. Calculate the e.m.f. of a dry cell
if balance is obtained with a length of 46.7 cm
[1.525 V]
10.18 A.C. bridges
A Wheatstone bridge type circuit, shown in
Fig. 10.27, may be used in a.c. circuits to determine
unknown values of inductance and capacitance, as
well as resistance.
Figure 10.28
At balance the products of diagonally opposite
impedances are equal. Thus
Z1 Z2 D Z3 Z4
Using complex quantities, Z1 D R1 , Z2 D R2 ,
R3 ⊲jXC ⊳
product
Z3 D
i.e.
R3 jXC
sum
and Z4 D r C jXL . Hence
R 1 R2 D
i.e.
Figure 10.27
R3 ⊲jXC ⊳
⊲r C jXL ⊳
R3 jXC
R1 R2 ⊲R3 jXC ⊳ D ⊲jR3 XC ⊳⊲r C jXL ⊳
R1 R2 R3 jR1 R2 XC D jrR3 XC j2 R3 XC XL
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If the frequency is constant then R3 / L/r / ωL/r /
Q-factor (see Chapters 15 and 16). Thus the bridge
can be adjusted to give a direct indication of Q-factor.
A Q-meter is described in section 10.19 following.
i.e. R1 R2 R3 jR1 R2 XC D jrR3 XC C R3 XC XL
(since j2 D 1⊳.
Equating the real parts gives:
R1 R2 R3 D R3 XC XL
R 1 R2
from which, XL D
XC
R 1 R2
i.e.
2fL D
D R1 R2 ⊲2fC⊳
1
2fC
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 53 Further problem on a.c.
bridges
Hence inductance,
L D R1 R2 C henry
121
⊲2⊳
Equating the imaginary parts gives:
1 A Maxwell bridge circuit ABCD has the following arm impedances: AB, 250 resistance;
BC, 15 µF capacitor in parallel with a 10 k
resistor; CD, 400 resistor; DA, unknown
inductor having inductance L and resistance
R. Determine the values of L and R assuming
the bridge is balanced.
[1.5 H, 10 ]
R1 R2 XC D rR3 XC
from which, resistance,
R 1 R2
ohms
rD
R3
10.19 Q-meter
⊲3⊳
Problem 20. For the a.c. bridge shown in
Fig. 10.28 determine the values of the
inductance and resistance of the coil when
R1 D R2 D 400 , R3 D 5 k and C D 7.5 µF
From equation (2) above, inductance
L D R1 R2 C D ⊲400⊳⊲400⊳⊲7.5 ð 106 ⊳
D 1.2 H
From equation (3) above, resistance,
rD
R 1 R2
⊲400⊳⊲400⊳
= 32 Z
D
R3
5000
From equation (2),
R2 D
L
R1 C
and from equation (3),
R1
R2
r
L
R1 L
D
R3 D
r R1 C
Cr
R3 D
Hence
The Q-factor for a series L–C–R circuit is the
voltage magnification at resonance, i.e.
voltage across capacitor
Q-factor D
supply voltage
Vc
(see Chapter 15).
V
The simplified circuit of a Q-meter, used for measuring Q-factor, is shown in Fig. 10.29. Current
from a variable frequency oscillator flowing through
a very low resistance r develops a variable frequency voltage, Vr , which is applied to a series
L–R–C circuit. The frequency is then varied until
resonance causes voltage Vc to reach a maximum
value. At resonance Vr and Vc are noted. Then
Vc
Vc
D
Q-factor D
Vr
Ir
D
In a practical Q-meter, Vr is maintained constant and
the electronic voltmeter can be calibrated to indicate
the Q-factor directly. If a variable capacitor C is
used and the oscillator is set to a given frequency,
then C can be adjusted to give resonance. In this
way inductance L may be calculated using
1
p
fr D
2 LC
2fL
,
Since
QD
R
then R may be calculated.
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(b) Q-factor at resonance D 2fr L/R from which
resistance
2fr L
RD
Q
2⊲400 ð 103 ⊳⊲0.396 ð 103 ⊳
100
D 9.95 Z
D
Now try the following exercise
Figure 10.29
Q-meters operate at various frequencies and
instruments exist with frequency ranges from 1 kHz
to 50 MHz. Errors in measurement can exist with
Q-meters since the coil has an effective parallel self
capacitance due to capacitance between turns. The
accuracy of a Q-meter is approximately š5%.
Problem 21. When connected to a Q-meter
an inductor is made to resonate at 400 kHz.
The Q-factor of the circuit is found to be 100
and the capacitance of the Q-meter capacitor
is set to 400 pF. Determine (a) the
inductance, and (b) the resistance of the
inductor.
Resonant frequency, fr D 400 kHz D 400 ð 103 Hz,
Q-factor = 100 and capacitance, C D 400 pF D
400 ð 1012 F. The circuit diagram of a Q-meter is
shown in Fig. 10.29
(a) At resonance,
1
p
fr D
2 LC
for a series L–C–R circuit. Hence
1
2fr D p
LC
from which
1
⊲2fr ⊳2 D
LC
and inductance,
LD
D
1
⊲2fr ⊳2 C
1
H
⊲2 ð 400 ð 103 ⊳2 ⊲400 ð 1012 ⊳
D 396 mH or 0.396 mH
Exercise 54 Further problem on the
Q-meter
1 A Q-meter measures the Q-factor of a series LC-R circuit to be 200 at a resonant frequency
of 250 kHz. If the capacitance of the Q-meter
capacitor is set to 300 pF determine (a) the
inductance L, and (b) the resistance R of the
inductor.
[(a) 1.351 mH (b) 10.61 ]
10.20 Measurement errors
Errors are always introduced when using instruments to measure electrical quantities. The errors
most likely to occur in measurements are those
due to:
(i) the limitations of the instrument;
(ii) the operator;
(iii) the instrument disturbing the circuit.
(i) Errors in the limitations of the instrument
The calibration accuracy of an instrument
depends on the precision with which it is
constructed. Every instrument has a margin of
error which is expressed as a percentage of the
instruments full scale deflection. For example,
industrial grade instruments have an accuracy of
š2% of f.s.d. Thus if a voltmeter has a f.s.d. of
100 V and it indicates 40 V say, then the actual
voltage may be anywhere between 40š(2% of 100),
or 40 š 2, i.e. between 38 V and 42 V.
When an instrument is calibrated, it is compared
against a standard instrument and a graph is drawn
of ‘error’ against ‘meter deflection’. A typical graph
is shown in Fig. 10.30 where it is seen that the
accuracy varies over the scale length. Thus a meter
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ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS
123
with a š2% f.s.d. accuracy would tend to have an
accuracy which is much better than š2% f.s.d. over
much of the range.
Figure 10.31
Figure 10.30
(ii) Errors by the operator
It is easy for an operator to misread an instrument.
With linear scales the values of the sub-divisions
are reasonably easy to determine; non-linear scale
graduations are more difficult to estimate. Also,
scales differ from instrument to instrument and some
meters have more than one scale (as with multimeters) and mistakes in reading indications are easily
made. When reading a meter scale it should be
viewed from an angle perpendicular to the surface
of the scale at the location of the pointer; a meter
scale should not be viewed ‘at an angle’.
(iii) Errors due to the instrument disturbing
the circuit
Any instrument connected into a circuit will
affect that circuit to some extent. Meters require
some power to operate, but provided this power
is small compared with the power in the measured
circuit, then little error will result. Incorrect positioning of instruments in a circuit can be a source
of errors. For example, let a resistance be measured by the voltmeter-ammeter method as shown
in Fig. 10.31 Assuming ‘perfect’ instruments, the
resistance should be given by the voltmeter reading divided by the ammeter reading (i.e. R D
V/I). However, in Fig. 10.31(a), V/I D R C ra
and in Fig. 10.31(b) the current through the ammeter is that through the resistor plus that through
the voltmeter. Hence the voltmeter reading divided
by the ammeter reading will not give the true
value of the resistance R for either method of
connection.
Problem 22. The current flowing through a
resistor of 5 k š 0.4% is measured as
2.5 mA with an accuracy of measurement of
š0.5%. Determine the nominal value of the
voltage across the resistor and its accuracy.
Voltage, V D IR D ⊲2.5 ð 103 ⊳⊲5 ð 103 ⊳ D 12.5 V.
The maximum possible error is
0.4% C 0.5% D 0.9%.
Hence the voltage, V D 12.5 V š 0.9% of 12.5 V
0.9% of 12.5 D 0.9/100 ð 12.5 D 0.1125 V D
0.11 V correct to 2 significant figures.
Hence the voltage V may also be expressed
as 12.5 ± 0.11 volts (i.e. a voltage lying between
12.39 V and 12.61 V).
Problem 23. The current I flowing in a
resistor R is measured by a 0–10 A ammeter
which gives an indication of 6.25 A. The
voltage V across the resistor is measured by
a 0–50 V voltmeter, which gives an
indication of 36.5 V. Determine the
resistance of the resistor, and its accuracy of
measurement if both instruments have a limit
of error of 2% of f.s.d. Neglect any loading
effects of the instruments.
Resistance,
RD
36.5
V
D
D 5.84
I
6.25
Voltage error is š2% of 50 V D š1.0 V and
expressed as a percentage of the voltmeter reading
gives
š1
ð 100% D š2.74%
36.5
Current error is š2% of 10 A D š0.2 A and expressed as a percentage of the ammeter reading gives
š0.2
ð 100% D š3.2%
6.25
Maximum relative error D sum of errors D
2.74% C 3.2% D š5.94%. 5.94% of 5.84 D
0.347 . Hence the resistance of the resistor may
be expressed as:
5.84 Z ± 5.94% or 5.84 ± 0.35 Z
(rounding off)
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Problem 24. The arms of a Wheatstone
bridge ABCD have the following resistances:
AB: R1 D 1000 š 1.0%; BC:
R2 D 100 š 0.5%; CD: unknown resistance
Rx ; DA: R3 D 432.5 š 0.2%. Determine
the value of the unknown resistance and its
accuracy of measurement.
The Wheatstone bridge network is shown in
Fig. 10.32 and at balance:
R1 Rx D R2 R3 ,
i.e.
Rx D
R 2 R3
⊲100⊳⊲432.5⊳
D 43.25
D
R1
1000
flowing in the resistor and its accuracy of
measurement.
[6.25 mA š 1.3% or 6.25 š 0.08 mA]
2 The voltage across a resistor is measured by a
75 V f.s.d. voltmeter which gives an indication
of 52 V. The current flowing in the resistor
is measured by a 20 A f.s.d. ammeter which
gives an indication of 12.5 A. Determine the
resistance of the resistor and its accuracy if
both instruments have an accuracy of š2% of
f.s.d.
[4.16 š 6.08% or 4.16 š 0.25 ]
3 A 240 V supply is connected across a load
resistance R. Also connected across R is a
voltmeter having a f.s.d. of 300 V and a figure
of merit (i.e. sensitivity) of 8 k/V. Calculate
the power dissipated by the voltmeter and by
the load resistance if (a) R D 100 (b) R D
1 M. Comment on the results obtained.
[(a) 24 mW, 576 W (b) 24 mW, 57.6 mW]
4 A Wheatstone bridge PQRS has the following
arm resistances: PQ, 1 k š 2%; QR, 100 š
0.5%; RS, unknown resistance; SP, 273.6 š
0.1%. Determine the value of the unknown
resistance, and its accuracy of measurement.
[27.36 š 2.6% or 27.36 š 0.71 ]
Figure 10.32
The maximum relative error of Rx is given by the
sum of the three individual errors, i.e. 1.0%C0.5%C
0.2% D 1.7%. Hence
Rx D 43.25 Z ± 1.7%
1.7% of 43.25 D 0.74 (rounding off). Thus Rx
may also be expressed as
Rx D 43.25 ± 0.74 Z
Now try the following exercises
Exercise 56 Short answer questions on
electrical measuring instruments and
measurements
1 What is the main difference between an analogue and a digital type of measuring instrument?
2 Name the three essential devices for all analogue electrical indicating instruments
3 Complete the following statements:
(a) An ammeter has a . . . . . . resistance and
is connected . . . . . . with the circuit
(b) A voltmeter has a . . . . . . resistance and
is connected . . . . . . with the circuit
4 State two advantages and two disadvantages
of a moving coil instrument
Exercise 55 Further problems on
measurement errors
1 The p.d. across a resistor is measured as 37.5 V
with an accuracy of š0.5%. The value of the
resistor is 6 k š 0.8%. Determine the current
5 What effect does the connection of (a) a
shunt (b) a multiplier have on a milliammeter?
6 State two advantages and two disadvantages
of a moving coil instrument
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ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS
7 Name two advantages of electronic measuring instruments compared with moving coil
or moving iron instruments
8 Briefly explain the principle of operation of
an ohmmeter
9 Name a type of ohmmeter used for measuring (a) low resistance values (b) high resistance values
10 What is a multimeter?
11 When may a rectifier instrument be used in
preference to either a moving coil or moving
iron instrument?
12 Name five quantities that a c.r.o. is capable
of measuring
13 What is harmonic analysis?
14 What is a feature of waveforms containing
the fundamental and odd harmonics?
15 Express the ratio of two powers P1 and P2
in decibel units
16 What does a power level unit of dBm indicate?
17 What is meant by a null method of measurement?
125
Exercise 57 Multi-choice questions on
electrical measuring instruments and
measurements (Answers on page 375)
1 Which of the following would apply to a
moving coil instrument?
(a) An uneven scale, measuring d.c.
(b) An even scale, measuring a.c.
(c) An uneven scale, measuring a.c.
(d) An even scale, measuring d.c.
2 In question 1, which would refer to a moving
iron instrument?
3 In question 1, which would refer to a moving
coil rectifier instrument?
4 Which of the following is needed to extend
the range of a milliammeter to read voltages
of the order of 100 V?
(a) a parallel high-value resistance
(b) a series high-value resistance
(c) a parallel low-value resistance
(d) a series low-value resistance
5 Fig. 10.33 shows a scale of a multi-range
ammeter. What is the current indicated when
switched to a 25 A scale?
(a) 84 A (b) 5.6 A (c) 14 A (d) 8.4 A
18 Sketch a Wheatstone bridge circuit used for
measuring an unknown resistance in a d.c.
circuit and state the balance condition
19 How may a d.c. potentiometer be used to
measure p.d.’s
20 Name five types of a.c. bridge used for
measuring unknown inductance, capacitance
or resistance
21 What is a universal bridge?
22 State the name of an a.c. bridge used for
measuring inductance
23 Briefly describe how the measurement of Qfactor may be achieved
24 Why do instrument errors occur when measuring complex waveforms?
25 Define ‘calibration accuracy’ as applied to a
measuring instrument
26 State three main areas where errors are most
likely to occur in measurements
Figure 10.33
A sinusoidal waveform is displayed on a
c.r.o. screen. The peak-to-peak distance is
5 cm and the distance between cycles is 4 cm.
The ‘variable’ switch is on 100 µs/cm and
the ‘volts/cm’ switch is on 10 V/cm. In questions 6 to 10, select the correct answer from
the following:
(a) 25 V
(b) 5 V
(c) 0.4 ms
(d) 35.4 V
(e) 4 ms
(f) 50 V
(g) 250 Hz
(h) 2.5 V
(i) 2.5 kHz
(j) 17.7 V
6 Determine the peak-to-peak voltage
7 Determine the periodic time of the waveform
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
8 Determine the maximum value of the voltage
15 R.m.s. value of waveform P
9 Determine the frequency of the waveform
16 R.m.s. value of waveform Q
10 Determine the r.m.s. value of the waveform
Fig. 10.34 shows double-beam c.r.o. waveform traces. For the quantities stated in questions 11 to 17, select the correct answer from
the following:
(a) 30 V
(b) 0.2 s
(c) 50 V
15
250
(d) p
(e) 54° leading (f) p V
2
2
50
(g) 15 V
(h) 100 µs
(i) p V
2
(j) 250 V
(k) 10 kHz
(l) 75 V
3
(m) 40 µs
(n)
rads lagging
10
30
25
(p) 5 Hz
(q) p V
(o) p V
2
2
75
(r) 25 kHz
(s) p V
2
3
(t)
rads leading
10
Figure 10.34
11 Amplitude of waveform P
12 Peak-to-peak value of waveform Q
13 Periodic time of both waveforms
17 Phase displacement of waveform Q relative
to waveform P
18 The input and output powers of a system are
2 mW and 18 mW respectively. The decibel
power ratio of output power to input power
is:
(a) 9
(b) 9.54 (c) 1.9
(d) 19.08
19 The input and output voltages of a system are
500 µV and 500 mV respectively. The decibel voltage ratio of output to input voltage
(assuming input resistance equals load resistance) is:
(a) 1000 (b) 30
(c) 0
(d) 60
20 The input and output currents of a system are
3 mA and 18 mA respectively. The decibel
ratio of output to input current (assuming the
input and load resistances are equal) is:
(a) 15.56 (b) 6
(c) 1.6
(d) 7.78
21 Which of the following statements is false?
(a) The Schering bridge is normally used for
measuring unknown capacitances
(b) A.C. electronic measuring instruments
can handle a much wider range of frequency than the moving coil instrument
(c) A complex waveform is one which is
non-sinusoidal
(d) A square wave normally contains the
fundamental and even harmonics
22 A voltmeter has a f.s.d. of 100 V, a sensitivity
of 1 k/V and an accuracy of š2% of f.s.d.
When the voltmeter is connected into a circuit it indicates 50 V. Which of the following
statements is false?
(a) Voltage reading is 50 š 2 V
(b) Voltmeter resistance is 100 k
(c) Voltage reading is 50 V š 2%
(d) Voltage reading is 50 V š 4%
23 A potentiometer is used to:
(a) compare voltages
(b) measure power factor
(c) compare currents
(d) measure phase sequence
14 Frequency of both waveforms
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11
Semiconductor diodes
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
ž classify materials as conductors, semiconductors or insulators
ž appreciate the importance of silicon and germanium
ž understand n-type and p-type materials
ž understand the p-n junction
ž appreciate forward and reverse bias of p-n junctions
ž draw the circuit diagram symbol for a semiconductor diode
ž understand how half wave and full wave rectification is obtained
Insulators:
11.1 Types of materials
Materials may be classified as conductors,
semiconductors or insulators. The classification
depends on the value of resistivity of the material.
Good conductors are usually metals and have
resistivities in the order of 107 to 108 m.
Semiconductors have resistivities in the order
of 103 to 3 ð 103 m. The resistivities of
insulators are in the order of 104 to 1014 m.
Some typical approximate values at normal room
temperatures are:
Conductors:
Aluminium
Brass (70 Cu/30 Zn)
Copper (pure annealed)
Steel (mild)
2.7 ð 108 m
8 ð 108 m
1.7 ð 108 m
15 ð 108 m
Semiconductors:
Silicon
2.3 ð 103 m
Germanium 0.45 m
at 27° C
Glass ½ 1010 m
Mica ½ 1011 m
PVC ½ 1013 m
Rubber (pure) 1012 to 1014 m
In general, over a limited range of temperatures,
the resistance of a conductor increases with temperature increase. The resistance of insulators remains
approximately constant with variation of temperature. The resistance of semiconductor materials
decreases as the temperature increases. For a specimen of each of these materials, having the same
resistance (and thus completely different dimensions), at say, 15° C, the variation for a small increase
in temperature to t ° C is as shown in Fig. 11.1
11.2 Silicon and germanium
The most important semiconductors used in the electronics industry are silicon and germanium. As the
temperature of these materials is raised above room
temperature, the resistivity is reduced and ultimately
a point is reached where they effectively become
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Conductor
Resistance Ω
Insulator
Ge
Ge
Ge
Ge
Ge
Ge
Ge
Ge
Ge
Semiconductor
t
15
Temperature °C
Figure 11.1
conductors. For this reason, silicon should not operate at a working temperature in excess of 150° C
to 200° C, depending on its purity, and germanium
should not operate at a working temperature in
excess of 75° C to 90° C, depending on its purity. As
the temperature of a semiconductor is reduced below
normal room temperature, the resistivity increases
until, at very low temperatures the semiconductor
becomes an insulator.
11.3 n-type and p-type materials
Adding extremely small amounts of impurities to
pure semiconductors in a controlled manner is
called doping. Antimony, arsenic and phosphorus
are called n-type impurities and form an n-type
material when any of these impurities are added
to silicon or germanium. The amount of impurity
added usually varies from 1 part impurity in 105
parts semiconductor material to 1 part impurity to
108 parts semiconductor material, depending on the
resistivity required. Indium, aluminium and boron
are called p-type impurities and form a p-type material when any of these impurities are added to a
semiconductor.
In semiconductor materials, there are very few
charge carriers per unit volume free to conduct. This is
because the ‘four electron structure’ in the outer shell
of the atoms (called valency electrons), form strong
covalent bonds with neighbouring atoms, resulting in
a tetrahedral structure with the electrons held fairly
rigidly in place. A two-dimensional diagram depicting
this is shown for germanium in Fig. 11.2
Arsenic, antimony and phosphorus have five
valency electrons and when a semiconductor is
doped with one of these substances, some impurity
atoms are incorporated in the tetrahedral structure.
The ‘fifth’ valency electron is not rigidly bonded
and is free to conduct, the impurity atom donating a
charge carrier. A two-dimensional diagram depicting
this is shown in Fig. 11.3, in which a phosphorus
Figure 11.2
Free electron
Ge
Ge
Ge
Ge
P
Ge
Ge
Ge
Ge
Figure 11.3
atom has replaced one of the germanium atoms.
The resulting material is called n-type material, and
contains free electrons.
Indium, aluminium and boron have three valency
electrons and when a semiconductor is doped with
one of these substances some of the semiconductor
atoms are replaced by impurity atoms. One of the
four bonds associated with the semiconductor material is deficient by one electron and this deficiency
is called a hole.
Holes give rise to conduction when a potential
difference exists across the semiconductor material
due to movement of electrons from one hole to
another, as shown in Fig. 11.4. In this figure, an
Ge
Hole
(missing
electron)
A
1
B
Ge
Ge
3 4
2
C
A
Ge
Ge
Ge
Ge
Ge
Possible
movements
of electrons
Figure 11.4
TLFeBOOK
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
electron moves from A to B, giving the appearance
that the hole moves from B to A. Then electron
C moves to A, giving the appearance that the hole
moves to C, and so on. The resulting material is
p-type material containing holes.
129
n-type
material
(+ potential)
p-type
material
(− potential)
11.4 The p-n junction
A p-n junction is a piece of semiconductor material
in which part of the material is p-type and part is
n-type. In order to examine the charge situation,
assume that separate blocks of p-type and n-type
materials are pushed together. Also assume that a
hole is a positive charge carrier and that an electron
is a negative charge carrier.
At the junction, the donated electrons in the ntype material, called majority carriers, diffuse into
the p-type material (diffusion is from an area of
high density to an area of lower density) and the
acceptor holes in the p-type material diffuse into the
n-type material as shown by the arrows in Fig. 11.5
p-type
material
n-type
material
Holes
(mobile
carriers)
Depletion
layer
Potential
+
OV
−
Figure 11.6
11.5 Forward and reverse bias
Electron
(mobile
carriers)
When, an external voltage is applied to a p-n junction making the p-type material positive with respect
to the n-type material, as shown in Fig. 11.7, the
p-n junction is forward biased. The applied voltage
opposes the contact potential, and, in effect, closes
Depletion
layer
Impurity atoms
(fixed)
p-type
material
n-type
material
Figure 11.5
Because the n-type material has lost electrons, it
acquires a positive potential with respect to the
p-type material and thus tends to prevent further
movement of electrons. The p-type material has
gained electrons and becomes negatively charged
with respect to the n-type material and hence tends
to retain holes. Thus after a short while, the movement of electrons and holes stops due to the potential
difference across the junction, called the contact
potential. The area in the region of the junction
becomes depleted of holes and electrons due to
electron-hole recombinations, and is called a depletion layer, as shown in Fig. 11.6
Contact
potential
Applied
voltage
Figure 11.7
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
the depletion layer. Holes and electrons can now
cross the junction and a current flows.
An increase in the applied voltage above that
required to narrow the depletion layer (about 0.2 V
for germanium and 0.6 V for silicon), results in a
rapid rise in the current flow. Graphs depicting the
current-voltage relationship for forward biased p-n
junctions, for both germanium and silicon, called the
forward characteristics, are shown in Fig. 11.8
Current
(mA)
Germanium
40
30
at normal room temperature certain electrons in the
covalent bond lattice acquire sufficient energy from
the heat available to leave the lattice, generating
mobile electrons and holes. This process is called
electron-hole generation by thermal excitation.
The electrons in the p-type material and holes in
the n-type material caused by thermal excitation, are
called minority carriers and these will be attracted
by the applied voltage. Thus, in practice, a small
current of a few microamperes for germanium and
less than one microampere for silicon, at normal
room temperature, flows under reverse bias conditions. Typical reverse characteristics are shown in
Fig. 11.10 for both germanium and silicon.
20
Voltage (V)
Silicon
10
−100
0
0.2
−75
−50
−25
0.4 0.6 0.8
Voltage (V)
−5
Silicon
Figure 11.8
When an external voltage is applied to a p-n
junction making the p-type material negative with
respect to the n-type material as in shown in
Fig. 11.9, the p-n junction is reverse biased. The
p-type
material
Current
(µA)
Germanium
−10
Figure 11.10
n-type
material
11.6 Semiconductor diodes
A semiconductor diode is a device having a p-n
junction mounted in a container, suitable for conducting and dissipating the heat generated in operation and having connecting leads. Its operating
characteristics are as shown in Figs. 11.8 and 11.10.
Two circuit diagram symbols for semiconductor
diodes are in common use and are as shown in
Fig. 11.11. Sometimes the symbols are encircled as
in Fig. 11.13 on page 132.
Contact
potential
Depletion layer
Figure 11.11
Figure 11.9
applied voltage is now in the same sense as the
contact potential and opposes the movement of
holes and electrons due to opening up the depletion
layer. Thus, in theory, no current flows. However
Problem 1. Explain briefly the terms given
below when they are associated with a p-n
junction: (a) conduction in intrinsic
semiconductors (b) majority and minority
carriers, and (c) diffusion
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SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
(a) Silicon or germanium with no doping atoms
added are called intrinsic semiconductors. At
room temperature, some of the electrons acquire
sufficient energy for them to break the covalent
bond between atoms and become free mobile
electrons. This is called thermal generation of
electron-hole pairs. Electrons generated thermally create a gap in the crystal structure called
a hole, the atom associated with the hole being
positively charged, since it has lost an electron.
This positive charge may attract another electron released from another atom, creating a hole
elsewhere.
When a potential is applied across the semiconductor material, holes drift towards the negative
terminal (unlike charges attract), and electrons
towards the positive terminal, and hence a small
current flows.
(b) When additional mobile electrons are introduced
by doping a semiconductor material with pentavalent atoms (atoms having five valency electrons), these mobile electrons are called majority
carriers. The relatively few holes in the n-type
material produced by intrinsic action are called
minority carriers.
For p-type materials, the additional holes are
introduced by doping with trivalent atoms
(atoms having three valency electrons). The
holes are positive mobile charges and are
majority carriers in the p-type material. The
relatively few mobile electrons in the p-type
material produced by intrinsic action are called
minority carriers.
(c) Mobile holes and electrons wander freely within
the crystal lattice of a semiconductor material.
There are more free electrons in n-type material
than holes and more holes in p-type material
than electrons. Thus, in their random wanderings, on average, holes pass into the n-type
material and electrons into the p-type material.
This process is called diffusion.
Problem 2. Explain briefly why a junction
between p-type and n-type materials creates
a contact potential.
Intrinsic semiconductors have resistive properties, in
that when an applied voltage across the material is
reversed in polarity, a current of the same magnitude
flows in the opposite direction. When a p-n junction
is formed, the resistive property is replaced by
131
a rectifying property, that is, current passes more
easily in one direction than the other.
An n-type material can be considered to be a
stationary crystal matrix of fixed positive charges
together with a number of mobile negative charge
carriers (electrons). The total number of positive and
negative charges are equal. A p-type material can
be considered to be a number of stationary negative charges together with mobile positive charge
carriers (holes). Again, the total number of positive
and negative charges are equal and the material is
neither positively nor negatively charged. When the
materials are brought together, some of the mobile
electrons in the n-type material diffuse into the ptype material. Also, some of the mobile holes in the
p-type material diffuse into the n-type material.
Many of the majority carriers in the region of
the junction combine with the opposite carriers to
complete covalent bonds and create a region on
either side of the junction with very few carriers.
This region, called the depletion layer, acts as an
insulator and is in the order of 0.5 µm thick. Since
the n-type material has lost electrons, it becomes
positively charged. Also, the p-type material has lost
holes and becomes negatively charged, creating a
potential across the junction, called the barrier or
contact potential.
Problem 3. Sketch the forward and reverse
characteristics of a silicon p-n junction diode
and describe the shapes of the characteristics
drawn.
A typical characteristic for a silicon p-n junction
having a forward bias is shown in Fig. 11.8 and having a reverse bias in Fig. 11.10. When the positive
terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type
material and the negative terminal to the n-type
material, the diode is forward biased. Due to like
charges repelling, the holes in the p-type material
drift towards the junction. Similarly the electrons
in the n-type material are repelled by the negative
bias voltage and also drift towards the junction. The
width of the depletion layer and size of the contact
potential are reduced. For applied voltages from 0 to
about 0.6 V, very little current flows. At about 0.6 V,
majority carriers begin to cross the junction in large
numbers and current starts to flow. As the applied
voltage is raised above 0.6 V, the current increases
exponentially (see Fig. 11.8) When the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type
material and the positive terminal to the n-type
material the diode is reverse biased. The holes in the
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
p-type material are attracted towards the negative
terminal and the electrons in the n-type material
are attracted towards the positive terminal (unlike
charges attract). This drift increases the magnitude
of both the contact potential and the thickness of the
depletion layer, so that only very few majority carriers have sufficient energy to surmount the junction.
The thermally excited minority carriers, however,
can cross the junction since it is, in effect, forward
biased for these carriers. The movement of minority
carriers results in a small constant current flowing.
As the magnitude of the reverse voltage is increased
a point will be reached where a large current suddenly starts to flow. The voltage at which this occurs
is called the breakdown voltage. This current is due
to two effects:
is switched on and current i flows. When P is
negative with respect to Q, diode D is switched off.
Transformer T isolates the equipment from direct
connection with the mains supply and enables the
mains voltage to be changed. Two diodes may be
used as shown in Fig. 11.14 to obtain full wave
rectification. A centre-tapped transformer T is used.
When P is sufficiently positive with respect to Q,
diode D1 conducts and current flows (shown by the
broken line in Fig. 11.14). When S is positive with
respect to Q, diode D2 conducts and current flows
(shown by the continuous line in Fig. 11.14). The
current flowing in R is in the same direction for
both half cycles of the input. The output waveform
is thus as shown in Fig. 11.14
(i) the zener effect, resulting from the applied
voltage being sufficient to break some of the
covalent bonds, and
(ii) the avalanche effect, resulting from the charge
carriers moving at sufficient speed to break
covalent bonds by collision.
A zener diode is used for voltage reference purposes
or for voltage stabilisation. Two common circuit
diagram symbols for a zener diode are shown in
Fig. 11.12
Figure 11.12
Figure 11.14
Four diodes may be used in a bridge rectifier circuit, as shown in Fig. 11.15 to obtain full wave rectification. As for the rectifier shown in Fig. 11.14,
the current flowing in R is in the same direction
for both half cycles of the input giving the output
waveform shown.
11.7 Rectification
The process of obtaining unidirectional currents and
voltages from alternating currents and voltages is
called rectification. Automatic switching in circuits
is carried out by diodes.
Using a single diode, as shown in Fig. 11.13,
half-wave rectification is obtained. When P is
sufficiently positive with respect to Q, diode D
Figure 11.15
Figure 11.13
To smooth the output of the rectifiers described
above, capacitors having a large capacitance may
be connected across the load resistor R. The effect
of this is shown on the output in Fig. 11.16
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SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
133
(d) diffusion
(e) minority carrier conduction.
Figure 11.16
Now try the following exercises
Exercise 58 Further problems on
semiconductor diodes
1 Explain what you understand by the term
intrinsic semiconductor and how an intrinsic
semiconductor is turned into either a p-type
or an n-type material.
2 Explain what is meant by minority and
majority carriers in an n-type material and
state whether the numbers of each of these
carriers are affected by temperature.
3 A piece of pure silicon is doped with
(a) pentavalent impurity and (b) trivalent
impurity. Explain the effect these impurities
have on the form of conduction in silicon.
4 With the aid of simple sketches, explain how
pure germanium can be treated in such a
way that conduction is predominantly due to
(a) electrons and (b) holes.
5 Explain the terms given below when used in
semiconductor terminology:
(a) covalent bond
(b) trivalent impurity
(c) pentavalent impurity
(d) electron-hole pair generation.
6 Explain briefly why although both p-type
and n-type materials have resistive properties
when separate, they have rectifying properties when a junction between them exists.
7 The application of an external voltage to
a junction diode can influence the drift of
holes and electrons. With the aid of diagrams
explain this statement and also how the direction and magnitude of the applied voltage
affects the depletion layer.
8 State briefly what you understand by the
terms:
(a) reverse bias
(b) forward bias
(c) contact potential
9 Explain briefly the action of a p-n junction
diode: (a) on open-circuit, (b) when provided
with a forward bias, and (c) when provided
with a reverse bias. Sketch the characteristic
curves for both forward and reverse bias
conditions.
10 Draw a diagram illustrating the charge situation for an unbiased p-n junction. Explain
the change in the charge situation when compared with that in isolated p-type and n-type
materials. Mark on the diagram the depletion layer and the majority carriers in each
region.
11 Give an explanation of the principle of operation of a p-n junction as a rectifier. Sketch
the current-voltage characteristics showing
the approximate values of current and voltage
for a silicon junction diode.
Exercise 59 Short answer problems on
semiconductor diodes
1 A good conductor has a resistivity in the
order of . . . . . . to . . . . . . m
2 A semiconductor has a resistivity in the order
of . . . . . . to . . . . . . m
3 An insulator has a resistivity in the order of
. . . . . . to . . . . . . m
4 Over a limited range, the resistance of an
insulator . . . . . . with increase in temperature.
5 Over a limited range, the resistance of a semiconductor . . . . . . with increase in temperature.
6 Over a limited range, the resistance of a conductor . . . . . . with increase in temperature.
7 Name two semiconductor materials used in
the electronics industry.
8 Name two insulators used in the electronics
industry.
9 Name two good conductors used in the electronics industry.
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
10 The working temperature of germanium
should not exceed . . . . . .° C to . . . . . .° C,
depending on its . . . . . .
28 What is a simple method of smoothing the
output of a rectifier?
11 The working temperature of silicon should
not exceed . . . . . .° C to . . . . . .° C, depending
on its . . . . . .
13 Arsenic has . . . . . . valency electrons.
Exercise 60 Multi-choice questions on
semiconductor diodes (Answers on
page 375)
14 When phosphorus is introduced into a semiconductor material, mobile . . . . . . result.
In questions 1 to 5, select which statements are
true.
12 Antimony is called . . . . . . impurity.
15 Boron is called a . . . . . . impurity.
16 Indium has . . . . . . valency electrons.
17 When aluminium is introduced into a semiconductor material, mobile . . . . . . result
18 When a p-n junction is formed, the n-type
material acquires a . . . . . . charge due to losing . . . . . .
19 When a p-n junction is formed, the p-type
material acquires a . . . . . . charge due to losing . . . . . .
20 To forward bias a p-n junction, the . . . . . .
terminal of the battery is connected to the
p-type material
21 To reverse bias a p-n junction, the positive
terminal of the battery is connected to the
. . . . . . material
22 When a germanium p-n junction is forward
biased, approximately . . . . . . mV must be
applied before an appreciable current starts
to flow.
23 When a silicon p-n junction is forward
biased, approximately . . . . . . mV must be
applied before an appreciable current starts
to flow.
24 When a p-n junction is reversed biased,
the thickness or width of the depletion
layer . . . . . .
1 In pure silicon:
(a) the holes are the majority carriers
(b) the electrons are the majority carriers
(c) the holes and electrons exist in equal
numbers
(d) conduction is due to there being more
electrons than holes
2 Intrinsic semiconductor materials have:
(a) covalent bonds forming a tetrahedral
structure
(b) pentavalent atoms added
(c) conduction by means of doping
(d) a resistance which increases
with increase of temperature
3 Pentavalent impurities:
(a) have three valency electrons
(b) introduce holes when added to a semiconductor material
(c) are introduced by adding aluminium
atoms to a semiconductor material
(d) increase the conduction of a semiconductor material
4 Free electrons in a p-type material:
(a) are majority carriers
(b) take no part in conduction
(c) are minority carriers
(d) exist in the same numbers as holes
26 Draw an appropriate circuit diagram suitable
for half-wave rectification
5 When an unbiased p-n junction is formed:
(a) the p-side is positive with respect to the
n-side
(b) a contact potential exists
(c) electrons diffuse from the p-type material
to the n-type material
(d) conduction is by means of majority carriers
27 How may full-wave rectification be achieved?
In questions 6 to 10, select which statements are
false.
25 If the thickness or width of a depletion layer
decreases, then the p-n junction is . . . . . .
biased.
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SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
6 (a) The resistance of an insulator remains
approximately constant with increase of
temperature
(b) The resistivity of a good conductor is
about 107 to 108 ohm metres
(c) The resistivity of a conductor increases
with increase of temperature
(d) The resistance of a semiconductor decreases with increase of temperature
7 Trivalent impurities:
(a) have three valeney electrons
(b) introduce holes when added to a semiconductor material
(c) can be introduced to a semiconductor
material by adding antimony atoms to it
(d) increase the conductivity of a semiconductor material when added to it
8 Free electrons in an n-type material:
(a) are majority carriers
(b) diffuse into the p-type material when a p-n
junction is formed
(c) as a result of the diffusion process leave
the n-type material positively charged
(d) exist in the same numbers as the holes in
the n-type material
135
9 When a germanium p-n junction diode is
forward biased:
(a) current starts to flow in an appreciable amount when. the applied voltage is
about 600 mV
(b) the thickness or width of the depletion
layer is reduced
(c) the curve representing the current flow is
exponential
(d) the positive terminal of the battery is
connected to the p-type material
10 When a silicon p-n junction diode is reverse
biased:
(a) a constant current flows over a large
range of voltages
(b) current flow is due to electrons in the
n-type material
(c) current type is due to minority carriers
(d) the magnitude of the reverse current flow
is usually less than 1 µA
11 A rectifier conducts:
(a) direct currents in one direction
(b) alternating currents in both directions
(c) direct currents in both directions
(d) alternating currents in one direction
TLFeBOOK
12
Transistors
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
ž understand the structure of a bipolar junction transistor
ž understand transistor action for p-n-p and n-p-n types
ž draw the circuit diagram symbols for p-n-p and n-p-n transistors
ž appreciate common-base, common-emitter and common-collector transistor
connections
ž interpret transistor characteristics
ž appreciate how the transistor is used as an amplifier
ž determine the load line on transistor characteristics
ž estimate current, voltage and power gains from transistor characteristics
ž understand thermal runaway in a transistor
12.1 The bipolar junction transistor
The bipolar junction transistor consists of three
regions of semiconductor material. One type is
called a p-n-p transistor, in which two regions of
p-type material sandwich a very thin layer of n-type
material. A second type is called an n-p-n transistor,
in which two regions of n-type material sandwich a
very thin layer of p-type material. Both of these
types of transistors consist of two p-n junctions
placed very close to one another in a back-to-back
arrangement on a single piece of semiconductor
material. Diagrams depicting these two types of
transistors are shown in Fig. 12.1
The two p-type material regions of the p-n-p transistor are called the emitter and collector and the
n-type material is called the base. Similarly, the two
n-type material regions of the n-p-n transistor are
called the emitter and collector and the p-type material region is called the base, as shown in Fig. 12.1
Transistors have three connecting leads and
in operation an electrical input to one pair of
connections, say the emitter and base connections
can control the output from another pair, say the
collector and emitter connections. This type of
p-type
material
Collector
Emitter
Collector
p-type
material
Emitter
Base
Base
n-type
material
p-n-p transistor
n-type
material
n-p-n transistor
Figure 12.1
operation is achieved by appropriately biasing the
two internal p-n junctions. When batteries and
resistors are connected to a p-n-p transistor, as
shown in Fig. 12.2(a) the base-emitter junction is
forward biased and the base-collector junction is
reverse biased.
Similarly, an n-p-n transistor has its base-emitter
junction forward biased and its base-collector junction reverse biased when the batteries are connected
as shown in Fig. 12.2(b).
TLFeBOOK
TRANSISTORS
Emitter Base Collector
p
n
n
+
−
Emitter
resistor
+
Emitter Base Collector
p
Load
resistor
−
+
p
n
−
+
Emitter
resistor
−
−
(a) p-n-p transistor
−
(c) The base region is very thin and is only lightly
doped with electrons so although some electronhole pairs are formed, many holes are left in the
base region
(d) The base-collector junction is reverse biased to
electrons in the base region and holes in the
collector region, but forward biased to holes in
the base region; these holes are attracted by the
negative potential at the collector terminal
+
(b) n-p-n transistor
Figure 12.2
For a silicon p-n-p transistor, biased as shown in
Fig. 12.2(a), if the base-emitter junction is considered on its own, it is forward biased and a current
flows. This is depicted in Fig. 12.3(a). For example,
if RE is 1000 , the battery is 4.5 V and the voltage
drop across the junction is taken as 0.7 V, the current flowing is given by ⊲4.50.7⊳/1000 D 3.8 mA.
When the base-collector junction is considered on its
own, as shown in Fig. 12.3(b), it is reverse biased
and the collector current is something less than 1 µA.
Emitter
Base
p
n
(a) The majority carriers in the emitter p-type material are holes
(b) The base-emitter junction is forward biased to
the majority carriers and the holes cross the
junction and appear in the base region
Load
resistor
+
137
(e) A large proportion of the holes in the base
region cross the base-collector junction into the
collector region, creating a collector current;
conventional current flow is in the direction of
hole movement
The transistor action is shown diagrammatically
in Fig. 12.4. For transistors having very thin base
regions, up to 99.5 per cent of the holes leaving the
emitter cross the base collector junction.
Base Collector
Emitter Base Collector
n
p
IE
IC
IE
p
n
p
IC
Holes
0.7 V
RE = 1000 Ω
Figure 12.4
4.5 V
+
−
(a)
IB
RL
+
−
(b)
In an n-p-n transistor, connected as shown in
Fig. 12.2(b), transistor action is accounted for as
follows:
Figure 12.3
However, when both external circuits are connected to the transistor, most of the 3.8 mA of current flowing in the emitter, which previously flowed
from the base connection, now flows out through the
collector connection due to transistor action.
12.2 Transistor action
In a p-n-p transistor, connected as shown in
Fig. 12.2(a), transistor action is accounted for as
follows:
(a) The majority carriers in the n-type emitter material are electrons
(b) The base-emitter junction is forward biased to
these majority carriers and electrons cross the
junction and appear in the base region
(c) The base region is very thin and only lightly
doped with holes, so some recombination with
holes occurs but many electrons are left in the
base region
(d) The base-collector junction is reverse biased
to holes in the base region and electrons in
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
the collector region, but is forward biased to
electrons in the base region; these electrons are
attracted by the positive potential at the collector
terminal
(e) A large proportion of the electrons in the base
region cross the base-collector junction into the
collector region, creating a collector current
The transistor action is shown diagrammatically in
Fig. 12.5 As stated in Section 12.1, conventional
current flow is taken to be in the direction of hole
flow, that is, in the opposite direction to electron
flow, hence the directions of the conventional current flow are as shown in Fig. 12.5
carriers, but a small leakage current, ICBO flows
from the collector to the base due to thermally
generated minority carriers (holes in the collector
and elections in the base), being present. The basecollector junction is forward biased to these minority
carriers. If a proportion, ˛, of the electrons passing
through the base-emitter junction also pass through
the base-collector junction then the currents flowing
in an n-p-n transistor are as shown in Fig. 12.6(b).
Problem 1. With reference to a p-n-p
transistor, explain briefly what is meant by
the term transistor action and why a bipolar
junction transistor is so named.
Emitter Base Collector
n
p
n
IE
−
IC
Electrons
+
IB
Figure 12.5
For a p-n-p transistor, the base-collector junction
is reverse biased for majority carriers. However, a
small leakage current, ICBO flows from the base to
the collector due to thermally generated minority
carriers (electrons in the collector and holes in the
base), being present.
The base-collector junction is forward biased to
these minority carriers. If a proportion, ˛, (having a
value of up to 0.995 in modern transistors), of the
holes passing into the base from the emitter, pass
through the base-collector junction, then the various
currents flowing in a p-n-p transistor are as shown
in Fig. 12.6(a).
Emitter Base Collector
p
n
p
∝I E IC
IE
I CBO
(1-∝)IE
Emitter Base Collector
n
p
n
∝IE I C
IE
ICBO
(1-∝)IE
IB
(a)
IB
(b)
Figure 12.6
Similarly, for an n-p-n transistor, the basecollector junction is reversed biased for majority
For the transistor as depicted in Fig. 12.4, the emitter is relatively heavily doped with acceptor atoms
(holes). When the emitter terminal is made sufficiently positive with respect to the base, the baseemitter junction is forward biased to the majority
carriers. The majority carriers are holes in the emitter and these drift from the emitter to the base. The
base region is relatively lightly doped with donor
atoms (electrons) and although some electron-hole
recombination’s take place, perhaps 0.5 per cent,
most of the holes entering the base, do not combine
with electrons.
The base-collector junction is reverse biased to
electrons in the base region, but forward biased to
holes in the base region. Since the base is very thin
and now is packed with holes, these holes pass the
base-emitter junction towards the negative potential
of the collector terminal. The control of current
from emitter to collector is largely independent
of the collector-base voltage and almost wholly
governed by the emitter-base voltage. The essence
of transistor action is this current control by means
of the base-emitter voltage.
In a p-n-p transistor, holes in the emitter and collector regions are majority carriers, but are minority
carriers when in the base region. Also, thermally
generated electrons in the emitter and collector
regions are minority carriers as are holes in the base
region. However, both majority and minority carriers contribute towards the total current flow (see
Fig. 12.6(a)). It is because a transistor makes use of
both types of charge carriers (holes and electrons)
that they are called bipolar. The transistor also comprises two p-n junctions and for this reason it is a
junction transistor. Hence the name bipolar junction
transistor.
TLFeBOOK
TRANSISTORS
12.3 Transistor symbols
Symbols are used to represent p-n-p and n-p-n
transistors in circuit diagrams and are as shown in
Fig. 12.7. The arrow head drawn on the emitter of
the symbol is in the direction of conventional emitter
current (hole flow). The potentials marked at the
collector, base and emitter are typical values for a
silicon transistor having a potential difference of 6 V
between its collector and its emitter.
139
(c) common-collector configuration, shown in Fig.
12.8(c)
IE e
INPUT
c
IC
OUTPUT
b
IB
(a)
IC
(−6 V)
c
IB
OUTPUT
INPUT
(−0.6 V) b
e
(b)
(0 V)
p-n-p transistor
IE
IE
IB
OUTPUT
(6 V)
c
(0.6 V) b
INPUT
(c)
e
(0 V)
IC
Figure 12.8
n-p-n transistor
Figure 12.7
The voltage of 0.6 V across the base and emitter
is that required to reduce the potential barrier and if
it is raised slightly to, say, 0.62 V, it is likely that the
collector current will double to about 2 mA. Thus a
small change of voltage between the emitter and the
base can give a relatively large change of current in
the emitter circuit; because of this, transistors can
be used as amplifiers (see Section 12.6).
12.4 Transistor connections
There are three ways of connecting a transistor,
depending on the use to which it is being put.
The ways are classified by the electrode which is
common to both the input and the output. They are
called:
(a) common-base configuration, shown in Fig.
12.8(a)
(b) common-emitter configuration, shown in Fig.
12.8(b)
These configurations are for an n-p-n transistor. The
current flows shown are all reversed for a p-n-p
transistor.
Problem 2. The basic construction of an
n-p-n transistor makes it appear that the
emitter and collector can be interchanged.
Explain why this is not usually done.
In principle, a bipolar junction transistor will work
equally well with either the emitter or collector acting as the emitter. However, the conventional emitter current largely flows from the collector through
the base to the emitter, hence the emitter region
is far more heavily doped with donor atoms (electrons) than the base is with acceptor atoms (holes).
Also, the base-collector junction is normally reverse
biased and in general, doping density increases the
electric field in the junction and so lowers the breakdown voltage. Thus, to achieve a high breakdown
voltage, the collector region is relatively lightly
doped.
In addition, in most transistors, the method of
production is to diffuse acceptor and donor atoms
onto the n-type semiconductor material, one after
the other, so that one overrides the other. When this
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
is done, the doping density in the base region is
not uniform but decreases from emitter to collector.
This results in increasing the effectiveness of the
transistor. Thus, because of the doping densities in
the three regions and the non-uniform density in
the base, the collector and emitter terminals of a
transistor should not be interchanged when making
transistor connections.
12.5 Transistor characteristics
The effect of changing one or more of the various voltages and currents associated with a transistor
circuit can be shown graphically and these graphs
are called the characteristics of the transistor. As
there are five variables (collector, base and emitter currents, and voltages across the collector and
base and emitter and base) and also three configurations, many characteristics are possible. Some of
the possible characteristics are given below.
has little effect on the characteristic. A similar
characteristic can be obtained for a p-n-p transistor,
these having reversed polarities.
(ii) Output characteristics. The value of the collector current IC is very largely determined by the
emitter current, IE . For a given value of IE the
collector-base voltage, VCB , can be varied and has
little effect on the value of IC . If VCB is made
slightly negative, the collector no longer attracts
the majority carriers leaving the emitter and IC
falls rapidly to zero. A family of curves for various values of IE are possible and some of these
are shown in Fig. 12.10. Figure 12.10 is called the
output characteristics for an n-p-n transistor having
common-base configuration. Similar characteristics
can be obtained for a p-n-p transistor, these having
reversed polarities.
IC
Collector current (mA)
I E = 30 mA
(a) Common-base configuration
(i) Input characteristic. With reference to
Fig. 12.8(a), the input to a common-base transistor
is the emitter current, IE , and can be varied by
altering the base emitter voltage VEB . The baseemitter junction is essentially a forward biased
junction diode, so as VEB is varied, the current
flowing is similar to that for a junction diode,
as shown in Fig. 12.9 for a silicon transistor.
Figure 12.9 is called the input characteristic for an
n-p-n transistor having common-base configuration.
The variation of the collector-base voltage VCB
Emitter current (mA)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0.2
0.4
0.6
Emitter base voltage (V)
Figure 12.9
I E = 20 mA
20
I E = 10 mA
10
0
2
4
6
Collector-base voltage (V)
8
VCB
Figure 12.10
(b) Common-emitter configuration
−I E
0
−2
30
−VEB
(i) Input characteristic. In a common-emitter configuration (see Fig. 12.8(b)), the base current is now
the input current. As VEB is varied, the characteristic
obtained is similar in shape to the input characteristic for a common-base configuration shown in
Fig. 12.9, but the values of current are far less. With
reference to Fig. 12.6(a), as long as the junctions are
biased as described, the three currents IE , IC and
IB keep the ratio 1:˛:⊲1 ˛⊳, whichever configuration is adopted. Thus the base current changes are
much smaller than the corresponding emitter current changes and the input characteristic for an n-p-n
transistor is as shown in Fig. 12.11. A similar characteristic can be obtained for a p-n-p transistor, these
having reversed polarities.
TLFeBOOK
TRANSISTORS
IB
Problem 3. With the aid of a circuit
diagram, explain how the input and output
characteristics of an n-p-n transistor having a
common-base configuration can be obtained.
300
Base current (µA)
141
250
200
A circuit diagram for obtaining the input and output
characteristics for an n-p-n transistor connected in
common-base configuration is shown in Fig. 12.13.
The input characteristic can be obtained by varying
R1 , which varies VEB , and noting the corresponding
values of IE . This is repeated for various values of
VCB . It will be found that the input characteristic is
almost independent of VCB and it is usual to give
only one characteristic, as shown in Fig. 12.9
150
100
50
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
VBE
0.8
Base-emitter voltage (V)
Figure 12.11
(ii) Output characteristics. A family of curves
can be obtained, depending on the value of base
current IB and some of these for an n-p-n transistor
are shown in Fig. 12.12. A similar set of characteristics can be obtained for a p-n-p transistor, these
having reversed polarities. These characteristics differ from the common base output characteristics
in two ways: the collector current reduces to zero
without having to reverse the collector voltage, and
the characteristics slope upwards indicating a lower
output resistance (usually kilohms for a commonemitter configuration compared with megohms for a
common-base configuration).
IC
IB =
50
IB =
µA
IB =
150
R1
V
VEB A I B
V
VCB
R2
+
− V2
− +
Figure 12.13
To obtain the output characteristics, as shown in
Fig. 12.10, IE is set to a suitable value by adjusting
R1 . For various values of VCB , set by adjusting R2 ,
IC is noted. This procedure is repeated for various
values of IE . To obtain the full characteristics, the
polarity of battery V2 has to be reversed to reduce
IC to zero. This must be done very carefully or
else values of IC will rapidly increase in the reverse
direction and burn out the transistor.
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 61 Further problems on
transistors
µA
100
µA
I B = 50
µA
IB =
20
1 Explain with the aid of sketches, the operation of an n-p-n transistor and also explain
why the collector current is very nearly equal
to the emitter current.
2 Explain what is meant by the term ‘transistor
action’.
10
IB = 0
2
4
6
8
Collector-emitter voltage (V)
Figure 12.12
A
µA
250
0 µA
30
0
IC
A
20
IB =
40
Collector current (mA)
300
IE
10
VCE
3 Describe the basic principle of operation of
a bipolar junction transistor including why
majority carriers crossing into the base from
the emitter pass to the collector and why the
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
collector current is almost unaffected by the
collector potential.
4 For a transistor connected in commonemitter configuration, sketch the output
characteristics relating collector current and
the collector-emitter voltage, for various
values of base current. Explain the shape of
the characteristics.
5 Sketch the input characteristic relating emitter current and the emitter-base voltage for a
transistor connected in common-base configuration, and explain its shape.
6 With the aid of a circuit diagram, explain
how the output characteristics of an n-p-n
transistor having common-base configuration
may be obtained and any special precautions
which should be taken.
7 Draw sketches to show the direction of the
flow of leakage current in both n-p-n and
p-n-p transistors. Explain the effect of leakage current on a transistor connected in
common-base configuration.
8 Using the circuit symbols for transistors show
how (a) common-base, and (b) commonemitter configuration can be achieved. Mark
on the symbols the inputs, the outputs,
polarities under normal operating conditions
to give correct biasing and current directions.
9 Draw a diagram showing how a transistor
can be used in common emitter configuration. Mark on the sketch the input, output,
polarities under normal operating conditions
and current directions.
10 Sketch the circuit symbols for (a) a p-n-p and
(b) an n-p-n transistor. Mark on the emitter
electrodes the direction of conventional current flow and explain why the current flows
in the direction indicated.
then flows through a load resistance, a voltage is
developed. This voltage can be many times greater
than the input voltage which caused the original
current flow.
(a) Common-base amplifier
The basic circuit for a transistor is shown in
Fig. 12.14 where an n-p-n transistor is biased with
batteries b1 and b2 . A sinusoidal alternating input
signal, ve , is placed in series with the input bias
voltage, and a load resistor, RL , is placed in series
with the collector bias voltage. The input signal is therefore the sinusoidal current ie resulting
from the application of the sinusoidal voltage ve
superimposed on the direct current IE established
by the base-emitter voltage VBE .
b1
ve
~
RL
b2
I E + ie
Figure 12.14
Let the signal voltage ve be 100 mV and the baseemitter circuit resistance be 50 . Then the emitter
signal current will be 100/50 D 2 mA. Let the load
resistance RL D 2.5 k. About 0.99 of the emitter
current will flow in RL . Hence the collector signal
current will be about 0.99 ð 2 D 1.98 mA and the
signal voltage across the load will be 2500 ð 1.98 ð
103 D 4.95 V. Thus a signal voltage of 100 mV
at the emitter has produced a voltage of 4950 mV
across the load. The voltage amplification or gain
is therefore 4950/100 D 49.5 times. This example
illustrates the action of a common-base amplifier
where the input signal is applied between emitter
and base and the output is taken from between
collector and base.
(b) Common-emitter amplifier
12.6 The transistor as an amplifier
The amplifying properties of a transistor depend
upon the fact that current flowing in a low-resistance
circuit is transferred to a high-resistance circuit
with negligible change in magnitude. If the current
The basic circuit arrangement of a common-emitter
amplifier is shown in Fig. 12.15. Although two batteries are shown, it is more usual to employ only
one to supply all the necessary bias. The input signal is applied between base and emitter, and the
load resistor RL is connected between collector and
emitter. Let the base bias battery provide a voltage
which causes a base current IB of 0.1 mA to flow.
This value of base current determines the mean d.c.
TLFeBOOK
TRANSISTORS
level upon which the a.c. input signal will be superimposed. This is the d.c. base current operating
point.
RL 1 kΩ
+
7V
5 mA
IB + ib
−
12 V VCC
VBB
~
ib
+
0.1 mA
base d.c.
bias I B
−
Figure 12.15
Let the static current gain of the transistor, ˛E ,
be 50. Since 0.1 mA is the steady base current,
the collector current IC will be ˛E ð IB D 50 ð
0.1 D 5 mA. This current will flow through the
load resistor RL ⊲D 1 k⊳, and there will be a steady
voltage drop across RL given by IC RL D 5 ð
103 ð 1000 D 5 V. The voltage at the collector,
VCE , will therefore be VCC IC RL D 12 5 D
7 V. This value of VCE is the mean (or quiescent)
level about which the output signal voltage will
swing alternately positive and negative. This is the
collector voltage d.c. operating point. Both of
these d.c. operating points can be pin-pointed on
the input and output characteristics of the transistor.
Figure 12.16 shows the IB /VBE characteristic with
the operating point X positioned at IB D 0.1 mA,
VBE D 0.75 V, say.
I B(µA)
200
X
100
0
0.5
I C(mA)
Y
5 mA
mean
collector
current
1.0 VBE (V)
Figure 12.16
Figure 12.17 shows the IC /VCE characteristics,
with the operating point Y positioned at IC D 5 mA,
VCE D 7 V. It is usual to choose the operating point
Y somewhere near the centre of the graph.
It is possible to remove the bias battery VBB and
obtain base bias from the collector supply battery
I B = 100µA
5
10
15
VCE(V)
7 V mean collector
voltage
0
Collector
voltage
variations
143
Figure 12.17
VCC instead. The simplest way to do this is to
connect a bias resistor RB between the positive
terminal of the VCC supply and the base as shown in
Fig. 12.18 The resistor must be of such a value that
it allows 0.1 mA to flow in the base-emitter diode.
RL
RB
lB
V CC
Figure 12.18
For a silicon transistor, the voltage drop across the
junction for forward bias conditions is about 0.6 V.
The voltage across RB must then be 12 0.6 D
11.4 V. Hence, the value of RB must be such that
IB ð RB D 11.4 V, i.e.
RB D 11.4/IB D 11.4/⊲0.1ð103 ⊳ D 114 k.
With the inclusion of the 1 k load resistor, RL ,
a steady 5 mA collector current, and a collectoremitter voltage of 7 V, the d.c. conditions are established.
An alternating input signal (vi ) can now be
applied. In order not to disturb the bias condition
established at the base, the input must be fed to the
base by way of a capacitor C1 . This will permit the
alternating signal to pass to the base but will prevent
the passage of direct current. The reactance of this
capacitor must be such that it is very small compared
with the input resistance of the transistor. The circuit of the amplifier is now as shown in Fig. 12.19
The a.c. conditions can now be determined.
When an alternating signal voltage v1 is applied to
the base via capacitor C1 the base current ib varies.
When the input signal swings positive, the base current increases; when the signal swings negative, the
base current decreases. The base current consists of
two components: IB , the static base bias established
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
straight line which can be written in the y D mx C c
form. Transposing VCE D VCC IC RL for IC gives:
lC + i c
C1
ib
vi
RB
RL
lB
ic = αe i b
C 2 v0
lB + i b
VCC
VCE
VCC VCE
D
RL
RL
RL
1
VCC
D
VCE C
RL
RL
1
VCC
IC D
VCE C
RL
RL
IC D
+
VCC
−
VCE
~
i.e.
by RB , and ib , the signal current. The current variation ib will in turn vary the collector current, iC . The
relationship between iC and ib is given by iC D ˛e ib ,
where ˛e is the dynamic current gain of the transistor and is not quite the same as the static current
gain ˛e ; the difference is usually small enough to be
insignificant.
The current through the load resistor RL also
consists of two components: IC , the static collector
current, and iC , the signal current. As ib increases,
so does iC and so does the voltage drop across RL .
Hence, from the circuit:
VCE D VCC ⊲IC C iC ⊳RL
The d.c. components of this equation, though necessary for the amplifier to operate at all, need not
be considered when the a.c. signal conditions are
being examined. Hence, the signal voltage variation
relationship is:
VCE D ˛e ð ib ð RL D iC RL
the negative sign being added because VCE
decreases when ib increases and vice versa. The
signal output and input voltages are of opposite
polarity i.e. a phase shift of 180° has occurred. So
that the collector d.c. potential is not passed on to
the following stage, a second capacitor, C2 , is added
as shown in Fig. 12.19. This removes the direct
component but permits the signal voltage vo D iC RL
to pass to the output terminals.
12.7 The load line
The relationship between the collector-emitter voltage (VCE ) and collector current (IC ) is given by
the equation: VCE D VCC IC RL in terms of the
d.c. conditions. Since VCC and RL are constant in
any given circuit, this represents the equation of a
which is of the straight line form y D mx C c; hence
if IC is plotted vertically and VCE horizontally, then
the gradient is given by ⊲1/RL ⊳ and the vertical
axis intercept is VCC /RL .
A family of collector static characteristics drawn
on such axes is shown in Fig. 12.12 on page 141,
and so the line may be superimposed on these as
shown in Fig. 12.20
IC
VCC
RL
50
Collector current (mA)
Figure 12.19
IB =
IB =
A
µA
250
µA
00 µ
IB = 2
40
30
300
LOAD
A
V E
LINE C
−I CR L
= V CC
I B = 100
20
µA
IB = 50 µ A
10
0
IB = 0
B
2
4
6
8
10
Collector - emitter voltage (V)
VCC
VCE
Figure 12.20
The reason why this line is necessary is because
the static curves relate IC to VCE for a series of
fixed values of IB . When a signal is applied to the
base of the transistor, the base current varies and can
instantaneously take any of the values between the
extremes shown. Only two points are necessary to
draw the line and these can be found conveniently by
considering extreme conditions. From the equation:
VCE D VCC IC RL
(i) when IC D 0, VCE D VCC
(ii) when VCE D 0, IC D
VCC
RL
TLFeBOOK
TRANSISTORS
145
on
si
r
cu
ex
e
I C (mA)
v
iti
s
um
12
po
Input current
variation is 0.1 mA
peak
im
ax
10
E
M
s
mA bia
se
ba
n
a
I B = 0.2
8
e
M
6
8.75 mA
pk−pk 4
X
n
io
rs
u
xc
e
iv
t
ga
A
IB = 0.1 m
um
e
ne
im
ax
2
=O
F IB
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
M
VCE (V)
8.5 V pk−pk
Figure 12.21
Thus the points A and B respectively are located
on the axes of the IC /VCE characteristics. This line
is called the load line and it is dependent for its
position upon the value of VCC and for its gradient
upon RL . As the gradient is given by ⊲1/RL ⊳, the
slope of the line is negative.
For every value assigned to RL in a particular
circuit there will be a corresponding (and different)
load line. If VCC is maintained constant, all the
possible lines will start at the same point (B) but will
cut the IC axis at different points A. Increasing RL
will reduce the gradient of the line and vice-versa.
Quite clearly the collector voltage can never exceed
VCC (point B) and equally the collector current can
never be greater than that value which would make
VCE zero (point A).
Using the circuit example of Fig. 12.15, we have
VCE D VCC D 12 V, when IC D 0
VCC
IC D
RL
D
12
D 12 mA, when VCE D 0
1000
The load line is drawn on the characteristics shown
in Fig. 12.21 which we assume are characteristics
for the transistor used in the circuit of Fig. 12.15
earlier. Notice that the load line passes through the
operating point X as it should, since every position
on the line represents a relationship between VCE
and IC for the particular values of VCC and RL
given. Suppose that the base current is caused to
vary š0.1 mA about the d.c. base bias of 0.1 mA.
The result is IB changes from 0 mA to 0.2 mA and
back again to 0 mA during the course of each input
cycle. Hence the operating point moves up and down
the load line in phase with the input current and
hence the input voltage. A sinusoidal input cycle is
shown on Fig. 12.21
12.8 Current and voltage gains
The output signal voltage (VCE ) and current (iC )
can be obtained by projecting vertically from the
load line on to VCE and IC axes respectively. When
the input current ib varies sinusoidally as shown in
Fig. 12.21, then VCE varies sinusoidally if the points
E and F at the extremities of the input variations are
equally spaced on either side of X.
The peak-to-peak output voltage is seen to be
8.5 V, giving an r.m.s. value of 3 V (i.e. 0.707 ð
8.5/2). The peak-to-peak output current is 8.75 mA,
giving an r.m.s. value of 3.1 mA. From these
figures the voltage and current amplifications can
be obtained.
The dynamic current gain Ai ⊲D ˛e ⊳ as opposed
to the static gain ˛E , is given by:
Ai =
change in collector current
change in base current
This always leads to a different figure from that
obtained by the direct division of IC /IB which
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
assumes that the collector load resistor is zero. From
Fig. 12.21 the peak input current is 0.1 mA and the
peak output current is 4.375 mA. Hence
Ai D
4.375 ð 103
D 43.75
0.1 ð 103
The characteristics are drawn in Fig. 12.22 The load
line equation is VCC D VCE C IC RL which enables
the extreme points of the line to be calculated.
When
IC D 0, VCE D VC D 7.0 V
VCC
7
D
and when VCE D 0, IC D
RL
1200
The voltage gain Av is given by:
D 5.83 mA
change in collector voltage
Av =
change in base voltage
I c(mA)
This cannot be calculated from the data available,
but if we assume that the base current flows in
the input resistance, then the base voltage can be
determined. The input resistance can be determined
from an input characteristic such as was shown
earlier.
change in VBC
Then
Ri D
change in IB
and
6
70µA
5
4
3.0 mA
pk−pk
50µA
X
3
30µA
2
1
vi D ib RC and vo D iC RL
and
Av D
0
RL
i C RL
D ˛e
Ib Ri
Ri
Ap = Av × Ai
Problem 4. An n-p-n transistor has the
following characteristics which may be
assumed to be linear between the values of
collector voltage stated.
30
50
70
2
3
4
5
6
7
V CE(V)
3.6V
pk−pk
For a resistive load, power gain, Ap , is given by
Base current
(µA)
1
Collector current (mA) for
collector voltages of
1V
5V
1.4
3.0
4.6
1.6
3.5
5.2
The transistor is used as a common-emitter
amplifier with load resistor RL D 1.2 k and
a collector supply of 7 V. The signal input
resistance is 1 k. Estimate the voltage gain
Av , the current gain Ai and the power gain Ap
when an input current of 20 µA peak varies
sinusoidally about a mean bias of 50 µA.
Figure 12.22
The load line is shown superimposed on the characteristic curves with the operating point marked X
at the intersection of the line and the 50 µA characteristic.
From the diagram, the output voltage swing is
3.6 V peak-to-peak. The input voltage swing is ib Ri
where ib is the base current swing and Ri is the input
resistance.
Therefore vi D 40 ð 106 ð 1 ð 103 D 40 mV
peak-to-peak. Hence, voltage gain,
Av D
3.6
output volts
D
D 90
input volts
40 ð 103
Note that peak-to-peak values are taken at both input
and output. There is no need to convert to r.m.s. as
only ratios are involved.
From the diagram, the output current swing is
3.0 mA peak-to-peak. The input base current swing
is 40 µA peak-to-peak. Hence, current gain,
Ai D
D
output current
input current
3 ð 103
D 75
40 ð 106
TLFeBOOK
TRANSISTORS
For a resistance load RL the power gain, Ap is
given by:
147
+ Vcc
RB
Ap D voltage gain ð current gain
RL
IB
D Av ð Ai D 90 ð 75 D 6750
12.9 Thermal runaway
Figure 12.23
When a transistor is used as an amplifier it is necessary to ensure that it does not overheat. Overheating
can arise from causes outside of the transistor itself,
such as the proximity of radiators or hot resistors, or
within the transistor as the result of dissipation by
the passage of current through it. Power dissipated
within the transistor which is given approximately
by the product IC VCE is wasted power; it contributes
nothing to the signal output power and merely raises
the temperature of the transistor. Such overheating
can lead to very undesirable results.
The increase in the temperature of a transistor will
give rise to the production of hole electron pairs,
hence an increase in leakage current represented
by the additional minority carriers. In turn, this
leakage current leads to an increase in collector
current and this increases the product IC VCE . The
whole effect thus becomes self perpetuating and
results in thermal runaway. This rapidly leads to
the destruction of the transistor.
Hence the collector current IC D ˛E IB will also fall
and compensate for the original increase.
A commonly used bias arrangement is shown in
Fig. 12.24. If the total resistance value of resistors
R1 and R2 is such that the current flowing through
the divider is large compared with the d.c. bias
current IB , then the base voltage VBE will remain
substantially constant regardless of variations in
collector current. The emitter resistor RE in turn
determines the value of emitter current which flows
for a given base voltage at the junction of R1 and R2 .
Any increase in IC produces an increase in IE and
a corresponding increase in the voltage drop across
RE . This reduces the forward bias voltage VBE and
leads to a compensating reduction in IC .
Problem 5. Explain how thermal runaway
might be prevented in a transistor
IC
+ V cc
RL
R1
IB
VBE
R2
IE
RE
Two basic methods are available and either or both
may be used in a particular application.
Figure 12.24
Method 1
Method 2
One approach is in the circuit design itself. The use
of a single biasing resistor RB as shown earlier in
Fig. 12.18 is not particularly good practice. If the
temperature of the transistor increases, the leakage
current also increases. The collector current, collector voltage and base current are thereby changed, the
base current decreasing as IC increases. An alternative is shown in Fig. 12.23. Here the resistor RB is
returned, not to the VCC line, but to the collector
itself.
If the collector current increases for any reason,
the collector voltage VCE will fall. Therefore, the
d.c. base current IB will fall, since IB D VCE /RB .
A second method concerns some means of keeping
the transistor temperature down by external cooling.
For this purpose, a heat sink is employed, as shown
in Fig. 12.25. If the transistor is clipped or bolted to
THICK ALUMINIUM
OR COPPER PLATE
POWER TRANSISTOR
BOLTED TO THE PLATE
Figure 12.25
TLFeBOOK
148
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
a large conducting area of aluminium or copper plate
(which may have cooling fins), cooling is achieved
by convection and radiation.
Heat sinks are usually blackened to assist radiation and are normally used where large power dissipation’s are involved. With small transistors, heat
sinks are unnecessary. Silicon transistors particularly have such small leakage currents that thermal
problems rarely arise.
4 A transistor amplifier, supplied from a 9 V battery, requires a d.c. bias current of 100 µA.
What value of bias resistor would be connected from base to the VCC line (a) if VCE
is ignored (b) if VCE is 0.6 V?
[(a) 90 k (b) 84 k]
5 The output characteristics of a transistor in
common-emitter configuration can be regarded
as straight lines connecting the following
points
Now try the following exercises
Exercise 62 Further problems on the
transistor as an amplifier
1 State whether the following statements are true
or false:
(a) The purpose of a transistor amplifier is to
increase the frequency of an input signal
(b) The gain of an amplifier is the ratio of the
output signal amplitude to the input signal
amplitude
(c) The output characteristics of a transistor
relate the collector current to the base voltage.
(d) The equation of the load line is
VCE D VCC IC RL
(e) If the load resistor value is increased the
load line gradient is reduced
(f) In a common-emitter amplifier, the output
voltage is shifted through 180° with reference to the input voltage
(g) In a common-emitter amplifier, the input
and output currents are in phase
(h) If the temperature of a transistor increases,
VBE , IC and ˛E all increase
(i) A heat sink operates by artificially increasing the surface area of a transistor
(j) The dynamic current gain of a transistor is
always greater than the static current
[(a) false
(b) true
(c) false
(d) true
(e) true
(f) true
(g) true
(h) false (VBE decreases)
(i) true
(j) true]
2 An amplifier has Ai D 40 and Av D 30. What
is the power gain?
[1200]
3 What will be the gradient of a load line for a
load resistor of value 4 k? What unit is the
gradient measured in?
[1/4000 siemen]
VCE (V)
IC (mA)
IB D 20 µA
1.0
8.0
1.2
1.4
50 µA
1.0 8.0
3.4 4.2
80 µA
1.0 8.0
6.1 8.1
Plot the characteristics and superimpose the
load line for a 1 k load, given that the supply
voltage is 9 V and the d.c. base bias is 50 µA.
The signal input resistance is 800 . When a
peak input current of 30 µA varies sinusoidally
about a mean bias of 50 µA, determine (a) the
quiescent collector current (b) the current gain
(c) the voltage gain (d) the power gain
[(a) 4 mA (b) 104 (c) 83 (d) 8632]
Exercise 63 Short answer questions on
transistors
1 In a p-n-p transistor the p-type material
regions are called the . . . . . . and . . . . . . , and
the n-type material region is called the . . . . . .
2 In an n-p-n transistor, the p-type material
region is called the . . . . . . and the n-type
material regions are called the . . . . . . and the
......
3 In a p-n-p transistor, the base-emitter junction is . . . . . . biased and the base-collector
junction is . . . . . . biased.
4 In an n-p-n transistor, the base-collector junction is . . . . . . biased and the base-emitter
junction is . . . . . . biased.
5 Majority charge carriers in the emitter of a
transistor pass into the base region. Most of
them do not recombine because the base is
. . . . . . doped.
TLFeBOOK
TRANSISTORS
6 Majority carriers in the emitter region of
a transistor pass the base-collector junction
because for these carriers it is . . . . . . biased.
7 Conventional current flow is in the direction
of . . . . . . flow.
8 Leakage current flows from . . . . . . to . . . . . .
in an n-p-n transistor.
9 The input characteristic of IE against VEB for
a transistor in common-base configuration is
similar in shape to that of a . . . . . . . . . . . .
10 The output resistance of a transistor connected in common-emitter configuration is
. . . . . . than that of a transistor connected in
common-base configuration.
11 Complete the following statements that refer
to a transistor amplifier:
(a) An increase in base current causes collector current to . . . . . .
(b) When base current increases, the voltage
drop across the load resistor . . . . . .
(c) Under no-signal conditions the power
supplied by the battery to an amplifier
equals the power dissipated in the load
plus the power dissipated in the . . . . . .
(d) The load line has a . . . . . . gradient
(e) The gradient of the load line depends
upon the value of . . . . . .
(f) The position of the load line depends
upon . . . . . .
(g) The current gain of a common-emitter
amplifier is always greater than . . . . . .
(h) The operating point is generally positioned at the . . . . . . of the load line
12 Draw a circuit diagram showing how a transistor can be used as a common-emitter
amplifier. Explain briefly the purpose of all
the components you show in your diagram.
149
1 In normal operation, the junctions of a p-n-p
transistor are:
(a) both forward biased
(b) base-emitter forward biased and basecollector reverse biased
(c) both reverse biased
(d) base-collector forward biased and baseemitter reverse biased.
2 In normal operation, the junctions of an n-p-n
transistor are:
(a) both forward biased
(b) base-emitter forward biased and basecollector reverse biased
(c) both reverse biased
(d) base-collector forward biased and baseemitter reverse biased
3 The current flow across the base-emitter junction of a p-n-p transistor consists of
(a) mainly electrons
(b) equal numbers of holes and electrons
(c) mainly holes
(d) the leakage current
4 The current flow across the base-emitter junction of an n-p-n transistor consists of
(a) mainly electrons
(b) equal numbers of holes and electrons
(c) mainly holes
(d) the leakage current
5 In normal operation an n-p-n transistor connected in common-base configuration has
(a) the emitter at a lower potential than the
base
(b) the collector at a lower potential than the
base
(c) the base at a lower potential than the
emitter
(d) the collector at a lower potential than the
emitter
Exercise 64 Multi-choice problems on
transistors (Answers on page 375)
6 In normal operation, a p-n-p transistor connected in common-base configuration has
(a) the emitter at a lower potential than the
base
(b) the collector at a higher potential than the
base
(c) the base at a higher potential than the
emitter
(d) the collector at a lower potential than the
emitter.
In Problems 1 to 10 select the correct answer
from those given.
7 If the per unit value of electrons which leave
the emitter and pass to the collector, ˛, is 0.9
13 Explain briefly what is meant by ‘thermal
runaway’.
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
in an n-p-n transistor and the emitter current
is 4 mA, then
(a) the base current is approximately 4.4 mA
(b) the collector current is approximately
3.6 mA
(c) the collector current is approximately
4.4 mA
(d) the base current is approximately 3.6 mA
8 The base region of a p-n-p transistor is
(a) very thin and heavily doped with holes
(b) very thin and heavily doped with electrons
(c) very thin and lightly doped with holes
(d) very thin and lightly doped with electrons
9 The voltage drop across the base-emitter
junction of a p-n-p silicon transistor in normal operation is about
(a) 200 mV
(b) 600 mV
(c) zero
(d) 4.4 V
10 For a p-n-p transistor,
(a) the number of majority carriers crossing
the base-emitter junction largely depends
on the collector voltage
(b) in common-base configuration, the collector current is proportional to the
collector-base voltage
(c) in common-emitter configuration, the
base current is less than the base current
in common-base configuration
(d) the collector current flow is independent
of the emitter current flow for a given
value of collector-base voltage.
In questions 11 to 15, which refer to the
amplifier shown in Fig. 12.26, select the correct answer from those given
11 If RL short-circuited:
(a) the amplifier signal output would fall to
zero
(b) the collector current would fall to zero
(c) the transistor would overload
+ V cc
R1
RL
V0
Vi
R2
RE
Figure 12.26
13 A voltmeter connected across RE reads zero.
Most probably
(a) the transistor base-emitter junction has
short-circuited
(b) RL has open-circuited
(c) R2 has short-circuited
14 A voltmeter connected across RL reads zero.
Most probably
(a) the VCC supply battery is flat
(b) the base collector junction of the transistor has gone open circuit
(c) RL has open-circuited
15 If RE short-circuited:
(a) the load line would be unaffected
(b) the load line would be affected
In questions 16 to 20, which refer to the
output characteristics shown in Fig. 12.27,
select the correct answer from those given
I c(mA)
8
80 µ A
60 µ A
6
40 µ A
4
P
20 µ A
2
0
12 If R2 open-circuited:
(a) the amplifier signal output would fall to
zero
(b) the operating point would be affected and
the signal would distort
(c) the input signal would not be applied to
the base
0
2
4
6
8
10
12 V (V)
CE
Figure 12.27
16 The load line represents a load resistor of
(a) 1 k (b) 2 k (c) 3 k (d) 0.5 k
TLFeBOOK
TRANSISTORS
17 The no-signal collector dissipation for the
operating point marked P is
(a) 12 mW
(b) 15 mW
(c) 18 mW
(d) 21 mW
18 The greatest permissible peak input current
would be about
(a) 30 µA
(b) 35 µA
(c) 60 µA
(d) 80 µA
151
19 The greatest possible peak output voltage
would then be about
(a) 5.2 V
(b) 6.5 V
(c) 8.8 V
(d) 13 V
20 The power dissipated in the load resistor
under no-signal conditions is:
(a) 16 mW
(b) 18 mW
(c) 20 mW
(d) 22 mW
TLFeBOOK
Assignment 3
This assignment covers the material contained in Chapters 8 to 12.
The marks for each question are shown in brackets at the end of each question.
1 A conductor, 25 cm long is situated at right
angles to a magnetic field. Determine the
strength of the magnetic field if a current of 12 A
in the conductor produces a force on it of 4.5 N.
(3)
on 50 ms and the ‘volts/cm’ switch is on 2 V/cm.
Determine for the waveform (a) the frequency
(b) the peak-to-peak voltage (c) the amplitude
(d) the r.m.s. value.
(7)
2 An electron in a television tube has a charge
of 1.5 ð 1019 C and travels at 3 ð 107 m/s
perpendicular to a field of flux density 20 µT.
Calculate the force exerted on the electron in
the field.
(3)
3 A lorry is travelling at 100 km/h. Assuming the
vertical component of the earth’s magnetic field
is 40 µT and the back axle of the lorry is 1.98 m,
find the e.m.f. generated in the axle due to
motion.
(5)
4 An e.m.f. of 2.5 kV is induced in a coil when a
current of 2 A collapses to zero in 5 ms. Calculate the inductance of the coil.
(4)
5 Two coils, P and Q, have a mutual inductance
of 100 mH. If a current of 3 A in coil P is
reversed in 20 ms, determine (a) the average
e.m.f. induced in coil Q, and (b) the flux change
linked with coil Q if it wound with 200 turns.
(5)
6 A moving coil instrument gives a f.s.d. when the
current is 50 mA and has a resistance of 40 .
Determine the value of resistance required to
enable the instrument to be used (a) as a 0–5 A
ammeter, and (b) as a 0–200 V voltmeter. State
the mode of connection in each case.
(6)
7 An amplifier has a gain of 20 dB. Its input power
is 5 mW. Calculate its output power.
(3)
8 A sinusoidal voltage trace displayed on a c.r.o.
is shown in Figure A3.1; the ‘time/cm’ switch is
Figure A3.1
9 Explain, with a diagram, how semiconductor
diodes may be used to give full wave rectification.
(5)
10 The output characteristics of a common-emitter
transistor amplifier are given below. Assume that
the characteristics are linear between the values
of collector voltage stated.
VCE ⊲V⊳
IC (mA)
IB D 10 µA
1.0
7.0
0.6
0.7
40 µA
1.0 7.0
2.5 2.9
70 µA
1.0 7.0
4.6 5.35
Plot the characteristics and superimpose the load
line for a 1.5 k load resistor and collector supply voltage of 8 V. The signal input resistance is
1.2 k. Determine (a) the voltage gain (b) the
current gain (c) the power gain when an input
current of 30 µA peak varies sinusoidally about
a mean bias of 40 µA
(9)
TLFeBOOK
Formulae for basic electrical and
electronic engineering principles
GENERAL:
D
D ε0 εr
E
Charge Q D It
Force F D ma
Work W D Fs
Power P D
CD
ε0 εr A⊲n 1⊳
d
WD
1
CV2
2
Capacitors in parallel C D C1 C C2 C C3 C . . .
W
t
Capacitors in series
1
1
1
1
D
C
C
C ...
C
C1
C2
C3
Energy W D Pt
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS:
V
V
Ohm’s law V D IR or I D
or R D
R
I
Conductance G D
1
R
Power P D VI D I2 R D
Resistance R D
l
a
V2
R
BD
A
SD
mmf
l
D
0 r A
Fm D NI
HD
B
D 0 r
H
NI
l
ELECTROMAGNETISM:
Resistance at ° C, R D R0 ⊲1 C ˛0 ⊳
F D Bil sin
Terminal p.d. of source, V D E Ir
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:
Series circuit R D R1 C R2 C R3 C . . .
E D Blv sin
Parallel network
1
1
1
1
D
C
C
C ...
R
R1
R2
R3
CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE:
ED
V
d
CD
Q
V
Q D It
DD
Q
A
WD
1 2
LI
2
F D QvB
E D N
LD
N
I
dI
d
D L
dt
dt
E2 D M
dI1
dt
MEASUREMENTS:
Shunt Rs D
Ia ra
Is
Multiplier RM D
V Ira
I
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154
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
P2
P1
I2
D 20 log
I1
V2
D 20 log
V1
Power in decibels D 10 log
Wheatstone bridge RX D
Potentiometer E2 D E1
R 2 R3
R1
l2
l1
TLFeBOOK
Section 2
Further Electrical and Electronic
Principles
TLFeBOOK
13
D.C. circuit theory
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
ž state and use Kirchhoff’s laws to determine unknown currents and voltages in d.c.
circuits
ž understand the superposition theorem and apply it to find currents in d.c. circuits
ž understand general d.c. circuit theory
ž understand Thévenin’s theorem and apply a procedure to determine unknown
currents in d.c. circuits
ž recognize the circuit diagram symbols for ideal voltage and current sources
ž understand Norton’s theorem and apply a procedure to determine unknown currents
in d.c. circuits
ž appreciate and use the equivalence of the Thévenin and Norton equivalent networks
ž state the maximum power transfer theorem and use it to determine maximum power
in a d.c. circuit
13.1 Introduction
The laws which determine the currents and voltage drops in d.c. networks are: (a) Ohm’s law (see
Chapter 2), (b) the laws for resistors in series and
in parallel (see Chapter 5), and (c) Kirchhoff’s laws
(see Section 13.2 following). In addition, there are a
number of circuit theorems which have been developed for solving problems in electrical networks.
These include:
junction is equal to the total current flowing
away from the junction, i.e. I D 0
Thus, referring to Fig. 13.1:
I1 C I2 D I3 C I4 C I5
or
I1 C I2 I3 I4 I5 D 0
(i) the superposition theorem (see Section 13.3),
(ii) Thévenin’s theorem (see Section 13.5),
(iii) Norton’s theorem (see Section 13.7), and
(iv) the maximum power transfer theorem (see Section 13.8)
13.2 Kirchhoff’s laws
Kirchhoff’s laws state:
(a) Current Law. At any junction in an electric
circuit the total current flowing towards that
Figure 13.1
(b) Voltage Law. In any closed loop in a network,
the algebraic sum of the voltage drops (i.e. products of current and resistance) taken around the
loop is equal to the resultant e.m.f. acting in that
loop.
Thus, referring to Fig. 13.2:
E1 E2 D IR1 C IR2 C IR3
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(b) Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law and moving
clockwise around the loop of Fig. 13.3(b) starting at point A:
3 C 6 C E 4 D ⊲I⊳⊲2⊳ C ⊲I⊳⊲2.5⊳
C ⊲I⊳⊲1.5⊳ C ⊲I⊳⊲1⊳
D I⊲2 C 2.5 C 1.5 C 1⊳
Figure 13.2
i.e.
(Note that if current flows away from the positive terminal of a source, that source is considered by convention to be positive. Thus moving
anticlockwise around the loop of Fig. 13.2, E1
is positive and E2 is negative)
Hence
5 C E D 2⊲7⊳, since I D 2 A
E D 14 5 D 9 V
Problem 2. Use Kirchhoff’s laws to
determine the currents flowing in each
branch of the network shown in Fig. 13.4
Problem 1. (a) Find the unknown currents
marked in Fig. 13.3(a) (b) Determine the
value of e.m.f. E in Fig. 13.3(b).
Figure 13.4
Procedure
Figure 13.3
(a) Applying Kirchhoff’s current law:
For junction B: 50 D 20 C I1 .
Hence
I1 D 30 A
For junction C: 20 C 15 D I2 .
Hence
I2 D 35 A
1 Use Kirchhoff’s current law and label current
directions on the original circuit diagram. The
directions chosen are arbitrary, but it is usual,
as a starting point, to assume that current flows
from the positive terminals of the batteries. This
is shown in Fig. 13.5 where the three branch
currents are expressed in terms of I1 and I2 only,
since the current through R is (I1 C I2 )
For junction D: I1 D I3 C 120
i.e.
Hence
30 D I3 C 120.
I3 D −90 A
(i.e. in the opposite direction to that shown in
Fig. 13.3(a))
For junction E: I4 C I3 D 15
i.e.
Hence
I4 D 15 ⊲90⊳.
I4 D 105 A
For junction F: 120 D I5 C 40.
Hence
I5 D 80 A
Figure 13.5
2 Divide the circuit into two loops and apply
Kirchhoff’s voltage law to each. From loop 1 of
Fig. 13.5, and moving in a clockwise direction as
TLFeBOOK
D.C. CIRCUIT THEORY
159
indicated (the direction chosen does not matter),
gives
E1 D I1 r1 C ⊲I1 C I2 ⊳R
i.e.
4 D 2I1 C 4⊲I1 C I2 ⊳,
i.e.
6I1 C 4I2 D 4
⊲1⊳
From loop 2 of Fig. 13.5, and moving in an
anticlockwise direction as indicated (once again,
the choice of direction does not matter; it does not
have to be in the same direction as that chosen
for the first loop), gives:
E2 D I2 r2 C ⊲I1 C I2 ⊳R
i.e.
2 D I2 C 4⊲I1 C I2 ⊳
i.e.
4I1 C 5I2 D 2
Figure 13.6
Problem 3. Determine, using Kirchhoff’s
laws, each branch current for the network
shown in Fig. 13.7
⊲2⊳
3 Solve Equations (1) and (2) for I1 and I2
2 ð ⊲1⊳ gives:
12I1 C 8I2 D 8
⊲3⊳
3 ð ⊲2⊳ gives: 12I1 C 15I2 D 6
⊲4⊳
⊲3⊳ ⊲4⊳ gives: 7I2 D 2
Figure 13.7
hence I2 D 2/7 D 0.286 A
(i.e. I2 is flowing in the opposite direction to that
shown in Fig. 13.5)
From ⊲1⊳
6I1 C 4⊲0.286⊳ D 4
1 Currents, and their directions are shown labelled
in Fig. 13.8 following Kirchhoff’s current law. It
is usual, although not essential, to follow conventional current flow with current flowing from the
positive terminal of the source
6I1 D 4 C 1.144
Hence
I1 D
5.144
D 0.857 A
6
Current flowing through resistance R is
⊲I1 C I2 ⊳ D 0.857 C ⊲0.286⊳
D 0.571 A
Note that a third loop is possible, as shown in
Fig. 13.6, giving a third equation which can be
used as a check:
E1 E2 D I1 r1 I2 r2
4 2 D 2I1 I2
Figure 13.8
2 The network is divided into two loops as shown
in Fig. 13.8. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law
gives:
For loop 1:
2 D 2I1 I2
[Check: 2I1 I2 D 2⊲0.857⊳ ⊲0.286⊳ D 2]
E1 C E2 D I1 R1 C I2 R2
i.e.
16 D 0.5I1 C 2I2
⊲1⊳
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
For loop 2:
E2 D I2 R2 ⊲I1 I2 ⊳R3
Note that since loop 2 is in the opposite direction
to current ⊲I1 I2 ⊳, the volt drop across R3 (i.e.
⊲I1 I2 ⊳⊲R3 ⊳) is by convention negative.
Thus
12 D 2I2 5⊲I1 I2 ⊳
i.e.
12 D 5I1 C 7I2
Figure 13.10
⊲2⊳
3 Solving Equations (1) and (2) to find I1 and I2 :
10 ð ⊲1⊳ gives: 160 D 5I1 C 20I2
⊲3⊳
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to loop 2 and
moving in a anticlockwise direction as shown in
Fig. 13.10 gives:
⊲2⊳C⊲3⊳ gives: 172 D 27I2
hence
0 D 2I1 C 32I2 14⊲I I1 ⊳
172
D 6.37 A
I2 D
27
From (1): 16 D 0.5I1 C 2⊲6.37⊳
However
I D 8A
Hence
0 D 2I1 C 32I2 14⊲8 I1 ⊳
i.e.
16 2⊲6.37⊳
D 6.52 A
I1 D
0.5
16I1 C 32I2 D 112
⊲2⊳
Equations (1) and (2) are simultaneous equations
with two unknowns, I1 and I2 .
Current flowing in R3 D ⊲I1 I2 ⊳
D 6.52 6.37 D 0.15 A
Problem 4. For the bridge network shown
in Fig. 13.9 determine the currents in each of
the resistors.
16 ð ⊲1⊳ gives:
208I1 176I2 D 864
⊲3⊳
13 ð ⊲2⊳ gives:
208I1 C 416I2 D 1456
⊲4⊳
592I2 D 592
⊲4⊳ ⊲3⊳ gives:
I2 D 1 A
Substituting for I2 in (1) gives:
13I1 11 D 54
I1 D
65
D 5A
13
Hence, the current flowing in the 2 resistor
D I1 D 5 A
Figure 13.9
the current flowing in the 14 resistor
Let the current in the 2 resistor be I1 , then by
Kirchhoff’s current law, the current in the 14
resistor is ⊲II1 ⊳. Let the current in the 32 resistor
be I2 as shown in Fig. 13.10. Then the current in the
11 resistor is ⊲I1 I2 ⊳ and that in the 3 resistor
is ⊲I I1 C I2 ⊳. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law
to loop 1 and moving in a clockwise direction as
shown in Fig. 13.10 gives:
13I1 11I2 D 54
the current flowing in the 32 resistor
D I2 D 1 A
the current flowing in the 11 resistor
D ⊲I1 I2 ⊳ D 5 1 D 4 A
and the current flowing in the 3 resistor
54 D 2I1 C 11⊲I1 I2 ⊳
i.e.
D ⊲I I1 ⊳ D 8 5 D 3 A
⊲1⊳
D I I1 C I2 D 8 5 C 1 D 4 A
TLFeBOOK
D.C. CIRCUIT THEORY
Now try the following exercise
161
4 Find the current flowing in the 3 resistor for
the network shown in Fig. 13.14(a). Find also
the p.d. across the 10 and 2 resistors.
[2.715 A, 7.410 V, 3.948 V]
Exercise 65 Further problems on
Kirchhoff’s laws
1 Find currents I3 , I4 and I6 in Fig. 13.11
[I3 D 2 A, I4 D 1 A, I6 D 3 A]
Figure 13.14
Figure 13.11
2 For the networks shown in Fig. 13.12, find the
values of the currents marked.
[(a) I1 D 4 A, I2 D 1 A, I3 D 13 A
(b) I1 D 40 A, I2 D 60 A, I3 D 120 A
I4 D 100 A, I5 D 80 A]
5 For the network shown in Fig. 13.14(b) find:
(a) the current in the battery, (b) the current in
the 300 resistor, (c) the current in the 90
resistor, and (d) the power dissipated in the
150 resistor.
[(a) 60.38 mA (b) 15.10 mA
(c) 45.28 mA (d) 34.20 mW]
6 For the bridge network shown in Fig. 13.14(c),
find the currents I1 to I5
[I1 D 1.26 A, I2 D 0.74 A, I3 D 0.16 A,
I4 D 1.42 A, I5 D 0.59 A]
Figure 13.12
3 Use Kirchhoff’s laws to find the current flowing in the 6 resistor of Fig. 13.13 and the
power dissipated in the 4 resistor.
[2.162 A, 42.07 W]
Figure 13.13
13.3 The superposition theorem
The superposition theorem states:
In any network made up of linear resistances and
containing more than one source of e.m.f., the resultant current flowing in any branch is the algebraic
sum of the currents that would flow in that branch
if each source was considered separately, all other
sources being replaced at that time by their respective internal resistances.
The superposition theorem is demonstrated in the
following worked problems
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Problem 5. Figure 13.15 shows a circuit
containing two sources of e.m.f., each with
their internal resistance. Determine the
current in each branch of the network by
using the superposition theorem.
and I3 D
4
4
I1 D ⊲1.429⊳ D 1.143 A
4C1
5
by current division
3 Redraw the original circuit with source E1
removed, being replaced by r1 only, as shown
in Fig. 13.17(a)
Figure 13.15
Figure 13.17
Procedure:
1 Redraw the original circuit with source E2
removed, being replaced by r2 only, as shown
in Fig. 13.16(a)
4 Label the currents in each branch and their directions as shown in Fig. 13.17(a) and determine
their values.
r1 in parallel with R gives an equivalent resistance
of ⊲2 ð 4⊳/⊲2 C 4⊳ D 8/6 D 1.333
From the equivalent circuit of Fig. 13.17(b)
I4 D
Figure 13.16
2 Label the currents in each branch and their directions as shown in Fig. 13.16(a) and determine
their values. (Note that the choice of current directions depends on the battery polarity, which, by
convention is taken as flowing from the positive
battery terminal as shown)
R in parallel with r2 gives an equivalent resistance
of ⊲4 ð 1⊳/⊲4 C 1⊳ D 0.8
From the equivalent circuit of Fig. 13.16(b),
I1 D
2
E2
D 0.857 A
D
1.333 C r2
1.333 C 1
From Fig. 13.17(a),
2
I4 D
I5 D
2C4
4
I4 D
I6 D
2C4
2
⊲0.857⊳ D 0.286 A
6
4
⊲0.857⊳ D 0.571 A
6
5 Superimpose Fig. 13.17(a) on to Fig. 13.16(a) as
shown in Fig. 13.18
E1
4
D
r1 C 0.8
2 C 0.8
D 1.429 A
From Fig. 11.16(a),
I2 D
1
1
I1 D ⊲1.429⊳ D 0.286 A
4C1
5
Figure 13.18
6 Determine the algebraic sum of the currents flowing in each branch.
TLFeBOOK
D.C. CIRCUIT THEORY
163
Resultant current flowing through source 1, i.e.
I1 I6 D 1.429 0.571
D 0.858 A (discharging)
Resultant current flowing through source 2, i.e.
I4 I3 D 0.857 1.143
D −0.286 A (charging)
Resultant current flowing through resistor R, i.e.
I2 C I5 D 0.286 C 0.286
D 0.572 A
The resultant currents with their directions are
shown in Fig. 13.19
Figure 13.21
I1 D
E1
8
D
D 1.667 A
3 C 1.8
4.8
From Fig 13.21(a),
18
18
⊲1.667⊳ D 1.500 A
I1 D
I2 D
2 C 18
20
2
2
and I3 D
I1 D
⊲1.667⊳ D 0.167 A
2 C 18
20
3 Removing source E1 gives the circuit of
Fig. 13.22(a) (which is the same as Fig. 13.22(b))
Figure 13.19
Problem 6. For the circuit shown in
Fig. 13.20, find, using the superposition
theorem, (a) the current flowing in and the
p.d. across the 18 resistor, (b) the current
in the 8 V battery and (c) the current in the
3 V battery.
Figure 13.22
Figure 13.20
4 The current directions are labelled as shown in
Figures 13.22(a) and 13.22(b), I4 flowing from
the positive terminal of E2
From Fig. 13.22(c),
3
E2
D
D 0.656 A
2 C 2.571
4.571
1 Removing source E2 gives the circuit of
Fig. 13.21(a)
I4 D
2 The current directions are labelled as shown in
Fig. 13.21(a), I1 flowing from the positive terminal of E1
From Fig 13.21(b),
From Fig. 13.22(b),
18
18
⊲0.656⊳ D 0.562 A
I4 D
I5 D
3 C 18
21
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
I6 D
3
3
⊲0.656⊳ D 0.094 A
I4 D
3 C 18
21
5 Superimposing Fig. 13.22(a) on to Fig. 13.21(a)
gives the circuit in Fig. 13.23
2 Use the superposition theorem to find the current in the 8 resistor of Fig. 13.25
[0.385 A]
Figure 13.25
Figure 13.23
6 (a) Resultant current in the 18 resistor
3 Use the superposition theorem to find the current in each branch of the network shown in
Fig. 13.26
[10 V battery discharges at 1.429 A
4 V battery charges at 0.857 A
Current through 10 resistor is 0.572 A]
D I3 I6
D 0.167 0.094 D 0.073 A
P.d. across the 18 resistor
D 0.073 ð 18 D 1.314 V
(b) Resultant current in the 8 V battery
D I1 C I5 D 1.667 C 0.562
Figure 13.26
D 2.229 A (discharging)
(c) Resultant current in the 3 V battery
D I2 C I4 D 1.500 C 0.656
D 2.156 A (discharging)
4 Use the superposition theorem to determine
the current in each branch of the arrangement
shown in Fig. 13.27
[24 V battery charges at 1.664 A
52 V battery discharges at 3.280 A
Current in 20 resistor is 1.616 A]
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 66 Further problems on the
superposition theorem
1 Use the superposition theorem to find currents
I1 , I2 and I3 of Fig. 13.24
[I1 D 2 A, I2 D 3 A, I3 D 5 A]
Figure 13.27
13.4 General d.c. circuit theory
Figure 13.24
The following points involving d.c. circuit analysis need to be appreciated before proceeding with
problems using Thévenin’s and Norton’s theorems:
TLFeBOOK
D.C. CIRCUIT THEORY
(i) The open-circuit voltage, E, across terminals
AB in Fig. 13.28 is equal to 10 V, since no
current flows through the 2 resistor and
hence no voltage drop occurs.
165
(iv) The resistance ‘looking-in’ at terminals AB
in Fig. 13.31(a) is obtained by reducing the
circuit in stages as shown in Figures 13.31(b)
to (d). Hence the equivalent resistance across
AB is 7 .
Figure 13.28
(ii) The open-circuit voltage, E, across terminals
AB in Fig. 13.29(a) is the same as the voltage
across the 6 resistor. The circuit may be
redrawn as shown in Fig. 13.29(b)
6
ED
⊲50⊳
6C4
by voltage division in a series circuit, i.e.
E D 30 V
Figure 13.29
Figure 13.31
(v) For the circuit shown in Fig. 13.32(a), the
3 resistor carries no current and the p.d.
across the 20 resistor is 10 V. Redrawing
the circuit gives Fig. 13.32(b), from which
4
ED
ð 10 D 4 V
4C6
(vi) If the 10 V battery in Fig. 13.32(a) is removed
and replaced by a short-circuit, as shown in
Fig. 13.32(c), then the 20 resistor may be
removed. The reason for this is that a shortcircuit has zero resistance, and 20 in parallel
with zero ohms gives an equivalent resistance
of ⊲20 ð 0⊳/⊲20 C 0⊳ i.e. 0 . The circuit
(iii) For the circuit shown in Fig. 13.30(a)
representing a practical source supplying
energy, V D E Ir, where E is the battery
e.m.f., V is the battery terminal voltage and
r is the internal resistance of the battery (as
shown in Section 4.6). For the circuit shown
in Fig. 13.30(b),
V D E ⊲I⊳r, i.e. V D E C Ir
Figure 13.30
Figure 13.32
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166
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
is then as shown in Fig. 13.32(d), which is
redrawn in Fig. 13.32(e). From Fig. 13.32(e),
the equivalent resistance across AB,
6ð4
C 3 D 2.4 C 3 D 5.4 Z
6C4
(vii) To find the voltage across AB in Fig. 13.33:
Since the 20 V supply is across the 5 and
15 resistors in series then, by voltage division, the voltage drop across AC,
5
VAC D
⊲20⊳ D 5 V
5 C 15
rD
(ix) In the worked problems in Sections 13.5
and 13.7 following, it may be considered
that Thévenin’s and Norton’s theorems have
no obvious advantages compared with, say,
Kirchhoff’s laws. However, these theorems
can be used to analyse part of a circuit
and in much more complicated networks the
principle of replacing the supply by a constant
voltage source in series with a resistance (or
impedance) is very useful.
13.5 Thévenin’s theorem
Thévenin’s theorem states:
Figure 13.33
Similarly,
12
⊲20⊳ D 16 V.
VCB D
12 C 3
VC is at a potential of C20 V.
VA D VC VAC D C20 5 D 15 V
and VB D VC VBC D C20 16 D 4 V.
Hence the voltage between AB is VA VB D
15 4 D 11 V and current would flow from
A to B since A has a higher potential than B.
(viii) In Fig. 13.34(a), to find the equivalent
resistance across AB the circuit may be
redrawn as in Figs. 13.34(b) and (c). From
Fig. 13.26(c), the equivalent resistance across
5 ð 15 12 ð 3
AB D
C
5 C 15 12 C 3
The current in any branch of a network is that which
would result if an e.m.f. equal to the p.d. across
a break made in the branch, were introduced into
the branch, all other e.m.f.’s being removed and
represented by the internal resistances of the sources.
The procedure adopted when using Thévenin’s
theorem is summarized below. To determine the
current in any branch of an active network (i.e. one
containing a source of e.m.f.):
(i) remove the resistance R from that branch,
(ii) determine the open-circuit voltage, E, across
the break,
(iii) remove each source of e.m.f. and replace them
by their internal resistances and then determine
the resistance, r, ‘looking-in’ at the break,
(iv) determine the value of the current from the
equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 13.35, i.e.
I =
E
R+r
D 3.75 C 2.4 D 6.15 Z
Figure 13.34
Figure 13.35
TLFeBOOK
D.C. CIRCUIT THEORY
Problem 7. Use Thévenin’s theorem to find
the current flowing in the 10 resistor for
the circuit shown in Fig 13.36
167
(iii) Removing the source of e.m.f. gives the circuit
of Fig. 13.37(b) Resistance,
r D R3 C
R 1 R2
2ð8
D5C
R1 C R2
2C8
D 5 C 1.6 D 6.6
(iv) The equivalent Thévenin’s circuit is shown in
Fig. 13.37(c)
8
8
E
D
D
RCr
10 C 6.6
16.6
D 0.482 A
Current I D
Figure 13.36
Following the above procedure:
Hence the current flowing in the 10 resistor
of Fig. 13.36 is 0.482 A.
(i) The 10 resistance is removed from the circuit
as shown in Fig. 13.37(a)
Problem 8. For the network shown in
Fig. 13.38 determine the current in the 0.8
resistor using Thévenin’s theorem.
R3 = 5 Ω
10 V
A
I1
R2 = 8 Ω
R1= 2 Ω
B
(a)
R3 = 5 Ω
R1= 2 Ω
A
R2 = 8 Ω
Figure 13.38
r
Following the procedure:
B
(b)
(i) The 0.8 resistor is removed from the circuit
as shown in Fig. 13.39(a).
I
A
E=8V
R = 10 Ω
r = 6.6 Ω
B
(c)
5Ω
5Ω
12 V
1Ω
E 1Ω
4Ω
I1
Figure 13.37
4Ω
I1 D
10
10
D 1A
D
R1 C R2
2C8
P.d. across R2 D I1 R2 D 1 ð 8 D 8 V. Hence
p.d. across AB, i.e. the open-circuit voltage
across the break, E D 8 V
(b)
I
A
1Ω+5 Ω
= 6Ω 4 Ω
r
E =4.8 V
r =2.4 Ω
B
(c)
r
B
B
(a)
(ii) There is no current flowing in the 5 resistor
and current I1 is given by
A
A
A
R = 0.8 Ω
B
(d)
Figure 13.39
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168
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(ii) Current I1 D
12
12
D
D 1.2 A
1C5C4
10
P.d. across 4 resistor D 4I1 D ⊲4⊳⊲1.2⊳ D
4.8 V. Hence p.d. across AB, i.e. the opencircuit voltage across AB, E D 4.8 V
A
E1= 4 V
E2=2 V E
I1
r1 = 2 Ω
r2 =1 Ω
B
(a)
(iii) Removing the source of e.m.f. gives the circuit
shown in Fig. 13.39(b). The equivalent circuit
of Fig. 13.39(b) is shown in Fig. 13.39(c), from
which, resistance
rD
4ð6
24
D
D 2.4
4C6
10
A
r
r1 =2 Ω
r2 =1 Ω
B
(b)
(iv) The equivalent Thévenin’s circuit is shown in
Fig. 13.39(d), from which, current
4.8
4.8
E
D
D
ID
rCR
2.4 C 0.8
3.2
D 1.5 A D current in the 0.8 Z resistor
I
E =2 23 V
A
R =4 Ω
r = 32 Ω
B
Problem 9. Use Thévenin’s theorem to
determine the current I flowing in the 4
resistor shown in Fig. 13.40. Find also the
power dissipated in the 4 resistor.
E1 = 4 V
r1 = 2 Ω
R = 4Ω
r2 =1 Ω
E
D
rCR
2 32
2
3
C4
D
8/3
8
D
14/3
14
D current in the 4 Z resistor
Following the procedure:
(i) The 4 resistor is removed from the circuit as
shown in Fig. 13.41(a)
2
E 1 E2
42
D A
D
r1 C r2
2C1
3
P.d. across AB,
2
2
E D E1 I1 r1 D 4 ⊲2⊳ D 2 V
3
3
(see Section 13.4(iii)). (Alternatively, p.d.
across AB, E D E2 C I1 r2 D 2 C 32 ⊲1⊳ D 2 32 V)
(iii) Removing the sources of e.m.f. gives the circuit
shown in Fig. 13.41(b), from which, resistance
rD
ID
D 0.571 A
Figure 13.40
(ii) Current I1 D
Figure 13.41
(iv) The equivalent Thévenin’s circuit is shown in
Fig. 13.41(c), from which, current,
I
E2 =2 V
(c)
2
2ð1
D
2C1
3
Power dissipated in the 4 resistor,
P D I2 R D ⊲0.571⊳2 ⊲4⊳ D 1.304 W
Problem 10. Determine the current in the
5 resistance of the network shown in
Fig. 13.42 using Thévenin’s theorem. Hence
find the currents flowing in the other two
branches.
r1 =
0.5 Ω
E1 = 4 V
E2 =12 V
R3 = 5 Ω
r2 = 2 Ω
Figure 13.42
TLFeBOOK
D.C. CIRCUIT THEORY
Following the procedure:
(i) The 5 resistance is removed from the circuit
as shown in Fig. 13.43(a)
i.e.
E2 = 12 V
I1
A
E
r2 = 2 Ω
E1 = 4 V
r1 =
0.5 Ω
r2 =
2Ω
I
Hence current IB D
r1 = 0.5 Ω
E = 0.8 V
r = 0.4 Ω
(b)
IA
A
I = 0.148 A
IB
E2 = 12 V
R3 = 5 Ω
B
E1 = 4 V
V
R3=5 Ω
r2 = 2 Ω
(c)
0.74 D 12 C ⊲IB ⊳⊲2⊳
12.74
12 C 0.74
D
D 6.37 A
2
2
[Check, from Fig. 13.43(d), IA D IB C I, correct to
2 significant figures by Kirchhoff’s current law]
r
B
B
(a)
3.26
4 0.74
D
D 6.52 A
0.5
0.5
Also from Fig. 13.43(d),
Hence current, IA D
V D E2 C IB r2
A
r1 =
0.5 Ω
169
Problem 11. Use Thévenin’s theorem to
determine the current flowing in the 3
resistance of the network shown in
Fig. 13.44. The voltage source has negligible
internal resistance.
(d)
Figure 13.43
(ii) Current I1 D
16
12 C 4
D
D 6.4 A
0.5 C 2
2.5
P.d. across AB,
E D E1 I1 r1 D 4 ⊲6.4⊳⊲0.5⊳ D 0.8 V
(see Section 13.4(iii)). (Alternatively, E D
E2 C I1 r1 D 12 C ⊲6.4⊳⊲2⊳ D 0.8 V)
(iii) Removing the sources of e.m.f. gives the circuit
shown in Fig. 13.43(b), from which resistance
1
0.5 ð 2
D
D 0.4
rD
0.5 C 2
2.5
(iv) The equivalent Thévenin’s circuit is shown in
Fig. 13.43(c), from which, current
E
0.8
0.8
D
D
D 0.148 A
rCR
0.4 C 5
5.4
D current in the 5 Z resistor
ID
From Fig. 13.43(d),
voltage V D IR3 D ⊲0.148⊳⊲5⊳ D 0.74 V
From Section 13.4(iii),
V D E1 IA r1
i.e.
0.74 D 4 ⊲IA ⊳⊲0.5⊳
Figure 13.44
(Note the symbol for an ideal voltage source in
Fig. 13.44 which may be used as an alternative to
the battery symbol.)
Following the procedure
(i) The 3 resistance is removed from the circuit
as shown in Fig. 13.45(a).
(ii) The 1 23 resistance now carries no current.
P.d. across 10 resistor
10
⊲24⊳ D 16 V
D
10 C 5
(see Section 13.4(v)). Hence p.d. across AB,
E D 16 V.
(iii) Removing the source of e.m.f. and replacing it by its internal resistance means that
the 20 resistance is short-circuited as shown
in Fig. 13.45(b) since its internal resistance
is zero. The 20 resistance may thus be
removed as shown in Fig. 13.45(c) (see Section 13.4 (vi)).
From Fig. 13.45(c), resistance,
2 10 ð 5
2 50
rD1 C
D1 C
D 5
3 10 C 5
3 15
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170
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
A
123 Ω
5Ω
10 Ω
E
20 Ω
24 V
24 V
B
(a)
A
1 32 Ω
5Ω
1 32 Ω
A
5Ω
Figure 13.46
r
10 Ω
r
20 Ω
B
10 Ω
Following the procedure:
B
(b)
(c)
(i) The 32 resistor is removed from the circuit
as shown in Fig. 13.47(a)
I
A
E = 16 V
R=3Ω
(ii) The p.d. between A and C,
R1
2
⊲54⊳
⊲E⊳ D
VAC D
R1 C R4
2 C 11
r = 5Ω
B
(d)
Figure 13.45
D 8.31 V
The p.d. between B and C,
R2
14
VBC D
⊲54⊳
⊲E⊳ D
R2 C R3
14 C 3
(iv) The equivalent Thévenin’s circuit is shown in
Fig. 13.45(d), from which, current,
16
16
E
D
D
D 2A
rCR
3C5
8
D current in the 3 Z resistance
ID
D 44.47 V
Hence the p.d. between A and B D
44.47 8.31 D 36.16 V
Point C is at a potential of C54 V. Between
C and A is a voltage drop of 8.31 V. Hence
the voltage at point A is 54 8.31 D 45.69 V.
Between C and B is a voltage drop of 44.47 V.
Hence the voltage at point B is 54 44.47 D
9.53 V. Since the voltage at A is greater than
Problem 12. A Wheatstone Bridge network
is shown in Fig. 13.46. Calculate the current
flowing in the 32 resistor, and its direction,
using Thévenin’s theorem. Assume the
source of e.m.f. to have negligible resistance.
C
E=
54 V
C
R1 =
2Ω
A
R2 =14 Ω
R4=
11 Ω
R3 = 3 Ω
2Ω
A
B
B
11 Ω
(b)
C 14 Ω
A
2Ω
B
11 Ω D 3 Ω
(c)
3Ω
D
D
(a)
2Ω
14 Ω
C
D
A
I
14 Ω
11 Ω
B
3Ω
(d)
r=
4.163 Ω
E=
36.16 V
R5 =
32 Ω
(e)
Figure 13.47
TLFeBOOK
D.C. CIRCUIT THEORY
171
at B, current must flow in the direction A to B.
(See Section 13.4 (vii))
(iii) Replacing the source of e.m.f. with a shortcircuit (i.e. zero internal resistance) gives the
circuit shown in Fig. 13.47(b). The circuit
is redrawn and simplified as shown in
Fig. 13.47(c) and (d), from which the resistance
between terminals A and B,
2 ð 11 14 ð 3
C
rD
2 C 11 14 C 3
D
22 42
C
13 17
Figure 13.49
3 Repeat problems 1 to 4 of Exercise 66, page
164, using Thévenin’s theorem.
4 In the network shown in Fig. 13.50, the battery
has negligible internal resistance. Find, using
Thévenin’s theorem, the current flowing in the
4 resistor.
[0.918 A]
D 1.692 C 2.471
D 4.163 Z
(iv) The equivalent Thévenin’s circuit is shown in
Fig. 13.47(e), from which, current
E
ID
r C R5
D
36.16
D 1A
4.163 C 32
Hence the current in the 32 Z resistor of Fig.
13.46 is 1 A, flowing from A to B
Figure 13.50
5 For the bridge network shown in Fig. 13.51,
find the current in the 5 resistor, and its
direction, by using Thévenin’s theorem.
[0.153 A from B to A]
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 67 Further problems on
Thévenin’s theorem
1 Use Thévenin’s theorem to find the current
flowing in the 14 resistor of the network
shown in Fig. 13.48. Find also the power dissipated in the 14 resistor.
[0.434 A, 2.64 W]
Figure 13.48
2 Use Thévenin’s theorem to find the current
flowing in the 6 resistor shown in Fig. 13.49
and the power dissipated in the 4 resistor.
[2.162 A, 42.07 W]
Figure 13.51
13.6 Constant-current source
A source of electrical energy can be represented by
a source of e.m.f. in series with a resistance. In
Section 13.5, the Thévenin constant-voltage source
consisted of a constant e.m.f. E in series with an
internal resistance r. However this is not the only
form of representation. A source of electrical energy
can also be represented by a constant-current source
in parallel with a resistance. It may be shown that
the two forms are equivalent. An ideal constantvoltage generator is one with zero internal resistance so that it supplies the same voltage to all
TLFeBOOK
172
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
loads. An ideal constant-current generator is one
with infinite internal resistance so that it supplies the
same current to all loads.
Note the symbol for an ideal current source (BS
3939, 1985), shown in Fig. 13.52
Problem 13. Use Norton’s theorem to
determine the current flowing in the 10
resistance for the circuit shown in Fig. 13.53
13.7 Norton’s theorem
Norton’s theorem states:
The current that flows in any branch of a network
is the same as that which would flow in the branch
if it were connected across a source of electrical
energy, the short-circuit current of which is equal to
the current that would flow in a short-circuit across
the branch, and the internal resistance of which is
equal to the resistance which appears across the
open-circuited branch terminals.
The procedure adopted when using Norton’s theorem is summarized below. To determine the current
flowing in a resistance R of a branch AB of an active
network:
(i) short-circuit branch AB
Figure 13.53
Following the above procedure:
(i) The branch containing the 10 resistance is
short-circuited as shown in Fig. 13.54(a)
A
10 V
10 V
(ii) determine the short-circuit current ISC flowing
in the branch
(iii) remove all sources of e.m.f. and replace them
by their internal resistance (or, if a current
source exists, replace with an open-circuit),
then determine the resistance r, ‘looking-in’ at
a break made between A and B
8Ω
I SC
I SC
2Ω
2Ω
B
(a)
(b)
l
I SC = 5A
(iv) determine the current I flowing in resistance R
from the Norton equivalent network shown in
Fig. 13.52, i.e.
r
I =
ISC
r +R
A
5Ω
r = 1.6 Ω
10 Ω
B
(c)
Figure 13.54
(ii) Fig. 13.54(b) is equivalent to Fig. 13.54(a).
10
D 5A
2
(iii) If the 10 V source of e.m.f. is removed from
Fig. 13.54(a) the resistance ‘looking-in’ at a
break made between A and B is given by:
Hence ISC D
Figure 13.52
rD
2ð8
D 1.6
2C8
TLFeBOOK
D.C. CIRCUIT THEORY
(iv) From the Norton equivalent network shown in
Fig. 13.54(c) the current in the 10 resistance,
by current division, is given by:
1.6
ID
⊲5⊳ D 0.482 A
1.6 C 5 C 10
as obtained previously in Problem 7 using
Thévenin’s theorem.
ID
2
3
2
3
C4
173
⊲4⊳ D 0.571 A,
as obtained previously in problems 2, 5 and
9 using Kirchhoff’s laws and the theorems of
superposition and Thévenin
Problem 15. Determine the current in the
5 resistance of the network shown in
Fig. 13.57 using Norton’s theorem. Hence
find the currents flowing in the other two
branches.
Problem 14. Use Norton’s theorem to
determine the current I flowing in the 4
resistance shown in Fig. 13.55
Figure 13.55
Figure 13.57
Following the procedure:
(i) The 4 branch is short-circuited as shown in
Fig. 13.56(a)
I1
I
A
I2
4V
2V
2Ω
(i) The 5 branch is short-circuited as shown in
Fig. 13.58(a)
A
I1
ISC = 4 A
I SC
Following the procedure:
r = 2/3 Ω
I2
4Ω
I SC
(a)
(b)
B
(a)
4
2
C
B
(b)
Figure 13.58
(ii) From Fig. 13.56(a),
2
1
D 4A
(iii) If the sources of e.m.f. are removed the resistance ‘looking-in’ at a break made between A
and B is given by:
2
2ð1
D
2C1
3
(iv) From the Norton equivalent network shown in
Fig. 13.56(b) the current in the 4 resistance
is given by:
rD
5Ω
2Ω
4V
Figure 13.56
A
I SC = 2 A r = 0.4 Ω
B
B
ISC D I1 C I2 D
12 V
0.5 Ω
1Ω
I
A
(ii) From Fig. 13.58(a),
ISC D I1 I2 D
12
4
D 8 6 D 2A
0.5
2
(iii) If each source of e.m.f. is removed the resistance ‘looking-in’ at a break made between A
and B is given by:
rD
0.5 ð 2
D 0.4
0.5 C 2
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(iv) From the Norton equivalent network shown in
Fig. 13.58(b) the current in the 5 resistance
is given by:
0.4
ID
⊲2⊳ D 0.148 A,
0.4 C 5
as obtained previously in problem 10 using
Thévenin’s theorem.
The currents flowing in the other two branches are
obtained in the same way as in Problem 10. Hence
the current flowing from the 4 V source is 6.52 A and
the current flowing from the 12 V source is 6.37 A.
ISC D
24
D 4.8 A
5
(iii) If the 24 V source of e.m.f. is removed the
resistance ‘looking-in’ at a break made between
A and B is obtained from Fig. 13.60(c) and its
equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 13.60(d) and is
given by:
rD
50
1
10 ð 5
D
D3
10 C 5
15
3
(iv) From the Norton equivalent network shown in
Fig. 13.60(e) the current in the 3 resistance
is given by:
Problem 16. Use Norton’s theorem to
determine the current flowing in the 3
resistance of the network shown in
Fig. 13.59. The voltage source has negligible
internal resistance.
ID
3 13
3 13 C 1 23 C 3
⊲4.8⊳ D 2 A,
as obtained previously in Problem 11 using
Thévenin’s theorem.
Problem 17. Determine the current flowing
in the 2 resistance in the network shown in
Fig. 13.61
Figure 13.59
Following the procedure:
(i) The branch containing the 3 resistance is
short-circuited as shown in Fig. 13.60(a)
(ii) From the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 13.60
(b),
A
I SC
5Ω
10 Ω
A
20 Ω
24 V
B
I SC
Figure 13.61
5Ω
24 V
20 Ω
24 V
r
(b)
I
ISC = 4.8 A
r
10 Ω
20 Ω
(c)
5Ω
A
10 Ω
B
B
(a)
5Ω
A
A
2
r=
3 13 Ω
13 Ω
3Ω
B
B
(d)
(e)
Figure 13.60
TLFeBOOK
D.C. CIRCUIT THEORY
Following the procedure:
(i) The 2 resistance branch is short-circuited as
shown in Fig. 13.62(a)
175
3 Determine the current flowing in the 6 resistance of the network shown in Fig. 13.63 by
using Norton’s theorem.
[2.5 mA]
(ii) Fig. 13.62(b) is equivalent to Fig. 13.62(a).
Hence
6
ISC D
⊲15⊳ D 9 A by current division.
6C4
4Ω A 8Ω
4Ω
15 A
A
Figure 13.63
15 A
7Ω
6Ω
6Ω
B
I SC
B
(b)
(a)
4Ω A 8Ω
I
A
I SC = 9 A
6Ω
2Ω
7Ω
13.8 Thévenin and Norton equivalent
networks
r=6Ω
B
(c)
B
(d)
Figure 13.62
The Thévenin and Norton networks shown in
Fig. 13.64 are equivalent to each other. The
resistance ‘looking-in’ at terminals AB is the same
in each of the networks, i.e. r
(iii) If the 15 A current source is replaced by an
open-circuit then from Fig. 13.62(c) the resistance ‘looking-in’ at a break made between A
and B is given by ⊲6 C 4⊳ in parallel with
⊲8 C 7⊳ , i.e.
rD
⊲10⊳⊲15⊳
150
D
D 6
10 C 15
25
(iv) From the Norton equivalent network shown in
Fig. 13.62(d) the current in the 2 resistance
is given by:
6
I D
⊲9⊳ D 6.75 A
6C2
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 68
theorem
Further problems on Norton’s
Figure 13.64
If terminals AB in Fig. 13.64(a) are shortcircuited, the short-circuit current is given by E/r.
If terminals AB in Fig. 13.64(b) are short-circuited,
the short-circuit current is ISC . For the circuit shown
in Fig. 13.64(a) to be equivalent to the circuit in
Fig. 13.64(b) the same short-circuit current must
flow. Thus ISC D E/r.
Figure 13.65 shows a source of e.m.f. E in series
with a resistance r feeding a load resistance R
From Fig. 13.65,
1 Repeat Problems 1–4 of Exercise 66, page
164, by using Norton’s theorem
2 Repeat Problems 1, 2, 4 and 5 of Exercise 67,
page 171, by using Norton’s theorem
i.e.
E
E/r
ID
D
D
rCR
⊲r C R⊳/r
r
ID
ISC
rCR
r
rCR
E
r
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
The resistance ‘looking-in’ at terminals AB is
2 . Hence the equivalent Norton network is as
shown in Fig. 13.68
Figure 13.65
From Fig. 13.66 it can be seen that, when viewed
from the load, the source appears as a source of current ISC which is divided between r and R connected
in parallel.
Figure 13.68
Problem 19. Convert the network shown in
Fig. 13.69 to an equivalent Thévenin circuit.
Figure 13.66
Figure 13.69
Thus the two representations shown in Fig. 13.64
are equivalent.
Problem 18. Convert the circuit shown in
Fig. 13.67 to an equivalent Norton network.
The open-circuit voltage E across terminals AB in
Fig. 13.69 is given by:
E D ⊲ISC ⊳⊲r⊳ D ⊲4⊳⊲3⊳ D 12 V.
The resistance ‘looking-in’ at terminals AB is
3 . Hence the equivalent Thévenin circuit is as
shown in Fig. 13.70
Figure 13.67
If terminals AB in Fig. 13.67 are short-circuited, the
short-circuit current ISC D 10/2 D 5 A
Figure 13.70
TLFeBOOK
D.C. CIRCUIT THEORY
Problem 20. (a) Convert the circuit to the
left of terminals AB in Fig. 13.71 to an
equivalent Thévenin circuit by initially
converting to a Norton equivalent circuit.
(b) Determine the current flowing in the
1.8 resistor.
A
E1 =
12 V
E2 = 24 V
r1 = 3 Ω
177
I flowing is given by
19.2
I D
D 6.4 A
1.2 C 1.8
Problem 21. Determine by successive
conversions between Thévenin and Norton
equivalent networks a Thévenin equivalent
circuit for terminals AB of Fig. 13.73. Hence
determine the current flowing in the 200
resistance.
1.8 Ω
r2 = 2 Ω
B
Figure 13.71
(a) For the branch containing the 12 V source, converting to a Norton equivalent circuit gives
ISC D 12/3 D 4 A and r1 D 3 . For the branch
containing the 24 V source, converting to a Norton equivalent circuit gives ISC2 D 24/2 D 12 A
and r2 D 2 . Thus Fig. 13.72(a) shows a network equivalent to Fig. 13.71
A
ISC2 =
12 A
ISC1 =
4A
r2 = 2 Ω
r1 =
3Ω
B
(a)
A
16 A
A
19.2 V
1.2 Ω
Figure 13.73
For the branch containing the 10 V source,
converting to a Norton equivalent network gives
ISC D 10/2000 D 5 mA and r1 D 2 k
For the branch containing the 6 V source,
converting to a Norton equivalent network gives
ISC D 6/3000 D 2 mA and r2 D 3 k
Thus the network of Fig. 13.73 converts to
Fig. 13.74(a). Combining the 5 mA and 2 mA
current sources gives the equivalent network of
Fig. 13.74(b) where the short-circuit current for the
original two branches considered is 7 mA and the
resistance is ⊲2 ð 3⊳/⊲2 C 3⊳ D 1.2 k
Both of the Norton equivalent networks shown in
Fig. 13.74(b) may be converted to Thévenin equivalent circuits. The open-circuit voltage across CD
1.2 Ω
B
(b)
B
(c)
Figure 13.72
From Fig. 13.72(a) the total short-circuit current
is 4 C 12 D 16 A and the total resistance
is given by ⊲3 ð 2⊳/⊲3 C 2⊳ D 1.2 Z. Thus
Fig. 13.72(a) simplifies to Fig. 13.72(b). The
open-circuit voltage across AB of Fig. 13.72(b),
E D ⊲16⊳⊲1.2⊳ D 19.2 V, and the resistance
‘looking-in’ at AB is 1.2 . Hence the Thévenin
equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 13.72(c).
(b) When the 1.8 resistance is connected between
terminals A and B of Fig. 13.72(c) the current
Figure 13.74
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
is ⊲7 ð 103 ⊳⊲1.2 ð 103 ⊳ D 8.4 V and the resistance ‘looking-in’ at CD is 1.2 k. The open-circuit
voltage across EF is ⊲1 ð 103 ⊳ ⊲600⊳ D 0.6 V and
the resistance ‘looking-in’ at EF is 0.6 k. Thus
Fig. 13.74(b) converts to Fig. 13.74(c). Combining
the two Thévenin circuits gives E D 8.4 0.6 D
7.8 V and the resistance r D ⊲1.2C0.6⊳ k D 1.8 kZ
Thus the Thévenin equivalent circuit for terminals
AB of Fig. 13.73 is as shown in Fig. 13.74(d)
Hence the current I flowing in a 200 resistance
connected between A and B is given by
7.8
1800 C 200
7.8
D 3.9 mA
D
2000
ID
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 69 Further problems on
Thévenin and Norton equivalent networks
1 Convert the circuits shown in Fig. 13.75 to
Norton equivalent networks.
[(a) ISC D 25 A, r D 2 (b) ISC D 2 mA,
r D 5 ]
3 (a) Convert the network to the left of terminals
AB in Fig. 13.77 to an equivalent Thévenin
circuit by initially converting to a Norton
equivalent network.
Figure 13.77
(b) Determine the current flowing in the 1.8
resistance connected between A and B in
Fig. 13.77
[(a) E D 18 V, r D 1.2 (b) 6 A]
4 Determine, by successive conversions between
Thévenin and Norton equivalent networks, a
Thévenin equivalent circuit for terminals AB
of Fig. 13.78. Hence determine the current
flowing in a 6 resistor connected between
A and B.
[E D 9 31 V, r D 1 , 1 13 A]
Figure 13.78
Figure 13.75
2 Convert the networks shown in Fig. 13.76 to
Thévenin equivalent circuits
[(a) E D 20 V, r D 4 (b) E D 12 mV,
r D 3 ]
5 For the network shown in Fig. 13.79, convert
each branch containing a voltage source to
its Norton equivalent and hence determine the
current flowing in the 5 resistance. [1.22 A]
Figure 13.79
Figure 13.76
TLFeBOOK
D.C. CIRCUIT THEORY
13.9 Maximum power transfer
theorem
179
When RL D 1.0 , current I D 6/⊲2.5 C 1.0⊳ D
1.714 A and P D ⊲1.714⊳2 ⊲1.0⊳ D 2.94 W.
With similar calculations the following table is
produced:
The maximum power transfer theorem states:
The power transferred from a supply source to a load
is at its maximum when the resistance of the load is
equal to the internal resistance of the source.
Hence, in Fig. 13.80, when R D r the power
transferred from the source to the load is a
maximum.
0
E
ID
2.4
r C RL
P D I2 RL (W) 0
RL ⊲⊳
0.5
1.0
2.0
1.714 1.5
2.00 2.94
1.5
3.38
2.0
2.5
1.333 1.2
3.56
3.60
3.0
3.5 4.0
4.5
5.0
E
1.091 1.0 0.923 0.857 0.8
ID
r C RL
P D I2 RL (W) 3.57 3.50 3.41 3.31 3.20
RL ⊲⊳
Figure 13.80
A graph of RL against P is shown in Fig. 13.82.
The maximum value of power is 3.60 W which
occurs when RL is 2.5 , i.e. maximum power
occurs when RL D r, which is what the maximum
power transfer theorem states.
Problem 22. The circuit diagram of
Fig. 13.81 shows dry cells of source e.m.f.
6 V, and internal resistance 2.5 . If the load
resistance RL is varied from 0 to 5 in
0.5 steps, calculate the power dissipated by
the load in each case. Plot a graph of RL
(horizontally) against power (vertically) and
determine the maximum power dissipated.
Figure 13.82
Problem 23. A d.c. source has an
open-circuit voltage of 30 V and an internal
resistance of 1.5 . State the value of load
resistance that gives maximum power
dissipation and determine the value of this
power.
Figure 13.81
When RL D 0, current I D E/⊲r C RL ⊳ D 6/2.5 D
2.4 A and power dissipated in RL , P D I2 RL i.e.
P D ⊲2.4⊳2 ⊲0⊳ D 0 W.
When RL D 0.5 , current I D E/⊲r C RL ⊳ D
6/⊲2.5 C 0.5⊳ D 2 A and P D I2 RL D ⊲2⊳2 ⊲0.5⊳ D
2.00 W.
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 13.83. From
the maximum power transfer theorem, for maximum
power dissipation, RL D r D 1.5 Z
From Fig. 13.83, current I D E/⊲r C RL ⊳ D
30/⊲1.5 C 1.5⊳ D 10 A
Power P D I2 RL D ⊲10⊳2 ⊲1.5⊳ D 150 W D
maximum power dissipated
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(iv) The equivalent Thévenin’s circuit supplying
terminals AB is shown in Fig. 13.85(c), from
which,
current, I D
Figure 13.83
E
r C RL
For maximum power, RL D r D 2.4 Z
Thus current, I D
Problem 24. Find the value of the load
resistor RL shown in Fig. 13.84 that gives
maximum power dissipation and determine
the value of this power.
12
D 2.5 A
2.4 C 2.4
Power, P, dissipated in load RL , P D I2 RL D
⊲2.5⊳2 ⊲2.4⊳ D 15 W.
Now try the following exercises
Exercise 70 Further problems on the
maximum power transfer theorem
Figure 13.84
Using the procedure for Thévenin’s theorem:
(i) Resistance RL is removed from the circuit as
shown in Fig. 13.85(a)
1 A d.c. source has an open-circuit voltage of
20 V and an internal resistance of 2 . Determine the value of the load resistance that gives
maximum power dissipation. Find the value of
this power.
[2 , 50 W]
2 Determine the value of the load resistance
RL shown in Fig. 13.86 that gives maximum
power dissipation and find the value of the
power.
[RL D 1.6 , P D 57.6 W]
Figure 13.86
Figure 13.85
(ii) The p.d. across AB is the same as the p.d.
across the 12 resistor. Hence
12
⊲15⊳ D 12 V
ED
12 C 3
(iii) Removing the source of e.m.f. gives the circuit
of Fig. 13.85(b), from which, resistance,
rD
12 ð 3
36
D
D 2.4
12 C 3
15
Exercise 71 Short answer questions on
d.c. circuit theory
1 Name two laws and three theorems which may
be used to find unknown currents and p.d.’s in
electrical circuits
2 State Kirchhoff’s current law
3 State Kirchhoff’s voltage law
4 State, in your own words, the superposition
theorem
TLFeBOOK
D.C. CIRCUIT THEORY
181
5 State, in your own words, Thévenin’s theorem
6 State, in your own words, Norton’s theorem
7 State the maximum power transfer theorem for
a d.c. circuit
Figure 13.89
Exercise 72 Multi-choice questions on d.c.
circuit theory (Answers on page 375)
4 For the circuit shown in Fig. 13.90, voltage V is:
(a) 12 V (b) 2 V
(c) 10 V (d) 0 V
1 Which of the following statements is true:
For the junction in the network shown in
Fig. 13.87:
(a) I5 I4 D I3 I2 C I1
(b) I1 C I2 C I3 D I4 C I5
(c) I2 C I3 C I5 D I1 C I4
(d) I1 I2 I3 I4 C I5 D 0
Figure 13.90
5 For the circuit shown in Fig. 13.90, current
I1 is:
(a) 2 A
(b) 14.4 A
(c) 0.5 A
(d) 0 A
Figure 13.87
2 Which of the following statements is true?
For the circuit shown in Fig. 13.88:
(a) E1 C E2 C E3 D Ir1 C Ir2 C I3 r3
(b) E2 C E3 E1 I⊲r1 C r2 C r3 ⊳ D 0
(c) I⊲r1 C r2 C r3 ⊳ D E1 E2 E3
(d) E2 C E3 E1 D Ir1 C Ir2 C Ir3
6 For the circuit shown in Fig. 13.90, current
I2 is:
(a) 2 A
(b) 14.4 A
(c) 0.5 A
(d) 0 A
7 The equivalent resistance across terminals
AB of Fig. 13.91 is:
(a) 9.31
(b) 7.24
(c) 10.0
(d) 6.75
Figure 13.88
3 For the circuit shown in Fig. 13.89, the internal resistance r is given by:
I
VE
I
(c)
EV
(a)
VE
I
EV
(d)
I
(b)
Figure 13.91
8 With reference to Fig. 13.92, which of the
following statements is correct?
(a) VPQ D 2 V
(b) VPQ D 15 V
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(c) When a load is connected between P and
Q, current would flow from Q to P
(d) VPQ D 20 V
12 The maximum power transferred by the
source in Fig. 13.95 is:
(a) 5 W
(b) 200 W
(c) 40 W
(d) 50 W
R
3Ω
I
11 Ω
E = 20 V
P
Q
2Ω
15 V
4Ω
RL
r = 2Ω
S
Figure 13.92
Figure 13.95
9 In Fig. 13.92, if the 15 V battery is replaced
by a short-circuit, the equivalent resistance
across terminals PQ is:
(a) 20
(b) 4.20
(c) 4.13
(d) 4.29
10 For the circuit shown in Fig. 13.93, maximum power transfer from the source is
required. For this to be so, which of the following statements is true?
(a) R2 D 10
(b) R2 D 30
(c) R2 D 7.5
(d) R2 D 15
13 For the circuit shown in Fig. 13.96, voltage
V is:
(a) 0 V
(b) 20 V
(c) 4 V
(d) 16 V
I1
I2
20 V
4Ω
Source
V
1Ω
r=
10 Ω
R1=30 Ω
R2
Figure 13.96
E=
12 V
Figure 13.93
11 The open-circuit voltage E across terminals
XY of Fig. 13.94 is:
(a) 0 V
(b) 20 V (c) 4 V
(d) 16 V
Figure 13.94
14 For the circuit shown in Fig. 13.96, current
I1 is:
(a) 25 A
(b) 4 A
(c) 0 A
(d) 20 A
15 For the circuit shown in Fig. 13.96, current
I2 is:
(a) 25 A
(b) 4 A
(c) 0 A
(d) 20 A
16 The current flowing in the branches of a d.c.
circuit may be determined using:
(a) Kirchhoff’s laws
(b) Lenz’s law
(c) Faraday’s laws
(d) Fleming’s left-hand rule
TLFeBOOK
14
Alternating voltages and currents
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
ž appreciate why a.c. is used in preference to d.c.
ž describe the principle of operation of an a.c. generator
ž distinguish between unidirectional and alternating waveforms
ž define cycle, period or periodic time T and frequency f of a waveform
ž perform calculations involving T D 1/f
ž define instantaneous, peak, mean and r.m.s. values, and form and peak factors for a
sine wave
ž calculate mean and r.m.s. values and form and peak factors for given waveforms
ž understand and perform calculations on the general sinusoidal equation
v D Vm sin⊲ωt š ⊳
ž understand lagging and leading angles
ž combine two sinusoidal waveforms (a) by plotting graphically, (b) by drawing
phasors to scale and (c) by calculation
14.1 Introduction
Electricity is produced by generators at power stations and then distributed by a vast network of
transmission lines (called the National Grid system)
to industry and for domestic use. It is easier and
cheaper to generate alternating current (a.c.) than
direct current (d.c.) and a.c. is more conveniently
distributed than d.c. since its voltage can be readily
altered using transformers. Whenever d.c. is needed
in preference to a.c., devices called rectifiers are
used for conversion (see Section 14.7).
14.2 The a.c. generator
Let a single turn coil be free to rotate at constant
angular velocity symmetrically between the poles
of a magnet system as shown in Fig. 14.1
Figure 14.1
An e.m.f. is generated in the coil (from Faraday’s
laws) which varies in magnitude and reverses its
direction at regular intervals. The reason for this is
shown in Fig. 14.2 In positions (a), (e) and (i) the
conductors of the loop are effectively moving along
the magnetic field, no flux is cut and hence no e.m.f.
is induced. In position (c) maximum flux is cut and
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Figure 14.3
Figure 14.2
hence maximum e.m.f. is induced. In position (g),
maximum flux is cut and hence maximum e.m.f. is
again induced. However, using Fleming’s right-hand
rule, the induced e.m.f. is in the opposite direction
to that in position (c) and is thus shown as E. In
positions (b), (d), (f) and (h) some flux is cut and
hence some e.m.f. is induced. If all such positions
of the coil are considered, in one revolution of the
coil, one cycle of alternating e.m.f. is produced as
shown. This is the principle of operation of the a.c.
generator (i.e. the alternator).
measured in hertz, Hz. The standard frequency of
the electricity supply in Great Britain is 50 Hz
T =
1
1
or f =
f
T
Problem 1. Determine the periodic time for
frequencies of (a) 50 Hz and (b) 20 kHz.
1
1
D
D 0.02 s or 20 ms
f
50
1
1
(b) Periodic time T D D
f
20 000
(a) Periodic time T D
14.3 Waveforms
If values of quantities which vary with time t are
plotted to a base of time, the resulting graph is called
a waveform. Some typical waveforms are shown in
Fig. 14.3. Waveforms (a) and (b) are unidirectional
waveforms, for, although they vary considerably
with time, they flow in one direction only (i.e. they
do not cross the time axis and become negative).
Waveforms (c) to (g) are called alternating waveforms since their quantities are continually changing
in direction (i.e. alternately positive and negative).
A waveform of the type shown in Fig. 14.3(g) is
called a sine wave. It is the shape of the waveform
of e.m.f. produced by an alternator and thus the
mains electricity supply is of ‘sinusoidal’ form.
One complete series of values is called a cycle
(i.e. from O to P in Fig. 14.3(g)).
The time taken for an alternating quantity to
complete one cycle is called the period or the
periodic time, T, of the waveform.
The number of cycles completed in one second
is called the frequency, f, of the supply and is
D 0.00005 s or 50 ms
Problem 2. Determine the frequencies for
periodic times of (a) 4 ms (b) 4 µs.
1
1
D
T
4 ð 103
1000
D 250 Hz
D
4
1
1 000 000
1
D
(b) Frequency f D D
6
T
4 ð 10
4
D 250 000 Hz
(a) Frequency f D
or 250 kHz or 0.25 MHz
Problem 3. An alternating current
completes 5 cycles in 8 ms. What is its
frequency?
TLFeBOOK
ALTERNATING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
Time for 1 cycle D ⊲8/5⊳ ms D 1.6 ms D periodic
time T.
1
1
1000
D
D
T
1.6 ð 103
1.6
10 000
D 625 Hz
D
16
Frequency f D
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 73 Further problems on
frequency and periodic time
1 Determine the periodic time for the following
frequencies:
(a) 2.5 Hz
(b) 100 Hz
(c) 40 kHz
[(a) 0.4 s (b) 10 ms (c) 25 µs]
2 Calculate the frequency for the following periodic times:
(a) 5 ms
(b) 50 µs
(c) 0.2 s
[(a) 200 Hz (b) 20 kHz (c) 5 Hz]
3 An alternating current completes 4 cycles in
5 ms. What is its frequency?
[800 Hz]
185
For a sine wave:
average value = 0.637 × maximum value
.i.e. 2=p × maximum value/
The effective value of an alternating current is
that current which will produce the same heating
effect as an equivalent direct current. The effective
value is called the root mean square (r.m.s.) value
and whenever an alternating quantity is given, it
is assumed to be the rms value. For example, the
domestic mains supply in Great Britain is 240 V and
is assumed to mean ‘240 V rms’. The symbols used
for r.m.s. values are I, V, E, etc. For a non-sinusoidal
waveform as shown in Fig. 14.4 the r.m.s. value is
given by:
ID
i21 C i22 C . . . C i2n
n
where n is the number of intervals used.
14.4 A.c. values
Instantaneous values are the values of the alternating quantities at any instant of time. They are represented by small letters, i, v, e, etc., (see Fig. 14.3(f)
and (g)).
The largest value reached in a half cycle is called
the peak value or the maximum value or the
crest value or the amplitude of the waveform.
Such values are represented by Vm , Im , Em , etc.
(see Fig. 14.3(f) and (g)). A peak-to-peak value of
e.m.f. is shown in Fig. 14.3(g) and is the difference
between the maximum and minimum values in a
cycle.
The average or mean value of a symmetrical
alternating quantity, (such as a sine wave), is the
average value measured over a half cycle, (since
over a complete cycle the average value is zero).
Average or
mean value
D
Figure 14.4
For a sine wave:
rms value = 0.707 × maximum value
p
.i.e. 1= 2 × maximum value/
area under the curve
length of base
The area under the curve is found by approximate methods such as the trapezoidal rule, the midordinate rule or Simpson’s rule. Average values are
represented by VAV , IAV , EAV , etc.
Form factor =
r.m.s. value
average value
For a sine wave, form factor D 1.11
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
maximum value
Peak factor =
r.m.s. value
For a sine wave, peak factor D 1.41.
The values of form and peak factors give an
indication of the shape of waveforms.
Problem 4. For the periodic waveforms
shown in Fig. 14.5 determine for each:
(i) frequency (ii) average value over half a
cycle (iii) r.m.s. value (iv) form factor and
(v) peak factor.
1 volt second
10 ð 103 second
1000
D 100 V
D
10
(iii) In Fig. 14.5(a), the first 1/4 cycle is divided
into 4 intervals. Thus
v21 C v22 C v23 C v24
rms value D
4
252 C752 C1252 C1752
D
4
D
D 114.6 V
(Note that the greater the number of intervals chosen, the greater the accuracy of the
result. For example, if twice the number of
ordinates as that chosen above are used, the
r.m.s. value is found to be 115.6 V)
(iv) Form factor D
r.m.s. value
average value
D
114.6
D 1.15
100
maximum value
r.m.s. value
200
D
D 1.75
114.6
(v) Peak factor D
(b) Rectangular waveform (Fig. 14.5(b)).
Figure 14.5
(i) Time for 1 complete cycle D 16 ms D
periodic time, T. Hence
1
1
1000
D
D
3
T
16 ð 10
16
D 62.5 Hz
frequency, f D
(a) Triangular waveform (Fig. 14.5(a)).
(i) Time for 1 complete cycle D 20 ms D
periodic time, T. Hence
1
1
frequency f D D
T
20 ð 103
1000
D 50 Hz
D
20
(ii) Area under the triangular waveform for a
half-cycle D 12 ð base ð height
D 21 ð ⊲10 ð 103 ⊳ ð 200 D 1 volt second
area under curve
Average value
D
of waveform
length of base
(ii)
Average value over
half a cycle
D
area under curve
length of base
10 ð ⊲8 ð 103 ⊳
8 ð 103
D 10 A
i21 C i22 C i23 C i24
(iii) The r.m.s. value D
4
D 10 A, however many intervals are chosen,
since the waveform is rectangular.
D
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ALTERNATING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
(iv) Form factor D
10
r.m.s. value
D
D1
average value
10
(v) Peak factor D
maximum value
10
D
D1
r.m.s. value
10
187
Problem 5. The following table gives the
corresponding values of current and time for
a half cycle of alternating current.
time t (ms)
current i (A)
0
0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
7 14 23 40
time t (ms)
2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
current i (A) 56 68 76 60
4.5
5
5.0
0
Assuming the negative half cycle is identical
in shape to the positive half cycle, plot the
waveform and find (a) the frequency of the
supply, (b) the instantaneous values of
current after 1.25 ms and 3.8 ms, (c) the peak
or maximum value, (d) the mean or average
value, and (e) the r.m.s. value of the
waveform.
The half cycle of alternating current is shown plotted
in Fig. 14.6
(a) Time for a half cycle D 5 ms; hence the time for
1 cycle, i.e. the periodic time,
T D 10 ms or 0.01 s
1
1
Frequency, f D D
D 100 Hz
T
0.01
(b) Instantaneous value of current after 1.25 ms is
19 A, from Fig. 14.6. Instantaneous value of
current after 3.8 ms is 70 A, from Fig. 14.6
(c) Peak or maximum value D 76 A
area under curve
(d) Mean or average value D
length of base
Using the mid-ordinate rule with 10 intervals,
each of width 0.5 ms gives:
area under
curve
3
D ⊲0.5 ð 10 ⊳[3 C 10 C 19 C 30
C 49 C 63 C 73 C 72 C 30 C 2]
(see Fig. 14.6)
Figure 14.6
Hence mean or
average value
(e) R.m.s value D
D
⊲0.5 ð 103 ⊳⊲351⊳
5 ð 103
D 35.1 A
D
32 C 102 C 192 C 302
C 492 C632 C732 C722
C 302 C 22
10
19157
D 43.8 A
10
Problem 6. Calculate the r.m.s. value of a
sinusoidal current of maximum value 20 A.
For a sine wave,
r.m.s. value D 0.707 ð maximum value
D 0.707 ð 20 D 14.14 A
Problem 7. Determine the peak and mean
values for a 240 V mains supply.
D ⊲0.5 ð 103 ⊳⊲351⊳
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
For a sine wave, r.m.s. value of voltage
V D 0.707 ð Vm .
A 240 V mains supply means that 240 V is the r.m.s.
value, hence
V
240
D
D 339.5 V
0.707
0.707
D peak value
Vm D
Mean value
VAV D 0.637 Vm D 0.637 ð 339.5 D 216.3 V
2 For the waveforms shown in Fig. 14.7 determine for each (i) the frequency (ii) the average
value over half a cycle (iii) the r.m.s. value
(iv) the form factor (v) the peak factor.
[(a) (i) 100 Hz (ii) 2.50 A (iii) 2.88 A
(iv) 1.15
(v) 1.74
(b) (i) 250 Hz (ii) 20 V
(iii) 20 V
(iv) 1.0
(v) 1.0
(c) (i) 125 Hz (ii) 18 A
(iii) 19.56 A
(iv) 1.09
(v) 1.23
(d) (i) 250 Hz (ii) 25 V
(iii) 50 V
(iv) 2.0
(v) 2.0]
Problem 8. A supply voltage has a mean
value of 150 V. Determine its maximum
value and its r.m.s. value.
For a sine wave, mean value D 0.637 ð maximum
value. Hence
mean value
150
D
0.637
0.637
D 235.5 V
maximum value D
R.m.s. value D 0.707 ð maximum value
D 0.707 ð 235.5 D 166.5 V
Figure 14.7
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 74 Further problems on a.c.
values of waveforms
1 An alternating current varies with time over
half a cycle as follows:
Current (A)
time (ms)
0
0
0.7
1
2.0
2
4.2
3
8.4
4
Current (A)
time (ms)
8.2
5
2.5
6
1.0
7
0.4
8
0.2
9
0
10
The negative half cycle is similar. Plot the
curve and determine:
(a) the frequency (b) the instantaneous values
at 3.4 ms and 5.8 ms (c) its mean value and
(d) its r.m.s. value
[(a) 50 Hz (b) 5.5 A, 3.4 A (c) 2.8 A (d) 4.0 A]
3 An alternating voltage is triangular in shape,
rising at a constant rate to a maximum of
300 V in 8 ms and then falling to zero at a
constant rate in 4 ms. The negative half cycle
is identical in shape to the positive half cycle.
Calculate (a) the mean voltage over half a
cycle, and (b) the r.m.s. voltage
[(a) 150 V (b) 170 V]
4 An alternating e.m.f. varies with time over half
a cycle as follows:
E.m.f. (V)
time (ms)
0
0
45
1.5
80
155
3.0
4.5
E.m.f. (V) 215
320
210
time (ms)
6.0
7.5
9.0
E.m.f. (V)
time (ms)
95
10.5
0
12.0
TLFeBOOK
ALTERNATING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
The negative half cycle is identical in shape
to the positive half cycle. Plot the waveform
and determine (a) the periodic time and frequency (b) the instantaneous value of voltage
at 3.75 ms (c) the times when the voltage is
125 V (d) the mean value, and (e) the r.m.s.
value
[(a) 24 ms, 41.67 Hz
(b) 115 V
(c) 4 ms and 10.1 ms (d) 142 V
(e) 171 V]
5 Calculate the r.m.s. value of a sinusoidal curve
of maximum value 300 V
[212.1 V]
189
If all such vertical components are projected on to
a graph of y against angle ωt (in radians), a sine
curve results of maximum value 0A. Any quantity
which varies sinusoidally can thus be represented as
a phasor.
A sine curve may not always start at 0° . To
show this a periodic function is represented by
y D sin⊲ωt š ⊳, where is the phase (or angle) difference compared with y D sin ωt. In Fig. 14.9(a),
y2 D sin⊲ωt C ⊳ starts radians earlier than
y1 D sin ωt and is thus said to lead y1 by radians.
Phasors y1 and y2 are shown in Fig. 14.9(b) at the
time when t D 0.
6 Find the peak and mean values for a 200 V
mains supply
[282.9 V, 180.2 V]
7 Plot a sine wave of peak value 10.0 A. Show
that the average value of the waveform is
6.37 A over half a cycle, and that the r.m.s.
value is 7.07 A
8 A sinusoidal voltage has a maximum value of
120 V. Calculate its r.m.s. and average values.
[84.8 V, 76.4 V]
9 A sinusoidal current has a mean value of
15.0 A. Determine its maximum and r.m.s.
values.
[23.55 A, 16.65 A]
Figure 14.9
14.5 The equation of a sinusoidal
waveform
In Fig. 14.8, 0A represents a vector that is free to
rotate anticlockwise about 0 at an angular velocity
of ω rad/s. A rotating vector is known as a phasor.
After time t seconds the vector 0A has turned
through an angle ωt. If the line BC is constructed
perpendicular to 0A as shown, then
sin ωt D
BC
0B
i.e. BC D 0B sin ωt
In Fig. 14.9(c), y4 D sin⊲ωt ⊳ starts radians
later than y3 D sin ωt and is thus said to lag y3 by
radians. Phasors y3 and y4 are shown in Fig. 14.9(d)
at the time when t D 0.
Given the general sinusoidal voltage,
v = V m sin.wt ± f/, then
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
Amplitude or maximum value D Vm
Peak to peak value D 2 Vm
Angular velocity D ω rad/s
Periodic time, T D 2/ω seconds
Frequency, f D ω/2 Hz (since ω D 2f)
D angle of lag or lead (compared with
v D Vm sin ωt)
Problem 9. An alternating voltage is given
by v D 282.8 sin 314 t volts. Find (a) the
r.m.s. voltage, (b) the frequency and (c) the
instantaneous value of voltage when
t D 4 ms.
Figure 14.8
(a) The general expression for an alternating voltage
is v D Vm sin⊲ωt š ⊳. Comparing
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
v D 282.8 sin 314 t with this general expression
gives the peak voltage as 282.8 V. Hence the
r.m.s. voltage D 0.707 ð maximum value
D 0.707 ð 282.8 D 200 V
(b) Angular velocity, ω D 314 rad/s, i.e. 2f D
314. Hence frequency,
fD
314
D 50 Hz
2
(c) When t D 4 ms,
v D 282.8 sin⊲314 ð 4 ð 103 ⊳
D 282.8 sin⊲1.256⊳ D 268.9 V
180°
Note that 1.256 radians D 1.256 ð
D 71.96°
Hence v D 282.8 sin 71.96° D 268.9 V, as
above.
Problem 10. An alternating voltage is given
by v D 75 sin⊲200t 0.25⊳ volts. Find
(a) the amplitude, (b) the peak-to-peak value,
(c) the r.m.s. value, (d) the periodic time,
(e) the frequency, and (f) the phase angle (in
degrees and minutes) relative to 75 sin 200t.
Comparing v D 75 sin⊲200t 0.25⊳ with the general expression v D Vm sin⊲ωt š ⊳ gives:
(a) Amplitude, or peak value D 75 V
(b) Peak-to-peak value D 2 ð 75 D 150 V
(c) The r.m.s. value D 0.707 ð maximum value
D 0.707 ð 75 D 53 V
(d) Angular velocity, ω D 200 rad/s. Hence periodic time,
2
1
2
D
D
D 0.01 s or 10 ms
TD
ω
200
100
(e) Frequency, f D
1
1
D
D 100 Hz
T
0.01
(f) Phase angle, D 0.25 radians lagging
75 sin 200t
180°
D 14.32°
Hence phase angle D 14.32° lagging
0.25 rads D 0.25 ð
Problem 11. An alternating voltage, v, has
a periodic time of 0.01 s and a peak value of
40 V. When time t is zero, v D 20 V.
Express the instantaneous voltage in the form
v D Vm sin⊲ωt š ⊳.
Amplitude, Vm D 40 V.
2
hence angular velocity,
Periodic time T D
ω
2
2
D
D 200 rad/s.
ωD
T
0.01
v D Vm sin⊲ωt C ⊳ thus becomes
v D 40 sin⊲200t C ⊳ volts.
When time t D 0, v D 20 V
i.e. 20 D 40 sin
so that sin D 20/40 D 0.5
Hence D sin1 ⊲0.5⊳ D 30°
rads D rads
D 30 ð
180
6
p
Thus v = 40 sin 200pt −
V
6
Problem 12. The current in an a.c. circuit at
any time t seconds is given by:
i D 120 sin⊲100t C 0.36⊳ amperes. Find:
(a) the peak value, the periodic time, the
frequency and phase angle relative to
120 sin 100t (b) the value of the current
when t D 0 (c) the value of the current when
t D 8 ms (d) the time when the current first
reaches 60 A, and (e) the time when the
current is first a maximum.
(a) Peak value D 120 A
2
ω
2
D
⊲since ω D 100⊳
100
1
D 0.02 s or 20 ms
D
50
1
1
Frequency, f D D
D 50 Hz
T
0.02
Periodic time T D
TLFeBOOK
ALTERNATING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
Phase angle D 0.36 rads
D 0.36 ð
180°
D 20.63° leading
(b) When t D 0,
i D 120 sin⊲0 C 0.36⊳
D 120 sin 20.63° D 42.3 A
(c) When t D 8 ms,
i D 120 sin 100
8
103
C 0.36
D 120 sin 2.8733⊲D 120 sin 164.63° ⊳
191
(in degrees) of the following alternating quantities:
(a) v D 90 sin 400t volts
[90 V, 63.63 V, 5 ms, 200 Hz, 0° ]
(b) i D 50 sin⊲100t C 0.30⊳ amperes
[50 A, 35.35 A, 0.02 s, 50 Hz, 17.19° lead]
(c) e D 200 sin⊲628.4 t 0.41⊳ volts
[200 V, 141.4 V, 0.01 s, 100 Hz, 23.49°
lag]
3 A sinusoidal current has a peak value of 30 A
and a frequency of 60 Hz. At time t D 0,
the current is zero. Express the instantaneous
current i in the form i D Im sin ωt
[i D 30 sin 120t]
(d) When i D 60 A, 60 D 120 sin⊲100t C 0.36⊳
thus ⊲60/120⊳ D sin⊲100t C 0.36⊳ so that
⊲100t C 0.36⊳ D sin1 0.5 D 30°
D /6 rads D 0.5236 rads. Hence time,
4 An alternating voltage v has a periodic time
of 20 ms and a maximum value of 200 V.
When time t D 0, v D 75 volts. Deduce
a sinusoidal expression for v and sketch one
cycle of the voltage showing important points.
[v D 200 sin⊲100t 0.384⊳]
0.5236 0.36
D 0.521 ms
100
(e) When the current is a maximum, i D 120 A.
5 The voltage in an alternating current circuit at
any time t seconds is given by v D 60 sin 40t
volts. Find the first time when the voltage is
(a) 20 V (b) 30 V
[(a) 8.496 ms (b) 91.63 ms]
D 31.8 A
tD
Thus
120 D 120 sin⊲100t C 0.36⊳
1 D sin⊲100t C 0.36⊳
⊲100t C 0.36⊳ D sin1 1 D 90°
D ⊲/2⊳ rads
Hence time,
D 1.5708 rads.
1.5708 0.36
D 3.85 ms
tD
100
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 75 Further problems on
v = Vm sin.wt ± f/
1 An alternating voltage is represented by v D
20 sin 157.1 t volts. Find (a) the maximum
value (b) the frequency (c) the periodic time.
(d) What is the angular velocity of the phasor
representing this waveform?
[(a) 20 V
(b) 25 Hz
(c) 0.04 s
(d) 157.1 rads/s]
2 Find the peak value, the r.m.s. value, the periodic time, the frequency and the phase angle
6 The instantaneous value of voltage in an a.c.
circuit at any time t seconds is given by
v D 100 sin⊲50t 0.523⊳ V. Find:
(a) the peak-to-peak voltage, the periodic
time, the frequency and the phase angle
(b) the voltage when t D 0
(c) the voltage when t D 8 ms
(d) the times in the first cycle when the voltage
is 60 V
(e) the times in the first cycle when the voltage
is 40 V
(f) the first time when the voltage is a maximum.
Sketch the curve for one cycle showing
relevant points.
[(a) 200 V, 0.04 s, 25 Hz,
29.97° lagging (b) 49.95 V (c) 66.96 V
(d) 7.426 ms, 19.23 ms (e) 25.95 ms, 40.71 ms
(f) 13.33 ms]
14.6 Combination of waveforms
The resultant of the addition (or subtraction) of two
sinusoidal quantities may be determined either:
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(a) by plotting the periodic functions graphically
(see worked Problems 13 and 16), or
(b) by resolution of phasors by drawing or calculation (see worked Problems 14 and 15)
The resultant waveform leads the curve i1 D
20 sin ωt by 19° i.e. ⊲19 ð /180⊳ rads D 0.332 rads
Hence the sinusoidal expression for the resultant
i1 C i2 is given by:
iR = i1 + i2 = 26.5 sin.wt + 0.332/ A
Problem 13. The instantaneous values of
two alternating currents are given by
i1 D 20 sin ωt amperes and
i2 D 10 sin⊲ωt C /3⊳ amperes. By plotting
i1 and i2 on the same axes, using the same
scale, over one cycle, and adding ordinates at
intervals, obtain a sinusoidal expression for
i 1 C i2 .
i1 D 20 sin ωt and i2 D 10 sin⊲ωt C /3⊳ are shown
plotted in Fig. 14.10. Ordinates of i1 and i2 are
added at, say, 15° intervals (a pair of dividers are
useful for this). For example,
Problem 14. Two alternating voltages are
represented by v1 D 50 sin ωt volts and
v2 D 100 sin⊲ωt /6⊳ V. Draw the phasor
diagram and find, by calculation, a sinusoidal
expression to represent v1 C v2 .
Phasors are usually drawn at the instant when time
t D 0. Thus v1 is drawn horizontally 50 units
long and v2 is drawn 100 units long lagging v1 by
/6 rads, i.e. 30° . This is shown in Fig. 14.11(a)
where 0 is the point of rotation of the phasors.
at 30° , i1 C i2 D 10 C 10 D 20 A
at 60° , i1 C i2 D 17.3 C 8.7 D 26 A
at 150° , i1 C i2 D 10 C ⊲5⊳ D 5 A, and so on.
Figure 14.11
Procedure to draw phasor diagram to represent
v1 C v2 :
(i) Draw v1 horizontal 50 units long, i.e. oa of
Fig. 14.11(b)
(ii) Join v2 to the end of v1 at the appropriate angle,
i.e. ab of Fig. 14.11(b)
Figure 14.10
The resultant waveform for i1 C i2 is shown by the
broken line in Fig. 14.10. It has the same period,
and hence frequency, as i1 and i2 . The amplitude or
peak value is 26.5 A
(iii) The resultant vR D v1 C v2 is given by the
length ob and its phase angle may be measured
with respect to v1
Alternatively, when two phasors are being added the
resultant is always the diagonal of the parallelogram,
as shown in Fig. 14.11(c).
From the drawing, by measurement, vR D 145 V
and angle D 20° lagging v1 .
TLFeBOOK
ALTERNATING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
A more accurate solution is obtained by calculation, using the cosine and sine rules. Using the
cosine rule on triangle 0ab of Fig. 14.11(b) gives:
v2R D v21 C v22 2v1 v2 cos 150°
D 502 C 1002 2⊲50⊳⊲100⊳ cos 150°
D 2500 C 10000 ⊲8660⊳
p
vR D 21160 D 145.5 V
from which iR D 26.46 A
By the sine rule:
26.46
10
D
sin
sin 120°
from which D 19.10°
⊲i.e. 0.333 rads⊳
Hence, by calculation,
iR = 26.46 sin.wt + 0.333/ A
Using the sine rule,
100
145.5
D
sin
sin 150°
from which
193
100 sin 150°
145.5
D 0.3436
sin D
and D sin1 0.3436 D 20.096° D 0.35 radians,
and lags v1 . Hence
vR D v1 C v2 D 145.5 sin.wt − 0.35/ V
Problem 15. Find a sinusoidal expression
for ⊲i1 C i2 ⊳ of Problem 13, (b) by drawing
phasors, (b) by calculation.
Problem 16. Two alternating voltages are
given by v1 D 120 sin ωt volts and
v2 D 200 sin⊲ωt /4⊳ volts. Obtain
sinusoidal expressions for v1 v2 (a) by
plotting waveforms, and (b) by resolution of
phasors.
(a) v1 D 120 sin ωt and v2 D 200 sin⊲ωt /4⊳ are
shown plotted in Fig. 14.13 Care must be taken
when subtracting values of ordinates especially
when at least one of the ordinates is negative.
For example
at 30° , v1 v2 D 60 ⊲52⊳ D 112 V
at 60° , v1 v2 D 104 52 D 52 V
at 150° , v1 v2 D 60 193 D 133 V and
so on.
(a) The relative positions of i1 and i2 at time t D 0
are shown as phasors in Fig. 14.12(a). The phasor diagram in Fig. 14.12(b) shows the resultant
iR , and iR is measured as 26 A and angle as
19° or 0.33 rads leading i1 .
Hence, by drawing, iR = 26 sin.wt + 0.33/ A
Figure 14.12
(b) From Fig. 14.12(b), by the cosine rule:
i2R D 202 C 102 2⊲20⊳⊲10⊳⊲cos 120° ⊳
Figure 14.13
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
The resultant waveform, vR D v1 v2 , is shown
by the broken line in Fig. 14.13 The maximum
value of vR is 143 V and the waveform is seen
to lead v1 by 99° (i.e. 1.73 radians)
Hence, by drawing,
from which, 0
D tan1 6.6013
D 81.39°
and
D 98.61° or 1.721 radians
Hence, by resolution of phasors,
vR = v1 − v2 = 143 sin.wt + 1.73/volts
(b) The relative positions of v1 and v2 are shown at
time t D 0 as phasors in Fig. 14.14(a). Since
the resultant of v1 v2 is required, v2 is
drawn in the opposite direction to Cv2 and is
shown by the broken line in Fig. 14.14(a). The
phasor diagram with the resultant is shown in
Fig. 14.14(b) where v2 is added phasorially
to v1 .
vR = v1 − v2 = 143.0 sin.wt + 1.721/ volts
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 76 Further problems on the
combination of periodic functions
1 The instantaneous values of two alternating
voltages are given by v1 D 5 sin ωt and v2 D
8 sin⊲ωt /6⊳. By plotting v1 and v2 on the
same axes, using the same scale, over one
cycle, obtain expressions for
(a) v1 C v2 and (b) v1 v2
[(a) v1 C v2 D 12.58 sin⊲ωt 0.325⊳ V
(b) v1 v2 D 4.44 sin⊲ωt C 2.02⊳ V]
2 Repeat Problem 1 using resolution of phasors
3 Construct a phasor diagram to represent i1 C i2
where i1 D 12 sin ωt and
i2 D 15 sin⊲ωt C /3⊳. By measurement, or
by calculation, find a sinusoidal expression to
represent i1 C i2
[23.43 sin⊲ωt C 0.588⊳]
Determine, either by plotting graphs and
adding ordinates at intervals, or by calculation,
the following periodic functions in the form
v D Vm sin⊲ωt š ⊳
4 10 sin ωt C 4 sin⊲ωt C /4⊳
[13.14 sin⊲ωt C 0.217⊳]
Figure 14.14
5 80 sin⊲ωt C /3⊳ C 50 sin⊲ωt /6⊳
[94.34 sin⊲ωt C 0.489⊳]
By resolution:
Sum of horizontal components of v1 and v2 D
120 cos 0° 200 cos 45° D 21.42
6 100 sin ωt 70 sin⊲ωt /3⊳
[88.88 sin⊲ωt C 0.751⊳]
Sum of vertical components of v1 and v2 D
120 sin 0° C 200 sin 45° D 141.4
From Fig. 14.14(c), resultant
vR
and
D
⊲21.42⊳2 C ⊲141.4⊳2
D 143.0
141.4
tan 0 D
21.42
D tan 6.6013
14.7 Rectification
The process of obtaining unidirectional currents and
voltages from alternating currents and voltages is
called rectification. Automatic switching in circuits
is carried out by devices called diodes. Half and fullwave rectifiers are explained in Chapter 11, Section 11.7, page 132
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ALTERNATING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
Now try the following exercises
Exercise 77 Short answer questions on
alternating voltages and currents
1 Briefly explain the principle of operation of
the simple alternator
2 What is meant by (a) waveform (b) cycle
3 What is the difference between an alternating
and a unidirectional waveform?
4 The time to complete one cycle of a waveform is called the . . . . . .
5 What is frequency? Name its unit
195
(a) a maximum value
(b) a peak value
(c) an instantaneous value
(d) an r.m.s. value
2 An alternating current completes 100 cycles
in 0.1 s. Its frequency is:
(a) 20 Hz
(b) 100 Hz
(c) 0.002 Hz
(d) 1 kHz
3 In Fig. 14.15, at the instant shown, the generated e.m.f. will be:
(a) zero
(b) an r.m.s. value
(c) an average value
(d) a maximum value
6 The mains supply voltage has a special shape
of waveform called a . . . . . .
7 Define peak value
8 What is meant by the r.m.s. value?
9 The domestic mains electricity voltage in
Great Britain is . . . . . .
10 What is the mean value of a sinusoidal alternating e.m.f. which has a maximum value of
100 V?
11 The effective value of a sinusoidal waveform
is . . . . . . ð maximum value
12 What is a phasor quantity?
13 Complete the statement:
Form factor D . . . . . . ł . . . . . ., and for a sine
wave, form factor D . . . . . .
14 Complete the statement:
Peak factor D . . . . . . ł . . . . . ., and for a sine
wave, peak factor D . . . . . .
15 A sinusoidal current is given by i D
Im sin⊲ωt š ˛⊳. What do the symbols Im , ω
and ˛ represent?
16 How is switching obtained when converting
a.c. to d.c.?
Exercise 78 Multi-choice questions on
alternating voltages and currents (Answers
on page 375)
1 The value of an alternating current at any
given instant is:
Figure 14.15
4 The supply of electrical energy for a consumer is usually by a.c. because:
(a) transmission and distribution are more
easily effected
(b) it is most suitable for variable speed
motors
(c) the volt drop in cables is minimal
(d) cable power losses are negligible
5 Which of the following statements is false?
(a) It is cheaper to use a.c. than d.c.
(b) Distribution of a.c. is more convenient
than with d.c. since voltages may be
readily altered using transformers
(c) An alternator is an a.c. generator
(d) A rectifier changes d.c. to a.c.
6 An alternating voltage of maximum value
100 V is applied to a lamp. Which of the
following direct voltages, if applied to the
lamp, would cause the lamp to light with the
same brilliance?
(a) 100 V
(b) 63.7 V
(c) 70.7 V
(d) 141.4 V
7 The value normally stated when referring to
alternating currents and voltages is the:
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196
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
instantaneous value
r.m.s. value
average value
peak value
8 State which of the following is false. For a
sine wave:
(a) the peak factor is 1.414
(b) the r.m.s. value is 0.707 ð peak value
(c) the average value is 0.637 ð r.m.s. value
(d) the form factor is 1.11
9 An a.c. supply is 70.7 V, 50 Hz. Which of the
following statements is false?
(a) The periodic time is 20 ms
(b) The peak value of the voltage is 70.7 V
(c) The r.m.s. value of the voltage is 70.7 V
(d) The peak value of the voltage is 100 V
10 An alternating voltage is given by v D
100 sin⊲50t 0.30⊳ V.
Which of the following statements is true?
(a) The r.m.s. voltage is 100 V
(b) The periodic time is 20 ms
(c) The frequency is 25 Hz
(d) The voltage is leading v D 100 sin 50t
by 0.30 radians
11 The number of complete cycles of an alternating current occurring in one second is
known as:
(a) the maximum value of the alternating
current
(b) the frequency of the alternating current
(c) the peak value of the alternating current
(d) the r.m.s. or effective value
TLFeBOOK
Assignment 4
This assignment covers the material contained in chapters 13 and 14.
The marks for each question are shown in brackets at the end of each question.
1 Find the current flowing in the 5 resistor of the circuit shown in Fig. A4.1 using
(a) Kirchhoff’s laws, (b) the Superposition theorem, (c) Thévenin’s theorem, (d) Norton’s
theorem.
Demonstrate that the same answer results from
each method.
Find also the current flowing in each of the other
two branches of the circuit.
(27)
2 A d.c. voltage source has an internal resistance
of 2 and an open circuit voltage of 24 V. State
the value of load resistance that gives maximum
power dissipation and determine the value of this
power.
(5)
3 A sinusoidal voltage has a mean value of 3.0 A.
Determine it’s maximum and r.m.s. values. (4)
Figure A4.1
4 The instantaneous value of current in an a.c.
circuit at any time t seconds is given by: i D
50 sin⊲100t 0.45⊳ mA. Determine
(a) the peak to peak current, the periodic time, the
frequency and the phase angle (in degrees)
(b) the current when t D 0
(c) the current when t D 8 ms
(d) the first time when the voltage is a maximum.
Sketch the current for one cycle showing relevant
points.
(14)
TLFeBOOK
15
Single-phase series a.c. circuits
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
ž draw phasor diagrams and current and voltage waveforms for (a) purely resistive
(b) purely inductive and (c) purely capacitive a.c. circuits
ž perform calculations involving XL D 2fL and XC D 1/⊲2fC⊳
ž draw circuit diagrams, phasor diagrams and voltage and impedance triangles
for R –L, R –C and R –L –C series a.c. circuits and perform calculations using
Pythagoras’ theorem, trigonometric ratios and Z D V/I
ž understand resonance
ž derive the formula for resonant frequency and use it in calculations
ž understand Q-factor and perform calculations using
ωr L
1
1 L
VL ⊲or VC ⊳
or
or
or
V
R
ωr CR
R C
ž understand bandwidth and half-power points
ž perform calculations involving ⊲f2 f1 ⊳ D fr /Q
ž understand selectivity and typical values of Q-factor
ž appreciate that power P in an a.c. circuit is given by P D VI cos or I2R R and
perform calculations using these formulae
ž understand true, apparent and reactive power and power factor and perform calculations involving these quantities
15.1 Purely resistive a.c. circuit
In a purely resistive a.c. circuit, the current IR and
applied voltage VR are in phase. See Fig. 15.1
In a purely inductive circuit the opposition to the
flow of alternating current is called the inductive
reactance, XL
XL =
15.2 Purely inductive a.c. circuit
In a purely inductive a.c. circuit, the current IL lags
the applied voltage VL by 90° (i.e. /2 rads). See
Fig. 15.2
VL
= 2pfL Z
IL
where f is the supply frequency, in hertz, and L is
the inductance, in henry’s. XL is proportional to f
as shown in Fig. 15.3
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SINGLE-PHASE SERIES A.C. CIRCUITS
199
(a) Inductive reactance,
XL D 2fL
D 2⊲50⊳⊲40 ð 103 ⊳ D 12.57 Z
V
240
D 19.09 A
Current, I D
D
XL
12.57
(b) Inductive reactance,
Figure 15.1
XL D 2⊲1000⊳⊲40 ð 103 ⊳ D 251.3 Z
V
100
Current, I D
D
D 0.398 A
XL
251.3
15.3 Purely capacitive a.c. circuit
Figure 15.2
In a purely capacitive a.c. circuit, the current IC
leads the applied voltage VC by 90° (i.e. /2 rads).
See Fig. 15.4
Figure 15.3
Figure 15.4
Problem 1. (a) Calculate the reactance of a
coil of inductance 0.32 H when it is
connected to a 50 Hz supply. (b) A coil has a
reactance of 124 in a circuit with a supply
of frequency 5 kHz. Determine the
inductance of the coil.
(a) Inductive reactance,
XL D 2fL D 2⊲50⊳⊲0.32⊳ D 100.5 Z
In a purely capacitive circuit the opposition to the
flow of alternating current is called the capacitive
reactance, XC
XC =
VC
1
Z
=
IC
2pfC
where C is the capacitance in farads.
XC varies with frequency f as shown in Fig. 15.5
(b) Since XL D 2fL, inductance
LD
124
XL
D
H D 3.95 mH
2f
2⊲5000⊳
Problem 2. A coil has an inductance of
40 mH and negligible resistance. Calculate its
inductive reactance and the resulting current
if connected to (a) a 240 V, 50 Hz supply,
and (b) a 100 V, 1 kHz supply.
Figure 15.5
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Problem 3. Determine the capacitive
reactance of a capacitor of 10 µF when
connected to a circuit of frequency (a) 50 Hz
(b) 20 kHz
(a) Capacitive reactance
XC D
1
2fC
1
2⊲50⊳⊲10 ð 106 ⊳
106
D
D 318.3 Z
2⊲50⊳⊲10⊳
1
(b) XC D
2fC
D
1
3
2⊲20 ð 10 ⊳⊲10 ð 106 ⊳
D
106
D
2⊲20 ð 103 ⊳⊲10⊳
D 0.796 Z
Hence as the frequency is increased from 50 Hz to
20 kHz, XC decreases from 318.3 to 0.796 (see
Fig. 15.5)
Problem 4. A capacitor has a reactance of
40 when operated on a 50 Hz supply.
Determine the value of its capacitance.
Since
XC D
1
,
2fC
capacitance
CD
1
2fXC
D
1
F
2⊲50⊳⊲40⊳
D
106
µF
2⊲50⊳⊲40⊳
D 79.58 mF
Problem 5. Calculate the current taken by a
23 µF capacitor when connected to a 240 V,
50 Hz supply.
Current
ID
V
XC
D
V
1
2fC
D 2fCV
D 2⊲50⊳⊲23 ð 106 ⊳⊲240⊳
D 1.73 A
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 79 Further problems on purely
inductive and capacitive a.c. circuits
1 Calculate the reactance of a coil of
inductance 0.2 H when it is connected to (a) a
50 Hz, (b) a 600 Hz and (c) a 40 kHz supply.
[(a) 62.83 (b) 754 (c) 50.27 k]
2 A coil has a reactance of 120 in a circuit
with a supply frequency of 4 kHz. Calculate
the inductance of the coil.
[4.77 mH]
3 A supply of 240 V, 50 Hz is connected across
a pure inductance and the resulting current is
1.2 A. Calculate the inductance of the coil.
[0.637 H]
4 An e.m.f. of 200 V at a frequency of 2 kHz is
applied to a coil of pure inductance 50 mH.
Determine (a) the reactance of the coil, and
(b) the current flowing in the coil.
[(a) 628 (b) 0.318 A]
5 A 120 mH inductor has a 50 mA, 1 kHz alternating current flowing through it. Find the
p.d. across the inductor.
[37.7 V]
6 Calculate the capacitive reactance of a capacitor of 20 µF when connected to an a.c. circuit
of frequency (a) 20 Hz, (b) 500 Hz, (c) 4 kHz
[(a) 397.9 (b) 15.92 (c) 1.989 ]
7 A capacitor has a reactance of 80 when
connected to a 50 Hz supply. Calculate the
value of its capacitance.
[39.79 µF]
8 Calculate the current taken by a 10 µF
capacitor when connected to a 200 V,
100 Hz supply.
[1.257 A]
TLFeBOOK
SINGLE-PHASE SERIES A.C. CIRCUITS
9 A capacitor has a capacitive reactance of
400 when connected to a 100 V, 25 Hz
supply. Determine its capacitance and the
current taken from the supply.
[15.92 µF, 0.25 A]
10 Two similar capacitors are connected in parallel to a 200 V, 1 kHz supply. Find the value
of each capacitor if the circuit current is
0.628 A.
[0.25 µF]
15.4 R–L series a.c. circuit
In an a.c. circuit containing inductance L and resistance R, the applied voltage V is the phasor sum
of VR and VL (see Fig. 15.6), and thus the current I
lags the applied voltage V by an angle lying between
0° and 90° (depending on the values of VR and VL ),
shown as angle . In any a.c. series circuit the current is common to each component and is thus taken
as the reference phasor.
For the R–L circuit: Z D
From the phasor diagram of Fig. 15.6, the ‘voltage triangle’ is derived.
For the R–L circuit:
V D V2R C V2L (by Pythagoras’ theorem)
and
tan D
VL
VR
(by trigonometric ratios)
In an a.c. circuit, the ratio applied voltage V to
current I is called the impedance, Z, i.e.
Z =
V
Z
I
If each side of the voltage triangle in Fig. 15.6 is
divided by current I then the ‘impedance triangle’
is derived.
R2 C X2L
XL
,
R
XL
sin D
Z
R
cos D
Z
tan D
and
Problem 6. In a series R–L circuit the p.d.
across the resistance R is 12 V and the p.d.
across the inductance L is 5 V. Find the
supply voltage and the phase angle between
current and voltage.
From the voltage triangle of Fig. 15.6, supply
voltage
V D 122 C 52
V D 13 V
i.e.
(Note that in a.c. circuits, the supply voltage is not
the arithmetic sum of the p.d’s across components.
It is, in fact, the phasor sum)
tan D
Figure 15.6
201
VL
5
,
D
VR
12
from which, circuit phase angle
5
1
D tan
D 22.62° lagging
12
(‘Lagging’ infers that the current is ‘behind’ the
voltage, since phasors revolve anticlockwise)
Problem 7. A coil has a resistance of 4
and an inductance of 9.55 mH. Calculate
(a) the reactance, (b) the impedance, and
(c) the current taken from a 240 V, 50 Hz
supply. Determine also the phase angle
between the supply voltage and current.
R D 4 , L D 9.55 mH D 9.55 ð 103 H,
f D 50 Hz and V D 240 V
(a) Inductive reactance,
XL D 2fL
D 2⊲50⊳⊲9.55 ð 103 ⊳
D 3Z
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(b) Impedance,
p
Z D R2 C X2L D 42 C 32 D 5 Z
(c) Current,
240
V
D
D 48 A
Z
5
The circuit and phasor diagrams and the voltage and
impedance triangles are as shown in Fig. 15.6
ID
Since
tan D
XL
,
R
XL
D tan
R
3
D tan1
4
°
D 36.87 lagging
1
Problem 8. A coil takes a current of 2 A
from a 12 V d.c. supply. When connected to
a 240 V, 50 Hz supply the current is 20 A.
Calculate the resistance, impedance,
inductive reactance and inductance of
the coil.
12
d.c. voltage
D
D 6
d.c. current
2
RD
Impedance
240
a.c. voltage
D
D 12
a.c. current
20
Since
Z D R2 C X2L ,
inductive reactance,
XL D Z2 R2 D 122 62 D 10.39
Since XL D 2fL, inductance,
LD
Problem 9. A coil of inductance 318.3 mH
and negligible resistance is connected in
series with a 200 resistor to a 240 V, 50 Hz
supply. Calculate (a) the inductive reactance
of the coil, (b) the impedance of the circuit,
(c) the current in the circuit, (d) the p.d.
across each component, and (e) the circuit
phase angle.
L D 318.3 mH D 0.3183 H, R D 200 ,
V D 240 V and f D 50 Hz.
The circuit diagram is as shown in Fig. 15.6
(a) Inductive reactance
XL D 2fL D 2⊲50⊳⊲0.3183⊳ D 100 Z
(b) Impedance
Z D R2 C X2L
p
D 2002 C 1002 D 223.6 Z
(c) Current
240
V
D
D 1.073 A
Z
223.6
(d) The p.d. across the coil,
ID
Resistance
ZD
known voltage, and then to repeat the process with
an a.c. supply.
10.39
XL
D
D 33.1 mH
2f
2⊲50⊳
This problem indicates a simple method for finding
the inductance of a coil, i.e. firstly to measure the
current when the coil is connected to a d.c. supply of
VL D IXL D 1.073 ð 100 D 107.3 V
The p.d. across the resistor,
VR D IR D 1.073 ð 200 D 214.6 V
p
[Check: V2R C V2L D 214.62 C 107.32
D 240 V, the supply voltage]
(e) From the impedance triangle, angle
1 XL
1 100
D tan
D tan
R
200
Hence the phase angle f = 26.57° lagging.
Problem 10. A coil consists of a resistance
of 100 and an inductance of 200 mH. If an
alternating voltage, v, given by
v D 200 sin 500 t volts is applied across the
coil, calculate (a) the circuit impedance,
(b) the current flowing, (c) the p.d. across the
resistance, (d) the p.d. across the inductance
and (e) the phase angle between voltage and
current.
TLFeBOOK
SINGLE-PHASE SERIES A.C. CIRCUITS
203
Since v D 200 sin 500 t volts then Vm D 200 V and
ω D 2f D 500 rad/s
Hence r.m.s. voltage
V D 0.707 ð 200 D 141.4 V
Inductive reactance,
XL D 2fL
Figure 15.7
3
D ωL D 500 ð 200 ð 10
D 100
(a) Impedance
Z D R2 C X2L
p
D 1002 C 1002 D 141.4 Z
(b) Current
141.4
V
D
D 1A
Z
141.4
(c) P.d. across the resistance
ID
Inductive reactance
XL D 2fL
D 2⊲5 ð 103 ⊳⊲1.273 ð 103 ⊳
D 40
Impedance,
Z D R2 C X2L D 302 C 402 D 50
VR D IR D 1 ð 100 D 100 V
Supply voltage
VL D IXL D 1 ð 100 D 100 V
Voltage across the 1.273 mH inductance,
P.d. across the inductance
(d) Phase angle between voltage and current is
given by:
XL
R
from which,
1 100
,
D tan
100
p
hence f = 45° or rads
4
tan D
Problem 11. A pure inductance of
1.273 mH is connected in series with a pure
resistance of 30 . If the frequency of the
sinusoidal supply is 5 kHz and the p.d. across
the 30 resistor is 6 V, determine the value
of the supply voltage and the voltage across
the 1.273 mH inductance. Draw the phasor
diagram.
The circuit is shown in Fig. 15.7(a)
Supply voltage, V D IZ
Current I D
6
VR
D
D 0.20 A
R
30
V D IZ D ⊲0.20⊳⊲50⊳ D 10 V
VL D IXL D ⊲0.2⊳⊲40⊳ D 8 V
The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 15.7(b)
(Note that in a.c. circuits, the supply voltage is not
the arithmetic sum of the p.d.’s across components
but the phasor sum)
Problem 12. A coil of inductance 159.2 mH
and resistance 20 is connected in series
with a 60 resistor to a 240 V, 50 Hz
supply. Determine (a) the impedance of the
circuit, (b) the current in the circuit, (c) the
circuit phase angle, (d) the p.d. across the
60 resistor and (e) the p.d. across the coil.
(f) Draw the circuit phasor diagram showing
all voltages.
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 15.8(a). When
impedance’s are connected in series the individual
resistance’s may be added to give the total circuit
resistance. The equivalent circuit is thus shown in
Fig. 15.8(b).
Inductive reactance XL D 2fL
D 2⊲50⊳⊲159.2 ð 103 ⊳ D 50 .
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
2 A coil of inductance 80 mH and resistance
60 is connected to a 200 V, 100 Hz supply. Calculate the circuit impedance and the
current taken from the supply. Find also the
phase angle between the current and the supply voltage.
[78.27 , 2.555 A, 39.95° lagging]
Figure 15.8
3 An alternating voltage given by
v D 100 sin 240 t volts is applied across a coil
of resistance 32 and inductance 100 mH.
Determine (a) the circuit impedance, (b) the
current flowing, (c) the p.d. across the resistance, and (d) the p.d. across the inductance.
[(a) 40 (b) 1.77 A (c) 56.64 V (d) 42.48 V]
(a) Circuit impedance, Z D R2 C X2L
p
D 802 C 502 D 94.34 Z
(b) Circuit current, I D
240
V
D
D 2.544 A.
Z
94.34
(c) Circuit phase angle D
tan1 ⊲50/80⊳ D 32° lagging
tan1 XL /R
D
From Fig. 15.8(a):
(d) VR D IR D ⊲2.544⊳⊲60⊳ D 152.6 V
(e) VCOIL D IZCOIL , where ZCOIL D RC2 C X2L D
p
202 C502 D 53.85 .
Hence VCOIL D ⊲2.544⊳ ⊲53.85⊳ D 137.0 V
(f) For the phasor diagram, shown in Fig. 15.9,
VL D IXL D ⊲2.544⊳⊲50⊳ D 127.2 V.
VRCOIL D IRC D ⊲2.544⊳⊲20⊳ D 50.88 V
The 240 V supply voltage is the phasor sum of
VCOIL and VR as shown in the phasor diagram in
Fig. 15.9
4 A coil takes a current of 5 A from a 20 V
d.c. supply. When connected to a 200 V,
50 Hz a.c. supply the current is 25 A. Calculate the (a) resistance, (b) impedance and
(c) inductance of the coil.
[(a) 4 (b) 8 (c) 22.05 mH]
5 A resistor and an inductor of negligible resistance are connected in series to an a.c. supply.
The p.d. across the resistor is 18 V and the
p.d. across the inductor is 24 V. Calculate the
supply voltage and the phase angle between
voltage and current.
[30 V, 53.13° lagging]
6 A coil of inductance 636.6 mH and negligible
resistance is connected in series with a 100
resistor to a 250 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate
(a) the inductive reactance of the coil, (b) the
impedance of the circuit, (c) the current in the
circuit, (d) the p.d. across each component,
and (e) the circuit phase angle.
[(a) 200 (b) 223.6 (c) 1.118 A
(d) 223.6 V, 111.8 V (e) 63.43° lagging]
Figure 15.9
15.5 R–C series a.c. circuit
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 80 Further problems on R–L a.c.
series circuits
1 Determine the impedance of a coil which has
a resistance of 12 and a reactance of 16
[20 ]
In an a.c. series circuit containing capacitance C and
resistance R, the applied voltage V is the phasor
sum of VR and VC (see Fig. 15.10) and thus the
current I leads the applied voltage V by an angle
lying between 0° and 90° (depending on the values
of VR and VC ), shown as angle ˛.
From the phasor diagram of Fig. 15.10, the ‘voltage triangle’ is derived.
TLFeBOOK
SINGLE-PHASE SERIES A.C. CIRCUITS
205
Phase angle between the supply voltage and
current, ˛ D tan1 ⊲XC /R⊳ hence
70.74
D 70.54° leading
˛ D tan1
25
(‘Leading’ infers that the current is ‘ahead’ of the
voltage, since phasors revolve anticlockwise)
Figure 15.10
For the R –C circuit:
V D V2R C V2C
⊲by Pythagoras’ theorem⊳
and
tan ˛ D
VC
VR
⊲by trigonometric ratios⊳
As stated in Section 15.4, in an a.c. circuit, the
ratio applied voltage V to current I is called the
impedance Z, i.e. Z D V/I
If each side of the voltage triangle in Fig. 15.10 is
divided by current I then the ‘impedance triangle’
is derived.
For the R –C circuit: Z D R2 C X2C
XC
R
XC
, sin ˛ D
and cos ˛ D
tan ˛ D
R
Z
Z
Problem 13. A resistor of 25 is
connected in series with a capacitor of 45 µF.
Calculate (a) the impedance, and (b) the
current taken from a 240 V, 50 Hz supply.
Find also the phase angle between the supply
voltage and the current.
R D 25 , C D 45 µF D 45 ð 106 F,
V D 240 V and f D 50 Hz. The circuit diagram is
as shown in Fig. 15.10
Capacitive reactance,
XC D
1
2fC
Problem 14. A capacitor C is connected in
series with a 40 resistor across a supply of
frequency 60 Hz. A current of 3 A flows and
the circuit impedance is 50 . Calculate
(a) the value of capacitance, C, (b) the
supply voltage, (c) the phase angle between
the supply voltage and current, (d) the p.d.
across the resistor, and (e) the p.d. across the
capacitor. Draw the phasor diagram.
(a) Impedance Z D R2 C X2C
p
p
Hence XC D Z2 R2 D 502 402 D 30
XC D
CD
1
hence,
2fC
1
1
F D 88.42 mF
D
2fXC
2⊲60⊳⊲30⊳
(b) Since Z D V/I then V D IZ D ⊲3⊳⊲50⊳
D 150 V
(c) Phase angle, ˛ D tan1 XC /R D tan1 ⊲30/40⊳
D 36.87° leading.
(d) P.d. across resistor, VR D IR D ⊲3⊳⊲40⊳
D 120 V
(e) P.d. across capacitor, VC D IXC D ⊲3⊳⊲30⊳
D 90 V
The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 15.11, where
the supply voltage V is the phasor sum of VR
and VC .
1
D 70.74
2⊲50⊳⊲45 ð 106 ⊳
(a) Impedance Z D R2 C X2C D 252 C 70.742
D
D 75.03 Z
(b) Current I D V/Z D 240/75.03 D 3.20 A
Figure 15.11
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 81 Further problems on R–C
a.c. circuits
1 A voltage of 35 V is applied across a C–R
series circuit. If the voltage across the resistor
is 21 V, find the voltage across the capacitor.
[28 V]
2 A resistance of 50 is connected in series
with a capacitance of 20 µF. If a supply
of 200 V, 100 Hz is connected across the
arrangement find (a) the circuit impedance,
(b) the current flowing, and (c) the phase angle
between voltage and current.
[(a) 93.98 (b) 2.128 A (c) 57.86° leading]
3 A 24.87 µF capacitor and a 30 resistor are
connected in series across a 150 V supply. If
the current flowing is 3 A find (a) the frequency of the supply, (b) the p.d. across the
resistor and (c) the p.d. across the capacitor.
[(a) 160 Hz (b) 90 V (c) 120 V]
4 An alternating voltage v D 250 sin 800 t volts
is applied across a series circuit containing a
30 resistor and 50 µF capacitor. Calculate
(a) the circuit impedance, (b) the current
flowing, (c) the p.d. across the resistor,
(d) the p.d. across the capacitor, and (e) the
phase angle between voltage and current
[(a) 39.05 (b) 4.527 A (c) 135.8 V
(d) 113.2 V (e) 39.81° ]
5 A 400 resistor is connected in series with
a 2358 pF capacitor across a 12 V a.c. supply.
Determine the supply frequency if the current
flowing in the circuit is 24 mA
[225 kHz]
Figure 15.12
When XC > XL (Fig. 15.12(c)):
Z D R2 C ⊲XC XL ⊳2
and
tan ˛ D
XC XL
R
When XL D XC (Fig. 15.12(d)), the applied voltage V and the current I are in phase. This effect is
called series resonance (see Section 15.7).
Problem 15. A coil of resistance 5 and
inductance 120 mH in series with a 100 µF
capacitor, is connected to a 300 V, 50 Hz
supply. Calculate (a) the current flowing,
(b) the phase difference between the supply
voltage and current, (c) the voltage across the
coil and (d) the voltage across the capacitor.
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 15.13
XL D 2fL
D 2⊲50⊳⊲120 ð 103 ⊳ D 37.70 Z
15.6 R–L–C series a.c. circuit
In an a.c. series circuit containing resistance R,
inductance L and capacitance C, the applied voltage V is the phasor sum of VR , VL and VC (see
Fig. 15.12). VL and VC are anti-phase, i.e. displaced
by 180° , and there are three phasor diagrams possible – each depending on the relative values of VL
and VC .
When XL > XC (Fig. 15.12(b)):
Z D R2 C ⊲XL XC ⊳2
and
tan D
XL XC
R
XC D
D
1
2fC
1
D 31.83 Z
2⊲50⊳⊲100 ð 106 ⊳
Since XL is greater than XC the circuit is inductive.
XL XC D 37.70 31.83 D 5.87
Impedance
Z D R2 C ⊲XL XC ⊳2
D 52 C 5.872 D 7.71
TLFeBOOK
SINGLE-PHASE SERIES A.C. CIRCUITS
207
Figure 15.13
(a) Current I D
300
V
D
D 38.91 A
Z
7.71
(b) Phase angle
XL XC
D tan1
R
5.87
D 49.58°
D tan1
5
(c) Impedance of coil
ZCOIL D R2 C X2L
p
D 52 C 37.72 D 38.03
Voltage across coil
Figure 15.14
VCOIL D IZCOIL
D ⊲38.91⊳⊲38.03⊳ D 1480 V
Phase angle of coil
XL
R
1 37.7
D 82.45° lagging
D tan
5
(d) Voltage across capacitor
D tan1
VC D IXC D ⊲38.91⊳⊲31.83⊳ D 1239 V
The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 15.14. The supply voltage V is the phasor sum of VCOIL and VC .
Series connected impedances
For series-connected impedances the total circuit
impedance can be represented as a single L –C–R
circuit by combining all values of resistance
together, all values of inductance together and all
values of capacitance together, (remembering that
for series connected capacitors
1
1
1
D
C
C ...
C
C1
C2
For example, the circuit of Fig. 15.15(a) showing three impedances has an equivalent circuit of
Fig. 15.15(b).
Figure 15.15
Problem 16. The following three
impedances are connected in series across a
40 V, 20 kHz supply: (i) a resistance of 8 ,
(ii) a coil of inductance 130 µH and 5
resistance, and (iii) a 10 resistor in series
with a 0.25 µF capacitor. Calculate (a) the
circuit current, (b) the circuit phase angle and
(c) the voltage drop across each impedance.
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 15.16(a). Since
the total circuit resistance is 8 C 5 C 10, i.e. 23 , an
equivalent circuit diagram may be drawn as shown
in Fig. 15.16(b).
TLFeBOOK
208
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Problem 17. Determine the p.d.’s V1 and
V2 for the circuit shown in Fig. 15.17 if the
frequency of the supply is 5 kHz. Draw the
phasor diagram and hence determine the
supply voltage V and the circuit phase angle.
Figure 15.16
Inductive reactance,
Figure 15.17
XL D 2fL
D 2⊲20 ð 103 ⊳⊲130 ð 106 ⊳ D 16.34
For impedance Z1 : R1 D 4 and
XL D 2fL
Capacitive reactance,
1
1
D
XC D
3
2fC
2⊲20 ð 10 ⊳⊲0.25 ð 106 ⊳
D 31.83
Since XC > XL , the circuit is capacitive (see phasor
diagram in Fig. 15.12(c)).
XC XL D 31.83 16.34 D 15.49
(a) Circuit
impedance, Z D R2 C ⊲XC XL ⊳2 D
p
232 C 15.492 D 27.73
Circuit current, I D V/Z D 40/27.73 D 1.442 A
From Fig. 15.12(c), circuit phase angle
1 XC XL
D tan
R
i.e.
D arctan1
15.49
23
D 33.96° leading
(b) From Fig. 15.16(a),
V1 D IR1 D ⊲1.442⊳⊲8⊳ D 11.54 V
p
V2 D IZ2 D I 52 C 16.342
D ⊲1.442⊳⊲17.09⊳ D 24.64 V
p
V3 D IZ3 D I 102 C 31.832
D ⊲1.442⊳⊲33.36⊳ D 48.11 V
The 40 V supply voltage is the phasor sum of V1 ,
V2 and V3
D 2⊲5 ð 103 ⊳⊲0.286 ð 103 ⊳
D 8.985
V1 D IZ1 D I R2 C X2L
D 5 42 C 8.9852 D 49.18 V
8.985
XL
Phase angle 1 D tan1
D tan1
R
4
D 66.0° lagging
For impedance Z2 : R2 D 8 and
XC D
1
1
D
2fC
2⊲5 ð 103 ⊳⊲1.273 ð 106 ⊳
D 25.0
V2 D IZ2 D I R2 C X2C D 5 82 C 25.02
D 131.2 V.
XC
Phase angle 2 D tan1
R
1 25.0
D tan
8
D 72.26° leading
The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 15.18
The phasor sum of V1 and V2 gives the
supply voltage V of 100 V at a phase angle of
53.13° leading. These values may be determined by
drawing or by calculation – either by resolving into
horizontal and vertical components or by the cosine
and sine rules.
TLFeBOOK
SINGLE-PHASE SERIES A.C. CIRCUITS
209
Figure 15.19
15.7 Series resonance
Figure 15.18
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 82 Further problems on R–L–C
a.c. circuits
1 A 40 µF capacitor in series with a coil of
resistance 8 and inductance 80 mH is connected to a 200 V, 100 Hz supply. Calculate
(a) the circuit impedance, (b) the current flowing, (c) the phase angle between voltage and
current, (d) the voltage across the coil, and
(e) the voltage across the capacitor.
[(a) 13.18 (b) 15.17 A (c) 52.63°
(d) 772.1 V (e) 603.6 V]
2 Three impedances are connected in series
across a 100 V, 2 kHz supply. The impedances
comprise:
(i) an inductance of 0.45 mH and 2 resistance,
(ii) an inductance of 570 µH and 5 resistance, and
(iii) a capacitor of capacitance 10 µF and
resistance 3
Assuming no mutual inductive effects between
the two inductances calculate (a) the circuit
impedance, (b) the circuit current, (c) the circuit phase angle and (d) the voltage across
each impedance. Draw the phasor diagram.
[(a) 11.12 (b) 8.99 A (c) 25.92° lagging
(d) 53.92 V, 78.53 V, 76.46 V]
3 For the circuit shown in Fig. 15.19 determine
the voltages V1 and V2 if the supply frequency
is 1 kHz. Draw the phasor diagram and hence
determine the supply voltage V and the circuit
phase angle.
[V1 D 26.0 V, V2 D 67.05 V,
V D 50 V, 53.13° leading]
As stated in Section 15.6, for an R–L–C series
circuit, when XL = XC (Fig. 15.12(d)), the applied
voltage V and the current I are in phase. This effect
is called series resonance. At resonance:
(i) VL = VC
(ii) Z D R (i.e. the minimum circuit impedance
possible in an L–C–R circuit)
(iii) I D V/R (i.e. the maximum current possible in
an L–C–R circuit)
(iv) Since XL D XC , then 2fr L D 1/2fr C from
which,
f2r D
1
⊲2⊳2 LC
and
fr =
1
Hz
2p LC
where fr is the resonant frequency.
(v) The series resonant circuit is often described as
an acceptor circuit since it has its minimum
impedance, and thus maximum current, at the
resonant frequency.
(vi) Typical graphs of current I and impedance Z
against frequency are shown in Fig. 15.20
Figure 15.20
TLFeBOOK
210
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Problem 18. A coil having a resistance of
10 and an inductance of 125 mH is
connected in series with a 60 µF capacitor
across a 120 V supply. At what frequency
does resonance occur? Find the current
flowing at the resonant frequency.
D
1
F
⊲2 ð 200 ð 103 ⊳2 ⊲50 ð 106 ⊳
D
⊲106 ⊳⊲106 ⊳
µF
⊲4⊳2 ⊲1010 ⊳⊲50⊳
D 0.0127 mF or 12.7 nF
Resonant frequency,
1
Hz
2 LC
1
D
60
125
2
103
106
fr D
D
At resonance, if R is small compared with XL and
XC , it is possible for VL and VC to have voltages
many times greater than the supply voltage (see
Fig. 15.12(d), page 206)
1
D
D
15.8 Q-factor
2
2
p
125 ð 6
108
Voltage magnification at resonance
1
⊲125⊳⊲6⊳
104
104
D 58.12 Hz
2 ⊲125⊳⊲6⊳
p
=
This ratio is a measure of the quality of a circuit
(as a resonator or tuning device) and is called the
Q-factor. Hence
VL
IXL
D
V
IR
2pfr L
XL
D
D
R
R
Q-factor D
At resonance, XL D XC and impedance Z D R.
Hence current, I D V/R D 120/10 D 12 A
Problem 19. The current at resonance in a
series L –C–R circuit is 100 µA. If the
applied voltage is 2 mV at a frequency of
200 kHz, and the circuit inductance is 50 µH,
find (a) the circuit resistance, and (b) the
circuit capacitance.
(a) I D 100 µA D 100 ð 106 A and V D 2 mV D
2 ð 103 V. At resonance, impedance Z D
resistance R. Hence
V
2 ð 103
2 ð 106
RD
D
D
D 20 Z
I
100 ð 106
100 ð 103
(b) At resonance XL D XC i.e.
1
2fC
Hence capacitance
2fL D
1
CD
⊲2f⊳2 L
voltage across L (or C /
supply voltage V
Alternatively,
IXC
VC
D
V
IR
1
XC
D
D
R
2pfr CR
Q-factor D
At resonance
fr D
i.e.
Hence
1
2 LC
1
2fr D
LC
2fr L
1
Q-factor D
D
R
LC
L
1 L
D
R
R C
TLFeBOOK
SINGLE-PHASE SERIES A.C. CIRCUITS
Problem 20. A coil of inductance 80 mH
and negligible resistance is connected in
series with a capacitance of 0.25 µF and a
resistor of resistance 12.5 across a 100 V,
variable frequency supply. Determine (a) the
resonant frequency, and (b) the current at
resonance. How many times greater than the
supply voltage is the voltage across the
reactance’s at resonance?
(a) Resonant frequency
fr D
2
1
80
103
0.25
106
1
104
p
D
⊲8⊳⊲0.25⊳
2 2
2
108
D 1125.4 Hz or 1.1254 kHz
D
(b) Current at resonance I D V/R D 100/12.5 D 8 A
Voltage across inductance, at resonance,
VL D IXL D ⊲I⊳⊲2fL⊳
D ⊲8⊳⊲2⊳⊲1125.4⊳⊲80 ð 103 ⊳
At resonance,
1
Q-factor D
R
1
D
2
D
VC D IXC D
I
2fC
8
D
2⊲1125.4⊳⊲0.25 ð 106 ⊳
D 4525.5 V⊳
Voltage magnification at resonance D VL /V or
VC /V D 4525.5/100 D 45.255 i.e. at resonance,
the voltage across the reactance’s are 45.255 times
greater than the supply voltage. Hence the Q-factor
of the circuit is 45.255
Problem 21. A series circuit comprises a
coil of resistance 2 and inductance 60 mH,
and a 30 µF capacitor. Determine the
Q-factor of the circuit at resonance.
L
1
D
C
2
60 ð 103
30 ð 106
60 ð 106
30 ð 103
1p
2000 D 22.36
2
Problem 22. A coil of negligible resistance
and inductance 100 mH is connected in series
with a capacitance of 2 µF and a resistance of
10 across a 50 V, variable frequency
supply. Determine (a) the resonant frequency,
(b) the current at resonance, (c) the voltages
across the coil and the capacitor at
resonance, and (d) the Q-factor of the circuit.
(a) Resonant frequency,
fr D
1
D
2 LC
D
2
D 4525.5 V
(Also, voltage across capacitor,
211
1
20
108
D
1
2
100
103
2
106
1
p
2 20
104
104
p D 355.9 Hz
2 20
(b) Current at resonance I D V/R D 50/10 D 5 A
D
(c) Voltage across coil at resonance,
VL D IXL D I⊲2fr L⊳
D ⊲5⊳⊲2 ð 355.9 ð 100 ð 103 ⊳ D 1118 V
Voltage across capacitance at resonance,
VC D IXC D
I
2fr C
5
D 1118 V
2⊲355.9⊳⊲2 ð 106 ⊳
(d) Q-factor (i.e. voltage magnification at resonance)
D
VL
VC
or
V
V
1118
D 22.36
D
50
D
TLFeBOOK
212
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Q-factor may also have been determined by
1
1 L
2fr L
or
or
R
2fr CR
R C
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 83 Further problems on series
resonance and Q-factor
1 Find the resonant frequency of a series a.c. circuit consisting of a coil of resistance 10 and
inductance 50 mH and capacitance 0.05 µF.
Find also the current flowing at resonance if
the supply voltage is 100 V.
[3.183 kHz, 10 A]
15.9 Bandwidth and selectivity
Fig. 15.21 shows how current I varies with frequency in an R –L –C series circuit. At the resonant
frequency fr , current is a maximum value, shown as
Ir . Also shown are the points A and B where the current is 0.707 of the maximum value at frequencies
f1 and f2 . The power delivered to the circuit is I2 R.
At I D 0.707 Ir , the power is ⊲0.707 Ir ⊳2 R D 0.5 I2r R,
i.e. half the power that occurs at frequency fr .
The points corresponding to f1 and f2 are called
the half-power points. The distance between these
points, i.e. ⊲f2 f1 ⊳, is called the bandwidth.
2 The current at resonance in a series L –C–R
circuit is 0.2 mA. If the applied voltage is
250 mV at a frequency of 100 kHz and the
circuit capacitance is 0.04 µF, find the circuit
resistance and inductance.
[1.25 k, 63.3 µH]
3 A coil of resistance 25 and inductance
100 mH is connected in series with a capacitance of 0.12 µF across a 200 V, variable
frequency supply. Calculate (a) the resonant
frequency, (b) the current at resonance and
(c) the factor by which the voltage across the
reactance is greater than the supply voltage.
[(a) 1.453 kHz (b) 8 A (c) 36.52]
4 A coil of 0.5 H inductance and 8 resistance
is connected in series with a capacitor across
a 200 V, 50 Hz supply. If the current is in
phase with the supply voltage, determine the
capacitance of the capacitor and the p.d. across
its terminals.
[20.26 µF, 3.928 kV]
5 Calculate the inductance which must be connected in series with a 1000 pF capacitor to
give a resonant frequency of 400 kHz.
[0.158 mH]
6 A series circuit comprises a coil of resistance 20 and inductance 2 mH and a 500 pF
capacitor. Determine the Q-factor of the circuit at resonance. If the supply voltage is
1.5 V, what is the voltage across the capacitor?
[100, 150 V]
Figure 15.21
It may be shown that
Q=
fr
.f 2 − f 1 /
.f 2 − f 1 / =
or
fr
Q
Problem 23. A filter in the form of a series
L –R –C circuit is designed to operate at a
resonant frequency of 5 kHz. Included within
the filter is a 20 mH inductance and 10
resistance. Determine the bandwidth of the
filter.
Q-factor at resonance is given by:
ωr L
⊲2 ð 5000⊳⊲20 ð 103 ⊳
D
R
10
D 62.83
Qr D
TLFeBOOK
SINGLE-PHASE SERIES A.C. CIRCUITS
213
Since Qr D fr /⊲f2 f1 ⊳, bandwidth,
⊲f2 f1 ⊳ D
5000
fr
D
D 79.6 Hz
Q
62.83
Selectivity is the ability of a circuit to respond more
readily to signals of a particular frequency to which
it is tuned than to signals of other frequencies. The
response becomes progressively weaker as the frequency departs from the resonant frequency. The
higher the Q-factor, the narrower the bandwidth and
the more selective is the circuit. Circuits having
high Q-factors (say, in the order of 100 to 300)
are therefore useful in communications engineering.
A high Q-factor in a series power circuit has disadvantages in that it can lead to dangerously high
voltages across the insulation and may result in electrical breakdown.
Figure 15.23
and hence average power, depends on the value of
angle .
For an R–L, R –C or R –L –C series a.c. circuit,
the average power P is given by:
P = VI cos f watts
or
15.10 Power in a.c. circuits
In Figures 15.22(a)–(c), the value of power at any
instant is given by the product of the voltage and
current at that instant, i.e. the instantaneous power,
p D vi, as shown by the broken lines.
(a) For a purely resistive a.c. circuit, the
average power dissipated, P, is given by:
P = VI = I 2 R = V 2 =R watts (V and I being
rms values) See Fig. 15.22(a)
(b) For a purely inductive a.c. circuit, the average
power is zero. See Fig. 15.22(b)
(c) For a purely capacitive a.c. circuit, the average
power is zero. See Fig. 15.22(c)
Figure 15.23 shows current and voltage waveforms for an R –L circuit where the current lags the
voltage by angle . The waveform for power (where
p D vi) is shown by the broken line, and its shape,
P = I 2 R watts
(V and I being r.m.s. values)
Problem 24. An instantaneous current,
i D 250 sin ωt mA flows through a pure
resistance of 5 k. Find the power dissipated
in the resistor.
Power dissipated, P D I2 R where I is the r.m.s.
value of current. If i D 250 sin ωt mA, then Im D
0.250 A and r.m.s. current, I D ⊲0.707 ð 0.250⊳ A.
Hence power P D ⊲0.707 ð 0.250⊳2 ⊲5000⊳ D
156.2 watts.
Problem 25. A series circuit of resistance
60 and inductance 75 mH is connected to a
110 V, 60 Hz supply. Calculate the power
dissipated.
Figure 15.22
TLFeBOOK
214
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Inductive reactance, XL D 2fL
3
D 2⊲60⊳⊲75 ð 10 ⊳
i.e.
p.f. = cos f =
R
Z
(from Fig. 15.6)
D 28.27
Impedance, Z D R2 C X2L
D 602 C 28.272
D 66.33
Current, I D V/Z D 110/66.33 D 1.658 A.
To calculate power dissipation in an a.c. circuit
two formulae may be used:
Figure 15.24
(i) P D I2 R D ⊲1.658⊳2 ⊲60⊳ D 165 W
or
R
60
(ii) P D VI cos where cos D D
Z
66.33
D 0.9046.
Hence P D ⊲110⊳⊲1.658⊳⊲0.9046⊳ D 165 W
The relationships stated above are also true when
current I leads voltage V.
Problem 26. A pure inductance is
connected to a 150 V, 50 Hz supply, and the
apparent power of the circuit is 300 VA. Find
the value of the inductance.
15.11 Power triangle and power factor
Figure 15.24(a) shows a phasor diagram in which
the current I lags the applied voltage V by angle .
The horizontal component of V is V cos and the
vertical component of V is V sin . If each of the
voltage phasors is multiplied by I, Fig. 15.24(b) is
obtained and is known as the ‘power triangle’.
Apparent power,
S = VI voltamperes (VA)
True or active power,
Apparent power S D VI. Hence current I D S/V D
300/150 D 2 A. Inductive reactance XL D V/I D
150/2 D 75 . Since XL D 2fL,
inductance L D
75
XL
D
D 0.239 H
2f
2⊲50⊳
Problem 27. A transformer has a rated
output of 200 kVA at a power factor of 0.8.
Determine the rated power output and the
corresponding reactive power.
P = VI cos f watts (W)
Reactive power,
Q = VI sin f reactive
voltamperes (var)
Power factor =
True power P
Apparent power S
For sinusoidal voltages and currents,
power factor D
P
VI cos
D
S
VI
VI D 200 kVA D 200 ð 103 and p.f. D 0.8 D cos .
Power output, P D VI cos D ⊲200 ð 103 ⊳⊲0.8⊳ D
160 kW.
Reactive power, Q D VI sin . If cos D 0.8,
then D cos1 0.8 D 36.87° . Hence sin D
sin 36.87° D 0.6. Hence reactive power, Q D
⊲200 ð 103 ⊳⊲0.6⊳ D 120 kvar.
Problem 28. A load takes 90 kW at a power
factor of 0.5 lagging. Calculate the apparent
power and the reactive power.
TLFeBOOK
SINGLE-PHASE SERIES A.C. CIRCUITS
True power P D 90 kW D VI cos and
power factor D 0.5 D cos .
90
P
D
D 180 kVA
Apparent power, S D VI D
cos 0.5
Angle D cos1 0.5 D 60° hence sin D sin 60° D
0.866.
Hence reactive power, Q D VI sin D 180 ð
103 ð 0.866 D 156 kvar.
Problem 29. The power taken by an
inductive circuit when connected to a 120 V,
50 Hz supply is 400 W and the current is 8 A.
Calculate (a) the resistance, (b) the
impedance, (c) the reactance, (d) the power
factor, and (e) the phase angle between
voltage and current.
(a) Power P D I2 R hence R D
400
P
D 2 D 6.25 Z.
2
I
8
V
120
D
D 15 Z.
I
8
p
(c) Since Z D R2 C X2L , then XL D Z2 R2 D
p
152 6.252 D 13.64 Z
(b) Impedance Z D
(d) Power factor D
D
VI cos
true power
D
apparent power
VI
400
D 0.4167
⊲120⊳⊲8⊳
(e) p.f. D cos D 0.4167 hence phase angle,
D cos1 0.4167 D 65.37° lagging
Problem 30. A circuit consisting of a
resistor in series with a capacitor takes 100
watts at a power factor of 0.5 from a 100 V,
60 Hz supply. Find (a) the current flowing,
(b) the phase angle, (c) the resistance, (d) the
impedance, and (e) the capacitance.
(a) Power factor D
true power
, i.e. 0.5 D
apparent power
100
hence current,
100 ð I
100
I D
D 2A
⊲0.5⊳⊲100⊳
(b) Power factor D 0.5 D cos hence phase angle,
D cos1 0.5 D 60° leading
215
(c) Power P D I2 R hence resistance,
RD
P
100
D 2 D 25 Z
2
I
2
100
V
D
D 50 Z
I
2
p
(e) Capacitive
reactance, XC D
Z2 R2 D
p
2
2
50 25 D 43.30 . XC D 1/2fC. Hence
(d) Impedance Z D
capacitance, C D
1
1
F
D
2fXC
2⊲60⊳⊲43.30⊳
D 61.26 mF
Now try the following exercises
Exercise 84 Further problems on power in
a.c. circuits
1 A voltage v D 200 sin ωt volts is applied
across a pure resistance of 1.5 k. Find the
power dissipated in the resistor. [13.33 W]
2 A 50 µF capacitor is connected to a 100 V,
200 Hz supply. Determine the true power and
the apparent power.
[0, 628.3 VA]
3 A motor takes a current of 10 A when
supplied from a 250 V a.c. supply. Assuming
a power factor of 0.75 lagging find the power
consumed. Find also the cost of running the
motor for 1 week continuously if 1 kWh of
electricity costs 7.20 p
[1875 W, £22.68]
4 A motor takes a current of 12 A when
supplied from a 240 V a.c. supply. Assuming
a power factor of 0.75 lagging, find the power
consumed.
[2.16 kW]
5 A transformer has a rated output of 100 kVA
at a power factor of 0.6. Determine the rated
power output and the corresponding reactive
power.
[60 kW, 80 kvar]
6 A substation is supplying 200 kVA and
150 kvar. Calculate the corresponding power
and power factor.
[132 kW, 0.66]
7 A load takes 50 kW at a power factor of 0.8
lagging. Calculate the apparent power and the
reactive power.
[62.5 kVA, 37.5 kvar]
8 A coil of resistance 400 and inductance
0.20 H is connected to a 75 V, 400 Hz supply.
Calculate the power dissipated in the coil.
[5.452 W]
TLFeBOOK
216
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
9 An 80 resistor and a 6 µF capacitor are
connected in series across a 150 V, 200 Hz
supply. Calculate (a) the circuit impedance,
(b) the current flowing and (c) the power
dissipated in the circuit.
[(a) 154.9 (b) 0.968 A (c) 75 W]
10 The power taken by a series circuit
containing resistance and inductance is
240 W when connected to a 200 V, 50 Hz
supply. If the current flowing is 2 A find the
values of the resistance and inductance.
[60 , 255 mH]
11 The power taken by a C–R series circuit,
when connected to a 105 V, 2.5 kHz supply,
is 0.9 kW and the current is 15 A. Calculate
(a) the resistance, (b) the impedance, (c) the
reactance, (d) the capacitance, (e) the power
factor, and (f) the phase angle between
voltage and current.
[(a) 4 (b) 7 (c) 5.745 (d) 11.08 µF
(e) 0.571 (f) 55.18° leading]
12 A circuit consisting of a resistor in series with
an inductance takes 210 W at a power factor
of 0.6 from a 50 V, 100 Hz supply. Find
(a) the current flowing, (b) the circuit phase
angle, (c) the resistance, (d) the impedance
and (e) the inductance.
[(a) 7 A (b) 53.13° lagging (c) 4.286
(d) 7.143 (e) 9.095 mH]
13 A 200 V, 60 Hz supply is applied to a
capacitive circuit. The current flowing is 2 A
and the power dissipated is 150 W. Calculate
the values of the resistance and capacitance.
[37.5 , 28.61 µF]
2 Draw phasor diagrams to represent (a) a
purely resistive a.c. circuit (b) a purely
inductive a.c. circuit (c) a purely capacitive
a.c. circuit
3 What is inductive reactance? State the symbol and formula for determining inductive
reactance
4 What is capacitive reactance? State the symbol and formula for determining capacitive
reactance
5 Draw phasor diagrams to represent (a) a
coil (having both inductance and resistance),
and (b) a series capacitive circuit containing
resistance
6 What does ‘impedance’ mean when referring
to an a.c. circuit ?
7 Draw an impedance triangle for an R –L circuit. Derive from the triangle an expression
for (a) impedance, and (b) phase angle
8 Draw an impedance triangle for an R –C circuit. From the triangle derive an expression
for (a) impedance, and (b) phase angle
9 What is series resonance ?
10 Derive a formula for resonant frequency fr
in terms of L and C
11 What does the Q-factor in a series circuit
mean ?
12 State three formulae used to calculate the Qfactor of a series circuit at resonance
13 State an advantage of a high Q-factor in a
series high-frequency circuit
14 State a disadvantage of a high Q-factor in a
series power circuit
Exercise 85 Short answer questions on
single-phase a.c. circuits
1 Complete the following statements:
(a) In a purely resistive a.c. circuit the
current is . . . . . . with the voltage
(b) In a purely inductive a.c. circuit the
current . . . . . . the voltage by . . . . . .
degrees
(c) In a purely capacitive a.c. circuit the
current . . . . . . the voltage by . . . . . .
degrees
15 State two formulae which may be used to
calculate power in an a.c. circuit
16 Show graphically that for a purely inductive
or purely capacitive a.c. circuit the average
power is zero
17 Define ‘power factor’
18 Define (a) apparent power (b) reactive power
19 Define (a) bandwidth (b) selectivity
TLFeBOOK
SINGLE-PHASE SERIES A.C. CIRCUITS
Exercise 86 Multi-choice questions on
single-phase a.c. circuits (Answers on
page 376)
1 An inductance of 10 mH connected across
a 100 V, 50 Hz supply has an inductive
reactance of
(a) 10
(b) 1000
(c)
(d) H
2 When the frequency of an a.c. circuit
containing resistance and inductance is
increased, the current
(a) decreases
(b) increases
(c) stays the same
3 In question 2, the phase angle of the circuit
(a) decreases (b) increases (c) stays the same
4 When the frequency of an a.c. circuit
containing resistance and capacitance is
decreased, the current
(a) decreases
(b) increases
(c) stays the same
217
10 The impedance of a coil, which has a
resistance of X ohms and an inductance of
Y henrys, connected across a supply of
frequency K Hz, is
(a) 2 KY
(b) X
CY
p
2
2
(c) X C Y
(d) X2 C⊲2KY⊳2
11 In question 10, the phase angle between the
current and the applied voltage is given by
(a) tan1
Y
X
(c) tan1
X
2KY
2KY
(b) tan1
X
2KY
(d) tan
X
12 When a capacitor is connected to an a.c.
supply the current
(a) leads the voltage by 180°
(b) is in phase with the voltage
(c) leads the voltage by /2 rad
(d) lags the voltage by 90°
5 In question 4, the phase angle of the circuit
(a) decreases (b) increases (c) stays the same
13 When the frequency of an a.c. circuit
containing resistance and capacitance is
increased the impedance
(a) increases
(b) decreases
(c) stays the same
6 A capacitor of 1 µF is connected to a
50 Hz supply. The capacitive reactance is
10
10
(a) 50 M (b)
k (c) 4 (d)
10
7 In a series a.c. circuit the voltage across
a pure inductance is 12 V and the voltage
across a pure resistance is 5 V. The supply
voltage is
(a) 13 V (b) 17 V (c) 7 V
(d) 2.4 V
14 In an R –L –C series a.c. circuit a current
of 5 A flows when the supply voltage is
100 V. The phase angle between current
and voltage is 60° lagging. Which of the
following statements is false?
(a) The circuit is effectively inductive
(b) The apparent power is 500 VA
(c) The equivalent circuit reactance is 20
(d) The true power is 250 W
8 Inductive reactance results in a current that
(a) leads the voltage by 90°
(b) is in phase with the voltage
(c) leads the voltage by rad
(d) lags the voltage by /2 rad
15 A series a.c. circuit comprising a coil of
inductance 100 mH and resistance 1 and a
10 µF capacitor is connected across a 10 V
supply. At resonance the p.d. across the
capacitor is
(a) 10 kV (b) 1 kV (c) 100 V (d) 10 V
9 Which of the following statements is false ?
(a) Impedance is at a minimum at resonance
in an a.c. circuit
(b) The product of r.m.s. current and voltage
gives the apparent power in an a.c. circuit
(c) Current is at a maximum at resonance in
an a.c. circuit
Apparent power
(d)
gives power factor
True power
16 The amplitude of the current I flowing in the
circuit of Fig. 15.25 is:
(a) 21 A
(b) 16.8 A
(c) 28 A
(d) 12 A
17 If the supply frequency is increased at
resonance in a series R –L –C circuit and the
values of L, C and R are constant, the circuit
will become:
TLFeBOOK
218
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
I
4Ω
400 mH
10 µF
R=4Ω
84 V
V = 10 V
XL = 3 Ω
Figure 15.26
(a) 50
(c) 5 ð 104
Figure 15.25
(a) capacitive
(c) inductive
(b) resistive
(d) resonant
18 For the circuit shown in Fig. 15.26, the value
of Q-factor is:
(b) 100
(d) 40
19 A series R –L –C circuit has a resistance
of 8 , an inductance of 100 mH and a
capacitance of 5 µF. If the current flowing is
2 A, the impedance at resonance is:
(a) 160 (b) 16 (c) 8 m (d) 8
TLFeBOOK
16
Single-phase parallel a.c. circuits
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
ž calculate unknown currents, impedances and circuit phase angle from phasor
diagrams for (a) R –L (b) R –C (c) L –C (d) LR–C parallel a.c. circuits
ž state the condition for parallel resonance in an LR–C circuit
ž derive the resonant frequency equation for an LR–C parallel a.c. circuit
ž determine the current and dynamic resistance at resonance in an LR–C parallel
circuit
ž understand and calculate Q-factor in an LR–C parallel circuit
ž understand how power factor may be improved
16.1 Introduction
In parallel circuits, such as those shown in Figs. 16.1
and 16.2, the voltage is common to each branch of
the network and is thus taken as the reference phasor
when drawing phasor diagrams.
For any parallel a.c. circuit:
the supply voltage V and the current flowing in the
inductance, IL , lags the supply voltage by 90° . The
supply current I is the phasor sum of IR and IL and
thus the current I lags the applied voltage V by an
angle lying between 0° and 90° (depending on the
values of IR and IL ), shown as angle in the phasor
diagram.
True or active power, P D VI cos watts (W)
or
P D I2R R watts
Apparent power,
S D VI voltamperes (VA)
Reactive power,
Q D VI sin reactive
voltamperes (var)
Power factor D
P
true power
D D cos
apparent power
S
(These formulae are the same as for series a.c.
circuits as used in Chapter 15).
16.2 R –L parallel a.c. circuit
In the two branch parallel circuit containing resistance R and inductance L shown in Fig. 16.1, the
current flowing in the resistance, IR , is in-phase with
Figure 16.1
From the phasor diagram: I D
Pythagoras’ theorem) where
V
V
and IL D
IR D
R
XL
I2R C I2L (by
IR
IL
IL
and cos D
, sin D
IR
I
I
(by trigonometric ratios)
V
Circuit impedance, Z D
I
tan D
TLFeBOOK
220
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Problem 1. A 20 resistor is connected in
parallel with an inductance of 2.387 mH
across a 60 V, 1 kHz supply. Calculate
(a) the current in each branch, (b) the supply
current, (c) the circuit phase angle, (d) the
circuit impedance, and (e) the power
consumed.
The circuit and phasor diagrams are as shown in
Fig. 16.1
(a) Current flowing in the resistor,
V
60
D
D 3A
R
20
Current flowing in the inductance,
branch, (b) the circuit current, (c) the circuit
phase angle, (d) the circuit impedance, (e) the
power consumed, and (f) the circuit power
factor.
[(a) IR D 3.67 A, IL D 2.92 A (b) 4.69 A
(c) 38.51° lagging (d) 23.45
(e) 404 W (f) 0.783 lagging]
2 A 40 resistance is connected in parallel with
a coil of inductance L and negligible resistance
across a 200 V, 50 Hz supply and the supply
current is found to be 8 A. Draw a phasor
diagram to scale and determine the inductance
of the coil.
[102 mH]
IR D
IL D
V
V
D
XL
2fL
60
D 4A
2⊲1000⊳⊲2.387 ð 103 ⊳
(b) From the phasor diagram, supply current,
p
I D I2R C I2L D 32 C 42 D 5 A
D
(c) Circuit phase angle,
4
IL
D tan1 D 53.13° lagging
IR
3
(d) Circuit impedance,
f D tan1
16.3 R –C parallel a.c. circuit
In the two branch parallel circuit containing resistance R and capacitance C shown in Fig. 16.2, IR is
in-phase with the supply voltage V and the current
flowing in the capacitor, IC , leads V by 90° . The
supply current I is the phasor sum of IR and IC and
thus the current I leads the applied voltage V by an
angle lying between 0° and 90° (depending on the
values of IR and IC ), shown as angle ˛ in the phasor
diagram.
60
V
D
D 12 Z
I
5
(e) Power consumed
Z D
P D VI cos D ⊲60⊳⊲5⊳⊲cos 53.13° ⊳
Figure 16.2
(Alternatively, power consumed, P D I2R R D
⊲3⊳2 ⊲20⊳ D 180 W)
From the phasor diagram: I D
Pythagoras’ theorem) where
D 180 W
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 87 Further problems on R–L
parallel a.c. circuits
1 A 30 resistor is connected in parallel with
a pure inductance of 3 mH across a 110 V,
2 kHz supply. Calculate (a) the current in each
IR D
I2R C I2C , (by
V
V
and IC D
R
XC
IR
IC
IC
and cos ˛ D
, sin ˛ D
IR
I
I
(by trigonometric ratios)
tan ˛ D
Circuit impedance, Z D
V
I
TLFeBOOK
SINGLE-PHASE PARALLEL A.C. CIRCUITS
Problem 2. A 30 µF capacitor is connected
in parallel with an 80 resistor across a
240 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate (a) the
current in each branch, (b) the supply
current, (c) the circuit phase angle, (d) the
circuit impedance, (e) the power dissipated,
and (f) the apparent power
Problem 3. A capacitor C is connected in
parallel with a resistor R across a 120 V,
200 Hz supply. The supply current is 2 A at a
power factor of 0.6 leading. Determine the
values of C and R
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 16.3(a).
The circuit and phasor diagrams are as shown in
Fig. 16.2
IC
C
(a) Current in resistor,
IR
R
V
240
D
D 3A
R
80
Current in capacitor,
V
D 2fCV
1
2fC
D 2⊲50⊳⊲30 ð 106 ⊳⊲240⊳ D 2.262 A
p
I2R C I2C D 32 C 2.2622
a D tan1
IC
2.262
D tan1
IR
3
IR D I cos 53.13° D ⊲2⊳⊲0.6⊳
D 1.2 A
and
(Alternatively, IR and IC can be measured from the
scaled phasor diagram).
From the circuit diagram,
V
from which
R
V
RD
IR
IR D
240
V
D
D 63.88 Z
I
3.757
(e) True or active power dissipated,
Z D
(Alternatively, true power
PD
I2R R
2
D ⊲3⊳ ⊲80⊳ D 720 W)
(f) Apparent power,
S D VI D ⊲240⊳⊲3.757⊳ D 901.7 VA
IC D I sin 53.13° D ⊲2⊳⊲0.8⊳
D 1.6 A
(d) Circuit impedance,
D 720 W
V = 120 V
Power factor D cos D 0.6 leading, hence
D cos1 0.6 D 53.13° leading.
From the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 16.3(b),
D 37.02° leading
P D VI cos ˛ D ⊲240⊳⊲3.757⊳ cos 37.02°
IR
Figure 16.3
D 3.757 A
(c) Circuit phase angle,
53.13°
V = 120 V
200 Hz
(b) Supply current,
I D
I=2A
IC
I = 2A
IR D
V
IC D
D
XC
221
120
D 100 Z
1.2
V
IC D
XC
D
and
D 2fCV from which
CD
D
IC
2fV
1.6
2⊲200⊳⊲120⊳
D 10.61 mF
TLFeBOOK
222
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 88 Further problems on R–C
parallel a.c. circuits
1 A 1500 nF capacitor is connected in parallel
with a 16 resistor across a 10 V, 10 kHz
supply. Calculate (a) the current in each
branch, (b) the supply current, (c) the circuit
phase angle, (d) the circuit impedance, (e) the
power consumed, (f) the apparent power, and
(g) the circuit power factor. Draw the phasor
diagram.
[(a) IR D 0.625 A, IC D 0.943 A (b) 1.13 A
(c) 56.46° leading (d) 8.85 (e) 6.25 W
(f) 11.3 VA (g) 0.55 leading]
2 A capacitor C is connected in parallel with a
resistance R across a 60 V, 100 Hz supply. The
supply current is 0.6 A at a power factor of 0.8
leading. Calculate the value of R and C
[R D 125 , C D 9.55 µF]
16.4 L–C parallel circuit
In the two branch parallel circuit containing
inductance L and capacitance C shown in Fig. 16.4,
IL lags V by 90° and IC leads V by 90°
(i) IL > IC (giving a supply current, I D IL IC
lagging V by 90° )
(ii) IC > IL (giving a supply current, I D IC IL
leading V by 90° )
(iii) IL D IC (giving a supply current, I D 0).
The latter condition is not possible in practice due
to circuit resistance inevitably being present (as in
the circuit described in Section 16.5).
For the L –C parallel circuit,
IL D
V
V
, IC D
,
XL
XC
I D phasor difference between IL and IC , and
V
ZD
I
Problem 4. A pure inductance of 120 mH is
connected in parallel with a 25 µF capacitor
and the network is connected to a 100 V,
50 Hz supply. Determine (a) the branch
currents, (b) the supply current and its phase
angle, (c) the circuit impedance, and (d) the
power consumed.
The circuit and phasor diagrams are as shown in
Fig. 16.4
(a) Inductive reactance,
XL D 2fL D 2⊲50⊳⊲120 ð 103 ⊳
D 37.70
Capacitive reactance,
XC D
1
1
D
2fC
2⊲50⊳⊲25 ð 106 ⊳
D 127.3
Current flowing in inductance,
V
100
D 2.653 A
D
XL
37.70
Current flowing in capacitor,
IL D
100
V
D 0.786 A
D
XC
127.3
(b) IL and IC are anti-phase, hence supply current,
IC D
Figure 16.4
Theoretically there are three phasor diagrams
possible – each depending on the relative values of
IL and IC :
I D IL IC D 2.653 0.786 D 1.867 A
and the current lags the supply voltage V
by 90° (see Fig. 16.4(i))
TLFeBOOK
SINGLE-PHASE PARALLEL A.C. CIRCUITS
223
(c) Circuit impedance,
100
V
D
D 53.56 Z
I
1.867
(d) Power consumed,
Z D
P D VI cos D ⊲100⊳⊲1.867⊳ cos 90° D 0 W
Problem 5. Repeat Problem 4 for the
condition when the frequency is changed to
150 Hz
(a) Inductive reactance,
XL D 2⊲150⊳⊲120 ð 103 ⊳ D 113.1
Capacitive reactance,
1
D 42.44
2⊲150⊳⊲25 ð 106 ⊳
Current flowing in inductance,
XC D
V
100
D 0.884 A
D
XL
113.1
Current flowing in capacitor,
IL D
100
V
D 2.356 A
D
XC
42.44
(b) Supply current,
IC D
Exercise 89 Further problems on L–C
parallel a.c. circuits
1 An inductance of 80 mH is connected in
parallel with a capacitance of 10 µF across a
60 V, 100 Hz supply. Determine (a) the branch
currents, (b) the supply current, (c) the circuit
phase angle, (d) the circuit impedance and
(e) the power consumed
[(a) IC D 0.377 A, IL D 1.194 A (b) 0.817 A
(c) 90° lagging (d) 73.44 (e) 0 W]
2 Repeat problem 5 for a supply frequency
of 200 Hz
[(a) IC D 0.754 A, IL D 0.597 A (b) 0.157 A
(c) 90° leading (d) 382.2 (e) 0 W]
16.5 LR –C parallel a.c. circuit
In the two branch circuit containing capacitance C
in parallel with inductance L and resistance R in
series (such as a coil) shown in Fig. 16.5(a), the
phasor diagram for the LR branch alone is shown in
Fig. 16.5(b) and the phasor diagram for the C branch
is shown alone in Fig. 16.5(c). Rotating each and
superimposing on one another gives the complete
phasor diagram shown in Fig. 16.5(d)
I D IC IL D 2.356 0.884 D 1.472 A
leading V by 90° (see Fig. 16.4(ii))
(c) Circuit impedance,
V
100
D
D 67.93 Z
I
1.472
(d) Power consumed,
Z D
P D VI cos D 0 W (since D 90° ⊳
From problems 4 and 5:
(i) When XL < XC then IL > IC and I lags V
by 90°
(ii) When XL > XC then IL < IC and I leads V
by 90°
(iii) In a parallel circuit containing no resistance the
power consumed is zero
Now try the following exercise
Figure 16.5
The current ILR of Fig. 16.5(d) may be resolved
into horizontal and vertical components. The
horizontal component, shown as op is ILR cos 1 and
the vertical component, shown as pq is ILR sin 1 .
There are three possible conditions for this circuit:
TLFeBOOK
224
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(i) IC > ILR sin 1 (giving a supply current I
leading V by angle –as shown in Fig. 16.5(e))
(ii) ILR sin > IC (giving I lagging V by angle
–as shown in Fig. 16.5(f))
(iii) IC D ILR sin 1 (this is called parallel
resonance, see Section 16.6)
There are two methods of finding the phasor
sum of currents ILR and IC in Fig. 16.5(e) and
(f). These are: (i) by a scaled phasor diagram, or
(ii) by resolving each current into their ‘in-phase’
(i.e. horizontal) and ‘quadrature’ (i.e. vertical)
components, as demonstrated in problems 6 and 7.
With reference to the phasor diagrams
of Fig. 16.5:
Impedance of LR branch, ZLR D R2 C X2L .
Current,
ILR D
V
V
and IC D
ZLR
XC
R = 40 Ω L = 159.2 mH
ILR
f
C = 30 µF
IC
V = 240 V
51.34°
I
V = 240V, 50 Hz
(a)
(b)
I LR = 3.748 A
Figure 16.6
(a) For the coil, inductive reactance XL D 2fL D
2⊲50⊳⊲159.2 ð 103 ⊳ D 50 .
Impedance Z1 D R2 C X2L
p
D 402 C 502
D 64.03
Current in coil,
Supply current
I D phasor sum of ILR and IC (by drawing)
D ⊲ILR cos 1 ⊳2 C ⊲ILR sin 1 ¾ IC ⊳2
240
V
D 3.748 A
D
Z1
64.03
Branch phase angle
ILR D
(by calculation)
where ¾ means ‘the difference between’.
V
Circuit impedance Z D
I
VL
XL
tan 1 D
,
D
VR
R
R
XL
and cos 1 D
sin 1 D
ZLR
ZLR
tan D
IC = 2.262 A
Z1
ILR sin 1 ¾ IC
ILR cos 1
and cos D
ILR cos 1
I
Problem 6. A coil of inductance 159.2 mH
and resistance 40 is connected in parallel
with a 30 µF capacitor across a 240 V, 50 Hz
supply. Calculate (a) the current in the coil
and its phase angle, (b) the current in the
capacitor and its phase angle, (c) the supply
current and its phase angle, (d) the circuit
impedance, (e) the power consumed, (f) the
apparent power, and (g) the reactive power.
Draw the phasor diagram.
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 16.6(a).
1 D tan1
50
XL
D tan1
R
40
D tan1 1.25 D 51.34° lagging
(see phasor diagram in Fig. 16.6(b))
(b) Capacitive reactance,
XC D
1
1
D
2fC
2⊲50⊳⊲30 ð 106 ⊳
D 106.1
Current in capacitor,
IC D
V
240
D
XC
106.1
D 2.262 A leading the supply
voltage by 90°
(see phasor diagram of Fig. 16.6(b)).
(c) The supply current I is the phasor sum of
ILR and IC . This may be obtained by drawing
the phasor diagram to scale and measuring the
current I and its phase angle relative to V.
(Current I will always be the diagonal of the
parallelogram formed as in Fig. 16.6(b)).
TLFeBOOK
SINGLE-PHASE PARALLEL A.C. CIRCUITS
Alternatively the current ILR and IC may be
resolved into their horizontal (or ‘in-phase’) and
vertical (or ‘quadrature’) components. The horizontal component of ILR is: ILR cos 51.34° D
3.748 cos 51.34° D 2.341 A.
225
(f) Apparent power,
S D VI D ⊲240⊳⊲2.434⊳ D 584.2 VA
(g) Reactive power,
Q D VI sin D ⊲240⊳⊲2.434⊳⊲sin 15.86° ⊳
The horizontal component of IC is
D 159.6 var
IC cos 90° D 0
Thus the total horizontal component,
Problem 7. A coil of inductance 0.12 H and
resistance 3 k is connected in parallel with
a 0.02 µF capacitor and is supplied at 40 V at
a frequency of 5 kHz. Determine (a) the
current in the coil, and (b) the current in the
capacitor. (c) Draw to scale the phasor
diagram and measure the supply current and
its phase angle; check the answer by
calculation. Determine (d) the circuit
impedance and (e) the power consumed.
IH D 2.341 A
The vertical component of ILR
D ILR sin 51.34° D 3.748 sin 51.34°
D 2.927 A
The vertical component of IC
D IC sin 90° D 2.262 sin 90° D 2.262 A
Thus the total vertical component,
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 16.8(a).
IV D 2.927 C 2.262 D −0.665 A
IH and IV are shown in Fig. 16.7, from which,
I D 2.3412 C ⊲0.665⊳2 D 2.434 A
0.665
D 15.86° lagging
2.341
Hence the supply current I = 2.434 A
Angle D tan1
IC = 25.13 mA
R = 3 kΩ L = 0.12 H
I
ILR C = 0.02 µF
I
IC
V = 40V, 5 kHz
V = 40 V
51.49°
I LR = 8.30mA
lagging V by 15.86°
Figure 16.8
I H = 2.341 A
(a) Inductive reactance,
f
I V = 0.665 A
XL D 2fL D 2⊲5000⊳⊲0.12⊳ D 3770
Impedance of coil,
p
Z1 D R2 C XL D 30002 C 37702
I
Figure 16.7
(d) Circuit impedance,
D 4818
Current in coil,
240
V
D
D 98.60 Z
I
2.434
(e) Power consumed,
ZD
P D VI cos D ⊲240⊳⊲2.434⊳ cos 15.86°
D 562 W
I2R R
(Alternatively, P D
D
D ⊲3.748⊳2 ⊲40⊳ D 562 W)
V
40
D 8.30 mA
D
Z1
4818
Branch phase angle
ILR D
I2LR R
(in this case)
3770
XL
D tan1
R
3000
D 51.49° lagging
D tan1
TLFeBOOK
226
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(b) Capacitive reactance,
XC D
1
1
D
2fC
2⊲5000⊳⊲0.02 ð 106 ⊳
D 1592
Capacitor current,
IC D
40
V
D
XC
1592
D 25.13 mA leading V by 90°
(c) Currents ILR and IC are shown in the phasor
diagram of Fig. 16.8(b). The parallelogram is
completed as shown and the supply current
is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram.
The current I is measured as 19.3 mA leading
voltage V by 74.5° . By calculation,
I D ⊲ILR cos 51.49° ⊳2 C ⊲IC ILR sin 51.49° ⊳2
D 19.34 mA
15 µF capacitor across a 200 V, 50 Hz supply.
Calculate (a) the current in the coil, (b) the
current in the capacitor, (c) the supply current
and its phase angle, (d) the circuit impedance,
(e) the power consumed, (f) the apparent
power and (g) the reactive power. Draw the
phasor diagram.
[(a) 1.715 A (b) 0.943 A (c) 1.028 A at 30.90°
lagging (d) 194.6 (e) 176.5 W
(f) 205.6 VA (g) 105.6 var]
2. A 25 nF capacitor is connected in parallel with
a coil of resistance 2 k and inductance 0.20 H
across a 100 V, 4 kHz supply. Determine
(a) the current in the coil, (b) the current in
the capacitor, (c) the supply current and its
phase angle (by drawing a phasor diagram to
scale, and also by calculation), (d) the circuit
impedance, and (e) the power consumed
[(a) 18.48 mA (b) 62.83 mA
(c) 46.17 mA at 81.48° leading
(d) 2.166 k (e) 0.683 W]
and
IC ILR sin 51.5°
D tan
ILR cos 51.5°
(d) Circuit impedance,
1
D 74.50°
16.6 Parallel resonance and Q-factor
Parallel resonance
40
V
D 2.068 kZ
D
ZD
I
19.34 ð 103
(e) Power consumed,
P D VI cos
D ⊲40⊳⊲19.34 ð 103 ⊳ cos 74.50°
D 206.7 mW
Resonance occurs in the two branch network
containing capacitance C in parallel with inductance
L and resistance R in series (see Fig. 16.5(a)) when
the quadrature (i.e. vertical) component of current
ILR is equal to IC . At this condition the supply
current I is in-phase with the supply voltage V.
Resonant frequency
(Alternatively, P D
D
I2R R
I2LR R
D ⊲8.30 ð 103 ⊳2 ⊲3000⊳
D 206.7 mW)
When the quadrature component of ILR is equal to
IC then: IC D ILR sin 1 (see Fig. 16.9). Hence
V
V
XL
D
(from Section 16.5)
XC
ZLR
ZLR
from which,
Now try the following exercise
Z2LR
Exercise 90 Further problems on LR–C
parallel a.c. circuit
1 A coil of resistance 60 and inductance
318.4 mH is connected in parallel with a
1
D XL XC D ⊲2fr L⊳
2fr C
Hence
2
L
R2 C X2L D
C
D
L
C
and R2 C X2L D
⊲1⊳
L
C
TLFeBOOK
SINGLE-PHASE PARALLEL A.C. CIRCUITS
227
Dynamic resistance
Since the current at resonance is in-phase with
the voltage the impedance of the circuit acts
as a resistance. This resistance is known as the
dynamic resistance, RD (or sometimes, the dynamic
impedance).
From equation (2), impedance at resonance
D
Figure 16.9
D
L
R2 and
C
L
R2
2fr L D
C
L
1
fr D
R2
2L C
L
R2
1
D
2 L 2 C L 2
⊲2fr L⊳2 D
Thus
and
RD =
The parallel resonant circuit is often described as
a rejector circuit since it presents its maximum
impedance at the resonant frequency and the resultant current is a minimum.
Q-factor
(When R is negligible, then fr D
is the same as for series resonance)
1
p
2 LC
, which
Current at resonance
Current at resonance,
Ir D ILR cos 1 (from Fig. 16.9)
V
R
(from Section 16.5)
D
ZLR
ZLR
VR
D 2
ZLR
However, from equation (1),
Ir D
L
ohms
RC
Rejector circuit
1
R2
− 2
LC
L
Z2LR
L
RC
i.e. dynamic resistance,
i.e. parallel resonant frequency,
1
fr =
2p
V
V
D
VRC
Ir
L
D L/C hence
VRC
VR
D
⊲L/C⊳
L
The current is at a minimum at resonance.
⊲2⊳
Currents higher than the supply current can circulate within the parallel branches of a parallel resonant circuit, the current leaving the capacitor and
establishing the magnetic field of the inductor, this
then collapsing and recharging the capacitor, and so
on. The Q-factor of a parallel resonant circuit is
the ratio of the current circulating in the parallel
branches of the circuit to the supply current, i.e. the
current magnification.
Q-factor at resonance D current magnification
D
circulating current
supply current
D
ILR sin 1
IC
D
Ir
Ir
D
ILR sin 1
ILR cos 1
D
sin 1
D tan 1
cos 1
D
XL
R
TLFeBOOK
228
i.e.
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
2pfr L
Q-factor at resonance =
R
(which is the same as for a series circuit).
Note that in a parallel circuit the Q-factor
is a measure of current magnification, whereas
in a series circuit it is a measure of voltage
magnification.
At mains frequencies the Q-factor of a parallel
circuit is usually low, typically less than 10, but
in radio-frequency circuits the Q-factor can be
very high.
Problem 8. A pure inductance of 150 mH is
connected in parallel with a 40 µF capacitor
across a 50 V, variable frequency supply.
Determine (a) the resonant frequency of the
circuit and (b) the current circulating in the
capacitor and inductance at resonance.
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 16.10
(b) Current circulating in L and C at resonance,
ICIRC D
Hence
V
D
XC
V
D 2fr CV
1
2fr C
ICIRC D 2⊲64.97⊳⊲40 ð 106 ⊳⊲50⊳
D 0.816 A
(Alternatively,
ICIRC D
50
V
V
D
D
XL
2fr L
2⊲64.97⊳⊲0.15⊳
D 0.817 A⊳
Problem 9. A coil of inductance 0.20 H and
resistance 60 is connected in parallel with
a 20 µF capacitor across a 20 V, variable
frequency supply. Calculate (a) the resonant
frequency, (b) the dynamic resistance, (c) the
current at resonance and (d) the circuit
Q-factor at resonance.
(a) Parallel resonant frequency,
Figure 16.10
(a) Parallel resonant frequency,
1
fr D
2
R2
1
2
LC L
However, resistance R D 0, hence,
1
1
fr D
2 LC
1
1
D
3
2 ⊲150 ð 10 ⊳⊲40 ð 106 ⊳
1
107
103 1
D
D
2 ⊲15⊳⊲4⊳
2 6
D 64.97 Hz
1
fr D
2
1
R2
2
LC L
1
D
2
1
⊲60⊳2
⊲0.20⊳⊲20 ð 106 ⊳ ⊲0.20⊳2
1 p
1 p
2 50 000 90 000 D
1 60 000
2
2
1
⊲400⊳ D 63.66 Hz
D
2
(b) Dynamic resistance,
D
RD D
0.20
L
D
D 166.7 Z
RC
⊲60⊳⊲20 ð 106 ⊳
(c) Current at resonance,
V
20
D
D 0.12 A
RD
166.7
(d) Circuit Q-factor at resonance
Ir D
D
2fr L
2⊲63.66⊳⊲0.20⊳
D
D 1.33
R
60
TLFeBOOK
SINGLE-PHASE PARALLEL A.C. CIRCUITS
Alternatively, Q-factor at resonance
D current magnification (for a parallel circuit)
IC
D
Ir
V
D
Ic D
XC
D
V
D 2fr CV
1
2fr C
Hence Q-factor D IC /Ir D 0.16/0.12 D 1.33,
as obtained above.
D 0.009515 mF or 9.515 nF
RD D
Problem 10. A coil of inductance 100 mH
and resistance 800 is connected in parallel
with a variable capacitor across a 12 V,
5 kHz supply. Determine for the condition
when the supply current is a minimum:
(a) the capacitance of the capacitor, (b) the
dynamic resistance, (c) the supply current,
and (d) the Q-factor
(a) The supply current is a minimum when the
parallel circuit is at resonance and resonant
frequency,
1
R2
2
LC L
100 ð 103
L
D
CR
⊲9.515 ð 109 ⊳⊲800⊳
D 13.14 kZ
(c) Supply current at resonance,
Ir D
106
µF
0.1⊲10.51 ð 108 ⊳
(b) Dynamic resistance,
D 2⊲63.66⊳⊲20 ð 106 ⊳⊲20⊳ D 0.16 A
1
fr D
2
229
V
12
D
D 0.913 mA
RD
13.14 ð 103
(d) Q-factor at resonance
D
2fr L
2⊲5000⊳⊲100 ð 103 ⊳
D
D 3.93
R
800
Alternatively, Q-factor at resonance
D
⊲V/XC ⊳
2fr CV
IC
D
D
Ir
Ir
Ir
D
2⊲5000⊳⊲9.515 ð 109 ⊳⊲12⊳
D 3.93
0.913 ð 103
Now try the following exercise
Transposing for C gives:
⊲2fr ⊳2 D
Exercise 91 Further problems on parallel
resonance and Q-factor
R2
1
2
LC L
1 A 0.15 µF capacitor and a pure inductance
of 0.01 H are connected in parallel across a
10 V, variable frequency supply. Determine
(a) the resonant frequency of the circuit, and
(b) the current circulating in the capacitor and
inductance.
[(a) 4.11 kHz (b) 38.73 mA]
1
R2
⊲2fr ⊳ C 2 D
L
LC
2
and C D
1
L ⊲2fr ⊳2 C
R2
L2
When L D 100 mH, R D 800 and
fr D 5000 Hz,
CD
1
100 ð 103 ⊲2⊲5000⊳2 C
8002
⊲100ð103 ⊳2
1
F
D
0.1f2 108 C ⊲0.64⊳⊲108 ⊳g
2 A 30 µF capacitor is connected in parallel
with a coil of inductance 50 mH and unknown
resistance R across a 120 V, 50 Hz supply. If
the circuit has an overall power factor of 1 find
(a) the value of R, (b) the current in the coil,
and (c) the supply current.
[(a) 37.7 (b) 2.94 A (c) 2.714 A]
3 A coil of resistance 25 and inductance
150 mH is connected in parallel with a 10 µF
capacitor across a 60 V, variable frequency
TLFeBOOK
230
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
supply. Calculate (a) the resonant frequency,
(b) the dynamic resistance, (c) the current at
resonance and (d) the Q-factor at resonance.
[(a) 127.2 Hz (b) 600 (c) 0.10 A (d) 4.80]
4 A coil having resistance R and inductance
80 mH is connected in parallel with a
5 nF capacitor across a 25 V, 3 kHz supply.
Determine for the condition when the current
is a minimum, (a) the resistance R of the
coil, (b) the dynamic resistance, (c) the supply
current, and (d) the Q-factor.
[(a) 3.705 k (b) 4.318 k
(c) 5.79 mA (d) 0.41]
5 A coil of resistance 1.5 k and 0.25 H inductance is connected in parallel with a variable capacitance across a 10 V, 8 kHz supply.
Calculate (a) the capacitance of the capacitor
when the supply current is a minimum, (b) the
dynamic resistance, and (c) the supply current.
[(a) 1561 pF (b) 106.8 k (c) 93.66 µA]
16.7 Power factor improvement
For a particular power supplied, a high power factor reduces the current flowing in a supply system
and therefore reduces the cost of cables, switchgear, transformers and generators. Supply authorities
use tariffs which encourage electricity consumers to
operate at a reasonably high power factor. Industrial loads such as a.c. motors are essentially inductive (R –L) and may have a low power factor. One
method of improving (or correcting) the power factor of an inductive load is to connect a static capacitor C in parallel with the load (see Fig. 16.11(a)).
The supply current is reduced from ILR to I, the phasor sum of ILR and IC , and the circuit power factor
improves from cos 1 to cos 2 (see Fig. 16.11(b)).
IC
Inductive load
ILR
L
R
IC
f1
C
V
f2 I
IC
I
V
ILR
(b)
(a)
Figure 16.11
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 16.12(a).
(a) A power factor of 0.6 lagging means that
cos D 0.6 i.e.
D cos1 0.6 D 53.13°
Hence IM lags V by 53.13° as shown in
Fig. 16.12(b).
If the power factor is to be improved to unity
then the phase difference between supply current I and voltage V needs to be 0° , i.e. I is
in phase with V as shown in Fig. 16.12(c). For
this to be so, IC must equal the length ab, such
that the phasor sum of IM and IC is I.
ab D IM sin 53.13° D 50⊲0.8⊳ D 40 A
Hence the capacitor current Ic must be 40 A
for the power factor to be unity.
(b) Supply current I D IM cos 53.13° D 50⊲0.6⊳ D
30 A.
V = 240 V
M
I M = 50 A
IC
53.13°
C
I
IM = 50 A
V = 240 V, 50 Hz
(a)
IC
Problem 11. A single-phase motor takes
50 A at a power factor of 0.6 lagging from a
240 V, 50 Hz supply. Determine (a) the
current taken by a capacitor connected in
parallel with the motor to correct the power
factor to unity, and (b) the value of the
supply current after power factor correction.
(b)
53.13°
I
a
V
b
IM = 50 A
(c)
Figure 16.12
TLFeBOOK
SINGLE-PHASE PARALLEL A.C. CIRCUITS
231
Problem 12. A 400 V alternator is
supplying a load of 42 kW at a power factor
of 0.7 lagging. Calculate (a) the kVA loading
and (b) the current taken from the alternator.
(c) If the power factor is now raised to unity
find the new kVA loading.
(a) Power D VI cos D ⊲VI⊳ (power factor)
Hence VI D
power
42 ð 103
D
D 60 kVA
p.f.
0.7
(b) VI D 60000 VA
hence I D
60000
60000
D
D 150 A
V
400
(c) The kVA loading remains at 60 kVA irrespective
of changes in power factor.
Problem 13. A motor has an output of
4.8 kW, an efficiency of 80% and a power
factor of 0.625 lagging when operated from a
240 V, 50 Hz supply. It is required to
improve the power factor to 0.95 lagging by
connecting a capacitor in parallel with the
motor. Determine (a) the current taken by the
motor, (b) the supply current after power
factor correction, (c) the current taken by the
capacitor, (d) the capacitance of the
capacitor, and (e) the kvar rating of the
capacitor.
power output
(a) Efficiency D
power input
hence
4800
80
D
100
power input
4800
D 6000 W
0.8
Hence, 6000 D VIM cos D ⊲240⊳⊲IM ⊳⊲0.625⊳,
since cos D p.f. D 0.625. Thus current taken
by the motor,
and power input D
IM D
6000
D 40 A
⊲240⊳⊲0.625⊳
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 16.13(a).
The phase angle between IM and V is given by:
D cos1 0.625 D 51.32° , hence the phasor
diagram is as shown in Fig. 16.16(b).
Figure 16.13
(b) When a capacitor C is connected in parallel
with the motor a current IC flows which leads
V by 90° . The phasor sum of IM and IC
gives the supply current I, and has to be such
as to change the circuit power factor to 0.95
lagging, i.e. a phase angle of cos1 0.95 or
18.19° lagging, as shown in Fig. 16.13(c). The
horizontal component of IM (shown as oa)
D IM cos 51.32°
D 40 cos 51.32° D 25 A
The horizontal component of I (also given by
oa)
D I cos 18.19°
D 0.95 I
Equating the horizontal components gives:
25 D 0.95 I. Hence the supply current after p.f.
correction,
25
I D
D 26.32 A
0.95
(c) The vertical component of IM (shown as ab)
D IM sin 51.32°
D 40 sin 51.32° D 31.22 A
The vertical component of I (shown as ac)
D I sin 18.19°
D 26.32 sin 18.19° D 8.22 A
The magnitude of the capacitor current IC
(shown as bc) is given by
ab ac
i.e. IC D 31.22 8.22 D 23 A
TLFeBOOK
232
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(d) Current IC D
from which
V
D
XC
V
D 2fCV
1
2fC
23
IC
D
F D 305 mF
2fV
2⊲50⊳⊲240⊳
(e) kvar rating of the capacitor
C D
D
⊲240⊳⊲23⊳
VIC
D
D 5.52 kvar
1000
1000
In this problem the supply current has been reduced
from 40 A to 26.32 A without altering the current or
power taken by the motor. This means that the size
of generating plant and the cross-sectional area of
conductors supplying both the factory and the motor
can be less – with an obvious saving in cost.
Problem 14. A 250 V, 50 Hz single-phase
supply feeds the following loads
(i) incandescent lamps taking a current of
10 A at unity power factor, (ii) fluorescent
lamps taking 8 A at a power factor of
0.7 lagging, (iii) a 3 kVA motor operating at
full load and at a power factor of 0.8 lagging
and (iv) a static capacitor. Determine, for the
lamps and motor, (a) the total current, (b) the
overall power factor and (c) the total power.
(d) Find the value of the static capacitor to
improve the overall power factor to 0.975
lagging.
The vertical component of the currents
D 10 sin 0° C 12 sin 36.87° C 8 sin 45.57°
D 0 C 7.2 C 5.713 D 12.91 A
From Fig.
p 16.14(b), total current,
IL D 25.22 C 12.912 D 28.31 A at a phase
angle of D tan1 ⊲12.91/25.2⊳ i.e. 27.13°
lagging.
(b) Power factor
D cos D cos 27.13° D 0.890 lagging
(c) Total power,
P D VIL cos D ⊲250⊳⊲28.31⊳⊲0.890⊳
D 6.3 kW
(d) To improve the power factor, a capacitor is connected in parallel with the loads. The capacitor takes a current IC such that the supply
current falls from 28.31 A to I, lagging V by
cos1 0.975, i.e. 12.84° . The phasor diagram is
shown in Fig. 16.15
oa D 28.31 cos 27.13° D I cos 12.84°
28.31 cos 27.13°
hence I D
D 25.84 A
cos 12.84°
Current IC D bc D ⊲ab ac⊳
D 28.31 sin 27.13° 25.84 sin 12.84°
D 12.91 5.742 D 7.168 A
V
V
D 2fCV
IC D
D
1
XC
2fc
A phasor diagram is constructed as shown in
Fig. 16.14(a), where 8 A is lagging voltage V by
cos1 0.7, i.e. 45.57° , and the motor current is
⊲3000/250⊳, i.e. 12 A lagging V by cos1 0.8,
i.e. 36.87°
Figure 16.15
Hence capacitance
Figure 16.14
(a) The horizontal component of the currents
D 10 cos 0° C 12 cos 36.87° C 8 cos 45.57°
D 10 C 9.6 C 5.6 D 25.2 A
IC
7.168
D
F D 91.27 mF
2fV
2⊲50⊳⊲250⊳
Thus to improve the power factor from 0.890 to
0.975 lagging a 91.27 µF capacitor is connected
in parallel with the loads.
CD
TLFeBOOK
SINGLE-PHASE PARALLEL A.C. CIRCUITS
Now try the following exercises
233
in parallel with the loads to improve the overall
power factor to 0.98 lagging.
[21.74 A, 0.966 lagging, 21.68 µF]
Exercise 92 Further problems on power
factor improvement
1 A 415 V alternator is supplying a load of
55 kW at a power factor of 0.65 lagging. Calculate (a) the kVA loading and (b) the current
taken from the alternator. (c) If the power factor is now raised to unity find the new kVA
loading.
[(a) 84.6 kVA (b) 203.9 A (c) 84.6 kVA]
2 A single phase motor takes 30 A at a power
factor of 0.65 lagging from a 240 V, 50 Hz
supply. Determine (a) the current taken by the
capacitor connected in parallel to correct the
power factor to unity, and (b) the value of the
supply current after power factor correction.
[(a) 22.80 A (b) 19.5 A]
3 A motor has an output of 6 kW, an efficiency
of 75% and a power factor of 0.64 lagging
when operated from a 250 V, 60 Hz supply.
It is required to raise the power factor to
0.925 lagging by connecting a capacitor in
parallel with the motor. Determine (a) the current taken by the motor, (b) the supply current
after power factor correction, (c) the current
taken by the capacitor, (d) the capacitance of
the capacitor and (e) the kvar rating of the
capacitor.
[(a) 50 A (b) 34.59 A (c) 25.28 A
(d) 268.2 µF (e) 6.32 kvar]
4 A supply of 250 V, 80 Hz is connected across
an inductive load and the power consumed
is 2 kW, when the supply current is 10 A.
Determine the resistance and inductance of the
circuit. What value of capacitance connected
in parallel with the load is needed to improve
the overall power factor to unity?
[R D 20 , L D 29.84 mH, C D 47.75 µF]
5 A 200 V, 50 Hz single-phase supply feeds the
following loads: (i) fluorescent lamps taking a
current of 8 A at a power factor of 0.9 leading,
(ii) incandescent lamps taking a current of
6 A at unity power factor, (iii) a motor taking
a current of 12 A at a power factor of 0.65
lagging. Determine the total current taken from
the supply and the overall power factor. Find
also the value of a static capacitor connected
Exercise 93 Short answer questions on
single-phase parallel a.c. circuits
1 Draw a phasor diagram for a two-branch
parallel circuit containing capacitance C in
one branch and resistance R in the other,
connected across a supply voltage V
2 Draw a phasor diagram for a two-branch
parallel circuit containing inductance L and
resistance R in one branch and capacitance
C in the other, connected across a supply
voltage V
3 Draw a phasor diagram for a two-branch
parallel circuit containing inductance L in one
branch and capacitance C in the other for
the condition in which inductive reactance is
greater than capacitive reactance
4 State two methods of determining the phasor
sum of two currents
5 State two formulae which may be used to
calculate power in a parallel circuit
6 State the condition for resonance for a twobranch circuit containing capacitance C in
parallel with a coil of inductance L and
resistance R
7 Develop a formula for the resonant frequency
in an LR–C parallel circuit, in terms of
resistance R, inductance L and capacitance C
8 What does Q-factor of a parallel circuit mean?
9 Develop a formula for the current at resonance in an LR–C parallel circuit in terms
of resistance R, inductance L, capacitance C
and supply voltage V
10 What is dynamic resistance? State a formula
for dynamic resistance
11 Explain a simple method of improving the
power factor of an inductive circuit
12 Why is it advantageous to improve power
factor?
TLFeBOOK
234
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Exercise 94 Multi-choice questions on
single-phase parallel a.c. circuits (Answers
on page 376)
A two-branch parallel circuit containing a 10
resistance in one branch and a 100 µF capacitor
in the other, has a 120 V, 2/3 kHz supply
connected across it. Determine the quantities
stated in questions 1 to 8, selecting the correct
answer from the following list:
(a) 24 A
(b) 6
(c) 7.5 k
(d) 12 A
(e) tan1
3
4
leading
(f) 0.8 leading
4
3
tan1 35
(g) 7.5
(h) tan1
leading
(i) 16 A
(j)
lagging
(k) 1.44 kW
(m) 12.5
(l) 0.6 leading
(n) 2.4 kW
(o) tan1
4
3
lagging
(p) 0.6 lagging
(q) 0.8 lagging
(s) 20 A
R = 3Ω
I LR
IC
2 The capacitive reactance of the capacitor
3 The current flowing in the capacitor
4 The supply current
5 The supply phase angle
6 The circuit impedance
7 The power consumed by the circuit
8 The power factor of the circuit
9 A two-branch parallel circuit consists of
a 15 mH inductance in one branch and a
50 µF capacitor in the other across a 120 V,
1/ kHz supply. The supply current is:
rad
2
(b) 16 A lagging by 90°
(c) 8 A lagging by 90°
(d) 16 A leading by
rad
2
XL = 4Ω
XC = 12.5Ω
I
V = 250V,
5
kHz
2p
Figure 16.16
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(r) 1.92 kW
1 The current flowing in the resistance
(a) 8 A leading by
10 The following statements, taken correct to 2
significant figures, refer to the circuit shown
in Fig. 16.16. Which are false?
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
The impedance of the R –L branch is 5
ILR D 50 A
IC D 20 A
L D 0.80 H
C D 16 µF
The ‘in-phase’ component of the supply
current is 30 A
The ‘quadrature’ component of the supply current is 40 A
I D 36 A
Circuit phase angle D 33° 41’ leading
Circuit impedance D 6.9
Circuit power factor D 0.83 lagging
Power consumed D 9.0 kW
11 Which of the following statements is false?
(a) The supply current is a minimum at resonance in a parallel circuit
(b) The Q-factor at resonance in a parallel
circuit is the voltage magnification
(c) Improving power factor reduces the current flowing through a system
(d) The circuit impedance is a maximum at
resonance in a parallel circuit
12 An LR–C parallel circuit has the following
component values: R D 10 , L D 10 mH,
C D 10 µF and V D 100 V. Which of the
following statements is false?
(a) The resonant frequency fr is 1.5/ kHz
(b) The current at resonance is 1 A
(c) The dynamic resistance is 100
(d) The circuit Q-factor at resonance is 30
13 The magnitude of the impedance of the circuit shown in Fig. 16.17 is:
(a) 7
(b) 5
(c) 2.4
(d) 1.71
TLFeBOOK
SINGLE-PHASE PARALLEL A.C. CIRCUITS
(a) 17 A
(c) 15 A
235
(b) 7 A
(d) 23 A
Figure 16.17
14 In the circuit shown in Fig. 16.18, the magnitude of the supply current I is:
Figure 16.18
TLFeBOOK
17
Filter networks
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
ž appreciate the purpose of a filter network
ž understand basic types of filter sections, i.e. low-pass, high-pass, band-pass and
band-stop filters
ž define cut-off frequency, two-port networks and characteristic impedance
ž design low- and high-pass filter sections given nominal impedance and cut-off
frequency
ž determine the values of components comprising a band-pass filter given cut-off
frequencies
ž appreciate the difference between ideal and practical filter characteristics
17.1 Introduction
Attenuation is a reduction or loss in the magnitude
of a voltage or current due to its transmission over
a line.
A filter is a network designed to pass signals having frequencies within certain bands (called passbands) with little attenuation, but greatly attenuates
signals within other bands (called attenuation bands
or stopbands).
A filter is frequency sensitive and is thus composed of reactive elements. Since certain frequencies
are to be passed with minimal loss, ideally the inductors and capacitors need to be pure components since
the presence of resistance results in some attenuation
at all frequencies.
Between the pass band of a filter, where ideally
the attenuation is zero, and the attenuation band,
where ideally the attenuation is infinite, is the cutoff frequency, this being the frequency at which the
attenuation changes from zero to some finite value.
A filter network containing no source of power
is termed passive, and one containing one or more
power sources is known as an active filter network.
Filters are used for a variety of purposes in
nearly every type of electronic communications and
control equipment. The bandwidths of filters used
in communications systems vary from a fraction
of a hertz to many megahertz, depending on the
application.
There are four basic types of filter sections:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
low-pass
high-pass
band-pass
band-stop
17.2 Two-port networks and
characteristic impedance
Networks in which electrical energy is fed in at
one pair of terminals and taken out at a second
pair of terminals are called two-port networks.
The network between the input port and the output
port is a transmission network for which a known
relationship exists between the input and output
currents and voltages.
Figure 17.1(a) shows a T-network, which is
termed symmetrical if ZA D ZB , and Figure 17.1(b)
shows a p-network which is symmetrical if
ZE D ZF .
TLFeBOOK
FILTER NETWORKS
A
B
C
D
F
E
237
according to the load impedance across the output terminals. For any passive two-port network it
is found that a particular value of load impedance
can always be found which will produce an input
impedance having the same value as the load
impedance. This is called the iterative impedance
for an asymmetrical network and its value depends
on which pair of terminals is taken to be the input
and which the output (there are thus two values of
iterative impedance, one for each direction).
For a symmetrical network there is only one value
for the iterative impedance and this is called the
characteristic impedance Z0 of the symmetrical
two-port network.
17.3 Low-pass filters
Figure 17.1
If ZA 6D ZB in Figure 17.1(a) and ZE 6D ZF
in Figure 17.1(b), the sections are termed asymmetrical. Both networks shown have one common terminal, which may be earthed, and are
therefore said to be unbalanced. The balanced form
of the T-network is shown in Figure 17.2(a) and
the balanced form of the -network is shown in
Figure 17.2(b).
B
A
Figure 17.3 shows simple unbalanced T- and section filters using series inductors and shunt capacitors. If either section is connected into a network
and a continuously increasing frequency is applied,
each would have a frequency-attenuation characteristic as shown in Figure 17.4. This is an ideal
characteristic and assumes pure reactive elements.
All frequencies are seen to be passed from zero
up to a certain value without attenuation, this value
being shown as fc , the cut-off frequency; all values
of frequency above fc are attenuated. It is for this
reason that the networks shown in Figures 17.3(a)
and (b) are known as low-pass filters.
C
B
A
(a)
(b)
Figure 17.3
F
E
Attenuation
D
Attenuation
band
Pass-band
D
Figure 17.2
The input impedance of a network is the ratio
of voltage to current at the input terminals. With a
two-port network the input impedance often varies
0
fC
Frequency
Figure 17.4
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238
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
L
2
Figure 17.5
L
2
R0
R0
C
The electrical circuit diagram symbol for a lowpass filter is shown in Figure 17.5.
Summarising, a low-pass filter is one designed
to pass signals at frequencies below a specified
cut-off frequency.
In practise, the characteristic curve of a low-pass
prototype filter section looks more like that shown
in Figure 17.6. The characteristic may be improved
somewhat closer to the ideal by connecting two or
more identical sections in cascade. This produces
a much sharper cut-off characteristic, although the
attenuation in the pass band is increased a little.
(a)
L
R0
C
2
C
2
R0
(b)
Attenuation
Figure 17.7
may be shown that the cut-off frequency, fc , for
each section is the same, and is given by:
1
fc = p
p LC
fC
0
Pass-band
Frequency
Attenuation
band
Figure 17.6
When rectifiers are used to produce the d.c. supplies of electronic systems, a large ripple introduces
undesirable noise and may even mask the effect
of the signal voltage. Low-pass filters are added to
smooth the output voltage waveform, this being one
of the most common applications of filters in electrical circuits.
Filters are employed to isolate various sections
of a complete system and thus to prevent undesired
interactions. For example, the insertion of low-pass
decoupling filters between each of several amplifier
stages and a common power supply reduces interaction due to the common power supply impedance.
When the frequency is very low, the characteristic impedance is purely resistive. This value of
characteristic impedance is known as the design
impedance or the nominal impedance of the section and is often given the symbol R0 , where
R0 =
L
C
⊲2⊳
Problem 1. Determine the cut-off frequency
and the nominal impedance for the low-pass
T-connected section shown in Figure 17.8.
100 mH
100 mH
0.2 µF
Cut-off frequency and nominal impedance
calculations
A low-pass symmetrical T-network and a low-pass
symmetrical -network are shown in Figure 17.7. It
⊲1⊳
Figure 17.8
TLFeBOOK
FILTER NETWORKS
Comparing Figure 17.8 with the low-pass section of
Figure 17.7(a), shows that:
L
D 100 mH,
2
i.e. inductance,
L D 200 mH D 0.2 H,
and capacitance
C D 0.2 µF D 0.2 ð 106 F.
From equation (1), cut-off frequency,
fc D
D
i.e.
1
p
LC
1
103
D
⊲0.2⊳
⊲0.2 ð 0.2 ð 106 ⊳
fc = 1592 Hz
or
D 1000 Z or
0.4 H
200 pF
Comparing Figure 17.9 with the low-pass section of
Figure 17.7(b), shows that:
C
D 200 pF,
2
C D 400 pF D 400 ð 1012 F,
L D 0.4 H.
From equation (1), cut-off frequency,
fc D
D
i.e.
If the values of the nominal impedance R0 and the
cut-off frequency fc are known for a low-pass Tor -section, it is possible to determine the values
of inductance and capacitance required to form the
section. It may be shown that:
capacitance C =
inductance L =
and
1
pR 0 fc
R0
pfc
⊲3⊳
⊲4⊳
Problem 3. A filter section is to have a
characteristic impedance at zero frequency of
600 and a cut-off frequency of 5 MHz.
Design (a) a low-pass T-section filter, and
(b) a low-pass -section filter to meet these
requirements.
The characteristic impedance at zero frequency is
the nominal impedance R0 , i.e. R0 D 600 ; cut-off
frequency fc D 5 MHz D 5 ð 106 Hz.
From equation (3), capacitance,
Figure 17.9
i.e. capacitance,
and inductance
To determine values of L and C given R0 and fc
1 kZ
Problem 2. Determine the cut-off frequency
and the nominal impedance for the low-pass
-connected section shown in Figure 17.9.
200 pF
From equation (2), nominal impedance,
L
0.4
R0 D
D
D 31.62 kZ
C
400 ð 1012
1.592 kHz
From equation (2), nominal impedance,
L
0.2
R0 D
D
C
0.2 ð 106
239
1
p
LC
1
106
D p
160
⊲0.4 ð 400 ð 1012 ⊳
fc = 25.16 kHz
CD
1
1
F
D
R0 fc
⊲600⊳⊲5 ð 106 ⊳
D 1.06 ð 1010 F D 106 pF
From equation (4), inductance,
LD
R0
600
H
D
fc
⊲5 ð 106 ⊳
D 3.82 ð 105 D 38.2 µH
(a) A low-pass T-section filter is shown in
Figure 17.10(a), where the series arm inducL
tances are each
(see Figure 17.7(a)), i.e.
2
38.2
D 19.1 µH
2
TLFeBOOK
240
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
19.1 µH
19.1 µH
106 pF
38.2 µH
53 pF
53 pF
(b)
(a)
Figure 17.10
(b) A low-pass -section filter is shown in
Figure 17.10(b), where the shunt arm capacC
itances are each
(see Figure 17.7(b)), i.e.
2
106
D 53 pF
2
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 95 Further problems on low-pass
filter sections
1. Determine the cut-off frequency and the nominal impedance of each of the low-pass filter
sections shown in Figure 17.11.
[(a) 1592 Hz; 5 k (b) 9545 Hz; 600 ]
0.5 H
low-pass T-section filter, and (b) a low-pass
-section filter to meet these requirements.
[(a) Each series arm 79.6 mH,
shunt arm 0.637 µF
(b) Series arm 159 mH, each
shunt arm 0.318 µF]
3. Determine the value of capacitance required
in the shunt arm of a low-pass T-section if
the inductance in each of the series arms is
40 mH and the cut-off frequency of the filter
is 2.5 kHz.
[0.203 µF]
4. The nominal impedance of a low-pass section filter is 600 . If the capacitance in
each of the shunt arms is 0.1 µF determine the
inductance in the series arm.
[72 mH]
17.4 High-pass filters
0.5 H
Figure 17.12 shows simple unbalanced T- and section filters using series capacitors and shunt
inductors. If either section is connected into a
network and a continuously increasing frequency is
applied, each would have a frequency-attenuation
characteristic as shown in Figure 17.13.
0.04 µF
(a)
20 mH
27.8 nF
27.8 nF
(b)
(a)
(b)
Figure 17.11
Figure 17.12
2. A filter section is to have a characteristic
impedance at zero frequency of 500 and
a cut-off frequency of 1 kHz. Design (a) a
Once again this is an ideal characteristic assuming
pure reactive elements. All frequencies below the
cut-off frequency fc are seen to be attenuated and
all frequencies above fc are passed without loss.
TLFeBOOK
Attenuation
band
Pass-band
0
fC
241
Attenuation
Attenuation
FILTER NETWORKS
Frequency
fC
0
Figure 17.13
It is for this reason that the networks shown in
Figures 17.12(a) and (b) are known as high-pass
filters.
The electrical circuit diagram symbol for a highpass filter is shown in Figure 17.14.
Attenuation
band
Pass-band
Figure 17.15
Cut-off frequency and nominal impedance
calculations
A high-pass symmetrical T-network and a high-pass
symmetrical -network are shown in Figure 17.16.
It may be shown that the cut-off frequency, fc , for
each section is the same, and is given by:
fc =
Figure 17.14
Summarising, a high-pass filter is one designed
to pass signals at frequencies above a specified
cut-off frequency.
The characteristic shown in Figures 17.13 is ideal
in that it is assumed that there is no attenuation
at all in the pass-bands and infinite attenuation in
the attenuation band. Both of these conditions are
impossible to achieve in practice. Due to resistance,
mainly in the inductive elements the attenuation in
the pass-band will not be zero, and in a practical
filter section the attenuation in the attenuation band
will have a finite value. In addition to the resistive
loss there is often an added loss due to mismatching.
Ideally when a filter is inserted into a network
it is matched to the impedance of that network.
However the characteristic impedance of a filter
section will vary with frequency and the termination
of the section may be an impedance that does not
vary with frequency in the same way.
Figure 17.13 showed an ideal high-pass filter section characteristic of attenuation against frequency.
In practise, the characteristic curve of a high-pass
prototype filter section would look more like that
shown in Figure 17.15.
Frequency
1
p
⊲5⊳
4p LC
2C
2C
R0
L
R0
(a)
C
R0
2L
2L
R0
(b)
Figure 17.16
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
When the frequency is very high, the characteristic
impedance is purely resistive. This value of characteristic impedance is then the nominal impedance
of the section and is given by:
Problem 5. Determine the cut-off frequency
and the nominal impedance for the high-pass
-connected section shown in Figure 17.18.
4000 pF
R0 =
L
C
⊲6⊳
200 µH
Problem 4. Determine the cut-off frequency
and the nominal impedance for the high-pass
T-connected section shown in Figure 17.17.
0.2 µF
0.2 µF
200 µH
Figure 17.18
Comparing Figure 17.18 with the high-pass section
of Figure 17.16(b), shows that:
2L D 200 µH,
100 mH
i.e. inductance,
and capacitance,
L D 100 µH D 104 H,
C D 4000 pF D 4 ð 109 F.
From equation (5), cut-off frequency,
Figure 17.17
fc D
Comparing Figure 17.17 with the high-pass section
of Figure 17.16(a), shows that:
2C D 0.2 µF,
i.e. capacitance,
C D 0.1 µF D 0.1 ð 106 ,
and inductance,
L D 100 mH D 0.1 H.
From equation (5), cut-off frequency,
fc D
D
i.e.
1
p
4 LC
1
103
D
4⊲0.1⊳
4 ⊲0.1 ð 0.1 ð 106 ⊳
fc = 796 Hz
From equation (6), nominal impedance,
R0 D
L
D
C
0.1
0.1 ð 106
D 1000 Z or
1 kZ
D
i.e.
1
p
4 LC
1
D 1.26 ð 105
4
9
4 ⊲10 ð 4 ð 10 ⊳
fc = 126 kHz
From equation (6), nominal impedance,
L
104
R0 D
D
C
4 ð 109
105
D 158 Z
D
4
To determine values of L and C given R0 and fc
If the values of the nominal impedance R0 and the
cut-off frequency fc are known for a high-pass Tor -section, it is possible to determine the values
of inductance and capacitance required to form the
section. It may be shown that:
capacitance C =
1
4pR0 fc
⊲7⊳
TLFeBOOK
FILTER NETWORKS
R0
inductance L =
4pfc
and
⊲8⊳
Problem 6. A filter section is required to
pass all frequencies above 25 kHz and to
have a nominal impedance of 600 . Design
(a) a high-pass T-section filter, and (b) a
high-pass -section filter to meet these
requirements.
243
(a) A high-pass T-section filter is shown
in Figure 17.19(a), where the series arm
capacitances are each 2C (see Figure
17.16(a)), i.e. 2 ð 5.305 D 10.61 nF
(b) A high-pass -section filter is shown in
Figure 17.19(b), where the shunt arm inductances are each 2L (see Figure 17.6(b)), i.e.
2 ð 1.91 D 3.82 mH.
Now try the following exercise
3
Cut-off frequency fc D 25 kHz D 25 ð 10 Hz, and
nominal impedance, R0 D 600 .
From equation (7), capacitance,
CD
D
1
1
F
D
4R0 fc
4⊲600⊳⊲25 ð 103 ⊳
1012
pF
4⊲600⊳⊲25 ð 103 ⊳
D 5305 pF
or
5.305 nF
Exercise 96 Further problems on
high-pass filter sections
1. Determine the cut-off frequency and the nominal impedance of each of the high-pass filter
sections shown in Figure 17.20.
[(a) 22.51 kHz; 14.14 k
(b) 281.3 Hz; 1414 ]
500 pF
500 pF
From equation (8), inductance,
LD
R0
600
D
4fc
4⊲25 ð 103 ⊳
50 mH
D 0.00191 H D 1.91 mH
(a)
10.61 nF
10.61 nF
0.2 µF
1.91 mH
800 mH
(b)
(a)
Figure 17.20
5.305 nF
3.82 mH
(b)
Figure 17.19
800 mH
3.82 mH
2. A filter section is required to pass all frequencies above 4 kHz and to have a nominal
impedance 750 . Design (a) an appropriate
high-pass T section filter, and (b) an appropriate high-pass -section filter to meet these
requirements.
[(a) Each series arm D 53.1 nF,
shunt arm D 14.92 mH
(b) Series arm D 26.5 nF, each
shunt arm D 29.84 mH]
TLFeBOOK
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
3. The inductance in each of the shunt arms of
a high-pass -section filter is 50 mH. If the
nominal impedance of the section is 600 ,
determine the value of the capacitance in the
series arm.
[69.44 nF]
4. Determine the value of inductance required
in the shunt arm of a high-pass T-section
filter if in each series arm it contains a 0.5 µF
capacitor. The cut-off frequency of the filter
section is 1500 Hz.
[11.26 mH]
High-pass
characteristic
Attenuation
244
Low-pass
characteristic
f cH
0
Attenuation
band
Attenuation
A band-pass filter is one designed to pass signals
with frequencies between two specified cut-off
frequencies. The characteristic of an ideal band-pass
filter is shown in Figure 17.21.
Pass-band
Pass-band
Frequency
Attenuation
band
Figure 17.23
17.5 Band-pass filters
Attenuation
band
f cL
Attenuation
band
where a precisely defined bandwidth must be maintained for good performance.
Problem 7. A band-pass filter is comprised
of a low-pass T-section filter having a cut-off
frequency of 15 kHz, connected in series
with a high-pass T-section filter having a
cut-off frequency of 10 kHz. The terminating
impedance of the filter is 600 . Determine
the values of the components comprising the
composite filter.
For the low-pass T-section filter:
0
f cH
f cL Frequency
Figure 17.21
fCL D 15 000 Hz
From equation (3), capacitance,
Such a filter may be formed by cascading a
high-pass and a low-pass filter. fCH is the cut-off
frequency of the high-pass filter and fCL is the cutoff frequency of the low-pass filter. As can be seen,
for a band-pass filter fCL > fCH , the pass-band
being given by the difference between these values.
The electrical circuit diagram symbol for a bandpass filter is shown in Figure 17.22.
CD
1
1
D
R0 fc
⊲600⊳⊲15 000⊳
D 35.4 ð 109 D 35.4 nF
From equation (4), inductance,
LD
600
R0
D
fc
⊲15 000⊳
D 0.01273 H D 12.73 mH
Figure 17.22
A typical practical characteristic for a band-pass
filter is shown in Figure 17.23.
Crystal and ceramic devices are used extensively as band-pass filters. They are common in
the intermediate-frequency amplifiers of v.h.f. radios
Thus, from Figure 17.7(a), the series arm inducL
tances are each , i.e.
2
12.73
D 6.37 mH,
2
and the shunt arm capacitance is 35.4 nF.
TLFeBOOK
FILTER NETWORKS
6.37 mH
6.37 mH
35.4 nF
26.6 nF
245
26.6 nF
600 Ω
4.77 mH
Figure 17.24
For the high-pass T-section filter:
[Low-pass T-section: each
series arm 4.77 mH, shunt arm 26.53 nF
High-pass T-section: each
series arm 33.16 nF, shunt arm 5.97 mH]
fCH D 10 000 Hz
From equation (7), capacitance,
CD
1
1
D
4R0 fc
4⊲600⊳⊲10 000⊳
D 1.33 ð 108 D 13.3 nF
From equation (8), inductance,
LD
600
R0
D
4fc
4⊲10 000⊳
2. A band-pass filter is comprised of a low-pass
-section filter having a cut-off frequency of
50 kHz, connected in series with a high-pass
-section filter having a cut-off frequency of
40 kHz. The terminating impedance of the
filter is 620 . Determine the values of the
components comprising the composite filter.
[Low-pass -section: series arm 3.95 mH,
each shunt arm 5.13 nF
High-pass -section: series arm 3.21 nF,
each shunt arm 2.47 mH]
D 4.77 ð 103 D 4.77 mH.
i.e.
2 ð 13.3 D 26.6 nF,
and the shunt arm inductance is 4.77 mH. The composite, band-pass filter is shown in Figure 17.24.
The attenuation against frequency characteristic
will be similar to Figure 17.23 where fCH D 10 kHz
and fCL D 15 kHz.
Now try the following exercise
17.6 Band-stop filters
A band-stop filter is one designed to pass signals
with all frequencies except those between two
specified cut-off frequencies. The characteristic of
an ideal band-stop filter is shown in Figure 17.25.
Attenuation
Thus, from Figure 17.16(a), the series arm capacitances are each 2C,
Pass-band
Stop-band
Pass-band
Exercise 97 Further problems on
band-pass filters
1. A band-pass filter is comprised of a low-pass
T-section filter having a cut-off frequency of
20 kHz, connected in series with a high-pass
T-section filter having a cut-off frequency
of 8 kHz. The terminating impedance of the
filter is 600 . Determine the values of the
components comprising the composite filter.
0
f cL
f cH
Frequency
Figure 17.25
Such a filter may be formed by connecting a highpass and a low-pass filter in parallel. As can be seen,
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
for a band-stop filter fCH > fCL , the stop-band
being given by the difference between these values.
The electrical circuit diagram symbol for a bandstop filter is shown in Figure 17.26.
Figure 17.26
Attenuation
A typical practical characteristic for a band-stop
filter is shown in Figure 17.27.
Low-pass
characteristic
High-pass
characteristic
f cL
0
Pass-band
f cH
Stop-band
Pass-band
Figure 17.27
Sometimes, as in the case of interference from
50 Hz power lines in an audio system, the exact frequency of a spurious noise signal is known. Usually
such interference is from an odd harmonic of 50 Hz,
for example, 250 Hz. A sharply tuned band-stop filter, designed to attenuate the 250 Hz noise signal, is
used to minimise the effect of the output. A highpass filter with cut-off frequency greater than 250 Hz
would also remove the interference, but some of
the lower frequency components of the audio signal
would be lost as well.
Filter design can be a complicated area. For more,
see Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology.
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 98
filters
Short answer questions on
1. Define a filter.
2. Define the cut-off frequency for a filter.
3. Define a two-port network.
4. Define characteristic impedance for a twoport network.
5. A network designed to pass signals at frequencies below a specified cut-off frequency
is called a . . . . . . filter.
6. A network designed to pass signals with all
frequencies except those between two specified cut-off frequencies is called a . . . . . .
filter.
7. A network designed to pass signals with
frequencies between two specified cut-off
frequencies is called a . . . . . . filter.
8. A network designed to pass signals at frequencies above a specified cut-off frequency
is called a . . . . . . filter.
9. State one application of a low-pass filter.
10. Sketch (a) an ideal, and (b) a practical attenuation/frequency characteristic for a lowpass filter.
11. Sketch (a) an ideal, and (b) a practical attenuation/frequency characteristic for a highpass filter.
12. Sketch (a) an ideal, and (b) a practical attenuation/frequency characteristic for a bandpass filter.
14. State one application of a band-pass filter.
13. Sketch (a) an ideal, and (b) a practical attenuation/frequency characteristic for a bandstop filter.
15. State one application of a band-stop filter.
Exercise 99 Multi-choice questions on
filters (Answers on page 376)
1. A network designed to pass signals with
all frequencies except those between two
specified cut-off frequencies is called a:
(a) low-pass filter
(c) band-pass filter
(b) high-pass filter
(d) band-stop filter
2. A network designed to pass signals at frequencies above a specified cut-off frequency
is called a:
(a) low-pass filter
(c) band-pass filter
(b) high-pass filter
(d) band-stop filter
3. A network designed to pass signals at frequencies below a specified cut-off frequency
is called a:
(a) low-pass filter
(c) band-pass filter
(b) high-pass filter
(d) band-stop filter
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FILTER NETWORKS
4. A network designed to pass signals with
frequencies between two specified cut-off
frequencies is called a:
(a) low-pass filter
(c) band-pass filter
(b) high-pass filter
(d) band-stop filter
5. A low-pass T-connected symmetrical filter
section has an inductance of 200 mH in each
of its series arms and a capacitance of 0.5 µF
in its shunt arm. The cut-off frequency of the
filter is:
(a) 1007 Hz
(c) 711.8 Hz
(b) 251.6 Hz
(d) 177.9 Hz
6. A low-pass -connected symmetrical filter
section has an inductance of 200 mH in its
series arm and capacitances of 400 pF in
each of its shunt arms. The cut-off frequency
of the filter is:
(a) 25.16 kHz
(c) 17.79 kHz
(b) 6.29 kHz
(d) 35.59 kHz
The following refers to questions 7 and 8.
A filter section is to have a nominal impedance
of 620 and a cut-off frequency of 2 MHz.
7. A low-pass T-connected symmetrical filter
section is comprised of:
(a) 98.68 µH in each series arm,
shunt arm
(b) 49.34 µH in each series arm,
shunt arm
(c) 98.68 µH in each series arm,
shunt arm
(d) 49.34 µH in each series arm,
shunt arm
128.4 pF in
256.7 pF in
256.7 pF in
128.4 pF in
8. A low-pass -connected symmetrical filter
section is comprised of:
(a) 98.68 µH in each series arm, 128.4 pF in
shunt arm
(b) 49.34 µH in each series arm, 256.7 pF in
shunt arm
(c) 98.68 µH in each series arm, 256.7 pF in
shunt arm
247
(d) 49.34 µH in each series arm, 128.4 pF in
shunt arm
9. A high-pass T-connected symmetrical filter
section has capacitances of 400 nF in each of
its series arms and an inductance of 200 mH
in its shunt arm. The cut-off frequency of the
filter is:
(a) 1592 Hz
(c) 281 Hz
(b) 1125 Hz
(d) 398 Hz
10. A high-pass -connected symmetrical filter
section has a capacitance of 5000 pF in its
series arm and inductances of 500 µH in each
of its shunt arms. The cut-off frequency of
the filter is:
(a) 201.3 kHz
(c) 50.33 kHz
(b) 71.18 kHz
(d) 284.7 kHz
The following refers to questions 11 and 12.
A filter section is required to pass all frequencies above 50 kHz and to have a nominal
impedance of 650 .
11. A high-pass T-connected symmetrical filter
section is comprised of:
(a) Each series
1.03 mH
(b) Each series
2.08 mH
(c) Each series
2.08 mH
(d) Each series
1.03 mH
arm 2.45 nF, shunt arm
arm 4.90 nF, shunt arm
arm 2.45 nF, shunt arm
arm 4.90 nF, shunt arm
12. A high-pass -connected symmetrical filter
section is comprised of:
(a) Series arm
1.04 mH
(b) Series arm
2.07 mH
(c) Series arm
2.07 mH
(d) Series arm
1.04 mH
4.90 nF, and each shunt arm
4.90 nF, and each shunt arm
2.45 nF, and each shunt arm
2.45 nF, and each shunt arm
TLFeBOOK
18
D.C. transients
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
ž understand the term ‘transient’
ž describe the transient response of capacitor and resistor voltages, and current in a
series C–R d.c. circuit
ž define the term ‘time constant’
ž calculate time constant in a C–R circuit
ž draw transient growth and decay curves for a C–R circuit
ž use equations vC D V⊲1 et/ ⊳, vR D Vet/ and i D Iet/ for a C–R circuit
ž describe the transient response when discharging a capacitor
ž describe the transient response of inductor and resistor voltages, and current in a
series L –R d.c. circuit
ž calculate time constant in an L –R circuit
ž draw transient growth and decay curves for an L –R circuit
ž use equations vL D Vet/ , vR D V⊲1 et/ ⊳ and i D I⊲1 et/ ⊳
ž describe the transient response for current decay in an L –R circuit
ž understand the switching of inductive circuits
ž describe the effects of time constant on a rectangular waveform via integrator and
differentiator circuits
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Charging a capacitor
When a d.c. voltage is applied to a capacitor C and (a) The circuit diagram for a series connected C–R
circuit is shown in Fig. 18.1 When switch S is
resistor R connected in series, there is a short period
closed then by Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
of time immediately after the voltage is connected,
during which the current flowing in the circuit and
⊲1⊳
V D vC C vR
voltages across C and R are changing.
Similarly, when a d.c. voltage is connected to (b) The battery voltage V is constant. The capacitor
voltage vC is given by q/C, where q is the charge
a circuit having inductance L connected in series
on the capacitor. The voltage drop across R is
with resistance R, there is a short period of time
given by iR, where i is the current flowing in
immediately after the voltage is connected, during
the circuit. Hence at all times:
which the current flowing in the circuit and the
voltages across L and R are changing.
q
V D C iR
⊲2⊳
These changing values are called transients.
C
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D.C. TRANSIENTS
249
Figure 18.1
At the instant of closing S, (initial circuit condition), assuming there is no initial charge on
the capacitor, q0 is zero, hence vCo is zero. Thus
from Equation (1), V D 0 C vRo , i.e. vRo D V.
This shows that the resistance to current is solely
due to R, and the initial current flowing, i0 D I D
V/R
(c) A short time later at time t1 seconds after closing S, the capacitor is partly charged to, say,
q1 coulombs because current has been flowing.
The voltage vC1 is now ⊲q1 /C⊳ volts. If the current flowing is i1 amperes, then the voltage drop
across R has fallen to i1 R volts. Thus, Equation (2) is now V D ⊲q1 /C⊳ C i1 R
(d) A short time later still, say at time t2 seconds
after closing the switch, the charge has increased
to q2 coulombs and vC has increased to ⊲q2 /C⊳
volts. Since V D vC C vR and V is a constant,
then vR decreases to i2 R, Thus vC is increasing
and i and vR are decreasing as time increases.
Figure 18.2
18.3 Time constant for a C–R circuit
(a) If a constant d.c. voltage is applied to a series
connected C–R circuit, a transient curve of
capacitor voltage vC is as shown in Fig. 18.2(a).
(b) With reference to Fig. 18.3, let the constant
voltage supply be replaced by a variable voltage
supply at time t1 seconds. Let the voltage be
varied so that the current flowing in the circuit
is constant.
(e) Ultimately, a few seconds after closing S, (i.e. at
the final or steady state condition), the capacitor
is fully charged to, say, Q coulombs, current no
longer flows, i.e. i D 0, and hence vR D iR D 0.
It follows from Equation (1) that vC D V.
(f) Curves showing the changes in vC , vR and i with
time are shown in Fig. 18.2
The curve showing the variation of vC with
time is called an exponential growth curve and
the graph is called the ‘capacitor voltage/time’
characteristic. The curves showing the variation
of vR and i with time are called exponential
decay curves, and the graphs are called ‘resistor
voltage/time’ and ‘current/time’ characteristics
respectively. (The name‘exponential’ shows that
the shape can be expressed mathematically by an
exponential mathematical equation, as shown in
Section 18.4).
Figure 18.3
(c) Since the current flowing is a constant, the curve
will follow a tangent, AB, drawn to the curve at
point A.
(d) Let the capacitor voltage vC reach its final value
of V at time t2 seconds.
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(e) The time corresponding to ⊲t2 t1 ⊳ seconds is
called the time constant of the circuit, denoted
by the Greek letter ‘tau’, . The value of the
time constant is CR seconds, i.e. for a series
connected C–R circuit,
growth of capacitor voltage,
vC = V .1 − e−t =CR / = V .1 − e−t =t /
decay of resistor voltage,
vR = V e−t =CR = V e−t =t
time constant t = CR seconds
Since the variable voltage mentioned in paragraph (b) above can be applied at any instant
during the transient change, it may be applied
at t D 0, i.e. at the instant of connecting the circuit to the supply. If this is done, then the time
constant of the circuit may be defined as: ‘the
time taken for a transient to reach its final state
if the initial rate of change is maintained’.
decay of resistor voltage,
i = I e−t =CR = I e−t =t
Problem 1. A 15 µF uncharged capacitor is
connected in series with a 47 k resistor
across a 120 V, d.c. supply. Use the
tangential graphical method to draw the
capacitor voltage/time characteristic of the
circuit. From the characteristic, determine the
capacitor voltage at a time equal to one time
constant after being connected to the supply,
and also two seconds after being connected
to the supply. Also, find the time for the
capacitor voltage to reach one half of its
steady state value.
18.4 Transient curves for a C–R
circuit
There are two main methods of drawing transient
curves graphically, these being:
(b) the initial slope and three point method, which
is shown in Problem 2, and is based on the
following properties of a transient exponential
curve:
(i) for a growth curve, the value of a transient
at a time equal to one time constant is 0.632
of its steady state value (usually taken as
63 per cent of the steady state value), at a
time equal to two and a half time constants
is 0.918 of its steady state value (usually
taken as 92 per cent of its steady state value)
and at a time equal to five time constants is
equal to its steady state value,
(ii) for a decay curve, the value of a transient at
a time equal to one time constant is 0.368
of its initial value (usually taken as 37 per
cent of its initial value), at a time equal to
two and a half time constants is 0.082 of its
initial value (usually taken as 8 per cent of
its initial value) and at a time equal to five
time constants is equal to zero.
The transient curves shown in Fig. 18.2 have mathematical equations, obtained by solving the differential equations representing the circuit. The equations
of the curves are:
To construct an exponential curve, the time constant
of the circuit and steady state value need to be
determined.
Time constant D CR D 15 µF ð 47 k
D 15 ð 106 ð 47 ð 103
D 0.705 s
Steady state value of vC D V, i.e. vC D 120 V.
With reference to Fig. 18.4, the scale of the horizontal axis is drawn so that it spans at least five
time constants, i.e. 5 ð 0.705 or about 3.5 seconds.
The scale of the vertical axis spans the change in
t
Capacitor voltage (v)
(a) the tangent method – this method is shown in
Problem 1
and
A
t
VC t
t
t
E CF
100
I
60
20
B
J
80
40
K
H
G
D
0
1
2
3
Time (s)
4
5
t
Figure 18.4
TLFeBOOK
D.C. TRANSIENTS
the capacitor voltage, that is, from 0 to 120 V. A
broken line AB is drawn corresponding to the final
value of vC .
Point C is measured along AB so that AC is
equal to 1, i.e. AC D 0.705 s. Straight line OC is
drawn. Assuming that about five intermediate points
are needed to draw the curve accurately, a point D
is selected on OC corresponding to a vC value of
about 20 V. DE is drawn vertically. EF is made to
correspond to 1, i.e. EF D 0.705 s. A straight line
is drawn joining DF. This procedure of
(a) drawing a vertical line through point selected,
(b) at the steady-state value, drawing a horizontal
line corresponding to 1, and
(c) joining the first and last points,
is repeated for vC values of 40, 60, 80 and 100 V,
giving points G, H, I and J.
The capacitor voltage effectively reaches its
steady-state value of 120 V after a time equal to
five time constants, shown as point K. Drawing a
smooth curve through points O, D, G, H, I, J and
K gives the exponential growth curve of capacitor
voltage.
From the graph, the value of capacitor voltage at
a time equal to the time constant is about 75 V. It
is a characteristic of all exponential growth curves,
that after a time equal to one time constant, the
value of the transient is 0.632 of its steady-state
value. In this problem, 0.632 ð 120 D 75.84 V. Also
from the graph, when t is two seconds, vC is about
115 Volts. [This value may be checked using the
equation vC D V⊲1 et/ ⊳, where V D 120 V,
D 0.705 s and t D 2 s. This calculation gives
vC D 112.97 V].
The time for vC to rise to one half of its final
value, i.e. 60 V, can be determined from the graph
and is about 0.5 s. [This value may be checked using
vC D V⊲1et/ ⊳ where V D 120 V, vC D 60 V and
D 0.705 s, giving t D 0.489 s].
251
To draw the transient curves, the time constant of
the circuit and steady state values are needed.
Time constant, D CR
D 4 ð 106 ð 220 ð 103
D 0.88 s
Initially, capacitor voltage vC D vR D 24 V,
24
V
D
R
220 ð 103
D 0.109 mA
iD
Finally, vC D vR D i D 0.
(a) The exponential decay of capacitor voltage is
from 24 V to 0 V in a time equal to five time
constants, i.e. 5 ð 0.88 D 4.4 s. With reference
to Fig. 18.5, to construct the decay curve:
(i) the horizontal scale is made so that it spans
at least five time constants, i.e. 4.4 s,
(ii) the vertical scale is made to span the
change in capacitor voltage, i.e. 0 to 24 V,
(iii) point A corresponds to the initial capacitor
voltage, i.e. 24 V,
(iv) OB is made equal to one time constant and
line AB is drawn; this gives the initial slope
of the transient,
(v) the value of the transient after a time equal
to one time constant is 0.368 of the initial
Problem 2. A 4 µF capacitor is charged to
24 V and then discharged through a 220 k
resistor. Use the ‘initial slope and three
point’ method to draw: (a) the
capacitor voltage/time characteristic, (b) the
resistor voltage/time characteristic and
(c) the current/time characteristic, for the
transients which occur. From the
characteristics determine the value of
capacitor voltage, resistor voltage and current
1.5 s after discharge has started.
Figure 18.5
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
value, i.e. 0.368 ð 24 D 8.83 V; a vertical
line is drawn through B and distance BC is
made equal to 8.83 V,
(vi) the value of the transient after a time equal
to two and a half time constants is 0.082 of
the initial value, i.e. 0.082 ð 24 D 1.97 V,
shown as point D in Fig. 18.5,
(vii) the transient effectively dies away to zero
after a time equal to five time constants, i.e.
4.4 s, giving point E.
The smooth curve drawn through points A, C,
D and E represents the decay transient. At 1.5 s
after decay has started, vC ³ 4.4 V.
[This may be checked using vC D Vet/ ,
where V D 24, t D 1.5 and D 0.88, giving
vC D 4.36 V]
(b) The voltage drop across the resistor is equal
to the capacitor voltage when a capacitor is
discharging through a resistor, thus the resistor
voltage/time characteristic is identical to that
shown in Fig. 18.5 Since vR D vC , then at 1.5
seconds after decay has started, vR ³ 4.4 V (see
(vii) above).
(c) The current/time characteristic is constructed
in the same way as the capacitor voltage/time
characteristic, shown in part (a), and is as shown
in Fig. 18.6 The values are:
point A: initial value of current D 0.109 mA
point C: at 1 , i D 0.368 ð 0.109 D 0.040 mA
point D: at 2.5 , i D 0.082 ð 0.109 D 0.009 mA
point E: at 5 , i D 0
Hence the current transient is as shown. At a
time of 1.5 s, the value of current, from the
characteristic is 0.02 mA
[This may be checked using i D Ie⊲t/⊳ where
I D 0.109, t D 1.5 and D 0.88, giving
i D 0.0198 mA or 19.8 µA]
Problem 3. A 20 µF capacitor is connected
in series with a 50 k resistor and the circuit
is connected to a 20 V, d.c. supply.
Determine: (a) the initial value of the current
flowing, (b) the time constant of the circuit,
(c) the value of the current one second after
connection, (d) the value of the capacitor
voltage two seconds after connection, and
(e) the time after connection when the
resistor voltage is 15 V.
Parts (c), (d) and (e) may be determined graphically,
as shown in Problems 1 and 2 or by calculation as
shown below.
V D 20 V, C D 20 µF D 20 ð 106 F,
R D 50 k D 50 ð 103 V
(a) The initial value of the current flowing is
ID
20
V
D
D 0.4 mA
R
50 ð 103
(b) From Section 18.3 the time constant,
D CR D ⊲20 ð 106 ⊳⊲50 ð 103 ⊳ D 1 s
(c) Current, i D Iet/ and working in mA units,
i D 0.4e1/1 D 0.4 ð 0.368 D 0.147 mA
(d) Capacitor voltage,
vC D V⊲1 et/ ⊳ D 20⊲1 e2/1 ⊳
D 20⊲1 0.135⊳ D 20 ð 0.865
D 18.3 V
(e) Resistor voltage, vR D Vet/
Thus 15 D 20et/1 , 15/20 D et from which
et D 20/15 D 4/3
Taking natural logarithms of each side of the
equation gives
t D ln
4
D ln 1.3333 i.e. time, t = 0.288 s
3
Problem 4. A circuit consists of a resistor
connected in series with a 0.5 µF capacitor
and has a time constant of 12 ms. Determine:
(a) the value of the resistor, and (b) the
capacitor voltage, 7 ms after connecting the
circuit to a 10 V supply.
Figure 18.6
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D.C. TRANSIENTS
253
(a) The time constant D CR, hence
RD
D
C
12 ð 103
0.5 ð 106
D 24 ð 103 D 24 kZ
(b) The equation for the growth of capacitor voltage
is: vC D V⊲1 et/ ⊳
Since D 12 ms D 12 ð 103 s, V D 10 V and
t D 7 ms D 7 ð 103 s, then
3
vC D 10⊲1 e7ð10
D 10⊲1 e
0.583
/12ð103
⊳
⊳
D 10⊲1 0.558⊳ D 4.42 V
Alternatively, the value of vC when t is 7 ms
may be determined using the growth characteristic as shown in Problem 1.
Figure 18.8
decay of voltage,
18.5 Discharging a capacitor
When a capacitor is charged (i.e. with the switch
in position A in Fig. 18.7), and the switch is then
moved to position B, the electrons stored in the
capacitor keep the current flowing for a short time.
Initially, at the instant of moving from A to B, the
current flow is such that the capacitor voltage vC is
balanced by an equal and opposite voltage vR D iR.
Since initially vC D vR D V, then i D I D V/R.
During the transient decay, by applying Kirchhoff’s
voltage law to Fig. 18.7, vC D vR .
Finally the transients decay exponentially to zero,
i.e. vC D vR D 0. The transient curves representing
the voltages and current are as shown in Fig. 18.8
The equations representing the transient curves
during the discharge period of a series connected
C–R circuit are:
Figure 18.7
vC = vR = V e.−t =CR / = V e.−t =t/
decay of current, i = I e.−t =CR / = I e.−t =t/
When a capacitor has been disconnected from the
supply it may still be charged and it may retain this
charge for some considerable time. Thus precautions
must be taken to ensure that the capacitor is automatically discharged after the supply is switched off.
This is done by connecting a high value resistor
across the capacitor terminals.
Problem 5. A capacitor is charged to 100 V
and then discharged through a 50 k resistor.
If the time constant of the circuit is 0.8 s.
Determine: (a) the value of the capacitor,
(b) the time for the capacitor voltage to fall
to 20 V, (c) the current flowing when the
capacitor has been discharging for 0.5 s, and
(d) the voltage drop across the resistor when
the capacitor has been discharging for one
second.
Parts (b), (c) and (d) of this problem may be solved
graphically as shown in Problems 1 and 2 or by
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
calculation as shown below.
V D 100 V, D 0.8 s, R D 50 k D 50 ð 103
(a) Since time constant, D CR, capacitance,
0.8
CD D
D 16 mF
R
50 ð 103
(b) Since vC D Vet/ then 20 D 100et/0.8 from
which 1/5 D et/0.8
Thus et/0.8 D 5 and taking natural logarithms
of each side, gives t/0.8 D ln 5 and time,
t D 0.8 ln 5 D 1.29 s.
(c) i D Iet/ where the initial current flowing,
V
100
D
D 2 mA
R
50 ð 103
Working in mA units,
ID
i D Iet/ D 2e⊲0.5/0.8⊳
D 2e0.625 D 2 ð 0.535 D 1.07 mA
(d) vR D vC D Vet/ D 100e1/0.8
D 100e1.25 D 100 ð 0.287 D 28.7 V
Problem 6. A 0.1 µF capacitor is charged to
200 V before being connected across a 4 k
resistor. Determine (a) the initial discharge
current, (b) the time constant of the circuit,
and (c) the minimum time required for the
voltage across the capacitor to fall to less
than 2 V.
(a) Initial discharge current,
V
200
D
D 0.05 A or 50 mA
R
4 ð 103
(b) Time constant D CR D 0.1 ð 106 ð 4 ð 103
iD
D 0.0004 s or 0.4 ms
(c) The minimum time for the capacitor voltage to
fall to less than 2 V, i.e. less than 2/200 or 1
per cent of the initial value is given by 5.
5 D 5 ð 0.4 D 2 ms
In a d.c. circuit, a capacitor blocks the current
except during the times that there are changes in the
supply voltage.
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 100 Further problems on
transients in series connected C–R circuits
1 An uncharged capacitor of 0.2 µF is connected
to a 100 V, d.c. supply through a resistor of
100 k. Determine, either graphically or by
calculation the capacitor voltage 10 ms after
the voltage has been applied
[39.35 V]
2 A circuit consists of an uncharged capacitor
connected in series with a 50 k resistor and
has a time constant of 15 ms. Determine either
graphically or by calculation (a) the capacitance of the capacitor and (b) the voltage drop
across the resistor 5 ms after connecting the
circuit to a 20 V, d.c. supply.
[(a) 0.3 µF (b) 14.33 V]
3 A 10 µF capacitor is charged to 120 V and
then discharged through a 1.5 M resistor.
Determine either graphically or by calculation
the capacitor voltage 2 s after discharging has
commenced. Also find how long it takes for
the voltage to fall to 25 V [105.0 V, 23.53 s]
4 A capacitor is connected in series with a
voltmeter of resistance 750 k and a battery.
When the voltmeter reading is steady the battery is replaced with a shorting link. If it
takes 17 s for the voltmeter reading to fall to
two-thirds of its original value, determine the
capacitance of the capacitor.
[55.9 µF]
5 When a 3 µF charged capacitor is connected to
a resistor, the voltage falls by 70 per cent in
3.9 s. Determine the value of the resistor.
[1.08 M]
6 A 50 µF uncharged capacitor is connected in
series with a 1 k resistor and the circuit is
switched to a 100 V, d.c. supply. Determine:
(a) the initial current flowing in the circuit,
(b) the time constant,
(c) the value of current when t is 50 ms and
(d) the voltage across the resistor 60 ms after
closing the switch.
[(a) 0.1 A (b) 50 ms
(c) 36.8 mA (d) 30.1 V]
7 An uncharged 5 µF capacitor is connected in
series with a 30 k resistor across a 110 V,
d.c. supply. Determine the time constant of
the circuit and the initial charging current. Use
a graphical method to draw the current/time
TLFeBOOK
D.C. TRANSIENTS
characteristic of the circuit and hence determine the current flowing 120 ms after connecting to the supply.
[150 ms, 3.67 mA, 1.65 mA]
8 An uncharged 80 µF capacitor is connected in
series with a 1 k resistor and is switched
across a 110 V supply. Determine the time
constant of the circuit and the initial value
of current flowing. Derive graphically the current/time characteristic for the transient condition and hence determine the value of current
flowing after (a) 40 ms and (b) 80 ms
[80 ms, 0.11 A (a) 66.7 mA (b) 40.5 mA]
9 A resistor of 0.5 M is connected in series
with a 20 µF capacitor and the capacitor is
charged to 200 V. The battery is replaced
instantaneously by a conducting link. Draw
a graph showing the variation of capacitor
voltage with time over a period of at least 6
time constants. Determine from the graph the
approximate time for the capacitor voltage to
fall to 75 V
[9.8 s]
18.6 Current growth in an L–R circuit
(a) The circuit diagram for a series connected L –R
circuit is shown in Fig. 18.9 When switch S is
closed, then by Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
V D vL C vR
255
di
C iR
⊲4⊳
dt
(c) At the instant of closing the switch, the rate of
change of current is such that it induces an e.m.f.
in the inductance which is equal and opposite
to V, hence V D vL C 0, i.e. vL D V. From
Equation (3), because vL D V, then vR D 0 and
i D 0.
VDL
(d) A short time later at time t1 seconds after closing
S, current i1 is flowing, since there is a rate of
change of current initially, resulting in a voltage
drop of i1 R across the resistor. Since V (which
is constant) D vL C vR the induced e.m.f. is
reduced, and Equation (4) becomes:
VDL
di1
C i1 R
dt1
(e) A short time later still, say at time t2 seconds
after closing the switch, the current flowing is i2 ,
and the voltage drop across the resistor increases
to i2 R. Since vR increases, vL decreases.
(f) Ultimately, a few seconds after closing S, the
current flow is entirely limited by R, the rate of
change of current is zero and hence vL is zero.
Thus V D iR. Under these conditions, steady
state current flows, usually signified by I. Thus,
I D V/R, vR D IR and vL D 0 at steady state
conditions.
(g) Curves showing the changes in vL , vR and i with
time are shown in Fig. 18.10 and indicate that
⊲3⊳
Figure 18.9
(b) The battery voltage V is constant. The voltage
across the inductance is the induced voltage, i.e.
vL D L ð
di
change of current
DL
change of time
dt
The voltage drop across R, vR is given by iR.
Hence, at all times:
Figure 18.10
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
vL is a maximum value initially (i.e. equal to V),
decaying exponentially to zero, whereas vR and
i grow exponentially from zero to their steady
state values of V and I D V/R respectively.
18.7 Time constant for an L–R circuit
With reference to Section 18.3, the time constant of
a series connected L –R circuit is defined in the same
way as the time constant for a series connected C–R
circuit. Its value is given by:
time constant, t =
L
seconds
R
18.8 Transient curves for an L–R
circuit
Transient curves representing the induced voltage/time, resistor voltage/time and current/time
characteristics may be drawn graphically, as outlined in Section 18.4 A method of construction is
shown in Problem 7.
Each of the transient curves shown in Fig. 18.10
have mathematical equations, and these are:
Before the current/time characteristic can be drawn,
the time constant and steady-state value of the
current have to be calculated.
Time constant,
D
L
10 ð 103
D
D 5 ms
R
20
Final value of current,
ID
V
60
D
D 3A
R
20
The method used to construct the characteristic is
the same as that used in Problem 2
(a) The scales should span at least five time
constants (horizontally), i.e. 25 ms, and 3 A
(vertically)
(b) With reference to Fig. 18.11, the initial slope is
obtained by making AB equal to 1 time constant,
(i.e. 5 ms), and joining OB.
decay of induced voltage,
vL = V e.−Rt =L/ = V e.−t =t/
growth of resistor voltage,
vR = V .1 − e−Rt =L / = V .1 − e−t =t /
growth of current flow,
i = I .1 − e−Rt =L / = I .1 − e−t =t /
The application of these equations is shown in
Problem 9.
Problem 7. A relay has an inductance of
100 mH and a resistance of 20 . It is
connected to a 60 V, d.c. supply. Use the
‘initial slope and three point’ method to draw
the current/time characteristic and hence
determine the value of current flowing at a
time equal to two time constants and the
time for the current to grow to 1.5 A.
Figure 18.11
(c) At a time of 1 time constant, CD is 0.632 ð I D
0.632 ð 3 D 1.896 A.
At a time of 2.5 time constants, EF is 0.918ðI D
0.918 ð 3 D 2.754 A.
At a time of 5 time constants, GH is I D 3 A.
(d) A smooth curve is drawn through points 0,
D, F and H and this curve is the current/time
characteristic.
From the characteristic, when t D 2, i ³ 2.6 A.
[This may be checked by calculation using i D
I⊲1 et/ ⊳, where I D 3 and t D 2, giving
i D 2.59 A]. Also, when the current is 1.5 A, the
corresponding time is about 3.6 ms. [Again, this may
TLFeBOOK
D.C. TRANSIENTS
be checked by calculation, using i D I⊲1 et/ ⊳
where i D 1.5, I D 3 and D 5 ms, giving
t D 3.466 ms].
Problem 8. A coil of inductance 0.04 H and
resistance 10 is connected to a 120 V, d.c.
supply. Determine (a) the final value of
current, (b) the time constant of the circuit,
(c) the value of current after a time equal to
the time constant from the instant the supply
voltage is connected, (d) the expected time
for the current to rise to within 1 per cent of
its final value.
120
V
D
D 12 A
R
10
(b) Time constant of the circuit,
(a) Final steady current, I D
L
0.004
D
D 0.004 s or 4 ms
R
10
(c) In the time s the current rises to 63.2 per cent
of its final value of 12 A, i.e. in 4 ms the current
rises to 0.632 ð 12 D 7.58 A.
D
(d) The expected time for the current to rise to
within 1 per cent of its final value is given by
5 s, i.e. 5 ð 4 D 20 ms.
Problem 9. The winding of an
electromagnet has an inductance of 3 H and a
resistance of 15 . When it is connected to a
120 V, d.c. supply, calculate: (a) the steady
state value of current flowing in the winding,
(b) the time constant of the circuit, (c) the
value of the induced e.m.f. after 0.1 s, (d) the
time for the current to rise to 85 per cent of
its final value, and (e) the value of the
current after 0.3 s.
257
(c) The induced e.m.f., vL is given by vL D Vet/ .
The d.c. voltage V is 120 V, t is 0.1 s and is
0.2 s, hence
vL D 120e0.1/0.2 D 120e0.5
D 120 ð 0.6065 D 72.78 V
(d) When the current is 85 per cent of its final value,
i D 0.85 I. Also, i D I⊲1 et/ ⊳, thus
0.85I D I⊲1 et/ ⊳
0.85 D 1 et/
D 0.2, hence
0.85 D 1 et/0.2
et/0.2 D 1 0.85 D 0.15
1
D 6.6P
et/0.2 D
0.15
Taking natural logarithms of each side of this
equation gives:
ln et/0.2 D ln 6.6P
and by the laws of logarithms
t
ln e D ln 6.6P
0.2
ln e D 1, hence time t D 0.2 ln 6.6P D 0.379 s
(e) The current at any instant is given by i D
I⊲1 et/ ⊳. When I D 8, t D 0.3 and D 0.2,
then
i D 8⊲1 e0.3/0.2 ⊳ D 8⊲1 e1.5 ⊳
D 8⊲1 0.2231⊳ D 8 ð 0.7769 D 6.215 A
18.9 Current decay in an L–R circuit
(a) The steady state value of current,
V
120
I D
D
D 8A
R
15
(b) The time constant of the circuit,
L
3
D
D 0.2 s
R
15
Parts (c), (d) and (e) of this problem may
be determined by drawing the transients
graphically, as shown in Problem 7 or by
calculation as shown below.
When a series connected L –R circuit is connected
to a d.c. supply as shown with S in position A of
D
Figure 18.12
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Fig. 18.12, a current I D V/R flows after a short
time, creating a magnetic field ⊲ / I⊳ associated
with the inductor. When S is moved to position B,
the current value decreases, causing a decrease in the
strength of the magnetic field. Flux linkages occur,
generating a voltage vL , equal to L⊲di/dt⊳. By Lenz’s
law, this voltage keeps current i flowing in the
circuit, its value being limited by R. Thus vL D vR .
The current decays exponentially to zero and since
vR is proportional to the current flowing, vR decays
exponentially to zero. Since vL D vR , vL also decays
exponentially to zero. The curves representing these
transients are similar to those shown in Fig. 18.8
The equations representing the decay transient
curves are:
decay of voltages,
vL = vR = V e.−Rt =L/ = V e.−t =t/
decay of current, i = I e.−Rt =L/ = I e.−t =t/
Problem 10. The field winding of a 110 V,
d.c. motor has a resistance of 15 and a
time constant of 2 s. Determine the
inductance and use the tangential method to
draw the current/time characteristic when the
supply is removed and replaced by a shorting
link. From the characteristic determine
(a) the current flowing in the winding 3 s
after being shorted-out and (b) the time for
the current to decay to 5 A.
Since the time constant, D ⊲L/R⊳, L D R i.e.
inductance L D 15 ð 2 D 30 H
The current/time characteristic is constructed in a
similar way to that used in Problem 1
(i) The scales should span at least five time
constants horizontally, i.e. 10 s, and I D V/R D
110/15 D 7.3P A vertically
(ii) With reference to Fig. 18.13, the initial slope
is obtained by making OB equal to 1 time
constant, (i.e. 2 s), and joining AB
(iii) At, say, i D 6 A, let C be the point on AB
corresponding to a current of 6 A. Make DE
equal to 1 time constant, (i.e. 2 s), and join CE
Figure 18.13
(iv) Repeat the procedure given in (iii) for current
values of, say, 4 A, 2 A and 1 A, giving points
F, G and H
(v) Point J is at five time constants, when the value
of current is zero.
(vi) Join points A, C, F, G, H and J with a
smooth curve. This curve is the current/time
characteristic.
(a) From the current/time characteristic, when
t D 3 s, i D 1.3 A [This may be checked by
P
calculation using i D Iet/ , where I D 7.3,
t D 3 and D 2, giving i D 1.64 A] The
discrepancy between the two results is due
to relatively few values, such as C, F, G
and H, being taken.
(b) From the characteristic, when i D 5 A,
t = 0.70 s [This may be checked by
calculation using i D Iet/ , where i D 5,
P D 2, giving t D 0.766 s]. Again,
I D 7.3,
the discrepancy between the graphical and
calculated values is due to relatively few
values such as C, F, G and H being taken.
Problem 11. A coil having an inductance of
6 H and a resistance of R is connected in
series with a resistor of 10 to a 120 V, d.c.
supply. The time constant of the circuit is
300 ms. When steady-state conditions have
been reached, the supply is replaced
instantaneously by a short-circuit. Determine:
(a) the resistance of the coil, (b) the current
flowing in the circuit one second after the
shorting link has been placed in the circuit,
and (c) the time taken for the current to fall
to 10 per cent of its initial value.
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D.C. TRANSIENTS
(a) The time constant,
D
The time constant,
L
circuit inductance
D
total circuit resistance
R C 10
Thus R D
6
L
10 D
10 D 10 Z
0.3
Parts (b) and (c) may be determined graphically
as shown in Problems 7 and 10 or by calculation
as shown below.
(b) The steady-state current,
V
120
ID
D
D 6A
R
10 C 10
The transient current after 1 second,
i D Iet/ D 6e1/0.3
Thus i D 6e
3.3P
D 6 ð 0.03567
D 0.214 A
(c) 10 per cent of the initial value of the current is
⊲10/100⊳ ð 6, i.e. 0.6 A Using the equation
i D Ie
t/
259
gives
t/0.3
0.6 D 6e
0.6
D et/0.3
i.e.
6
6
D 10
or et/0.3 D
0.6
Taking natural logarithms of each side of this
equation gives:
t
D ln 10
0.3
from which, time, t = 0.3 ln 10 = 0.691 s
Problem 12. An inductor has a negligible
resistance and an inductance of 200 mH and
is connected in series with a 1 k resistor to
a 24 V, d.c. supply. Determine the time
constant of the circuit and the steady-state
value of the current flowing in the circuit.
Find (a) the current flowing in the circuit at a
time equal to one time constant, (b) the
voltage drop across the inductor at a time
equal to two time constants and (c) the
voltage drop across the resistor after a time
equal to three time constants.
D
L
0.2
D
D 0.2 ms
R
1000
The steady-state current
ID
V
24
D
D 24 mA
R
1000
(a) The transient current,
i D I⊲1 et/ ⊳ and t D 1.
Working in mA units gives,
i D 24⊲1 e⊲1/⊳ ⊳ D 24⊲1 e1 ⊳
D 24⊲1 0.368⊳ D 15.17 mA
(b) The voltage drop across the inductor,
vL D Vet/
When t D 2, vL D 24e2/ D 24e2
D 3.248 V
(c) The voltage drop across the resistor,
vR D V⊲1 et/ ⊳
When t D 3, vR D 24⊲1 e3/ ⊳
D 24⊲1 e3 ⊳
D 22.81 V
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 101 Further problems on
transients in series L–R circuits
1 A coil has an inductance of 1.2 H and a resistance of 40 and is connected to a 200 V,
d.c. supply. Draw the current/time characteristic and hence determine the approximate value
of the current flowing 60 ms after connecting
the coil to the supply.
[4.3 A]
2 A 25 V d.c. supply is connected to a coil
of inductance 1 H and resistance 5 . Use
a graphical method to draw the exponential
growth curve of current and hence determine
the approximate value of the current flowing
100 ms after being connected to the supply.
[2 A]
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
3 An inductor has a resistance of 20 and
an inductance of 4 H. It is connected to a
50 V d.c. supply. By drawing the appropriate
characteristic find (a) the approximate value of
current flowing after 0.1 s and (b) the time for
the current to grow to 1.5 A
[(a) 1 A (b) 0.18 s]
dissipated as heat in RD and R and arcing at the
switch contacts is avoided.
4 The field winding of a 200 V d.c. machine
has a resistance of 20 and an inductance of
500 mH. Calculate:
(a) the time constant of the field winding,
(b) the value of current flow one time constant
after being connected to the supply, and
(c) the current flowing 50 ms after the supply
has been switched on
[(a) 25 ms (b) 6.32 A (c) 8.65 A]
Integrator circuit
18.10 Switching inductive circuits
Energy stored in the magnetic field of an inductor
exists because a current provides the magnetic field.
When the d.c. supply is switched off the current
falls rapidly, the magnetic field collapses causing
a large induced e.m.f. which will either cause an
arc across the switch contacts or will break down
the insulation between adjacent turns of the coil.
The high induced e.m.f. acts in a direction which
tends to keep the current flowing, i.e. in the same
direction as the applied voltage. The energy from
the magnetic field will thus be aided by the supply
voltage in maintaining an arc, which could cause
severe damage to the switch. To reduce the induced
e.m.f. when the supply switch is opened, a discharge
resistor RD is connected in parallel with the inductor
as shown in Fig. 18.14 The magnetic field energy is
18.11 The effects of time constant on a
rectangular waveform
By varying the value of either C or R in a series
connected C–R circuit, the time constant ⊲ D CR⊳,
of a circuit can be varied. If a rectangular waveform
varying from CE to E is applied to a C–R circuit
as shown in Fig. 18.15, output waveforms of the
capacitor voltage have various shapes, depending
on the value of R. When R is small, D CR is
small and an output waveform such as that shown
in Fig. 18.16(a) is obtained. As the value of R is
increased, the waveform changes to that shown in
Fig. 18.16(b). When R is large, the waveform is
as shown in Fig. 18.16(c), the circuit then being
described as an integrator circuit.
Figure 18.15
Figure 18.16
Differentiator circuit
Figure 18.14
If a rectangular waveform varying from CE to
E is applied to a series connected C–R circuit
TLFeBOOK
Section 3
Electrical Power Technology
TLFeBOOK
20
Three-phase systems
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
ž describe a single-phase supply
ž describe a three-phase supply
ž understand a star connection, and recognize that IL D Ip and VL D
3 Vp
ž draw a complete phasor diagram for a balanced, star connected load
ž understand a delta connection, and recognize that VL D Vp and IL D
ž draw a phasor diagram for a balanced, delta connected load
p
ž calculate power in three-phase systems using P D 3 VL IL cos
3 Ip
ž appreciate how power is measured in a three-phase system, by the one, two and
three-wattmeter methods
ž compare star and delta connections
ž appreciate the advantages of three-phase systems
20.1 Introduction
Generation, transmission and distribution of electricity via the National Grid system is accomplished by
three-phase alternating currents.
ω
R
N
S
R1
Induced
EMF
e
0
Figure 20.1
The voltage induced by a single coil when rotated
in a uniform magnetic field is shown in Fig. 20.1
and is known as a single-phase voltage. Most consumers are fed by means of a single-phase a.c.
supply. Two wires are used, one called the live conductor (usually coloured red) and the other is called
the neutral conductor (usually coloured black). The
neutral is usually connected via protective gear to
earth, the earth wire being coloured green. The standard voltage for a single-phase a.c. supply is 240 V.
The majority of single-phase supplies are obtained
by connection to a three-phase supply (see Fig. 20.5,
page 289).
eR
90° 180°
270°
360°
ωt
20.2 Three-phase supply
A three-phase supply is generated when three coils
are placed 120° apart and the whole rotated in a
uniform magnetic field as shown in Fig. 20.2(a). The
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
ω
Y1
R
B1
N
120°
S
(a)
B
Y
120° R1
Induced
EMF
e
eY
eR
0
90° 180°
120°
eB
270°
120°
360°
(b)
Figure 20.3
connected to a load and the outlets from the
loads are joined together at N to form what is
termed the neutral point or the star point.
120°
Figure 20.2
result is three independent supplies of equal voltages
which are each displaced by 120° from each other
as shown in Fig. 20.2(b).
(i) The convention adopted to identify each of the
phase voltages is: R-red, Y-yellow, and B-blue,
as shown in Fig. 20.2
(ii) The phase-sequence is given by the sequence
in which the conductors pass the point initially
taken by the red conductor. The national standard phase sequence is R, Y, B.
A three-phase a.c. supply is carried by three conductors, called ‘lines’ which are coloured red, yellow and blue. The currents in these conductors are
known as line currents ⊲IL ⊳ and the p.d.’s between
them are known as line voltages ⊲VL ⊳. A fourth conductor, called the neutral (coloured black, and connected through protective devices to earth) is often
used with a three-phase supply.
If the three-phase windings shown in Fig. 20.2
are kept independent then six wires are needed to
connect a supply source (such as a generator) to a
load (such as motor). To reduce the number of wires
it is usual to interconnect the three phases. There are
two ways in which this can be done, these being:
(a) a star connection, and (b) a delta, or mesh,
connection. Sources of three-phase supplies,
i.e. alternators, are usually connected in
star, whereas three-phase transformer windings,
motors and other loads may be connected either
in star or delta.
(ii) The voltages, VR , VY and VB are called phase
voltages or line to neutral voltages. Phase voltages are generally denoted by Vp .
(iii) The voltages, VRY , VYB and VBR are called
line voltages.
(iv) From Fig. 20.3 it can be seen that the phase
currents (generally denoted by Ip ) are equal to
their respective line currents IR , IY and IB , i.e.
for a star connection:
IL = Ip
(v) For a balanced system:
IR D IY D IB ,
VR D VY D VB
VRY D VYB D VBR ,
ZR D ZY D ZB
and the current in the neutral conductor,
IN D 0 When a star-connected system is balanced, then the neutral conductor is unnecessary and is often omitted.
(vi) The line voltage, VRY , shown in Fig. 20.4(a)
is given by VRY D VR VY (VY is negative since it is in the opposite direction to
VRY ). In the phasor diagram of Fig. 20.4(b),
VRY
VR
N
VRY
VR
VY
30°
−VY
120°
(a)
120°
20.3 Star connection
(i) A star-connected load is shown in Fig. 20.3
where the three line conductors are each
VB
VY
(b)
Figure 20.4
TLFeBOOK
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
phasor VY is reversed (shown by the broken
line) and then added phasorially to VR (i.e.
VRY D VR C ⊲VY ⊳). By
p trigonometry, or by
measurement, VRY D 3 VR , i.e. for a balanced star connection:
VL =
p
3 Vp
(See Problem 3 following for a complete phasor diagram of a star-connected system).
(vii) The star connection of the three phases of
a supply, together with a neutral conductor,
allows the use of two voltages – the phase
voltage and the line voltage. A 4-wire system
is also used when the load is not balanced.
The standard electricity supply to consumers
in Great Britain is 415/240 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase,
4-wire alternating current, and a diagram of
connections is shown in Fig. 20.5
289
p
3 Vp . p
Hence
(a) For a star connection, VL pD
phase voltage, Vp D VL / 3 D 415/ 3 D
239.6 V or 240 V, correct to 3 significant figures.
(b) Phase current, Ip D Vp /Rp D 240/30 D 8 A
(c) For a star connection, Ip D IL hence the line
current, IL D 8 A
Problem 2. A star-connected load consists
of three identical coils each of resistance
30 and inductance 127.3 mH. If the line
current is 5.08 A, calculate the line voltage if
the supply frequency is 50 Hz.
Inductive reactance
XL D 2fL D 2⊲50⊳⊲127.3 ð 103 ⊳ D 40
Impedance of each phase
Zp D R2 C X2L D 302 C 402 D 50
For a star connection
Problem 1. Three loads, each of resistance
30 , are connected in star to a 415 V,
3-phase supply. Determine (a) the system
phase voltage, (b) the phase current and
(c) the line current.
A ‘415 V, 3-phase supply’ means that 415 V is the
line voltage, VL
IL D Ip D
Vp
Zp
Hence phase voltage,
Vp D Ip Zp D ⊲5.08⊳⊲50⊳ D 254 V
Line voltage
p
p
VL D 3 Vp D 3⊲254⊳ D 440 V
Figure 20.5
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Problem 3. A balanced, three-wire,
star-connected, 3-phase load has a phase
voltage of 240 V, a line current of 5 A and a
lagging power factor of 0.966. Draw the
complete phasor diagram.
The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 20.6.
Figure 20.7
(a) For a star-connected system VL D
p
3 Vp , hence
415
VL
Vp D p D p D 240 V
3
3
Since current I D power P/voltage V for a
resistive load then
and
Figure 20.6
Procedure to construct the phasor diagram:
(i) Draw VR D VY D VB D 240 V and spaced
120° apart. (Note that VR is shown vertically
upwards – this however is immaterial for it
may be drawn in any direction).
(ii) Power factor D cos D 0.966 lagging. Hence
the load phase angle is given by cos1 0.966,
i.e. 15° lagging. Hence IR D IY D IB D 5 A,
lagging VR , VY and VB respectively by 15° .
(iii) VRY D VR VY (phasorially). Hence VY
is reversed and added phasorially
p to VR . By
measurement, VRY D 415 V (i.e. 3ð240) and
leads VR by 30° . Similarly, VYB D VY VB
and VBR D VB VR
Problem 4. A 415 V, 3-phase, 4 wire,
star-connected system supplies three resistive
loads as shown in Fig. 20.7 Determine
(a) the current in each line and (b) the
current in the neutral conductor.
IR D
PR
24 000
D 100 A
D
VR
240
IY D
PY
18 000
D 75 A
D
VY
240
IB D
12 000
PB
D 50 A
D
VB
240
(b) The three line currents are shown in the phasor
diagram of Fig. 20.8 Since each load is resistive
the currents are in phase with the phase voltages
and are hence mutually displaced by 120° . The
current in the neutral conductor is given by
IN D IR C IY C IB phasorially.
Figure 20.9 shows the three line currents added
phasorially. oa represents IR in magnitude and direction. From the nose of oa, ab is drawn representing
IY in magnitude and direction. From the nose of ab,
Figure 20.8
TLFeBOOK
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
291
20 kW and 25 kW in the red, yellow and
blue phases respectively. Determine the current flowing in each of the four conductors.
[IR D 64.95 A, IY D 86.60 A,
IB D 108.25 A, IN D 37.50 A]
20.4 Delta connection
Figure 20.9
bc is drawn representing IB in magnitude and direction. oc represents the resultant, IN By measurement,
IN D 43 A.
Alternatively, by calculation, considering IR at
90° , IB at 210° and IY at 330° : Total horizontal
component D 100 cos 90° C75 cos 330° C50 cos 210°
D 21.65. Total vertical component D 100 sin 90° C
°
°
75 sin 330
p C 50 sin 210 D 37.50. Hence magnitude
2
of IN D 21.65 C 37.502 D 43.3 A
(i) A delta (or mesh) connected load is shown
in Fig. 20.10 where the end of one load is
connected to the start of the next load.
(ii) From Fig. 20.10, it can be seen that the line
voltages VRY , VYB and VBR are the respective
phase voltages, i.e. for a delta connection:
VL = Vp
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 108
connections
Further problems on star
1 Three loads, each of resistance 50 are connected in star to a 400 V, 3-phase supply.
Determine (a) the phase voltage, (b) the phase
current and (c) the line current.
[(a) 231 V (b) 4.62 A (c) 4.62 A]
2 A star-connected load consists of three identical coils, each of inductance 159.2 mH and
resistance 50 . If the supply frequency is
50 Hz and the line current is 3 A determine
(a) the phase voltage and (b) the line voltage.
[(a) 212 V (b) 367 V]
Figure 20.10
(iii) Using Kirchhoff’s current law in Fig. 20.10,
IR D IRY IBR D IRY C⊲IBR ⊳ From the phasor
diagram shown in Fig. 20.11,
pby trigonometry
or by measurement, IR D 3 IRY , i.e. for a
delta connection:
IL =
p
3 Ip
3 Three identical capacitors are connected in star
to a 400 V, 50 Hz 3-phase supply. If the line
current is 12 A determine the capacitance of
each of the capacitors.
[165.4 µF]
4 Three coils each having resistance 6 and
inductance L H are connected in star to a
415 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase supply. If the line current is 30 A, find the value of L.
[16.78 mH]
5 A 400 V, 3-phase, 4 wire, star-connected system supplies three resistive loads of 15 kW,
Figure 20.11
TLFeBOOK
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Problem 5. Three identical coils each of
resistance 30 and inductance 127.3 mH are
connected in delta to a 440 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase
supply. Determine (a) the phase current, and
(b) the line current.
Phase impedance, Zp D 50 (from Problem 2) and
for a delta connection, Vp D VL .
(a) Phase current,
VL
440
Vp
Ip D
D 8.8 A
D
D
Zp
Zp
50
(b) For a delta connection,
p
p
IL D 3 Ip D 3⊲8.8⊳ D 15.24 A
Thus when the load is connected in delta, three times
the line current is taken from the supply than is taken
if connected in star.
Problem 6. Three identical capacitors are
connected in delta to a 415 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase
supply. If the line current is 15 A, determine
the capacitance of each of the capacitors.
For a delta connection IL D
current,
p
3 Ip . Hence phase
15
IL
Ip D p D p D 8.66 A
3
3
Capacitive reactance per phase,
XC D
Vp
VL
D
Ip
Ip
p
(i) For a star connection: ILDIp and VLD 3 Vp .
(a) A 415 V, 3-phase supply means that the line
voltage, VL D 415 V
Phase voltage,
415
VL
Vp D p D p D 240 V
3
3
(b) Impedance per phase,
p
Zp D R2 C X2L D 32 C 42 D 5
Phase current,
Ip D Vp /Zp D 240/5 D 48 A
Line current,
IL D Ip D 48 A
(ii) For apdelta connection: VL D Vp and
IL D 3 Ip .
(a) Line voltage, VL D 415 V
Phase voltage, Vp D VL D 415 V
(b) Phase current,
Ip D
Vp
415
D
D 83 A
Zp
5
Line current,
p
p
IL D 3 Ip D 3⊲83⊳ D 144 A
Now try the following exercise
(since for a delta connection VL D Vp ). Hence
XC D
415
D 47.92
8.66
XC D 1/2fC, from which capacitance,
2
1
F D 66.43 mF
D
CD
2fXC
2⊲50⊳⊲47.92⊳
Problem 7. Three coils each having
resistance 3 and inductive reactance 4
are connected (i) in star and (ii) in delta to a
415 V, 3-phase supply. Calculate for each
connection (a) the line and phase voltages
and (b) the phase and line currents.
Exercise 109 Further problems on delta
connections
1 Three loads, each of resistance 50 are connected in delta to a 400 V, 3-phase supply.
Determine (a) the phase voltage, (b) the phase
current and (c) the line current.
[(a) 400 V (b) 8 A (c) 13.86 A]
2 Three inductive loads each of resistance 75
and inductance 318.4 mH are connected in
delta to a 415 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase supply. Determine (a) the phase voltage, (b) the phase current, and (c) the line current
[(a) 415 V (b) 3.32 A (c) 5.75 A]
TLFeBOOK
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
3 Three identical capacitors are connected in
delta to a 400 V, 50 Hz 3-phase supply. If the
line current is 12 A determine the capacitance
of each of the capacitors.
[55.13 µF]
4 Three coils each having resistance 6 and
inductance L H are connected in delta, to a
415 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase supply. If the line current is 30 A, find the value of L
[73.84 mH]
5 A 3-phase, star-connected alternator delivers
a line current of 65 A to a balanced deltaconnected load at a line voltage of 380 V.
Calculate (a) the phase voltage of the alternator, (b) the alternator phase current and (c) the
load phase current.
[(a) 219.4 V (b) 65 A (c) 37.53 A]
6 Three 24 µF capacitors are connected in star
across a 400 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase supply. What
value of capacitance must be connected in
delta in order to take the same line current?
[8 µF]
293
Hence for either a star or a delta balanced connection
the total power P is given by:
P=
p
3 VL IL cos f watts
or P = 3Ip2 Rp watts
Total volt-amperes
S =
p
3 VL IL volt-amperes
Problem 8. Three 12 resistors are
connected in star to a 415 V, 3-phase supply.
Determine the total power dissipated by the
resistors.
p
Power dissipated, P D 3 VL IL cos or P D 3I2p Rp
Line voltage, VL D 415 V and phase voltage
20.5 Power in three-phase systems
The power dissipated in a three-phase load is given
by the sum of the power dissipated in each phase.
If a load is balanced then the total power P is given
by: P D 3 ð power consumed by one phase.
The power consumed in one phase D I2p Rp or
Vp Ip cos (where is the phase angle between Vp
and Ip ).
For a star connection,
VL
Vp D p and Ip D IL
3
415
Vp D p D 240 V
3
(since the resistors are star-connected). Phase current,
Ip D
Vp
Vp
240
D 20 A
D
D
Zp
Rp
12
For a star connection
IL D Ip D 20 A
For a purely resistive load, the power
hence
p
VL
P D 3 p IL cos D 3 VL IL cos
3
For a delta connection,
IL
Vp D VL and Ip D p
3
hence
factor D cos D 1
Hence power
PD
p
p
3 VL IL cos D 3⊲415⊳⊲20⊳⊲1⊳
D 14.4 kW
or power
p
IL
P D 3VL p cos D 3 VL IL cos
3
P D 3I2p Rp D 3⊲20⊳2 ⊲12⊳ D 14.4 kW
TLFeBOOK
294
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Problem 9. The input power to a 3-phase
a.c. motor is measured as 5 kW. If the
voltage and current to the motor are 400 V
and 8.6 A respectively, determine the power
factor of the system.
Power P D 5000 W,
line voltage VL D 400 V,
line current, IL D 8.6 A and
p
power, P D 3 VL IL cos
Hence
power factor D cos D p
Dp
P
3 VL IL
5000
3⊲400⊳⊲8.6⊳
D 0.839
(Alternatively,
P D 3I2p Rp D 3⊲14.50⊳2 ⊲10⊳ D 6.3 kW⊳
(b) Delta connection
VL D Vp D 415 V,
Zp D 16.55 , cos D 0.6042
lagging (from above).
Phase current,
Ip D Vp /Zp D 415/16.55 D 25.08 A.
Line current,
p
p
IL D 3 Ip D 3⊲25.08⊳ D 43.44 A.
Power dissipated,
p
3 VL IL cos
p
D 3⊲415⊳⊲43.44⊳⊲0.6042⊳ D 18.87 kW
PD
Problem 10. Three identical coils, each of
resistance 10 and inductance 42 mH are
connected (a) in star and (b) in delta to a
415 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase supply. Determine the
total power dissipated in each case.
(a) Star connection
Inductive reactance,
XL D 2fL D 2⊲50⊳⊲42 ð 103 ⊳ D 13.19 .
Phase impedance,
p
Zp D R2 C X2L D 102 C 13.192 D 16.55 .
Line voltage,
VL D 415 V
and phase voltage,
p
p
VP D VL / 3 D 415/ 3 D 240 V.
Phase current,
Ip D Vp /Zp D 240/16.55 D 14.50 A.
Line current,
IL D Ip D 14.50 A.
Power factor D cos D Rp /Zp D 10/16.55 D
0.6042 lagging.
Power dissipated,
p
p
P D 3 VL IL cos D 3⊲415⊳⊲14.50⊳⊲0.6042⊳
D 6.3 kW
(Alternatively,
P D 3I2p Rp D 3⊲25.08⊳2 ⊲10⊳ D 18.87 kW/
Hence loads connected in delta dissipate three times
the power than when connected in star, and also take
a line current three times greater.
Problem 11. A 415 V, 3-phase a.c. motor
has a power output of 12.75 kW and operates
at a power factor of 0.77 lagging and with an
efficiency of 85 per cent. If the motor is
delta-connected, determine (a) the power
input, (b) the line current and (c) the phase
current.
(a) Efficiency D power output/power input. Hence
85/100 D 12 750/power input from which,
12 750 ð 100
85
D 15 000 W or 15 kW
p
(b) Power, P D 3 VL IL cos , hence line current,
power input D
IL D p
Dp
P
3⊲415⊳⊲0.77⊳
15 000
3⊲415⊳⊲0.77⊳
D 27.10 A
TLFeBOOK
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
(c) For a delta connection, IL D
phase current,
p
3 Ip , hence
27.10
IL
Ip D p D p D 15.65 A
3
3
295
(i) One-wattmeter method for a balanced load
Wattmeter connections for both star and delta
are shown in Fig. 20.12
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 110 Further problems on power
in three-phase systems
1. Determine the total power dissipated by three
20 resistors when connected (a) in star and
(b) in delta to a 440 V, 3-phase supply.
[(a) 9.68 kW (b) 29.04 kW]
2. Determine the power dissipated in the circuit
of Problem 2, Exercise 103, page 279.
[1.35 kW]
3. A balanced delta-connected load has a line
voltage of 400 V, a line current of 8 A and a
lagging power factor of 0.94. Draw a complete phasor diagram of the load. What is the
total power dissipated by the load? [5.21 kW]
4. Three inductive loads, each of resistance 4
and reactance 9 are connected in delta.
When connected to a 3-phase supply the loads
consume 1.2 kW. Calculate (a) the power factor of the load, (b) the phase current, (c) the
line current and (d) the supply voltage
[(a) 0.406 (b) 10 A (c) 17.32 A (d) 98.49 V]
Figure 20.12
Total
power
= 3 × wattmeter reading
(ii) Two-wattmeter method for balanced or
unbalanced loads
A connection diagram for this method is
shown in Fig. 20.13 for a star-connected load.
Similar connections are made for a deltaconnected load.
Total power = sum of wattmeter readings
= P1 + P2
5. The input voltage, current and power to a
motor is measured as 415 V, 16.4 A and 6 kW
respectively. Determine the power factor of
the system.
[0.509]
6. A 440 V, 3-phase a.c. motor has a power
output of 11.25 kW and operates at a power
factor of 0.8 lagging and with an efficiency
of 84 per cent. If the motor is delta connected
determine (a) the power input, (b) the line
current and (c) the phase current
[(a) 13.39 kW (b) 21.96 A (c) 12.68 A]
Figure 20.13
20.6 Measurement of power in
three-phase systems
Power in three-phase loads may be measured by the
following methods:
The power factor may be determined from:
tan f =
p
3
P 1 − P2
P 1 + P2
TLFeBOOK
296
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(see Problems 12 and 15 to 18).
It is possible, depending on the load power factor, for one wattmeter to have to be ‘reversed’
to obtain a reading. In this case it is taken as a
negative reading (see Problem 17).
(iii) Three-wattmeter method for a three-phase,
4-wire system for balanced and unbalanced
loads (see Fig. 20.14).
Total power = P1 + P2 + P3
Total instantaneous power, p D eR iR C eY iY C
eB iB and in any 3-phase system iR CiY CiB D 0;
hence iB D iR iY Thus,
p D eR iR C eY iY C eB ⊲iR iY ⊳
D ⊲eR eB ⊳iR C ⊲eY eB ⊳iY
However, ⊲eR eB ⊳ is the p.d. across wattmeter
1 in Fig. 20.15 and ⊲eY eB ) is the p.d. across
wattmeter 2 Hence total instantaneous power,
p D (wattmeter 1 reading)
C (wattmeter 2 reading)
D p1 + p2
The moving systems of the wattmeters are
unable to follow the variations which take place
at normal frequencies and they indicate the mean
power taken over a cycle. Hence the total power,
P = P1 + P2 for balanced or unbalanced loads.
Figure 20.14
Problem 12. (a) Show that the total power
in a 3-phase, 3-wire system using the
two-wattmeter method of measurement is
given by the sum of the wattmeter readings.
Draw a connection diagram. (b) Draw a
phasor diagram for the two-wattmeter
method for a balanced load. (c) Use the
phasor diagram of part (b) to derive a
formula from which the power factor of a
3-phase system may be determined using
only the wattmeter readings.
(b) The phasor diagram for the two-wattmeter
method for a balanced load having a lagging
current is shown in Fig. 20.16, where VRB D
VR VB and VYB D VY VB (phasorially).
(c) Wattmeter 1 reads VRB IR cos⊲30° ⊳ D P1 .
Wattmeter 2 reads VYB IY cos⊲30° C ⊳ D P2 .
(a) A connection diagram for the two-wattmeter
method of a power measurement is shown in
Fig. 20.15 for a star-connected load.
Figure 20.16
P1
VRB IR cos⊲30° ⊳
cos⊲30° ⊳
D
D
°
P2
VYB IY cos⊲30 C ⊳
cos⊲30° C ⊳
since IR D IY and VRB D VYB for a balanced
load. Hence
P1
cos 30° cos C sin 30° sin
D
P2
cos 30° cos sin 30° sin
Figure 20.15
(from compound angle formulae, see ‘Engineering Mathematics’).
TLFeBOOK
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
Dividing throughout by cos 30° cos gives:
P1
1 C tan 30° tan
D
P2
1 tan 30° tan
1C
D
p1
3
p1
3
tan
,
tan
1
sin
since
D tan
cos
Cross-multiplying gives:
P1
P2
P1 p tan D P2 C p tan
3
3
Hence
tan
P1 P2 D ⊲P1 C P2 ⊳ p
3
from which
p P1 − P2
tan f D 3
P1 + P2
, cos and thus power factor can be determined from this formula.
Problem 13. A 400 V, 3-phase star
connected alternator supplies a deltaconnected load, each phase of which has a
resistance of 30 and inductive reactance
40 . Calculate (a) the current supplied by
the alternator and (b) the output power and
the kVA of the alternator, neglecting losses
in the line between the alternator and load.
A circuit diagram of the alternator and load is shown
in Fig. 20.17
297
(a) Considering the load:
Phase current, Ip D Vp /Zp .
Vp D VL for a delta connection,
hence Vp D 400 V.
Phase impedance,
p
Zp D Rp2 C X2L D 302 C 402 D 50 .
Hence Ip D Vp /Zp D 400/50 D 8 A.
For a delta-connection, line current,
p
p
IL D 3 Ip D 3⊲8⊳ D 13.86 A.
Hence 13.86 A is the current supplied by the
alternator.
(b) Alternator output power is equal to the power
dissipated by the load i.e.
p
P D 3 VL IL cos ,
where cos D Rp /Zp D 30/50 D 0.6.
p
Hence
P D 3 ⊲400⊳⊲13.86⊳⊲0.6⊳
D 5.76 kW.
Alternator output kVA,
p
p
S D 3 VL IL D 3⊲400⊳⊲13.86⊳
D 9.60 kVA.
Problem 14. Each phase of a
delta-connected load comprises a resistance
of 30 and an 80 µF capacitor in series. The
load is connected to a 400 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase
supply. Calculate (a) the phase current,
(b) the line current, (c) the total power
dissipated and (d) the kVA rating of the load.
Draw the complete phasor diagram for the
load.
(a) Capacitive reactance,
XC D
1
1
D
D 39.79
2fC
2⊲50⊳⊲80 ð 106 ⊳
Phase impedance,
p
Zp D Rp2 C X2c D 302 C 39.792 D 49.83 .
Power factor D cos D Rp /Zp
Figure 20.17
D 30/49.83 D 0.602
TLFeBOOK
298
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Hence D cos1 0.602 D 52.99° leading.
Phase current,
Ip D Vp /Zp and Vp D VL
for a delta connection. Hence
Ip D 400/49.83 D 8.027 A
p
(b) Line current,pIL D 3 Ip for a delta-connection.
Hence IL D 3⊲8.027⊳ D 13.90 A
(c) Total power dissipated,
PD
D
p
p
3 VL IL cos
3⊲400⊳⊲13.90⊳⊲0.602⊳ D 5.797 kW
(d) Total kVA,
p
p
S D 3 VL IL D 3⊲400⊳⊲13.90⊳ D 9.630 kVA
The phasor diagram for the load is shown in
Fig. 20.18
(a) Total input power,
P D P1 C P2 D 8 C 4 D 12 kW
p P1 P2 p 8 4
(b) tan D 3
D 3
P1 C P2
8C4
p
p
4
1
1
D 3
Dp
D 3
12
3
3
1
Hence D tan1 p D 30°
3
Power factor D cos D cos 30° D 0.866
Problem 16. Two wattmeters connected to
a 3-phase motor indicate the total power
input to be 12 kW. The power factor is 0.6.
Determine the readings of each wattmeter.
If the two wattmeters indicate P1 and P2 respectively
then
P1 C P2 D 12 kW
⊲1⊳
p
P1 P2
tan D 3
P1 C P2
and power factor D 0.6 D cos . Angle D
cos1 0.6 D 53.13° and tan 53.13° D 1.3333. Hence
p P1 P2
1.3333 D 3
,
12
from which,
12⊲1.3333⊳
p
P1 P2 D
3
i.e. P1 P2 D 9.237 kW
(2)
Adding Equations (1) and (2) gives:
2P1 D 21.237
21.237
2
D 10.62 kW
Hence wattmeter 1 reads 10.62 kW
From Equation (1), wattmeter 2 reads
.12 −10.62/ = 1.38 kW
i.e.
P1 D
Figure 20.18
Problem 15. Two wattmeters are connected
to measure the input power to a balanced
3-phase load by the two-wattmeter method.
If the instrument readings are 8 kW and
4 kW, determine (a) the total power input
and (b) the load power factor.
Problem 17. Two wattmeters indicate
10 kW and 3 kW respectively when
connected to measure the input power to a
3-phase balanced load, the reverse switch
being operated on the meter indicating the
3 kW reading. Determine (a) the input power
and (b) the load power factor.
TLFeBOOK
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
Since the reversing switch on the wattmeter had to
be operated the 3 kW reading is taken as 3 kW
(a) Total input power,
P D P1 C P2 D 10 C ⊲3⊳ D 7 kW
p P1 P2 p 10 ⊲3⊳
(b) tan D 3
D 3
P1 C P2
10 C ⊲3⊳
p 13
D 3.2167
D 3
7
Angle D tan1 3.2167 D 72.73°
Power factor D cos D cos 72.73° D 0.297
Problem 18. Three similar coils, each
having a resistance of 8 and an inductive
reactance of 8 are connected (a) in star and
(b) in delta, across a 415 V, 3-phase supply.
Calculate for each connection the readings on
each of two wattmeters connected to measure
the power by the two-wattmeter method.
(a) Star connection: VL D
⊲10 766⊳⊲1⊳
p
D 6216 W
3
Adding Equations (1) and (2) gives:
P1 P2 D
(2)
2P1 D 10 766 C 6216 D 16 982 W
Hence P1 D 8491 W
From Equation (1), P2 D 10 766 8491 D
2275 W.
When the coils are star-connected the
wattmeter readings are thus 8.491 kW and
2.275 kW
p
(b) Delta connection: VL D Vp and IL D 3 Ip .
Phase current, Ip D
Vp
415
D 36.69 A.
D
ZP
11.31
Total power,
P D 3I2p Rp D 3⊲36.69⊳2 ⊲8⊳ D 32 310 W
(3)
Hence P1 C P2 D 32 310 W
p
p P1 P2
3⊲P1 P2 ⊳
.
thus 1 D
tan D 3
P1 C P2
32 310
p
3 Vp and IL D Ip .
415
VL
Phase voltage, Vp D p D p
3
3
and phase impedance,
p
Zp D Rp2 C X2L D 82 C 82 D 11.31
from which,
Hence phase current,
2P1 D 50 960 from which P1 D 25 480 W.
P1 P2 D
32 310
p
D 18 650 W
3
(4)
Adding Equations (3) and (4) gives:
415
p
Vp
3
D
D 21.18 A
Ip D
Zp
11.31
From Equation (3), P2 D 32 310 25 480 D
6830 W
When the coils are delta-connected the
wattmeter readings are thus 25.48 kW and
6.83 kW
Total power,
P D 3I2p Rp D 3⊲21.18⊳2 ⊲8⊳ D 10 766 W
If wattmeter readings are P1 and P2 then:
P1 C P2 D 10 766
299
(1)
Since Rp D 8 and XL D 8 , then phase angle
D 45° (from impedance triangle).
p P1 P2
tan D 3
P1 C P2
p
3⊲P1 P2 ⊳
hence tan 45° D
10 766
from which
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 111 Further problems on the
measurement of power in 3-phase circuits
1 Two wattmeters are connected to measure the
input power to a balanced three-phase load.
If the wattmeter readings are 9.3 kW and
5.4 kW determine (a) the total output power,
and (b) the load power factor
[(a) 14.7 kW (b) 0.909]
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
2 8 kW is found by the two-wattmeter method
to be the power input to a 3-phase motor.
Determine the reading of each wattmeter if the
power factor of the system is 0.85
[5.431 kW, 2.569 kW]
3 When the two-wattmeter method is used to
measure the input power of a balanced load,
the readings on the wattmeters are 7.5 kW and
2.5 kW, the connections to one of the coils
on the meter reading 2.5 kW having to be
reversed. Determine (a) the total input power,
and (b) the load power factor
[(a) 5 kW (b) 0.277]
4 Three similar coils, each having a resistance
of 4.0 and an inductive reactance of 3.46
are connected (a) in star and (b) in delta
across a 400 V, 3-phase supply. Calculate for
each connection the readings on each of two
wattmeters connected to measure the power by
the two-wattmeter method.
[(a) 17.15 kW, 5.73 kW
(b) 51.46 kW, 17.18 kW]
5 A 3-phase, star-connected alternator supplies a
delta connected load, each phase of which has
a resistance of 15 and inductive reactance
20 . If the line voltage is 400 V, calculate
(a) the current supplied by the alternator and
(b) the output power and kVA rating of the
alternator, neglecting any losses in the line
between the alternator and the load.
[(a) 27.71 A (b) 11.52 kW, 19.2 kVA]
6 Each phase of a delta-connected load
comprises a resistance of 40 and a
40 µF capacitor in series. Determine, when
connected to a 415 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase supply
(a) the phase current, (b) the line current,
(c) the total power dissipated, and (d) the kVA
rating of the load
[(a) 4.66 A (b) 8.07 A
(c) 2.605 kW (d) 5.80 kVA]
(since power D 3I2p Rp ), hence the line current
in the delta-connected system is greater than the
line current in the corresponding star-connected
system. To achieve the same phase current in
a star-connected system as in a delta-connected
system,
the line voltage in the star system is
p
3 times the line voltage in the delta system.
Thus for a given power transfer, a delta system
is associated with larger line currents (and thus
larger conductor cross-sectional area) and a star
system is associated with a larger line voltage
(and thus greater insulation).
20.8 Advantages of three-phase
systems
Advantages of three-phase systems over singlephase supplies include:
(i) For a given amount of power transmitted
through a system, the three-phase system
requires conductors with a smaller crosssectional area. This means a saving of copper
(or aluminium) and thus the original installation
costs are less.
(ii) Two voltages are available (see Section 20.3
(vii))
(iii) Three-phase motors are very robust, relatively
cheap, generally smaller, have self-starting
properties, provide a steadier output and require
little maintenance compared with single-phase
motors.
Now try the following exercises
Exercise 112 Short answer questions on
three-phase systems
20.7 Comparison of star and delta
connections
(i) Loads connected in delta dissipate three times
more power than when connected in star to the
same supply.
(ii) For the same power, the phase currents must
be the same for both delta and star connections
1 Explain briefly how a three-phase supply is
generated
2 State the national standard phase sequence
for a three-phase supply
3 State the two ways in which phases of a
three-phase supply can be interconnected to
reduce the number of conductors used compared with three single-phase systems
TLFeBOOK
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
4 State the relationships between line and phase
currents and line and phase voltages for a
star-connected system
5 When may the neutral conductor of a starconnected system be omitted?
6 State the relationships between line and phase
currents and line and phase voltages for a
delta-connected system
7 What is the standard electricity supply to
domestic consumers in Great Britain?
8 State two formulae for determining the power
dissipated in the load of a three-phase balanced system
9 By what methods may power be measured in
a three-phase system?
10 State a formula from which power factor may
be determined for a balanced system when
using the two-wattmeter method of power
measurement
301
(a) For the same power, loads connected in
delta have a higher line voltage and a
smaller line current than loads connected
in star
(b) When using the two-wattmeter method
of power measurement the power factor
is unity when the wattmeter readings are
the same
(c) A.c. may be distributed using a singlephase system with two wires, a threephase system with three wires or a
three-phase system with four wires
(d) The national standard phase sequence for
a three-phase supply is R, Y, B
Three loads, each of resistance 16 and inductive reactance 12 are connected in delta to a
400 V, 3-phase supply. Determine the quantities
stated in questions 7 to 12, selecting the correct
answer from the following list:
p
p
(a) 4
(b) 3⊲400⊳ V (c) 3⊲6.4⊳ kW
p
(d) 20 A
(e) 6.4 kW
(f) 3⊲20⊳ A
11 Loads connected in star dissipate . . . . . . the
power dissipated when connected in delta and
fed from the same supply
(g) 20
20
(h) p V
3
400
(i) p V
3
12 Name three advantages of three-phase systems over single-phase systems
(j) 19.2 kW (k) 100 A
(m) 28
(l) 400 V
7 Phase impedance
Exercise 113 Multi-choice questions on
three-phase systems (Answers on page 376)
Three loads, each of 10 resistance, are connected in star to a 400 V, 3-phase supply. Determine the quantities stated in questions 1 to 5,
selecting answers from the following list:
p
40
400
(a) p A
(b) 3⊲16⊳ kW (c) p V
3
3
p
p
(d) 3⊲40⊳ A (e) 3⊲400⊳ V (f) 16 kW
(g) 400 V
(h) 48 kW
(i) 40 A
1 Line voltage
2 Phase voltage
3 Phase current
4 Line current
5 Total power dissipated in the load
6 Which of the following statements is false?
8 Line voltage
9 Phase voltage
10 Phase current
11 Line current
12 Total power dissipated in the load
13 The phase voltage of a delta-connected threephase system with balanced loads is 240 V.
The line voltage is:
(a) 720 V (b) 440 V (c) 340 V (d) 240 V
14 A 4-wire three-phase star-connected system
has a line current of 10 A. The phase current is:
(a) 40 A (b) 10 A (c) 20 A (d) 30 A
15 The line voltage of a 4-wire three-phase starconnected system is 11 kV. The phase voltage is:
(a) 19.05 kV
(b) 11 kV
(c) 6.35 kV
(d) 7.78 kV
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
16 In the two-wattmeter method of measurement
power in a balanced three-phase system readings of P1 and P2 watts are obtained. The
power factor may be determined from:
p P1 C P2
p P1 P2
(a) 3
(b) 3
P1 P2
P1 C P2
⊲P1 C P2 ⊳
⊲P1 P2 ⊳
(d) p
(c) p
3⊲P1 C P2 ⊳
3⊲P1 P2 ⊳
17 The phase voltage of a 4-wire three-phase
star-connected system is 110 V. The line voltage is:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
440 V
330 V
191 V
110 V
TLFeBOOK
21
Transformers
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
ž understand the principle of operation of a transformer
ž understand the term ‘rating’ of a transformer
ž use V1 /V2 D N1 /N2 D I2 /I1 in calculations on transformers
ž construct a transformer no-load phasor diagram and calculate magnetising and core
loss components of the no-load current
ž state the e.m.f. equation for a transformer E D 4.44 fm N and use it in calculations
ž construct a transformer on-load phasor diagram for an inductive circuit assuming
the volt drop in the windings is negligible
ž describe transformer construction
ž derive the equivalent resistance, reactance and impedance referred to the primary of
a transformer
ž understand voltage regulation
ž describe losses in transformers and calculate efficiency
ž appreciate the concept of resistance matching and how it may be achieved
ž perform calculations using R1 D ⊲N1 /N2 ⊳2 RL
ž describe an auto transformer, its advantages/disadvantages and uses
ž describe an isolating transformer, stating uses
ž describe a three-phase transformer
ž describe current and voltage transformers
21.1 Introduction
A transformer is a device which uses the phenomenon of mutual induction (see Chapter 9) to
change the values of alternating voltages and currents. In fact, one of the main advantages of a.c.
transmission and distribution is the ease with which
an alternating voltage can be increased or decreased
by transformers.
Losses in transformers are generally low and thus
efficiency is high. Being static they have a long life
and are very stable.
Transformers range in size from the miniature
units used in electronic applications to the large
power transformers used in power stations; the principle of operation is the same for each.
A transformer is represented in Fig. 21.1(a) as
consisting of two electrical circuits linked by a
common ferromagnetic core. One coil is termed the
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Figure 21.1
primary winding which is connected to the supply
of electricity, and the other the secondary winding,
which may be connected to a load. A circuit diagram
symbol for a transformer is shown in Fig. 21.1(b)
transformer, the primary and secondary ampereturns are equal
21.2 Transformer principle of
operation
Combining equations (1) and (2) gives:
When the secondary is an open-circuit and an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary winding, a small current – called the no-load current
I0 – flows, which sets up a magnetic flux in the
core. This alternating flux links with both primary
and secondary coils and induces in them e.m.f.’s of
E1 and E2 respectively by mutual induction.
The induced e.m.f. E in a coil of N turns is given
by E D N⊲d/dt⊳ volts, where d
dt is the rate
of change of flux. In an ideal transformer, the rate
of change of flux is the same for both primary
and secondary and thus E1 /N1 D E2 /N2 i.e. the
induced e.m.f. per turn is constant.
Assuming no losses, E1 D V1 and E2 D V2
Hence
V1
V2
V1
N1
D
or
D
N1
N2
V2
N2
⊲1⊳
⊲V1 /V2 ⊳ is called the voltage ratio and ⊲N1 /N2 ⊳
the turns ratio, or the ‘transformation ratio’ of
the transformer. If N2 is less than N1 then V2 is
less than V1 and the device is termed a step-down
transformer. If N2 is greater then N1 then V2 is
greater than V1 and the device is termed a step-up
transformer.
When a load is connected across the secondary
winding, a current I2 flows. In an ideal transformer
losses are neglected and a transformer is considered
to be 100 per cent efficient. Hence input power D
output power, or V1 I1 D V2 I2 i.e. in an ideal
V1
I2
D
V2
I1
Thus
V1
N1
I2
=
=
V2
N2
I1
⊲2⊳
⊲3⊳
The rating of a transformer is stated in terms of the
volt-amperes that it can transform without overheating. With reference to Fig. 21.1(a), the transformer
rating is either V1 I1 or V2 I2 , where I2 is the full-load
secondary current.
Problem 1. A transformer has 500 primary
turns and 3000 secondary turns. If the
primary voltage is 240 V, determine the
secondary voltage, assuming an ideal
transformer.
For an ideal transformer, voltage ratio D turns ratio
i.e.
V1
N1
240
500
D
hence
D
V2
N2
V2
3000
Thus secondary voltage
V2 D
⊲240⊳⊲3000⊳
D 1440 V or 1.44 kV
500
Problem 2. An ideal transformer with a
turns ratio of 2:7 is fed from a 240 V supply.
Determine its output voltage.
TLFeBOOK
TRANSFORMERS
A turns ratio of 2:7 means that the transformer
has 2 turns on the primary for every 7 turns on
the secondary (i.e. a step-up transformer); thus
⊲N1 /N2 ⊳ D ⊲2/7⊳.
For an ideal transformer, ⊲N1 /N2 ⊳ D ⊲V1 /V2 ⊳
hence ⊲2/7⊳ D ⊲240/V2 ⊳ Thus the secondary voltage
⊲240⊳⊲7⊳
D 840 V
2
V2 D
Problem 3. An ideal transformer has a
turns ratio of 8:1 and the primary current is
3 A when it is supplied at 240 V. Calculate
the secondary voltage and current.
A turns ratio of 8:1 means ⊲N1 /N2 ⊳ D ⊲1/8⊳ i.e. a
step-down transformer.
V1
N1
D
or secondary voltage
N2
V2
N1
1
D 30 volts
D 240
V2 D V1
N2
8
I2
N1
D
hence secondary current
Also,
N2
I1
N1
8
I2 D I1
D 24 A
D3
N2
1
Problem 4. An ideal transformer, connected
to a 240 V mains, supplies a 12 V, 150 W
lamp. Calculate the transformer turns ratio
and the current taken from the supply.
V1 D 240 V, V2 D 12 V, I2 D ⊲P/V2 ⊳ D
⊲150/12⊳ D 12.5 A.
Turns ratio D
V1
V2
N1
V1
240
D 20
D
D
N2
V2
12
I2
, from which,
I1
12
V2
D 12.5
I1 D I2
V1
240
D
Hence current taken from the supply,
I1 D
12.5
D 0.625 A
20
305
Problem 5. A 12 resistor is connected
across the secondary winding of an ideal
transformer whose secondary voltage is
120 V. Determine the primary voltage if the
supply current is 4 A.
Secondary current I2 D ⊲V2 /R2 ⊳ D ⊲120/12⊳ D
10 A.
⊲V1 /V2 ⊳ D ⊲I2 /I1 ⊳, from which the primary
voltage
10
I2
V1 D V2
D 300 volts
D 120
I1
4
Problem 6. A 5 kVA single-phase
transformer has a turns ratio of 10 : 1 and is
fed from a 2.5 kV supply. Neglecting losses,
determine (a) the full-load secondary current,
(b) the minimum load resistance which can
be connected across the secondary winding
to give full load kVA, (c) the primary current
at full load kVA.
(a) N1 /N2 D 10/1 and V1 D 2.5 kV D 2500 V.
V1
N1
Since
D
, secondary voltage
N2
V2
N2
1
V2 D V1
D 250 V
D 2500
N1
10
The transformer rating in volt-amperes D V2 I2
(at full load) i.e. 5000 D 250I2
Hence full load secondary current I2 D
⊲5000/250⊳ D 20 A.
(b) Minimum value of load resistance,
V2
250
RL D
D 12.5 Z.
D
V1
20
N1
I2
(c)
D
from which primary current
N2
I1
N1
1
I1 D I2
D 2A
D 20
N2
10
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 114 Further problems on the
transformer principle of operation
1 A transformer has 600 primary turns
connected to a 1.5 kV supply. Determine the
number of secondary turns for a 240 V output
voltage, assuming no losses.
[96]
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
2 An ideal transformer with a turns ratio of 2:9
is fed from a 220 V supply. Determine its
output voltage.
[990 V]
21.3 Transformer no-load phasor
diagram
3 A transformer has 800 primary turns and
2000 secondary turns. If the primary voltage
is 160 V, determine the secondary voltage
assuming an ideal transformer.
[400 V]
The core flux is common to both primary and
secondary windings in a transformer and is thus
taken as the reference phasor in a phasor diagram.
On no-load the primary winding takes a small noload current I0 and since, with losses neglected, the
primary winding is a pure inductor, this current lags
the applied voltage V1 by 90° . In the phasor diagram
assuming no losses, shown in Fig. 21.2(a), current
I0 produces the flux and is drawn in phase with
the flux. The primary induced e.m.f. E1 is in phase
opposition to V1 (by Lenz’s law) and is shown 180°
out of phase with V1 and equal in magnitude. The
secondary induced e.m.f. is shown for a 2:1 turns
ratio transformer.
A no-load phasor diagram for a practical transformer is shown in Fig. 21.2(b). If current flows
then losses will occur. When losses are considered
then the no-load current I0 is the phasor sum of
two components – (i) IM , the magnetising component, in phase with the flux, and (ii) IC , the core
loss component (supplying the hysteresis and eddy
current losses). From Fig.21.2(b):
2
No-load current, I0 D IM
C IC2 where
IM D I0 sin f0 and IC D I0 cosf0 .
Power factor on no-load D cos 0 D ⊲IC /I0 ⊳.
The total core losses (i.e. iron losses)
D V1 I0 cos 0
4 An ideal transformer with a turns ratio of 3:8
is fed from a 240 V supply. Determine its
output voltage.
[640 V]
5 An ideal transformer has a turns ratio of
12:1 and is supplied at 192 V. Calculate the
secondary voltage.
[16 V]
6 A transformer primary winding connected
across a 415 V supply has 750 turns.
Determine how many turns must be wound
on the secondary side if an output of 1.66 kV
is required.
[3000 turns]
7 An ideal transformer has a turns ratio of 12:1
and is supplied at 180 V when the primary
current is 4 A. Calculate the secondary
voltage and current.
[15 V, 48 A]
8 A step-down transformer having a turns ratio
of 20:1 has a primary voltage of 4 kV and
a load of 10 kW. Neglecting losses, calculate
the value of the secondary current. [50 A]
9 A transformer has a primary to secondary
turns ratio of 1:15. Calculate the primary
voltage necessary to supply a 240 V load. If
the load current is 3 A determine the primary
current. Neglect any losses.
[16 V, 45 A]
10 A 10 kVA, single-phase transformer has a
turns ratio of 12:1 and is supplied from a
2.4 kV supply. Neglecting losses, determine
(a) the full load secondary current, (b) the
minimum value of load resistance which can
be connected across the secondary winding
without the kVA rating being exceeded, and
(c) the primary current.
[(a) 50 A (b) 4 (c) 4.17 A]
11 A 20 resistance is connected across the
secondary winding of a single-phase power
transformer whose secondary voltage is
150 V. Calculate the primary voltage and
the turns ratio if the supply current is 5 A,
neglecting losses.
[225 V, 3:2]
Problem 7. A 2400 V/400 V single-phase
transformer takes a no-load current of 0.5 A
and the core loss is 400 W. Determine the
values of the magnetising and core loss
components of the no-load current. Draw to
scale the no-load phasor diagram for the
transformer.
V1 D 2400V, V2 D 400V and I0 D 0.5 A Core loss
(i.e. iron loss) D 400 D V1 I0 cos 0 .
i.e.
400 D ⊲2400⊳⊲0.5⊳ cos 0
Hence
cos 0 D
400
D 0.3333
⊲2400⊳⊲0.5⊳
0 D cos1 0.3333 D 70.53°
The no-load phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 21.3
Magnetising component,
IM D I0 sin 0 D 0.5 sin 70.53° D 0.471 A.
Core loss component, IC D I0 cos 0 D 0.5 cos 70.53°
D 0.167 A
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TRANSFORMERS
307
Figure 21.2
(b) Power factor at no load,
cos 0 D
IC
0.3
D 0.375
D
I0
0.8
(c) From the right-angled triangle in Fig. 21.2(b)
and using Pythagoras’ theorem, I20 D I2C C I2M
from which, magnetising current,
IM D
p
I20 I2C D 0.82 0.32 D 0.74 A
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 115 Further problems on the
no-load phasor diagram
Figure 21.3
Problem 8. A transformer takes a current of
0.8 A when its primary is connected to a 240
volt, 50 Hz supply, the secondary being on
open circuit. If the power absorbed is
72 watts, determine (a) the iron loss current,
(b) the power factor on no-load, and (c) the
magnetising current.
I0 D 0.8 A and V D 240 V
(a) Power absorbed D total core loss D 72 D
V1 I0 cos 0 . Hence 72 D 240I0 cos 0 and iron
loss current, Ic D I0 cos 0 D 72/240 D 0.30 A
1 A 500 V/100 V, single-phase transformer takes
a full load primary current of 4 A. Neglecting
losses, determine (a) the full load secondary
current, and (b) the rating of the transformer.
[(a) 20 A (b) 2 kVA]
2 A 3300 V/440 V, single-phase transformer
takes a no-load current of 0.8 A and the
iron loss is 500 W. Draw the no-load phasor
diagram and determine the values of the
magnetising and core loss components of the
no-load current.
[0.786 A, 0.152 A]
3 A transformer takes a current of 1 A when
its primary is connected to a 300 V, 50 Hz
supply, the secondary being on open-circuit.
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
If the power absorbed is 120 watts, calculate
(a) the iron loss current, (b) the power factor
on no-load, and (c) the magnetising current.
[(a) 0.4 A (b) 0.4 (c) 0.92 A]
Problem 9. A 100 kVA, 4000 V/200 V,
50 Hz single-phase transformer has 100
secondary turns. Determine (a) the primary
and secondary current, (b) the number of
primary turns, and (c) the maximum value of
the flux.
21.4 E.m.f. equation of a transformer
V1 D 4000 V, V2 D 200 V, f D 50 Hz, N2 D 100
The magnetic flux set up in the core of a trans- turns
former when an alternating voltage is applied to its
primary winding is also alternating and is sinusoidal.
Let m be the maximum value of the flux and f (a) Transformer rating D V1 I1 D V2 I2 D 1 00 000 VA
Hence primary current,
be the frequency of the supply. The time for 1 cycle
of the alternating flux is the periodic time T, where
T D ⊲1/f⊳seconds
1 00 000
1 00 000
The flux rises sinusoidally from zero to its maxI1 D
D 25 A
D
V1
4 000
imum value in (1/4) cycle, and the time for (1/4)
cycle is ⊲1/4f⊳ seconds. Hence the average rate of
and secondary current,
change of flux D ⊲m /⊲1/4f⊳⊳ D 4 fm Wb/s, and
since 1 Wb/s D 1 volt, the average e.m.f. induced in
each turn D 4 fm volts. As the flux varies sinu1 00 000
1 00 000
soidally, then a sinusoidal e.m.f. will be induced in
D 500 A
D
I2 D
V
200
2
each turn of both primary and secondary windings.
For a sine wave,
V1
N1
(b) From equation (3),
D
from which, prir.m.s. value
V2
N2
form factor D
mary turns,
average value
D 1.11 (see Chapter 14)
Hence r.m.s. value D form factor ð average value D
1.11 ð average value Thus r.m.s. e.m.f. induced in
each turn
D 1.11 ð 4 fm volts
V1
N1 D
V2
E1 = 4.44 f 8m N1 volts
⊲4⊳
Dividing equation (4) by equation (5) gives:
N1
E1
D
,
E2
N2
as previously obtained in Section 21.2
4000
⊲N2 ⊳ D
200
⊲100⊳ D 2000 turns
8m D
D
E
4.44 fN2
200
(assuming E2 D V2 ⊳
⊲4.44⊳⊲50⊳⊲100⊳
D 9.01 × 10−3 Wb or 9.01 mWb
and r.m.s. value of e.m.f. induced in secondary,
E2 = 4.44 f 8m N2 volts
(c) From equation (5), E2 D 4.44 fm N2 from
which, maximum flux,
D 4.44 fm volts
Therefore, r.m.s. value of e.m.f. induced in primary,
⊲5⊳
[Alternatively, equation (4) could have been used,
where
E1 D 4.44 fm N1 from which,
8m D
4000
(assuming E1 D V1 ⊳
⊲4.44⊳⊲50⊳⊲2000⊳
D 9.01 mWb as above]
TLFeBOOK
TRANSFORMERS
Problem 10. A single-phase, 50 Hz
transformer has 25 primary turns and 300
secondary turns. The cross-sectional area of
the core is 300 cm2 . When the primary
winding is connected to a 250 V supply,
determine (a) the maximum value of the flux
density in the core, and (b) the voltage
induced in the secondary winding.
(a) From equation (4),
e.m.f. E1 D 4.44 fm N1 volts
i.e. 250 D 4.44⊲50⊳m (25) from which, maximum flux density,
m D
250
Wb D 0.04505 Wb
⊲4.44⊳⊲50⊳⊲25⊳
However, m D Bm ðA, where Bm D maximum
flux density in the core and A D cross-sectional
area of the core (see Chapter 7). Hence
Bm ð 300 ð 104 D 0.04505 from which,
0.04505
maximum flux density, Bm D
300 ð 104
D 1.50 T
N2
V1
N1
(b)
D
from which, V2 D V1
i.e.
V2
N2
N1
voltage induced in the secondary winding,
300
V2 D ⊲250⊳
D 3000 V or 3 kV
25
309
Problem 12. A 4500 V/225 V, 50 Hz
single-phase transformer is to have an
approximate e.m.f. per turn of 15 V and
operate with a maximum flux of 1.4 T.
Calculate (a) the number of primary and
secondary turns and (b) the cross-sectional
area of the core.
(a) E.m.f. per turn D
E1
E2
D
D 15
N1
N2
Hence primary turns, N1 D
E1
4500
D
D 300
15
15
and secondary turns, N2 D
255
E2
D
D 15
15
15
(b) E.m.f. E1 D 4.44 fm N1 from which,
m
E1
4500
D 0.0676 Wb
D
4.44fN1
⊲4.44⊳⊲50⊳⊲300⊳
Now flux, m D Bm ð A, where A is the crosssectional area of the core,
0.0676
m
D
hence area, A D
Bm
1.4
D 0.0483 m2 or 483 cm2
Now try the following exercise
Problem 11. A single-phase 500 V/100 V,
50 Hz transformer has a maximum core flux
density of 1.5 T and an effective core
cross-sectional area of 50 cm2 . Determine the
number of primary and secondary turns.
The e.m.f. equation for a transformer is E D
4.44 fm N and maximum flux, m D B ð A D
⊲1.5⊳⊲50 ð 104 ⊳ D 75 ð 104 Wb
Since E1 D 4.44 fm N1 then primary turns,
500
E1
N1 D
D
4.44 fm
⊲4.44⊳⊲50⊳⊲75 ð 104 ⊳
D 300 turns
Since E2 D 4.4 fm N2 then secondary turns,
E2
100
N2 D
D
4.44 fm
⊲4.44⊳⊲50⊳⊲75 ð 104 ⊳
D 60 turns
Exercise 116 Further problems on the
transformer e.m.f. equation
1 A 60 kVA, 1600 V/100 V, 50 Hz, single-phase
transformer has 50 secondary windings. Calculate (a) the primary and secondary current,
(b) the number of primary turns, and (c) the
maximum value of the flux
[(a) 37.5 A, 600 A (b) 800 (c) 9.0 mWb]
2 A single-phase, 50 Hz transformer has 40 primary turns and 520 secondary turns. The
cross-sectional area of the core is 270 cm2 .
When the primary winding is connected to a
300 volt supply, determine (a) the maximum
value of flux density in the core, and (b) the
voltage induced in the secondary winding
[(a) 1.25 T (b) 3.90 kV]
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3 A single-phase 800 V/100 V, 50 Hz transformer has a maximum core flux density of
1.294 T and an effective cross-sectional area
of 60 cm2 . Calculate the number of turns on
the primary and secondary windings.
[464, 58]
4 A 3.3 kV/110 V, 50 Hz, single-phase transformer is to have an approximate e.m.f. per
turn of 22 V and operate with a maximum
flux of 1.25 T. Calculate (a) the number of
primary and secondary turns, and (b) the crosssectional area of the core
[(a) 150, 5 (b) 792.8 cm2 ]
21.5 Transformer on-load phasor
diagram
If the voltage drop in the windings of a transformer
are assumed negligible, then the terminal voltage V2
is the same as the induced e.m.f. E2 in the secondary.
Similarly, V1 D E1 . Assuming an equal number
of turns on primary and secondary windings, then
E1 D E2 , and let the load have a lagging phase
angle 2
However this does not happen since reduction of the
core flux reduces E1 , hence a reflected increase in
primary current I01 occurs which provides a restoring
m.m.f. Hence at all loads, primary and secondary
m.m.f.’s are equal, but in opposition, and the core
flux remains constant. I01 is sometimes called the
‘balancing’ current and is equal, but in the opposite
direction, to current I2 as shown in Fig. 21.4. I0 ,
shown at a phase angle 0 to V1 , is the no-load
current of the transformer (see Section 21.3)
The phasor sum of I01 and I0 gives the supply
current I1 and the phase angle between V1 and I1 is
shown as 1
Problem 13. A single-phase transformer has
2000 turns on the primary and 800 turns on
the secondary. Its no-load current is 5 A at a
power factor of 0.20 lagging. Assuming the
volt drop in the windings is negligible,
determine the primary current and power
factor when the secondary current is 100 A at
a power factor of 0.85 lagging.
Let I01 be the component of the primary current
which provides the restoring m.m.f. Then
I01 N1 D I2 N2
I01 ⊲2000⊳ D ⊲100⊳⊲800⊳
i.e.
from which,
Figure 21.4
In the phasor diagram of Fig. 21.4, current I2
lags V2 by angle 2 . When a load is connected
across the secondary winding a current I2 flows
in the secondary winding. The resulting secondary
e.m.f. acts so as to tend to reduce the core flux.
⊲100⊳⊲800⊳
2000
D 40 A
I01 D
If the power factor of the secondary is 0.85, then
cos 2 D 0.85, from which, 2 D cos1 0.85 D 31.8°
If the power factor on no-load is 0.20, then
cos 0 D 0.2 and 0 D cos1 0.2 D 78.5°
In the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 21.5, I2 D
100 A is shown at an angle of D 31.8° to V2 and
I01 D 40 A is shown in anti-phase to I2
The no-load current I0 D 5 A is shown at an angle
of 0 D 78.5° to V1 . Current I1 is the phasor sum
of I01 and I0 , and by drawing to scale, I1 D 44 A
and angle 1 D 37° .
By calculation,
I1 cos 1 D 0a C 0b
D I0 cos 0 C I01 cos 2
D ⊲5⊳⊲0.2⊳ C ⊲40⊳⊲0.85⊳
D 35.0 A
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TRANSFORMERS
311
Fig. 21.6. The low and high voltage windings
are wound as shown to reduce leakage flux.
Figure 21.5
and
I1 sin 1 D 0c C 0d
D I0 sin 0 C I01 sin 2
D ⊲5⊳ sin 78.5° C ⊲40⊳ sin 31.8°
D 25.98 A
p
35.02
25.982
C
D
Hence the magnitude of I1 D
43.59 A and tan 1 D ⊲⊲25.98/35.0⊳⊳ from which,
f1 D tan1 ⊲⊲25.98/35.0⊳⊳ D 36.59° Hence the
power factor of the primary D cos 1 D cos 36.59° D
0.80
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 117 A further problem on the
transformer on-load
1 A single-phase transformer has 2400 turns on
the primary and 600 turns on the secondary.
Its no-load current is 4 A at a power factor of
0.25 lagging. Assuming the volt drop in the
windings is negligible, calculate the primary
current and power factor when the secondary
current is 80 A at a power factor of 0.8 lagging.
[23.26 A, 0.73]
21.6 Transformer construction
(i) There are broadly two types of single-phase
double-wound transformer constructions – the
core type and the shell type, as shown in
Figure 21.6
(ii) For power transformers, rated possibly at
several MVA and operating at a frequency of
50 Hz in Great Britain, the core material used
is usually laminated silicon steel or stalloy,
the laminations reducing eddy currents and
the silicon steel keeping hysteresis loss to a
minimum.
Large power transformers are used in the
main distribution system and in industrial
supply circuits. Small power transformers have
many applications, examples including welding
and rectifier supplies, domestic bell circuits,
imported washing machines, and so on.
(iii) For audio frequency (a.f.) transformers, rated
from a few mVA to no more than 20 VA, and
operating at frequencies up to about 15 kHz, the
small core is also made of laminated silicon
steel. A typical application of a.f. transformers
is in an audio amplifier system.
(iv) Radio frequency (r.f.) transformers, operating in the MHz frequency region have either
an air core, a ferrite core or a dust core. Ferrite
is a ceramic material having magnetic properties similar to silicon steel, but having a high
resistivity. Dust cores consist of fine particles
of carbonyl iron or permalloy (i.e. nickel and
iron), each particle of which is insulated from
its neighbour. Applications of r.f. transformers
are found in radio and television receivers.
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(v) Transformer windings are usually of enamelinsulated copper or aluminium.
(vi) Cooling is achieved by air in small transformers and oil in large transformers.
21.7 Equivalent circuit of a
transformer
Figure 21.7 shows an equivalent circuit of a transformer. R1 and R2 represent the resistances of the
primary and secondary windings and X1 and X2 represent the reactances of the primary and secondary
windings, due to leakage flux.
The core losses due to hysteresis and eddy currents are allowed for by resistance R which takes a
current IC , the core loss component of the primary
current. Reactance X takes the magnetising component Im . In a simplified equivalent circuit shown in
Fig. 21.8, R and X are omitted since the no-load
current I0 is normally only about 3–5 per cent of
the full load primary current.
It is often convenient to assume that all of the
resistance and reactance as being on one side of
the transformer. Resistance R2 in Fig. 21.8 can be
replaced by inserting an additional resistance R20 in
the primary circuit such that the power absorbed in
R20 when carrying the primary current is equal to that
in R2 due to the secondary current, i.e.
I21 R20 D I22 R2
2
2
I2
V1
0
from which, R2 D R2
D R2
I1
V2
Then the total equivalent resistance in the primary
circuit Re is equal to the primary and secondary
resistances of the actual transformer.
Hence Re D R1 C R20
i.e.
Re = R1 + R2
V1
V2
2
⊲6⊳
By similar reasoning, the equivalent reactance in the
primary circuit is given by Xe D X1 C X02
i.e.
Xe = X1 + X2
V1
V2
2
⊲7⊳
Figure 21.7
Figure 21.8
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TRANSFORMERS
The equivalent impedance Ze of the primary and
secondary windings referred to the primary is
given by
Ze =
Re2 + Xe2
⊲8⊳
If e is the phase angle between I1 and the volt drop
I1 Ze then
cos fe =
Re
Ze
⊲9⊳
The simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer is
shown in Fig. 21.9
Problem 14. A transformer has 600 primary
turns and 150 secondary turns. The primary
and secondary resistances are 0.25 and
0.01 respectively and the corresponding
leakage reactances are 1.0 and 0.04
respectively. Determine (a) the equivalent
resistance referred to the primary winding,
(b) the equivalent reactance referred to the
primary winding, (c) the equivalent
impedance referred to the primary winding,
and (d) the phase angle of the impedance.
(a) From equation (6), equivalent resistance
2
V1
Re D R1 C R2
V2
600 2
i.e. Re D 0.25 C 0.01
150
D 0.41 Z since
N1
V1
D
N2
V2
313
(b) From equation (7), equivalent reactance,
2
V1
Xe D X1 C X2
V2
600 2
D 1.64 Z
i.e. Xe D 1.0 C 0.04
150
(c) From equation (8), equivalent impedance,
p
Ze D Re2 C X2e D 0.412 C 1.642 D 1.69 Z
(d) From equation (9),
0.41
Re
D
cos e D
Ze
1.69
Hence fe D cos1
0.41
D 75.96°
1.69
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 118 A further problem on the
equivalent circuit of a transformer
1 A transformer has 1200 primary turns and 200
secondary turns. The primary and secondary
resistance’s are 0.2 and 0.02 respectively
and the corresponding leakage reactance’s
are 1.2 and 0.05 respectively. Calculate
(a) the equivalent resistance, reactance and
impedance referred to the primary winding,
and (b) the phase angle of the impedance.
[(a) 0.92 , 3.0 , 3.14 (b) 72.95° ]
21.8 Regulation of a transformer
When the secondary of a transformer is loaded,
the secondary terminal voltage, V2 , falls. As the
Figure 21.9
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power factor decreases, this voltage drop increases.
This is called the regulation of the transformer
and it is usually expressed as a percentage of
the secondary no-load voltage, E2 . For full-load
conditions:
i.e.
6 D 240 V2
from which, load voltage, V2 D 2406 D 234 volts
Now try the following exercise
Regulation =
E2 − V2
E2
× 100%
⊲10⊳
Exercise 119 Further problems on
regulation
The fall in voltage, (E2 V2 ), is caused by the
resistance and reactance of the windings. Typical
values of voltage regulation are about 3% in small
transformers and about 1% in large transformers.
1 A 6 kVA, 100 V/500 V, single-phase transformer has a secondary terminal voltage of
487.5 volts when loaded. Determine the regulation of the transformer.
[2.5%]
Problem 15. A 5 kVA, 200 V/400 V,
single-phase transformer has a secondary
terminal voltage of 387.6 volts when loaded.
Determine the regulation of the transformer.
2 A transformer has an open circuit voltage
of 110 volts. A tap-changing device operates
when the regulation falls below 3%. Calculate
the load voltage at which the tap-changer operates.
[106.7 volts]
From equation (10):
No load secondary voltage
21.9 Transformer losses and efficiency
terminal voltage on load
regulation D
100%
no load secondary voltage
There are broadly two sources of losses in transformers on load, these being copper losses and iron
losses.
400 387.6
D
ð 100%
400
(a) Copper losses are variable and result in a heat
ing of the conductors, due to the fact that they
12.4
D
ð 100%
possess resistance. If R1 and R2 are the primary
400
and secondary winding resistances then the total
D 3.1%
copper loss is I21 R1 C I22 R2
Problem 16. The open circuit voltage of a
transformer is 240 V. A tap changing device
is set to operate when the percentage
regulation drops below 2.5%. Determine the
load voltage at which the mechanism
operates.
No load secondary voltage
terminal voltage on load
Regulation D
100%
no load secondary voltage
Hence
∴
2.5 D
240 V2
240
⊲2.5⊳⊲240⊳
D 240 V2
100
ð 100%
(b) Iron losses are constant for a given value of
frequency and flux density and are of two
types – hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.
(i) Hysteresis loss is the heating of the core as
a result of the internal molecular structure
reversals which occur as the magnetic flux
alternates. The loss is proportional to the
area of the hysteresis loop and thus low loss
nickel iron alloys are used for the core since
their hysteresis loops have small areas.(See
Chapters 7)
(ii) Eddy current loss is the heating of the
core due to e.m.f.’s being induced not only
in the transformer windings but also in the
core. These induced e.m.f.’s set up circulating currents, called eddy currents. Owing to
the low resistance of the core, eddy currents
can be quite considerable and can cause a
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TRANSFORMERS
large power loss and excessive heating of the
core. Eddy current losses can be reduced by
increasing the resistivity of the core material or, more usually, by laminating the core
(i.e. splitting it into layers or leaves) when
very thin layers of insulating material can
be inserted between each pair of laminations.
This increases the resistance of the eddy current path, and reduces the value of the eddy
current.
Transformer efficiency,
output power
input power - losses
D
D
input power
input power
i.e.
h=1−
losses
input power
Problem 17. A 200 kVA rated transformer
has a full-load copper loss of 1.5 kW and an
iron loss of 1 kW. Determine the transformer
efficiency at full load and 0.85 power factor.
output power
Efficiency, D
input power
input power losses
D
input power
losses
D1
input power
Full-load output power D VI cos D ⊲200⊳ ⊲0.85⊳
D 170 kW.
Total losses D 1.5 C 1.0 D 2.5 kW
Input power D output power C losses
D 170 C 2.5 D 172.5 kW.
2.5
Hence efficiency D 1
D 1 0.01449
172.5
D 0.9855 or 98.55%
Problem 18. Determine the efficiency of
the transformer in Problem 17 at half
full-load and 0.85 power factor.
Half full-load power output D ⊲1/2⊳⊲200⊳⊲0.85⊳
D 85 kW.
Copper loss (or I2 R loss) is proportional to current squared. Hence the copper loss at half full-load
2
is: 12 ⊲1500⊳ D 375 W
Iron loss D 1000 W (constant)
Total losses D 375C1000 D 1375 W or 1.375 kW.
Input power at half full-load
D output power at half full-load C losses
D 85 C 1.375 D 86.375 kW. Hence
losses
input power
1.375
D 1
86.375
efficiency D 1
⊲11⊳
and is usually expressed as a percentage. It is not
uncommon for power transformers to have efficiencies of between 95% and 98%
Output power D V2 I2 cos 2 .
Total losses D copper loss C iron losses,
and input power D output power C losses
315
D 1 0.01592
D 0.9841 or 98.41%
Problem 19. A 400 kVA transformer has
a primary winding resistance of 0.5 and
a secondary winding resistance of 0.001 .
The iron loss is 2.5 kW and the primary and
secondary voltages are 5 kV and 320 V respectively. If the power factor of the load is 0.85,
determine the efficiency of the transformer
(a) on full load, and (b) on half load.
(a) Rating D 400 kVA D V1 I1 D V2 I2 . Hence
primary current,
I1 D
400 ð 103
400 ð 103
D 80 A
D
V1
5000
and secondary current,
I2 D
400 ð 103
400 ð 103
D
D 1250 A
V2
320
Total copper loss D I21 R1 C I22 R2 , (where
R1 D 0.5 and R2 D 0.001 ⊳
D ⊲80⊳2 ⊲0.5⊳ C ⊲1250⊳2 ⊲0.001⊳
D 3200 C 1562.5 D 4762.5 watts
On full load, total loss D copper lossCiron loss
D 4762.5 C 2500 D 7262.5 W D 7.2625 kW
Total output power on full load
D V2 I2 cos 2 D ⊲400 ð 103 ⊳⊲0.85⊳ D 340 kW
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Input power D output power C losses
D 340 kW C 7.2625 kW D 347.2625 kW
losses
Efficiency, D 1
ð 100%
input power
7.2625
ð 100%
D 1
347.2625
D 97.91%
(b) Since the copper loss varies as the square of the
current, then total copper loss on half load
2
D 4762.5 ð 12 D 1190.625 W. Hence total
loss on half load D 1190.625 C 2500 D
3690.625 W or 3.691 kW.
Output power on half full load D 21 ⊲340⊳
D 170 kW.
Input power on half full load
D output power C losses
D 170 kW C 3.691 kW
D 173.691 kW
Hence efficiency at half full load,
losses
D 1
ð 100%
input power
3.691
ð 100% D 97.87%
D 1
173.691
Maximum efficiency
It may be shown that the efficiency of a transformer
is a maximum when the variable copper loss (i.e.
I21 R1 C I22 R2 ) is equal to the constant iron losses.
Problem 20. A 500 kVA transformer has a
full load copper loss of 4 kW and an iron
loss of 2.5 kW. Determine (a) the output kVA
at which the efficiency of the transformer is a
maximum, and (b) the maximum efficiency,
assuming the power factor of the load is 0.75
(a) Let x be the fraction of full load kVA at which
the efficiency is a maximum. The corresponding total copper loss D ⊲4 kW⊳⊲x 2 ⊳. At maximum efficiency, copper loss D iron loss. Hence
2
4x 2 D
p 2.5 from which x D 2.5/4 and
x D 2.5/4 D 0.791.
Hence the output kVA at maximum
efficiency D 0.791 ð 500 D 395.5 kVA.
(b) Total loss at maximum efficiency
D 2 ð 2.5 D 5 kW
Output power D 395.5 kVA ð p.f.
D 395.5 ð 0.75 D 296.625 kW
Input power D output power C losses
D 296.625 C 5 D 301.625 kW
Maximum efficiency,
losses
D 1
ð 100%
input power
5
ð 100% D 98.34%
D 1
301.625
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 120 Further problems on losses
and efficiency
1 A single-phase transformer has a voltage ratio
of 6:1 and the h.v. winding is supplied at
540 V. The secondary winding provides a full
load current of 30 A at a power factor of 0.8
lagging. Neglecting losses, find (a) the rating
of the transformer, (b) the power supplied to
the load, (c) the primary current
[(a) 2.7 kVA (b) 2.16 kW (c) 5 A]
2 A single-phase transformer is rated at 40 kVA.
The transformer has full-load copper losses of
800 W and iron losses of 500 W. Determine
the transformer efficiency at full load and 0.8
power factor
[96.10%]
3 Determine the efficiency of the transformer
in problem 2 at half full-load and 0.8 power
factor
[95.81%]
4 A 100 kVA, 2000 V/400 V, 50 Hz, single-phase
transformer has an iron loss of 600 W and a
full-load copper loss of 1600 W. Calculate its
efficiency for a load of 60 kW at 0.8 power
factor.
[97.56%]
5 Determine the efficiency of a 15 kVA transformer for the following conditions:
(i) full-load, unity power factor
(ii) 0.8 full-load, unity power factor
(iii) half full-load, 0.8 power factor
Assume that iron losses are 200 W and the fullload copper loss is 300 W
[(a) 96.77% (ii) 96.84% (iii) 95.62%]
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TRANSFORMERS
6 A 300 kVA transformer has a primary winding resistance of 0.4 and a secondary
winding resistance of 0.0015 . The iron
loss is 2 kW and the primary and secondary
voltages are 4 kV and 200 V respectively. If
the power factor of the load is 0.78, determine
the efficiency of the transformer (a) on full
load, and (b) on half load.
[(a) 96.84% (b) 97.17%]
7 A 250 kVA transformer has a full load copper
loss of 3 kW and an iron loss of 2 kW. Calculate (a) the output kVA at which the efficiency
of the transformer is a maximum, and (b) the
maximum efficiency, assuming the power factor of the load is 0.80
[(a) 204.1 kVA (b) 97.61%]
21.10 Resistance matching
Varying a load resistance to be equal, or almost
equal, to the source internal resistance is called
matching. Examples where resistance matching is
important include coupling an aerial to a transmitter
or receiver, or in coupling a loudspeaker to an
amplifier, where coupling transformers may be used
to give maximum power transfer.
With d.c. generators or secondary cells, the internal resistance is usually very small. In such cases,
if an attempt is made to make the load resistance as
small as the source internal resistance, overloading
of the source results.
A method of achieving maximum power transfer between a source and a load (see section 13.9,
page 179), is to adjust the value of the load resistance to ‘match’ the source internal resistance. A
transformer may be used as a resistance matching
device by connecting it between the load and the
source.
The reason why a transformer can be used for this
is shown below. With reference to Fig. 21.10:
RL D
V1
V2
and R1 D
I2
I1
For an ideal transformer,
N1
V1 D
V2
N2
N2
and
I1 D
I2
N1
317
Figure 21.10
Thus the equivalent input resistance R1 of the
transformer is given by:
N1
V2
V1
N2
R1 D
D
N2
I1
I2
N1
2 2
N1
V2
N1
D
D
RL
N2
I2
N2
i.e.
R1 =
N1
N2
2
RL
Hence by varying the value of the turns ratio,
the equivalent input resistance of a transformer can
be ‘matched’ to the internal resistance of a load to
achieve maximum power transfer.
Problem 21. A transformer having a turns
ratio of 4:1 supplies a load of resistance
100 . Determine the equivalent input
resistance of the transformer.
From above, the equivalent input resistance,
N1 2
RL
R1 D
N2
2
4
⊲100⊳ D 1600 Z
D
1
Problem 22. The output stage of an
amplifier has an output resistance of 112 .
Calculate the optimum turns ratio of a
transformer which would match a load
resistance of 7 to the output resistance of
the amplifier.
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Figure 21.12
Figure 21.11
The circuit is shown in Fig. 21.11
The equivalent input resistance, R1 of the transformer needs to be 112 for maximum power
transfer.
R1 D
Hence
i.e.
N1
N2
N1
N2
2
RL
2
112
R1
D 16
D
D
RL
7
p
N1
D 16 D 4
N2
Hence the optimum turns ratio is 4:1
Problem 23. Determine the optimum value
of load resistance for maximum power
transfer if the load is connected to an
amplifier of output resistance 150 through
a transformer with a turns ratio of 5:1
The equivalent input resistance R1 of the transformer
needs to be 150 for maximum power transfer.
2
N1
RL
R1 D
N2
2
N2
from which, RL D R1
N1
D 150
1 2
5
D 6Z
Problem 24. A single-phase, 220 V/1760 V
ideal transformer is supplied from a 220 V
source through a cable of resistance 2 . If
the load across the secondary winding is
1.28 k determine (a) the primary current
flowing and (b) the power dissipated in the
load resistor.
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 21.12
(a) Turns ratio
N1
1
V1
220
D
D
D
N2
V2
1760
8
Equivalent input resistance of the transformer.
2
2
1
N1
R1 D
⊲1.28 ð 103 ⊳ D 20
RL D
N2
8
Total input resistance,
RIN D R C R1 D 2 C 20 D 22
Primary current,
I1 D
V1
220
D 10 A
D
RIN
22
(b) For an ideal transformer
I2
V1
D
V2
I1
from which,
V1
220
D 1.25 A
D 10
I2 D I1
V2
1760
Power dissipated in load resistor RL ,
P D I22 RL D ⊲1.25⊳2 ⊲1.28 ð 103 ⊳
D 2000 watts or 2 kW
Problem 25. An a.c. source of 24 V and
internal resistance 15 k is matched to a
load by a 25:1 ideal transformer. Determine
(a) the value of the load resistance and
(b) the power dissipated in the load.
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 21.13
(a) For maximum power transfer R1 needs to be
equal to 15 k.
2
N1
R1 D
RL
N2
from which, load resistance,
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319
(b) the power dissipated in the load resistance.
[(a) 30 A (b) 4.5 kW]
5 A load of resistance 768 is to be matched
to an amplifier which has an effective output
resistance of 12 . Determine the turns ratio
of the coupling transformer.
[1:8]
Figure 21.13
RL D R1
N2
N1
2
D ⊲15 000⊳
1
25
2
D 24 Z
(b) The total input resistance when the source is
connected to the matching transformer is RIN C
R1 i.e. 15 k C 15 k D 30 k.
6 An a.c. source of 20 V and internal resistance
20 k is matched to a load by a 16:1 singlephase transformer. Determine (a) the value of
the load resistance and (b) the power dissipated in the load.
[(a) 78.13 (b) 5 mW]
Primary current,
21.11 Auto transformers
24
V
D
D 0.8 mA
30000
30000
N1 /N2 D I2 /I1 from which, I2 D I1 ⊲N1 /N2 ⊳ D
⊲0.8 ð 103 ⊳⊲25/1⊳ D 20 ð 103 A.
An auto transformer is a transformer which has
part of its winding common to the primary and
secondary circuits. Fig. 21.14(a) shows the circuit
for a double-wound transformer and Fig. 21.14(b)
that for an auto transformer. The latter shows that
the secondary is actually part of the primary, the
current in the secondary being (I2 I1 ). Since
the current is less in this section, the cross-sectional
area of the winding can be reduced, which reduces
the amount of material necessary.
I1 D
Power dissipated in the load RL ,
P D I22 RL D ⊲20 ð 103 ⊳2 ⊲24⊳
D 9600 ð 106 W D 9.6 mW
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 121 Further problems on
resistance matching
1 A transformer having a turns ratio of
8:1 supplies a load of resistance 50 .
Determine the equivalent input resistance of
the transformer.
[3.2 k]
2 What ratio of transformer is required to make
a load of resistance 30 appear to have a
resistance of 270 ?
[3:1]
3 Determine the optimum value of load
resistance for maximum power transfer if the
load is connected to an amplifier of output
resistance 147 through a transformer with
a turns ratio of 7:2
[12 ]
4 A single-phase, 240 V/2880 V ideal transformer is supplied from a 240 V source
through a cable of resistance 3 . If the
load across the secondary winding is 720
determine (a) the primary current flowing and
Figure 21.14
Figure 21.15 shows the circuit diagram symbol
for an auto transformer.
Figure 21.15
Problem 26. A single-phase auto
transformer has a voltage ratio 320 V:250 V
and supplies a load of 20 kVA at 250 V.
Assuming an ideal transformer, determine
the current in each section of the winding.
Rating D 20 kVA D V1 I1 D V2 I2 .
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Hence primary current,
I1 D
2N1 I1
2N2 I1
2N1 I1
2N1 I1
N2
D1
N1
D
20 ð 103
20 ð 103
D 62.5 A
D
V1
320
and secondary current,
I2 D
20 ð 103
20 ð 103
D 80 A
D
V2
250
If ⊲N2 /N1 ⊳ D x then
(volume of copper in an auto transformer)
= .1 − x / (volume of copper in a doublewound transformer)
.12/
Hence current in common part of the winding
D 80 62.5 D 17.5 A
The current flowing in each section of the
transformer is shown in Fig. 21.16
If, say, x D ⊲4/5⊳ then (volume of copper in auto
transformer)
D 1
D
1
5
4
5
(volume of copper in a
double-wound transformer)
(volume in double-wound transformer)
i.e. a saving of 80%.
Similarly, if x D ⊲1/4⊳, the saving is 25 per cent,
and so on. The closer N2 is to N1 , the greater the
saving in copper.
Figure 21.16
Saving of copper in an auto transformer
For the same output and voltage ratio, the auto
transformer requires less copper than an ordinary
double-wound transformer. This is explained below.
The volume, and hence weight, of copper required
in a winding is proportional to the number of turns
and to the cross-sectional area of the wire. In turn
this is proportional to the current to be carried, i.e.
(a)
volume of copper is proportional to NI.
Volume of copper in an auto transformer
/ ⊲N1 N2 ⊳I1 C N2 ⊲I2 I1 ⊳
see Fig. 21.14(b)
Problem 27. Determine the saving in the
volume of copper used in an auto transformer
compared with a double-wound transformer
for (a) a 200 V:150 V transformer, and (b) a
500 V:100 V transformer.
For a 200 V:150 V transformer,
V2
150
xD
D 0.75
D
V1
200
Hence from equation (12), (volume of copper in
auto transformer)
/ N1 I1 N2 I1 C N2 I2 N2 I1
/ N1 I1 C N2 I2 2N2 I1
/ 2N1 I1 2N2 I1
(since N2 I2 D N1 I1 ⊳
Volume of copper in a double-wound transformer
/ N1 I1 C N2 I2 / 2N1 I1
(again, since N2 I2 D N1 I1 ). Hence
volume of copper in
2N1 I1 2N2 I1
an auto transformer
D
volume of copper in a
2N1 I1
double-wound transformer
D ⊲1 0.75⊳
D ⊲0.25⊳
(volume of copper in
double-wound transformer)
(volume of copper in
double-wound transformer)
(of copper in a
double-wound transformer)
Hence the saving is 75%
D 25%
(b) For a 500 V:100 V transformer,
V2
100
xD
D 0.2
D
V1
500
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TRANSFORMERS
Hence, (volume of copper in auto transformer)
D ⊲1 0.2⊳
321
for interconnecting systems that are operating at
approximately the same voltage.
(volume of copper in
double-wound transformer)
D ⊲0.8⊳ (volume in double-wound transformer)
21.12 Isolating transformers
D 80% of copper in a double-wound transformer Transformers not only enable current or voltage
to be transformed to some different magnitude
Hence the saving is 20%.
but provide a means of isolating electrically one
part of a circuit from another when there is
no electrical connection between primary and
Now try the following exercise
secondary windings. An isolating transformer is
a 1:1 ratio transformer with several important
applications, including bathroom shaver-sockets,
Exercise 122 Further problems on the
portable electric tools, model railways, and so on.
auto-transformer
1 A single-phase auto transformer has a voltage ratio of 480 V:300 V and supplies a load
of 30 kVA at 300 V. Assuming an ideal transformer, calculate the current in each section of
the winding.
[I1 D 62.5 A, I2 D 100 A, (I2 I1 ⊳ D 37.5 A]
2 Calculate the saving in the volume of
copper used in an auto transformer compared
with a double-wound transformer for (a)
a 300 V:240 V transformer, and (b) a
400 V:100 V transformer [(a) 80% (b) 25%]
Advantages of auto transformers
The advantages of auto transformers over doublewound transformers include:
1 a saving in cost since less copper is needed (see
above)
2 less volume, hence less weight
3 a higher efficiency, resulting from lower I2 R
losses
4 a continuously variable output voltage is achievable if a sliding contact is used
5 a smaller percentage voltage regulation.
Disadvantages of auto transformers
The primary and secondary windings are not electrically separate, hence if an open-circuit occurs in the
secondary winding the full primary voltage appears
across the secondary.
Uses of auto transformers
Auto transformers are used for reducing the voltage
when starting induction motors (see Chapter 23) and
21.13 Three-phase transformers
Three-phase double-wound transformers are mainly
used in power transmission and are usually of the
core type. They basically consist of three pairs
of single-phase windings mounted on one core, as
shown in Fig. 21.17, which gives a considerable
saving in the amount of iron used. The primary and
secondary windings in Fig. 21.17 are wound on top
of each other in the form of concentric cylinders,
similar to that shown in Fig. 21.6(a). The windings
may be with the primary delta-connected and the
secondary star-connected, or star-delta, star-star or
delta-delta, depending on its use.
A delta-connection is shown in Fig. 21.18(a) and
a star-connection in Fig. 21.18(b).
Problem 28. A three-phase transformer has
500 primary turns and 50 secondary turns. If
the supply voltage is 2.4 kV find the
secondary line voltage on no-load when the
windings are connected (a) star-delta, (b)
delta-star.
p
(a) For a star-connection, VL D 3 Vp (see Chapter 20). Primary phase voltage,
2400
VL1
Vp D p D p D 1385.64 volts.
3
3
For a delta-connection, VL D Vp . N1 /N2 D
V1 /V2 from which, secondary phase voltage,
N2
50
Vp2 D Vp1
D ⊲1385.64⊳
N1
500
D 138.6 volts
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Figure 21.17
Figure 21.18
(b) For a delta-connection, VL D Vp hence, primary
phase voltage Vp1 D 2.4 kV D 2400 volts.
Secondary phase voltage,
N2
50
D 240 volts
D ⊲2400⊳
Vp2 D Vp1
N1
500
p
For a star-connection, VL Dp 3 Vp hence, the
secondary line voltage, VL2 D 3⊲240⊳
D 416 volts.
Exercise 123 A further problem on the
three-phase transformer
1 A three-phase transformer has 600 primary
turns and 150 secondary turns. If the supply
voltage is 1.5 kV determine the secondary line
voltage on no-load when the windings are
connected (a) delta-star (b) star-delta
[(a) 649.5 V (b) 216.5 V]
Now try the following exercise
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TRANSFORMERS
21.14 Current transformers
For measuring currents in excess of about 100 A
a current transformer is normally used. With a
d.c. moving-coil ammeter the current required to
give full scale deflection is very small – typically
a few milliamperes. When larger currents are to be
measured a shunt resistor is added to the circuit (see
Chapter 10). However, even with shunt resistors
added it is not possible to measure very large
currents. When a.c. is being measured a shunt cannot
be used since the proportion of the current which
flows in the meter will depend on its impedance,
which varies with frequency.
In a double-wound transformer:
323
of ammeters giving full-scale deflections of 1 A, 2 A
or 5 A.
For very large currents the transformer core can
be mounted around the conductor or bus-bar. Thus
the primary then has just one turn.
It is very important to short-circuit the secondary
winding before removing the ammeter. This is
because if current is flowing in the primary,
dangerously high voltages could be induced in the
secondary should it be open-circuited.
Current transformer circuit diagram symbols are
shown in Fig. 21.20
I1
N2
D
I2
N1
Figure 21.20
from which,
secondary current I2 = I1
N2
N1
In current transformers the primary usually consists
of one or two turns whilst the secondary can have
several hundred turns. A typical arrangement is
shown in Fig. 21.19
Problem 29. A current transformer has a
single turn on the primary winding and a
secondary winding of 60 turns. The
secondary winding is connected to an
ammeter with a resistance of 0.15 . The
resistance of the secondary winding is
0.25 . If the current in the primary winding
is 300 A, determine (a) the reading on the
ammeter, (b) the potential difference across
the ammeter and (c) the total load (in VA) on
the secondary.
(a) Reading on the ammeter,
N1
1
D 5 A.
D 300
I2 D I1
N2
60
(b) P.d. across the ammeter D I2 RA , (where RA is the
ammeter resistance⊳ D ⊲5⊳⊲0.15⊳ D 0.75 volts.
Figure 21.19
If, for example, the primary has 2 turns and the
secondary 200 turns, then if the primary current is
500 A,
N2
2
secondary current, I2 D I1
D ⊲500⊳
N1
200
D 5A
Current transformers isolate the ammeter from the
main circuit and allow the use of a standard range
(c) Total resistance of secondary circuit D
0.15 C 0.25 D 0.40 .
Induced e.m.f. in secondary D ⊲5⊳⊲0.40⊳ D 2.0 V.
Total load on secondary D ⊲2.0⊳⊲5⊳ D 10 VA.
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 124 A further problem on the
current transformer
1 A current transformer has two turns on the
primary winding and a secondary winding of
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
260 turns. The secondary winding is connected
to an ammeter with a resistance of 0.2 .
The resistance of the secondary winding is
0.3 . If the current in the primary winding
is 650 A, determine (a) the reading on the
ammeter, (b) the potential difference across
the ammeter, and (c) the total load in VA on
the secondary
[(a) 5 A (b) 1 V (c) 7.5 VA]
Now try the following exercises
Exercise 125 Short answer questions on
transformers
1 What is a transformer?
2 Explain briefly how a voltage is induced in
the secondary winding of a transformer
3 Draw the circuit diagram symbol for a
transformer
21.15 Voltage transformers
4 State the relationship between turns and voltage ratios for a transformer
For measuring voltages in excess of about 500 V it
is often safer to use a voltage transformer. These
are normal double-wound transformers with a large
number of turns on the primary, which is connected
to a high voltage supply, and a small number of turns
on the secondary. A typical arrangement is shown
in Fig. 21.21
5 How is a transformer rated?
6 Briefly describe the principle of operation of
a transformer
7 Draw a phasor diagram for an ideal transformer on no-load
8 State the e.m.f. equation for a transformer
9 Draw an on-load phasor diagram for an ideal
transformer with an inductive load
10 Name two types of transformer construction
11 What core material is normally used for
power transformers
12 Name three core materials used in r.f. transformers
13 State a typical application for (a) a.f. transformers (b) r.f. transformers
Figure 21.21
14 How is cooling achieved in transformers?
Since
V1
N1
D
V2
N2
the secondary voltage,
V2 D
V1 N2
V1
Thus if the arrangement in Fig. 21.21 has 4000
primary turns and 20 secondary turns then for a
voltage of 22 kV on the primary, the voltage on the
secondary,
N2
20
V2 D V1
D 110 volts
D ⊲22 000⊳
N1
4000
15 State the expressions for equivalent resistance and reactance of a transformer, referred
to the primary
16 Define regulation of a transformer
17 Name two sources of loss in a transformer
18 What is hysteresis loss? How is it minimised
in a transformer?
19 What are eddy currents? How may they be
reduced in transformers?
20 How is efficiency of a transformer calculated?
21 What is the condition for maximum efficiency of a transformer?
22 What does ‘resistance matching’ mean?
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TRANSFORMERS
23 State a practical application where matching
would be used
325
1.7A
24 Derive a formula for the equivalent resistance
of a transformer having a turns ratio of
N1 : N2 and load resistance RL
25 What is an auto transformer?
V1
3.3A
p
26 State three advantages and one disadvantage
of an auto transformer compared with a
double-wound transformer
V2
27 In what applications are auto transformers
used?
28 What is an isolating transformer? Give two
applications
29 Describe briefly the construction of a threephase transformer
30 For what reason are current transformers
used?
31 Describe how a current transformer operates
32 For what reason are voltage transformers
used?
Q
Figure 21.22
4 A 440 V/110 V transformer has 1000 turns on
the primary winding. The number of turns on
the secondary is:
(a) 550
(b) 250
(c) 4000 (d) 25
5 An advantage of an auto-transformer is that:
(a) it gives a high step-up ratio
(b) iron losses are reduced
(c) copper loss is reduced
(d) it reduces capacitance between turns
33 Describe how a voltage transformer operates
6 A 1 kV/250 V transformer has 500 turns on
the secondary winding. The number of turns
on the primary is:
(a) 2000 (b) 125
(c) 1000 (d) 250
Exercise 126 Multi-choice questions on
transformers (Answers on page 376)
7 The core of a transformer is laminated to:
(a) limit hysteresis loss
(b) reduce the inductance of the windings
(c) reduce the effects of eddy current loss
(d) prevent eddy currents from occurring
1 The e.m.f. equation of a transformer of
secondary turns N2 , magnetic flux density
Bm , magnetic area of core a, and operating
at frequency f is given by:
(a) E2 D 4.44N2 Bm af volts
N2 Bm f
volts
a
N2 Bm f
volts
(c) E2 D
a
(d) E2 D 1.11N2 Bm a f volts
(b) E2 D 4.44
8 The power input to a mains transformer is
200 W. If the primary current is 2.5 A, the
secondary voltage is 2 V and assuming no
losses in the transformer, the turns ratio is:
(a) 40:1 step down
(b) 40:1 step up
(c) 80:1 step down
(d) 80:1 step up
2 In the auto-transformer shown in Fig. 21.22,
the current in section PQ is:
(a) 3.3 A (b) 1.7 A (c) 5 A
(d) 1.6 A
9 A transformer has 800 primary turns and 100
secondary turns. To obtain 40 V from the
secondary winding the voltage applied to the
primary winding must be:
(a) 5 V
(b) 320 V
(c) 2.5 V
(d) 20 V
3 A step-up transformer has a turns ratio of
10. If the output current is 5 A, the input
current is:
(a) 50 A (b) 5 A
(c) 2.5 A (d) 0.5 A
A 100 kVA, 250 V/10 kV, single-phase transformer has a full-load copper loss of 800 W
and an iron loss of 500 W. The primary winding contains 120 turns. For the statements in
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
questions 10 to 16, select the correct answer
from the following list:
(a) 81.3 kW
(b) 800 W
(c) 97.32%
(d) 80 kW
(e) 3
(f) 4800
(g) 1.3 kW
(h) 98.40%
(i) 100 kW
(j) 98.28%
(k) 200 W
(l) 101.3 kW
(m) 96.38%
(n) 400 W
10 The total full-load losses
11 The full-load output power at 0.8 power factor
12 The full-load input power at 0.8 power factor
13 The full-load efficiency at 0.8 power factor
14 The half full-load copper loss
15 The transformer efficiency at half full-load,
0.8 power factor
16 The number of secondary winding turns
17 Which of the following statements is false?
(a) In an ideal transformer, the volts per turn
are constant for a given value of primary
voltage
(b) In a single-phase transformer, the hysteresis loss is proportional to frequency
(c) A transformer whose secondary current is
greater than the primary current is a stepup transformer
(d) In transformers, eddy current loss is
reduced by laminating the core
18 An ideal transformer has a turns ratio of 1:5
and is supplied at 200 V when the primary
current is 3 A. Which of the following statements is false?
(a) The turns ratio indicates a step-up transformer
(b) The secondary voltage is 40 V
(c) The secondary current is 15 A
(d) The transformer rating is 0.6 kVA
(e) The secondary voltage is 1 kV
(f) The secondary current is 0.6 A
19 Iron losses in a transformer are due to:
(a) eddy currents only
(b) flux leakage
(c) both eddy current and hysteresis losses
(d) the resistance of the primary and secondary
windings
20 A load is to be matched to an amplifier
having an effective internal resistance of 10
via a coupling transformer having a turns
ratio of 1:10. The value of the load resistance
for maximum power transfer is:
(a) 100
(b) 1 k
(c) 100 m
(d) 1 m
TLFeBOOK
Assignment 6
This assignment covers the material contained in Chapters 20 and 21.
The marks for each question are shown in brackets at the end of each question.
1 Three identical coils each of resistance 40 and
inductive reactance 30 are connected (i) in star,
and (ii) in delta to a 400 V, three-phase supply.
Calculate for each connection (a) the line and
phase voltages, (b) the phase and line currents,
and (c) the total power dissipated.
(12)
2 Two wattmeters are connected to measure the
input power to a balanced three-phase load by
the two-wattmeter method. If the instrument readings are 10 kW and 6 kW, determine (a) the total
power input, and (b) the load power factor. (5)
3 An ideal transformer connected to a 250 V mains,
supplies a 25 V, 200 W lamp. Calculate the transformer turns ratio and the current taken from the
supply.
(5)
4 A 200 kVA, 8000 V/320 V, 50 Hz single phase
transformer has 120 secondary turns. Determine
(a) the primary and secondary currents, (b) the
number of primary turns, and (c) the maximum
value of flux.
(9)
5 Determine the regulation of an 8 kVA, 100 V/
200 V, single phase transformer when its
secondary terminal voltage is 194 V when loaded.
(3)
6 A 500 kVA rated transformer has a full-load copper loss of 4 kW and an iron loss of 3 kW. Determine the transformer efficiency (a) at full load
and 0.80 power factor, and (b) at half full load
and 0.80 power factor.
(10)
7 Determine the optimum value of load resistance
for maximum power transfer if the load is connected to an amplifier of output resistance 288
through a transformer with a turns ratio 6:1 (3)
8 A single-phase auto transformer has a voltage
ratio of 250 V:200 V and supplies a load of
15 kVA at 200 V. Assuming an ideal transformer,
determine the current in each section of
the winding.
(3)
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22
D.C. machines
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
ž distinguish between the function of a motor and a generator
ž describe the action of a commutator
ž describe the construction of a d.c. machine
ž distinguish between wave and lap windings
ž understand shunt, series and compound windings of d.c. machines
ž understand armature reaction
ž calculate generated e.m.f. in an armature winding using E D 2pnZ/c
ž describe types of d.c. generator and their characteristics
ž calculate generated e.m.f. for a generator using E D V C Ia Ra
ž state typical applications of d.c. generators
ž list d.c. machine losses and calculate efficiency
ž calculate back e.m.f. for a d.c. motor using E D V Ia Ra
ž calculate the torque of a d.c. motor using T D EIa /2n and T D pZIa /c
ž describe types of d.c. motor and their characteristics
ž state typical applications of d.c. motors
ž describe a d.c. motor starter
ž describe methods of speed control of d.c. motors
ž list types of enclosure for d.c. motors
22.1 Introduction
When the input to an electrical machine is electrical
energy, (seen as applying a voltage to the electrical
terminals of the machine), and the output is mechanical energy, (seen as a rotating shaft), the machine
is called an electric motor. Thus an electric motor
converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
The principle of operation of a motor is explained
in Section 8.4, page 89. When the input to an electrical machine is mechanical energy, (seen as, say,
a diesel motor, coupled to the machine by a shaft),
and the output is electrical energy, (seen as a voltage appearing at the electrical terminals of the
machine), the machine is called a generator. Thus,
a generator converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy.
TLFeBOOK
D.C. MACHINES
The principle of operation of a generator is
explained in Section 9.2, page 94.
22.2 The action of a commutator
In an electric motor, conductors rotate in a uniform
magnetic field. A single-loop conductor mounted
between permanent magnets is shown in Fig. 22.1.
A voltage is applied at points A and B in Fig. 22.1(a)
329
the other acting vertically upwards due to the current flowing from E to F (from Fleming’s left hand
rule). If the loop is free to rotate, then when it has
rotated through 180° , the conductors are as shown
in Fig. 22.1(b) For rotation to continue in the same
direction, it is necessary for the current flow to be as
shown in Fig. 22.1(b), i.e. from D to C and from F to
E. This apparent reversal in the direction of current
flow is achieved by a process called commutation.
With reference to Fig. 22.2(a), when a direct voltage is applied at A and B, then as the single-loop
conductor rotates, current flow will always be away
from the commutator for the part of the conductor
adjacent to the N-pole and towards the commutator
for the part of the conductor adjacent to the S-pole.
Thus the forces act to give continuous rotation in an
anti-clockwise direction. The arrangement shown in
Fig. 22.2(a) is called a ‘two-segment’ commutator
and the voltage is applied to the rotating segments by
stationary brushes, (usually carbon blocks), which
slide on the commutator material, (usually copper),
when rotation takes place.
In practice, there are many conductors on the
rotating part of a d.c. machine and these are attached
to many commutator segments. A schematic diagram of a multi-segment commutator is shown in
Fig. 22.2(b)
Poor commutation results in sparking at the trailing edge of the brushes. This can be improved by
using interpoles (situated between each pair of main
poles), high resistance brushes, or using brushes
spanning several commutator segments.
Figure 22.1
A force, F, acts on the loop due to the interaction of the magnetic field of the permanent magnets
and the magnetic field created by the current flowing in the loop. This force is proportional to the flux
density, B, the current flowing, I, and the effective
length of the conductor, l, i.e. F D BIl. The force
is made up of two parts, one acting vertically downwards due to the current flowing from C to D and
22.3 D.C. machine construction
The basic parts of any d.c. machine are shown in
Fig. 22.3, and comprise:
(a) a stationary part called the stator having,
(i) a steel ring called the yoke, to which are
attached
Figure 22.2
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Figure 22.3
Figure 22.4
(ii) the magnetic poles, around which are the
(iii) field windings, i.e. many turns of a conductor wound round the pole core; current
passing through this conductor creates an
electromagnet, (rather than the permanent
magnets shown in Fig. 22.1 and 22.2),
(b) a rotating part called the armature mounted in
bearings housed in the stator and having,
(iv) a laminated cylinder of iron or steel called
the core, on which teeth are cut to house
the
(v) armature winding, i.e. a single or multiloop conductor system, and
(vi) the commutator, (see Section 22.2)
Armature windings can be divided into two
groups, depending on how the wires are joined to
the commutator. These are called wave windings
and lap windings.
(a) In wave windings there are two paths in parallel
irrespective of the number of poles, each path
supplying half the total current output. Wave
wound generators produce high voltage, low
current outputs.
(b) In lap windings there are as many paths in
parallel as the machine has poles. The total
current output divides equally between them.
Lap wound generators produce high current, low
voltage output.
22.4 Shunt, series and compound
windings
When the field winding of a d.c. machine is connected in parallel with the armature, as shown in
Fig. 22.4(a), the machine is said to be shunt wound.
If the field winding is connected in series with
the armature, as shown in Fig. 22.4(b), then the
machine is said to be series wound. A compound
wound machine has a combination of series and
shunt windings.
Depending on whether the electrical machine is
series wound, shunt wound or compound wound,
it behaves differently when a load is applied. The
behaviour of a d.c. machine under various conditions
is shown by means of graphs, called characteristic
curves or just characteristics. The characteristics
shown in the following sections are theoretical, since
they neglect the effects of armature reaction.
Armature reaction is the effect that the magnetic
field produced by the armature current has on the
magnetic field produced by the field system. In a
generator, armature reaction results in a reduced
output voltage, and in a motor, armature reaction
results in increased speed.
A way of overcoming the effect of armature
reaction is to fit compensating windings, located in
slots in the pole face.
22.5 E.m.f. generated in an armature
winding
Let
and
Z D number of armature conductors,
D useful flux per pole, in webers,
p D number of pairs of poles
n D armature speed in rev/s
The e.m.f. generated by the armature is equal to the
e.m.f. generated by one of the parallel paths. Each
conductor passes 2p poles per revolution and thus
cuts 2p webers of magnetic flux per revolution.
Hence flux cut by one conductor per second D
2pn Wb and so the average e.m.f. E generated
per conductor is given by:
E D 2pn volts
(since 1 volt D 1 Weber per second⊳
Let
c D number of parallel paths
through the winding between
positive and negative brushes
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D.C. MACHINES
Generated e.m.f.
c D 2 for a wave winding
c D 2p for a lap winding
The number of conductors in series in each path D
Z/c
The total e.m.f. between
ED
nD
(number of conductors in series
generated e.m.f. E =
2p 8nZ
volts
c
⊲1⊳
Since Z, p and c are constant for a given machine,
then E / n. However 2n is the angular velocity
ω in radians per second, hence the generated e.m.f.
is proportional to and ω,
generated e.m.f. E ∝ 8w
i.e.
Problem 3. An 8-pole, lap-wound armature
has 1200 conductors and a flux per pole of
0.03 Wb. Determine the e.m.f. generated
when running at 500 rev/min.
Generated e.m.f.,
2pnZ
c
2pnZ
D
for a lap-wound machine,
2p
ED
⊲2⊳
i.e.
Problem 1. An 8-pole, wave-connected
armature has 600 conductors and is driven at
625 rev/min. If the flux per pole is 20 mWb,
determine the generated e.m.f.
Z D 600, c D 2 (for a wave winding), p D 4 pairs,
n D 625/60 rev/s and D 20 ð 103 Wb.
Generated e.m.f.
ED
2pnZ
c
E D nZ
D ⊲0.03⊳
500
60
⊲1200⊳
D 300 volts
Problem 4. Determine the generated e.m.f.
in Problem 3 if the armature is wave-wound.
Generated e.m.f.
2pnZ
c
2pnZ
D
⊲ since c D 2 for wave-wound⊳
2
D pnZ D ⊲4⊳⊲nZ⊳
ED
3
D
240
E
D
Z
⊲30 ð 103 ⊳⊲800⊳
D 10 rev=s or 600 rev=min
per path⊳
D 2pnZ/c
2pnZ
2pnZ
D
D nZ
c
2p
Rearranging gives, speed,
brushes D (average e.m.f./conductor)
i.e.
331
2⊲4⊳⊲20 ð 10 ⊳
625
60
⊲600⊳
2
D 500 volts
Problem 2. A 4-pole generator has a
lap-wound armature with 50 slots with 16
conductors per slot. The useful flux per pole
is 30 mWb. Determine the speed at which the
machine must be driven to generate an e.m.f.
of 240 V.
E D 240 V, c D 2 p (for a lap winding), Z D
50 ð 16 D 800 and D 30 ð 103 Wb.
D ⊲4⊳⊲300⊳ from Problem 3
D 1200 volts
Problem 5. A d.c. shunt-wound generator
running at constant speed generates a voltage
of 150 V at a certain value of field current.
Determine the change in the generated
voltage when the field current is reduced by
20 per cent, assuming the flux is proportional
to the field current.
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
The generated e.m.f. E of a generator is proportional
to ω, i.e. is proportional to n, where is the
flux and n is the speed of rotation. It follows that
E D kn, where k is a constant.
At speed n1 and flux 1 , E1 D k1 n1
At speed n2 and flux 2 , E2 D k2 n2
Thus, by division:
k1 n1
1 n1
E1
D
D
E2
k2 n2
2 n2
The initial conditions are E1 D 150 V, D 1
and n D n1 . When the flux is reduced by 20 per
cent, the new value of flux is 80/100 or 0.8 of the
initial value, i.e. 2 D 0.81 . Since the generator
is running at constant speed, n2 D n1 .
Thus
E1
1 n1
1 n1
1
D
D
D
E2
2 n2
0.81 n2
0.8
that is,
E2 D 150 ð 0.8 D 120 V
Thus, a reduction of 20 per cent in the value of
the flux reduces the generated voltage to 120 V at
constant speed.
Problem 6. A d.c. generator running at
30 rev/s generates an e.m.f. of 200 V.
Determine the percentage increase in the flux
per pole required to generate 250 V at
20 rev/s.
From Equation (2), generated e.m.f., E / ω and
since ω D 2n, E / n
Hence the increase in flux per pole needs to be
87.5 per cent
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 127 Further problems on
generator e.m.f.
1 A 4-pole, wave-connected armature of a d.c.
machine has 750 conductors and is driven
at 720 rev/min. If the useful flux per pole is
15 mWb, determine the generated e.m.f.
[270 volts]
2 A 6-pole generator has a lap-wound armature
with 40 slots with 20 conductors per slot. The
flux per pole is 25 mWb. Calculate the speed at
which the machine must be driven to generate
an e.m.f. of 300 V [15 rev/s or 900 rev/min]
3 A 4-pole armature of a d.c. machine has 1000
conductors and a flux per pole of 20 mWb.
Determine the e.m.f. generated when running
at 600 rev/min when the armature is (a) wavewound (b) lap-wound.
[(a) 400 volts (b) 200 volts]
4 A d.c. generator running at 25 rev/s generates
an e.m.f. of 150 V. Determine the percentage
increase in the flux per pole required to generate 180 V at 20 rev/s
[50%]
5 Determine the terminal voltage of a generator
which develops an e.m.f. of 240 V and has an
armature current of 50 A on load. Assume the
armature resistance is 40 m
[238 volts]
Let E1 D 200 V, n1 D 30 rev/s
and flux per pole at this speed be 1
Let E2 D 250 V, n2 D 20 rev/s
and flux per pole at this speed be 2
Since
E / n then
Hence
from which,
E1
1 n1
D
E2
2 n2
1 ⊲30⊳
200
D
250
2 ⊲20⊳
1 ⊲30⊳⊲250⊳
2 D
⊲20⊳⊲200⊳
D 1.8751
22.6 D.C. generators
D.C. generators are classified according to the
method of their field excitation. These groupings are:
(i) Separately-excited generators, where the field
winding is connected to a source of supply other
than the armature of its own machine.
(ii) Self-excited generators, where the field winding receives its supply from the armature of its
own machine, and which are sub-divided into
(a) shunt, (b) series, and (c) compound wound
generators.
TLFeBOOK
D.C. MACHINES
22.7 Types of d.c. generator and their
characteristics
(b) Generated e.m.f.,
E D V C I a Ra
A typical separately-excited generator circuit is
shown in Fig. 22.5
When a load is connected across the armature
terminals, a load current Ia will flow. The terminal
voltage V will fall from its open-circuit e.m.f. E due
to a volt drop caused by current flowing through the
armature resistance, shown as Ra
or
Problem 9. A separately-excited generator
develops a no-load e.m.f. of 150 V at an
armature speed of 20 rev/s and a flux per
pole of 0.10 Wb. Determine the generated
e.m.f. when (a) the speed increases to
25 rev/s and the pole flux remains
unchanged, (b) the speed remains at 20 rev/s
and the pole flux is decreased to 0.08 Wb,
and (c) the speed increases to 24 rev/s and
the pole flux is decreased to 0.07 Wb.
terminal voltage, V = E − Ia Ra
generated e.m.f., E = V + Ia Ra
from Equation ⊲3⊳
D 480 C ⊲8⊳⊲1⊳ D 480 C 8 D 488 volts
(a) Separately-excited generator
i.e.
333
⊲3⊳
(a) From Section 22.5, generated e.m.f. E / n
from which,
Hence
1 N1
E1
D
E2
2 N2
150
⊲0.10⊳⊲20⊳
D
E2
⊲0.1⊳⊲25⊳
from which, E2 D
⊲150⊳⊲0.10⊳⊲25⊳
⊲0.10⊳⊲20⊳
D 187.5 volts
(b)
Figure 22.5
Problem 7. Determine the terminal voltage
of a generator which develops an e.m.f. of
200 V and has an armature current of 30 A
on load. Assume the armature resistance is
0.30 .
With reference to Fig. 22.5, terminal voltage,
V D E Ia Ra
150
⊲0.10⊳⊲20⊳
D
E3
⊲0.08⊳⊲20⊳
from which, e.m.f., E3 D
D 120 volts
(c)
150
⊲0.10⊳⊲20⊳
D
E4
⊲0.07⊳⊲24⊳
from which, e.m.f., E4 D
D 191 volts
Problem 8. A generator is connected to a
60 load and a current of 8 A flows. If the
armature resistance is 1 determine (a) the
terminal voltage, and (b) the generated e.m.f.
(a) Terminal voltage, V D Ia RL D ⊲8⊳⊲60⊳ D
480 volts
⊲150⊳⊲0.07⊳⊲24⊳
⊲0.10⊳⊲20⊳
D 126 volts
D 200 ⊲30⊳⊲0.30⊳
D 200 9
⊲150⊳⊲0.08⊳⊲20⊳
⊲0.10⊳⊲20⊳
Characteristics
The two principal generator characteristics are
the generated voltage/field current characteristics,
called the open-circuit characteristic and the
terminal voltage/load current characteristic, called
the load characteristic. A typical separately-excited
generator open-circuit characteristic is shown in
Fig. 22.6(a) and a typical load characteristic is
shown in Fig. 22.6(b)
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(a) The circuit is as shown in Fig. 22.8
20 000 watts
D 100 A
200 volts
Volt drop in the cables to the load D IR D
⊲100⊳⊲100 ð 103 ⊳ D 10 V. Hence terminal
voltage, V D 200 C 10 D 210 volts.
Load current, I D
Figure 22.6
A separately-excited generator is used only in
special cases, such as when a wide variation in
terminal p.d. is required, or when exact control of
the field current is necessary. Its disadvantage lies
in requiring a separate source of direct current.
(b) Shunt wound generator
In a shunt wound generator the field winding is
connected in parallel with the armature as shown
in Fig. 22.7 The field winding has a relatively high
resistance and therefore the current carried is only a
fraction of the armature current.
Figure 22.8
(b) Armature current Ia D If C I
Field current, If D
210
V
D
D 4.2 A
Rf
50
Hence Ia D If C I D 4.2 C 100 D 104.2 A
Generated e.m.f. E D V C Ia Ra
D 210 C⊲104.2⊳⊲40ð103 ⊳
D 210 C 4.168
D 214.17 volts
Figure 22.7
For the circuit shown in Fig. 22.7,
terminal voltage, V D E Ia Ra
or
generated e.m.f., E D V C Ia Ra
Ia D If C I from Kirchhoff’s current law, where
Ia D armature current, If D field current ⊲D V/Rf ⊳
and I D load current
Problem 10. A shunt generator supplies a
20 kW load at 200 V through cables of
resistance, R D 100 m. If the field winding
resistance, Rf D 50 and the armature
resistance, Ra D 40 m, determine (a) the
terminal voltage, and (b) the e.m.f. generated
in the armature.
Characteristics
The generated e.m.f., E, is proportional to ω,
(see Section 22.5), hence at constant speed, since
ω D 2n, E / . Also the flux is proportional
to field current If until magnetic saturation of the
iron circuit of the generator occurs. Hence the open
circuit characteristic is as shown in Fig. 22.9(a).
Figure 22.9
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D.C. MACHINES
As the load current on a generator having constant
field current and running at constant speed increases,
the value of armature current increases, hence the
armature volt drop, Ia Ra increases. The generated
voltage E is larger than the terminal voltage V
and the voltage equation for the armature circuit is
V D E Ia Ra . Since E is constant, V decreases
with increasing load. The load characteristic is as
shown in Fig. 22.9(b). In practice, the fall in voltage
is about 10 per cent between no-load and full-load
for many d.c. shunt-wound generators.
The shunt-wound generator is the type most used
in practice, but the load current must be limited to
a value that is well below the maximum value. This
then avoids excessive variation of the terminal voltage. Typical applications are with battery charging
and motor car generators.
(c) Series-wound generator
In the series-wound generator the field winding is
connected in series with the armature as shown in
Fig. 22.10
335
Figure 22.11
In a series-wound generator, the field winding is
in series with the armature and it is not possible to
have a value of field current when the terminals are
open circuited, thus it is not possible to obtain an
open-circuit characteristic.
Series-wound generators are rarely used in practise, but can be used as a ‘booster’ on d.c. transmission lines.
(d) Compound-wound generator
In the compound-wound generator two methods of
connection are used, both having a mixture of shunt
and series windings, designed to combine the advantages of each. Fig. 22.12(a) shows what is termed a
long-shunt compound generator, and Fig. 22.12(b)
shows a short-shunt compound generator. The latter is the most generally used form of d.c. generator.
Figure 22.10
Characteristic
The load characteristic is the terminal voltage/current characteristic. The generated e.m.f. E, is
proportional to ω and at constant speed ω⊲D 2n⊳
is a constant. Thus E is proportional to . For values
of current below magnetic saturation of the yoke,
poles, air gaps and armature core, the flux is proportional to the current, hence E / I. For values of
current above those required for magnetic saturation,
the generated e.m.f. is approximately constant. The
values of field resistance and armature resistance in
a series wound machine are small, hence the terminal voltage V is very nearly equal to E. A typical
load characteristic for a series generator is shown in
Fig. 22.11
Figure 22.12
Problem 11. A short-shunt compound
generator supplies 80 A at 200 V. If the field
resistance, Rf D 40 , the series resistance,
RSe D 0.02 and the armature resistance,
Ra D 0.04 , determine the e.m.f. generated.
The circuit is shown in Fig. 22.13.
Volt drop in series winding D IRSe D ⊲80⊳⊲0.02⊳ D
1.6 V.
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
An under-compounded machine gives a full-load
terminal voltage which is less than the no-load
voltage, as shown in Fig. 22.14. However even this
latter characteristic is a little better than that for a
shunt generator alone. Compound-wound generators
are used in electric arc welding, with lighting sets
and with marine equipment.
Now try the following exercise
Figure 22.13
P.d. across the field winding D p.d. across
armature D V1 D 200 C 1.6 D 201.6 V
Field current If D
201.6
V1
D 5.04 A
D
Rf
40
Armature current, Ia D ICIf D 80C5.04 D 85.04 A
Generated e.m.f., E D V1 C Ia Ra
D 201.6 C ⊲85.04⊳⊲0.04⊳
D 201.6 C 3.4016
D 205 volts
Characteristics
In cumulative-compound machines the magnetic flux produced by the series and shunt
fields are additive. Included in this group are
over-compounded, level-compounded and undercompounded machines – the degree of compounding obtained depending on the number of turns of
wire on the series winding.
A large number of series winding turns results
in an over-compounded characteristic, as shown in
Fig. 22.14, in which the full-load terminal voltage exceeds the no-load voltage. A level-compound
machine gives a full-load terminal voltage which is
equal to the no-load voltage, as shown in Fig. 22.14
Figure 22.14
Exercise 128 Further problems on the d.c.
generator
1 A generator is connected to a 50 load and
a current of 10 A flows. If the armature resistance is 0.5 , determine (a) the terminal voltage, and (b) the generated e.m.f.
[(a) 500 volts (b) 505 volts]
2 A separately excited generator develops a noload e.m.f. of 180 V at an armature speed
of 15 rev/s and a flux per pole of 0.20 Wb.
Calculate the generated e.m.f. when:
(a) the speed increases to 20 rev/s and the flux
per pole remains unchanged
(b) the speed remains at 15 rev/s and the pole
flux is decreased to 0.125 Wb
(c) the speed increases to 25 rev/s and the pole
flux is decreased to 0.18 Wb
[(a) 240 volts (b) 112.5 volts (c) 270 volts]
3 A shunt generator supplies a 50 kW load at
400 V through cables of resistance 0.2 . If the
field winding resistance is 50 and the armature resistance is 0.05 , determine (a) the terminal voltage, (b) the e.m.f. generated in the
armature
[(a) 425 volts (b) 431.68 volts]
4 A short-shunt compound generator supplies
50 A at 300 V. If the field resistance is 30 ,
the series resistance 0.03 and the armature
resistance 0.05 , determine the e.m.f. generated
[304.5 volts]
5 A d.c. generator has a generated e.m.f. of
210 V when running at 700 rev/min and the
flux per pole is 120 mWb. Determine the generated e.m.f.
(a) at 1050 rev/min, assuming the flux remains
constant,
(b) if the flux is reduced by one-sixth at constant speed, and
TLFeBOOK
D.C. MACHINES
(c) at a speed of 1155 rev/min and a flux of
132 mWb
[(a) 315 V (b) 175 V (c) 381.2 V]
6 A 250 V d.c. shunt-wound generator has an
armature resistance of 0.1 . Determine the
generated e.m.f. when the generator is supplying 50 kW, neglecting the field current of the
generator.
[270 V]
22.8 D.C. machine losses
As stated in Section 22.1, a generator is a machine
for converting mechanical energy into electrical
energy and a motor is a machine for converting
electrical energy into mechanical energy. When such
conversions take place, certain losses occur which
are dissipated in the form of heat.
The principal losses of machines are:
(i) Copper loss, due to I2 R heat losses in the
armature and field windings.
(ii) Iron (or core) loss, due to hysteresis and eddycurrent losses in the armature. This loss can be
reduced by constructing the armature of silicon
steel laminations having a high resistivity and
low hysteresis loss. At constant speed, the iron
loss is assumed constant.
(iii) Friction and windage losses, due to bearing and brush contact friction and losses due
to air resistance against moving parts (called
windage). At constant speed, these losses are
assumed to be constant.
(iv) Brush contact loss between the brushes and
commutator. This loss is approximately proportional to the load current.
The total losses of a machine can be quite significant
and operating efficiencies of between 80 per cent
and 90 per cent are common.
337
is used to signify efficiency and since the units are,
power/power, then efficiency has no units. Thus
efficiency, h =
output power
input power
× 100%
If the total resistance of the armature circuit (including brush contact resistance) is Ra , then the total
loss in the armature circuit is Ia2 Ra
If the terminal voltage is V and the current in the
shunt circuit is If , then the loss in the shunt circuit
is If V
If the sum of the iron, friction and windage
losses is C then the total losses is given by:
Ia2 Ra + If V + C (I2a Ra C If V is, in fact, the ‘copper
loss’).
If the output current is I, then the output power
is VI. Total input power D VI C I2a Ra C If V C C.
Hence
output
efficiency, h D
, i.e.
input
h=
VI
2
VI + Ia Ra + If V + C
× 100%
⊲4⊳
The efficiency of a generator is a maximum
when the load is such that:
Ia2 Ra = VIf + C
i.e. when the variable loss D the constant loss
Problem 12. A 10 kW shunt generator
having an armature circuit resistance of
0.75 and a field resistance of 125 ,
generates a terminal voltage of 250 V at full
load. Determine the efficiency of the
generator at full load, assuming the iron,
friction and windage losses amount to 600 W.
The circuit is shown in Fig. 22.15
22.9 Efficiency of a d.c. generator
The efficiency of an electrical machine is the ratio of
the output power to the input power and is usually
expressed as a percentage. The Greek letter, ‘’ (eta)
Figure 22.15
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Output power D 10 000 W D VI from which,
load current I D 10 000/V D 10 000/250 D 40 A.
Field current, If D V/Rf D 250/125 D 2 A.
Armature current, Ia D If C I D 2 C 40 D 42 A
VI
ð 100%
2
VI C Ia R
CIf V C C
Efficiency, D
10 000
ð 100%
2
10 000 C ⊲42⊳ ⊲0.75⊳
C⊲2⊳⊲250⊳ C 600
10 000
D
ð 100%
12 423
D
D 80.50%
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 129 A further problem on the
efficiency of a d.c. generator
1 A 15 kW shunt generator having an armature
circuit resistance of 0.4 and a field resistance of 100 , generates a terminal voltage
of 240 V at full load. Determine the efficiency
of the generator at full load, assuming the iron,
friction and windage losses amount to 1 kW
[82.14%]
a back e.m.f., and the supply voltage, V is given by:
V = E + Ia Ra
or
E = V − Ia Ra
(5)
Problem 13. A d.c. motor operates from a
240 V supply. The armature resistance is
0.2 . Determine the back e.m.f. when the
armature current is 50 A.
For a motor, V D E C Ia Ra hence back e.m.f.,
E D V Ia Ra
D 240 ⊲50⊳⊲0.2⊳
D 240 10 D 230 volts
Problem 14. The armature of a d.c.
machine has a resistance of 0.25 and is
connected to a 300 V supply. Calculate the
e.m.f. generated when it is running: (a) as a
generator giving 100 A , and (b) as a motor
taking 80 A.
(a) As a generator, generated e.m.f.,
E D V C Ia Ra , from Equation (3),
D 300 C ⊲100⊳⊲0.25⊳
D 300 C 25
D 325 volts
22.10 D.C. motors
The construction of a d.c. motor is the same as
a d.c. generator. The only difference is that in a
generator the generated e.m.f. is greater than the
terminal voltage, whereas in a motor the generated
e.m.f. is less than the terminal voltage.
D.C. motors are often used in power stations
to drive emergency stand-by pump systems which
come into operation to protect essential equipment
and plant should the normal a.c. supplies or pumps
fail.
Back e.m.f.
When a d.c. motor rotates, an e.m.f. is induced in
the armature conductors. By Lenz’s law this induced
e.m.f. E opposes the supply voltage V and is called
(b) As a motor, generated e.m.f. (or back e.m.f.),
E D V Ia Ra , from Equation (5),
D 300 ⊲80⊳⊲0.25⊳
D 280 volts
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 130 Further problems on back
e.m.f.
1 A d.c. motor operates from a 350 V supply. If
the armature resistance is 0.4 determine the
back e.m.f. when the armature current is 60 A
[326 volts]
TLFeBOOK
D.C. MACHINES
2 The armature of a d.c. machine has a resistance of 0.5 and is connected to a 200 V
supply. Calculate the e.m.f. generated when it
is running (a) as a motor taking 50 A, and (b)
as a generator giving 70 A
[(a) 175 volts (b) 235 volts]
3 Determine the generated e.m.f. of a d.c.
machine if the armature resistance is 0.1
and it (a) is running as a motor connected
to a 230 V supply, the armature current being
60 A, and (b) is running as a generator with a
terminal voltage of 230 V, the armature current
being 80 A
[(a) 224 V (b) 238 V]
Hence torque T D
i.e.
T =
339
2pnZ
c
Ia
2n
p 8ZIa
newton metres
pc
⊲7⊳
For a given machine, Z, c and p are fixed values
Hence
torque, T ∝ 8Ia
⊲8⊳
Problem 15. An 8-pole d.c. motor has a
wave-wound armature with 900 conductors.
The useful flux per pole is 25 mWb.
Determine the torque exerted when a current
of 30 A flows in each armature conductor.
22.11 Torque of a d.c. motor
From Equation (5), for a d.c. motor, the supply
voltage V is given by
V D E C Ia Ra
p D 4, c D 2 for a wave winding,
D 25 ð 103 Wb, Z D 900 and Ia D 30 A.
From Equation (7),
torque, T D
Multiplying each term by current Ia gives:
D
VIa D EIa C I2a Ra
The term VIa is the total electrical power supplied
to the armature, the term Ia2 Ra is the loss due
to armature resistance, and the term EIa is the
mechanical power developed by the armature
If T is the torque, in newton metres, then the
mechanical power developed is given by Tω watts
(see ‘Science for Engineering’ )
Hence
Tω D 2nT D EIa
Problem 16. Determine the torque
developed by a 350 V d.c. motor having an
armature resistance of 0.5 and running at
15 rev/s. The armature current is 60 A.
V D 350 V, Ra D 0.5 , n D 15 rev/s and Ia D 60 A
Back e.m.f. E D V Ia Ra D 350 ⊲60⊳⊲0.5⊳ D 320 V.
From Equation (6),
torque, T D
EIa
newton metres
2pn
2pnZ
c
2pnZ
2nT D EIa D
Ia
c
Hence
⊲320⊳⊲60⊳
EIa
D
D 203.7 Nm
2n
2⊲15⊳
⊲6⊳
From Section 22.5, Equation (1), the e.m.f. E generated is given by
ED
⊲4⊳⊲25 ð 103 ⊳⊲900⊳⊲30⊳
⊲2⊳
D 429.7 Nm
from which,
torque T =
pZIa
c
Problem 17. A six-pole lap-wound motor is
connected to a 250 V d.c. supply. The
armature has 500 conductors and a resistance
of 1 . The flux per pole is 20 mWb.
Calculate (a) the speed and (b) the torque
developed when the armature current is 40 A.
V D 250 V, Z D 500, Ra D 1 , D 20ð103 Wb,
Ia D 40 A and c D 2p for a lap winding
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(a) Back e.m.f. E D V Ia Ra D 250 ⊲40⊳⊲1⊳
D 210 V
E.m.f. E D
i.e. 210 D
2pnZ
c
2p⊲20 ð 103 ⊳n⊲500⊳
D 10n
2p
210
D 21 rev=s or ⊲21 ð 60⊳
Hence speed n D
10
D 1260 rev=min
(b) Torque T D
⊲210⊳⊲40⊳
EIa
D
D 63.66 Nm
2n
2⊲21⊳
Problem 18. The shaft torque of a diesel
motor driving a 100 V d.c. shunt-wound
generator is 25 Nm. The armature current of
the generator is 16 A at this value of torque.
If the shunt field regulator is adjusted so that
the flux is reduced by 15 per cent, the torque
increases to 35 Nm. Determine the armature
current at this new value of torque.
The output power is the electrical output, i.e.
VI watts. The input power to a generator is
the mechanical power in the shaft driving the
generator, i.e. Tω or T⊲2n⊳ watts, where T is
the torque in Nm and n is speed of rotation in
rev/s. Hence, for a generator,
efficiency, D
D
VI
ð 100%
T⊲2n⊳
⊲100⊳⊲15⊳⊲100⊳
1500
⊲12⊳⊲2⊳
60
i.e. efficiency D 79.6%
(b) The input power D output power C losses
Hence, T⊲2n⊳ D VI C losses
i.e. losses D T⊲2n⊳ VI
1500
D ⊲12⊳⊲2⊳
60
[⊲100⊳⊲15⊳]
From Equation (8), the shaft torque T of a generator
is proportional to Ia , where is the flux and Ia
is the armature current, or, T D kIa , where k is a
constant.
The torque at flux 1 and armature current Ia1 is
T1 D k1 Ia1 Similarly, T2 D k2 Ia2
T1
k1 Ia1
1 Ia1
By division
D
D
T2
k2 Ia2
2 Ia2
Hence
1 ð 16
25
D
35
0.851 ð Ia2
i.e.
Ia2 D
16 ð 35
D 26.35 A
0.85 ð 25
That is, the armature current at the new value of
torque is 26.35 A
Problem 19. A 100 V d.c. generator
supplies a current of 15 A when running at
1500 rev/min. If the torque on the shaft
driving the generator is 12 Nm, determine
(a) the efficiency of the generator and (b) the
power loss in the generator.
(a) From Section 22.9, the efficiency of a generator
D output power/input power ð 100 per cent.
i.e. power loss D 1885 1500 D 385 W
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 131 Further problems on losses,
efficiency, and torque
1 The shaft torque required to drive a d.c.
generator is 18.7 Nm when it is running at
1250 rev/min. If its efficiency is 87 per cent
under these conditions and the armature current is 17.3 A, determine the voltage at the
terminals of the generator
[123.1 V]
2 A 220 V, d.c. generator supplies a load of
37.5 A and runs at 1550 rev/min. Determine
the shaft torque of the diesel motor driving
the generator, if the generator efficiency is 78
per cent
[65.2 Nm]
3 A 4-pole d.c. motor has a wave-wound armature with 800 conductors. The useful flux per
pole is 20 mWb. Calculate the torque exerted
when a current of 40 A flows in each armature
conductor.
[203.7 Nm]
4 Calculate the torque developed by a 240 V
d.c. motor whose armature current is 50 A,
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D.C. MACHINES
armature resistance is 0.6 and is running at
10 rev/s
[167.1 Nm]
5 An 8-pole lap-wound d.c. motor has a 200 V
supply. The armature has 800 conductors and
a resistance of 0.8 . If the useful flux per
pole is 40 mWb and the armature current is
30 A, calculate (a) the speed and (b) the torque
developed
[(a) 5.5 rev/s or 330 rev/min (b) 152.8 Nm]
6 A 150 V d.c. generator supplies a current
of 25 A when running at 1200 rev/min. If
the torque on the shaft driving the generator
is 35.8 Nm, determine (a) the efficiency of
the generator, and (b) the power loss in the
generator
[(a) 83.4 per cent (b) 748.8 W]
341
Problem 20. A 240 V shunt motor takes a
total current of 30 A. If the field winding
resistance Rf D 150 and the armature
resistance Ra D 0.4 determine (a) the
current in the armature, and (b) the back
e.m.f.
(a) Field current If D
240
V
D 1.6 A
D
Rf
150
Supply current I D Ia C If
Hence armature current, Ia D I If D 30 1.6
D 28.4 A
(b) Back e.m.f.
E D VIa Ra D 240⊲28.4⊳⊲0.4⊳ D 228.64 volts
Characteristics
22.12 Types of d.c. motor and their
characteristics
(a) Shunt wound motor
In the shunt wound motor the field winding is
in parallel with the armature across the supply as
shown in Fig. 22.16
The two principal characteristics are the torque
/armature current and speed/armature current relationships. From these, the torque/speed relationship
can be derived.
(i) The theoretical torque/armature current characteristic can be derived from the expression
T / Ia , (see Section 22.11). For a shuntwound motor, the field winding is connected
in parallel with the armature circuit and thus
the applied voltage gives a constant field current, i.e. a shunt-wound motor is a constant flux
machine. Since is constant, it follows that
T / Ia , and the characteristic is as shown in
Fig. 22.17
Figure 22.16
For the circuit shown in Fig. 22.16,
Supply voltage, V D E C Ia Ra
or generated e.m.f., E D V Ia Ra
Supply current, I D Ia C If
from Kirchhoff’s current law
Figure 22.17
(ii) The armature circuit of a d.c. motor has resistance due to the armature winding and brushes,
Ra ohms, and when armature current Ia is flowing through it, there is a voltage drop of Ia Ra
volts. In Fig. 22.16 the armature resistance is
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
shown as a separate resistor in the armature circuit to help understanding. Also, even though
the machine is a motor, because conductors are
rotating in a magnetic field, a voltage, E / ω,
is generated by the armature conductors. From
Equation (5), V D E C Ia Ra or E D V Ia Ra
However, from Section 22.5, E / n, hence
n / E/ i.e.
speed of rotation, n /
E
V Ia Ra
/
⊲9⊳
For a shunt motor, V, and Ra are constants,
hence as armature current Ia increases, Ia Ra
increases and VIa Ra decreases, and the speed
is proportional to a quantity which is decreasing
and is as shown in Fig. 22.18 As the load on the
shaft of the motor increases, Ia increases and
the speed drops slightly. In practice, the speed
falls by about 10 per cent between no-load and
full-load on many d.c. shunt-wound motors.
Due to this relatively small drop in speed, the
d.c. shunt-wound motor is taken as basically
being a constant-speed machine and may be
used for driving lathes, lines of shafts, fans,
conveyor belts, pumps, compressors, drilling
machines and so on.
Problem 21. A 200 V, d.c. shunt-wound
motor has an armature resistance of 0.4
and at a certain load has an armature current
of 30 A and runs at 1350 rev/min. If the load
on the shaft of the motor is increased so that
the armature current increases to 45 A,
determine the speed of the motor, assuming
the flux remains constant.
The relationship E / n applies to both generators
and motors. For a motor, E D V Ia Ra , (see
equation (5))
Hence
E1 D 200 30 ð 0.4 D 188 V
and
E2 D 200 45 ð 0.4 D 182 V
The relationship
E1
1 n1
D
E2
2 n2
applies to both generators and motors. Since the flux
is constant, 1 D 2 . Hence
1350
1 ð
188
60
D
182
1 ð n2
i.e.
n2 D
22.5 ð 182
D 21.78 rev/s
188
Thus the speed of the motor when the armature current is 45 A is 21.78 ð 60 rev/min i.e.
1307 rev=min.
Figure 22.18
Figure 22.19
(iii) Since torque is proportional to armature current, (see (i) above), the theoretical speed/
torque characteristic is as shown in Fig. 22.19
Problem 22. A 220 V, d.c. shunt-wound
motor runs at 800 rev/min and the armature
current is 30 A. The armature circuit
resistance is 0.4 . Determine (a) the
maximum value of armature current if the
flux is suddenly reduced by 10 per cent and
(b) the steady state value of the armature
current at the new value of flux, assuming the
shaft torque of the motor remains constant.
(a) For a d.c. shunt-wound motor, E D V Ia Ra .
Hence initial generated e.m.f.,
E1 D 220 30 ð 0.4 D 208 V. The generated e.m.f. is also such that E / n, so
at the instant the flux is reduced, the speed
has not had time to change, and E D 208 ð
90/100 D 187.2 V Hence, the voltage drop
due to the armature resistance is 220 187.2
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D.C. MACHINES
343
i.e. 32.8 V. The instantaneous value of the
current D 32.8/0.4 D 82 A. This increase in
current is about three times the initial value
and causes an increase in torque, ⊲T / Ia ⊳.
The motor accelerates because of the larger
torque value until steady state conditions are
reached.
(b) T / Ia and, since the torque is constant,
1 Ia1 D 2 Ia2 . The flux is reduced by 10
per cent, hence 2 D 0.91 Thus, 1 ð 30 D
0.91 ðIa2 i.e. the steady state value of armature
current, Ia2 D 30/0.9 D 33.33 A
(b) Series-wound motor
In the series-wound motor the field winding is in
series with the armature across the supply as shown
in Fig. 22.20
Figure 22.21
(ii) The speed/current characteristic
It is shown in equation (9) that
V Ia Ra
In a series motor, Ia D I and below the
magnetic saturation level, / I. Thus n /
⊲V IR⊳/I where R is the combined resistance
of the series field and armature circuit. Since
IR is small compared with V, then an approximate relationship for the speed is n / V/I /
1/I since V is constant. Hence the theoretical speed/current characteristic is as shown in
Fig. 22.22. The high speed at small values of
current indicate that this type of motor must not
be run on very light loads and invariably, such
motors are permanently coupled to their loads.
n/
Figure 22.20
For the series motor shown in Fig. 22.20,
Supply voltage V D E C I⊲Ra C Rf ⊳
or generated e.m.f. E D V I⊲Ra C Rf ⊳
Characteristics
In a series motor, the armature current flows in the
field winding and is equal to the supply current, I.
(i) The torque/current characteristic
It is shown in Section 22.11 that torque T /
Ia . Since the armature and field currents are
the same current, I, in a series machine, then
T / I over a limited range, before magnetic
saturation of the magnetic circuit of the motor
is reached, (i.e. the linear portion of the B–H
curve for the yoke, poles, air gap, brushes
and armature in series). Thus / I and
T / I2 . After magnetic saturation, almost
becomes a constant and T / I. Thus the
theoretical torque/current characteristic is as
shown in Fig. 22.21
Figure 22.22
(iii) The theoretical speed/torque characteristic
may be derived from (i) and (ii) above by
obtaining the torque and speed for various values of current and plotting the co-ordinates
on the speed/torque characteristics. A typical speed/torque characteristic is shown in
Fig. 22.23
A d.c. series motor takes a large current
on starting and the characteristic shown in
Fig. 22.21 shows that the series-wound motor
has a large torque when the current is large.
Hence these motors are used for traction (such
as trains, milk delivery vehicles, etc.), driving
fans and for cranes and hoists, where a large
initial torque is required.
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(c) Compound wound motor
There are two types of compound wound motor:
(i) Cumulative compound, in which the series
winding is so connected that the field due to
it assists that due to the shunt winding.
(ii) Differential compound, in which the series
winding is so connected that the field due to
it opposes that due to the shunt winding.
Figure 22.23
Problem 23. A series motor has an
armature resistance of 0.2 and a series
field resistance of 0.3 . It is connected to a
240 V supply and at a particular load runs at
24 rev/s when drawing 15 A from the supply.
(a) Determine the generated e.m.f. at
this load (b) Calculate the speed of the motor
when the load is changed such that the
current is increased to 30 A. Assume that this
causes a doubling of the flux.
Figure 22.24(a) shows a long-shunt compound motor
and Fig. 22.24(b) a short-shunt compound motor.
Figure 22.24
(a) With reference to Fig. 22.20, generated e.m.f.,
E1 at initial load, is given by
Characteristics
E1 D V Ia ⊲Ra C Rf ⊳
D 240 ⊲15⊳⊲0.2 C 0.3⊳
D 240 7.5 D 232.5 volts
(b) When the current is increased to 30 A, the generated e.m.f. is given by:
E2 D V I2 ⊲Ra C Rf ⊳
D 240 ⊲30⊳⊲0.2 C 0.3⊳
D 240 15 D 225 volts
Now e.m.f. E / n thus
E1
1 n1
D
E2
2 n2
i.e.
1 ⊲24⊳
232.5
D
since 2 D 21
22.5
⊲21 ⊳n2
A compound-wound motor has both a series and a
shunt field winding, (i.e. one winding in series and
one in parallel with the armature), and is usually
wound to have a characteristic similar in shape to
a series wound motor (see Figures 22.21–22.23). A
limited amount of shunt winding is present to restrict
the no-load speed to a safe value. However, by varying the number of turns on the series and shunt
windings and the directions of the magnetic fields
produced by these windings (assisting or opposing), families of characteristics may be obtained to
suit almost all applications. Generally, compoundwound motors are used for heavy duties, particularly
in applications where sudden heavy load may occur
such as for driving plunger pumps, presses, geared
lifts, conveyors, hoists and so on.
Typical compound motor torque and speed characteristics are shown in Fig. 22.25
Hence
speed of motor, n2 D
⊲24⊳⊲225⊳
D 11.6 rev=s
⊲232.5⊳⊲2⊳
As the current has been increased from 15 A
to 30 A, the speed has decreased from 24 rev/s
to 11.6 rev/s. Its speed/current characteristic is
similar to Fig. 22.22
22.13 The efficiency of a d.c. motor
It was stated in Section 22.9, that the efficiency of
a d.c. machine is given by:
efficiency, D
output power
ð 100%
input power
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D.C. MACHINES
25600 1036.8 2560 1500
25600
20503.2
ð 100%
D
25600
D
345
ð 100%
D 80.1%
Figure 22.25
Also, the total losses D I2a Ra C If V C C (for a shunt
motor) where C is the sum of the iron, friction and
windage losses.
For a motor,
the input power D VI
and the output power D VI losses
D VI I2a Ra If V C
Problem 25. A 250 V series motor draws a
current of 40 A. The armature resistance is
0.15 and the field resistance is 0.05 .
Determine the maximum efficiency of the
motor.
The circuit is as shown in Fig. 22.27 From equation (10), efficiency,
D
VI I2a Ra If V C
VI
ð 100%
Hence efficiency,
h=
VI − Ia2 Ra − If V − C
VI
× 100%
⊲10⊳
The efficiency of a motor is a maximum when the
load is such that:
Ia2 Ra
Ia
I = 80 A
If
V = 320 V
Ra = 0.2 Ω
= If V + C
Problem 24. A 320 V shunt motor takes a
total current of 80 A and runs at
1000 rev/min. If the iron, friction and
windage losses amount to 1.5 kW, the shunt
field resistance is 40 and the armature
resistance is 0.2 , determine the overall
efficiency of the motor.
The circuit is shown in Fig. 22.26. Field current,
If D V/Rf D 320/40 D 8 A. Armature current
Ia D I If D 80 8 D 72 A. C D iron, friction
and windage losses D 1500 W. Efficiency,
VI I2a Ra If V C
D
ð 100%
VI
(320) (80) ⊲72⊳2 (0.2)
(8) (320) 1500
D
ð 100%
⊲320⊳⊲80⊳
Rt = 40 Ω
Figure 22.26
Figure 22.27
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
However for a series motor, If D 0 and the I2a Ra
loss needs to be I2 ⊲Ra C Rf ⊳ Hence efficiency,
D
VI I2 ⊲Ra C Rf ⊳ C
VI
ð 100%
Problem 27. A d.c. series motor drives a
load at 30 rev/s and takes a current of 10 A
when the supply voltage is 400 V. If the total
resistance of the motor is 2 and the iron,
friction and windage losses amount to
300 W, determine the efficiency of the motor.
For maximum efficiency I2 ⊲Ra C Rf ⊳ D C Hence
efficiency,
D
VI 2I2 ⊲Ra C Rf ⊳
VI
Efficiency,
ð 100%
⊲250⊳⊲40⊳ 2⊲40⊳2 ⊲0.15 C 0.05⊳
D
⊲250⊳⊲40⊳
10 000 640
ð 100%
D
10 000
9360
D
ð 100% D 93.6%
10 000
ð 100%
Problem 26. A 200 V d.c. motor develops a
shaft torque of 15 Nm at 1200 rev/min. If the
efficiency is 80 per cent, determine the
current supplied to the motor.
The efficiency of a motor D output power/input
power ð 100%
The output power of a motor is the power available to do work at its shaft and is given by Tω or
T⊲2n⊳ watts, where T is the torque in Nm and n
is the speed of rotation in rev/s. The input power is
the electrical power in watts supplied to the motor,
i.e. VI watts.
Thus for a motor,
efficiency,
i.e.
T⊲2n⊳
ð 100%
VI
1200
⊲15⊳⊲2n⊳
60
ð 100
80 D
⊲200⊳⊲I⊳
D
Thus the current supplied,
ID
⊲15⊳⊲2⊳⊲20⊳⊲100⊳
⊲200⊳⊲80⊳
D 11.8 A
D
VI I2 R C
VI
ð 100%
⊲400⊳⊲10⊳ ⊲10⊳2 ⊲2⊳ 300
ð 100%
⊲400⊳⊲10⊳
4000 200 300
ð 100%
D
4000
3500
D
ð 100% D 87.5%
4000
D
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 132 Further problems on d.c.
motors
1 A 240 V shunt motor takes a total current of
80 A. If the field winding resistance is 120
and the armature resistance is 0.4 , determine
(a) the current in the armature, and (b) the
back e.m.f.
[(a) 78 A (b) 208.8 V]
2 A d.c. motor has a speed of 900 rev/min when
connected to a 460 V supply. Find the approximate value of the speed of the motor when
connected to a 200 V supply, assuming the flux
decreases by 30 per cent and neglecting the
armature volt drop.
[559 rev/min]
3 A series motor having a series field resistance of 0.25 and an armature resistance of
0.15 , is connected to a 220 V supply and at
a particular load runs at 20 rev/s when drawing
20 A from the supply. Calculate the e.m.f. generated at this load. Determine also the speed
of the motor when the load is changed such
that the current increases to 25 A. Assume the
flux increases by 25 per cent
[212 V, 15.85 rev/s]
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D.C. MACHINES
4 A 500 V shunt motor takes a total current of
100 A and runs at 1200 rev/min. If the shunt
field resistance is 50 , the armature resistance
is 0.25 and the iron, friction and windage
losses amount to 2 kW, determine the overall
efficiency of the motor.
[81.95 per cent]
347
Thus the value of the additional armature resistance
can then be reduced.
When at normal running speed, the generated
e.m.f. is such that no additional resistance is required
in the armature circuit. To achieve this varying
resistance in the armature circuit on starting, a d.c.
motor starter is used, as shown in Fig. 22.28
5 A 250 V, series-wound motor is running at
500 rev/min and its shaft torque is 130 Nm. If
its efficiency at this load is 88 per cent, find
the current taken from the supply. [30.94 A]
6 In a test on a d.c. motor, the following data was
obtained. Supply voltage: 500 V, current taken
from the supply: 42.4 A, speed: 850 rev/min,
shaft torque: 187 Nm. Determine the efficiency
of the motor correct to the nearest 0.5 per cent
[78.5 per cent]
7 A 300 V series motor draws a current of 50 A.
The field resistance is 40 m and the armature
resistance is 0.2 . Determine the maximum
efficiency of the motor.
[92 per cent]
8 A series motor drives a load at 1500 rev/min
and takes a current of 20 A when the supply
voltage is 250 V. If the total resistance of
the motor is 1.5 and the iron, friction and
windage losses amount to 400 W, determine
the efficiency of the motor.
[80 per cent]
9 A series-wound motor is connected to a d.c.
supply and develops full-load torque when the
current is 30 A and speed is 1000 rev/min. If
the flux per pole is proportional to the current
flowing, find the current and speed at half
full-load torque, when connected to the same
supply.
[21.2 A, 1415 rev/min]
22.14 D.C. motor starter
If a d.c. motor whose armature is stationary is
switched directly to its supply voltage, it is likely
that the fuses protecting the motor will burn out.
This is because the armature resistance is small,
frequently being less than one ohm. Thus, additional
resistance must be added to the armature circuit at
the instant of closing the switch to start the motor.
As the speed of the motor increases, the armature
conductors are cutting flux and a generated voltage,
acting in opposition to the applied voltage, is produced, which limits the flow of armature current.
Figure 22.28
The starting handle is moved slowly in a clockwise direction to start the motor. For a shunt-wound
motor, the field winding is connected to stud 1 or
to L via a sliding contact on the starting handle, to
give maximum field current, hence maximum flux,
hence maximum torque on starting, since T / Ia .
A similar arrangement without the field connection
is used for series motors.
22.15 Speed control of d.c. motors
Shunt-wound motors
The speed of a shunt-wound d.c. motor, n, is proportional to
V Ia Ra
(see equation (9)). The speed is varied either by
varying the value of flux, , or by varying the value
of Ra . The former is achieved by using a variable
resistor in series with the field winding, as shown in
Fig. 22.29(a) and such a resistor is called the shunt
field regulator.
As the value of resistance of the shunt field
regulator is increased, the value of the field current,
If , is decreased. This results in a decrease in the
value of flux, , and hence an increase in the speed,
since n / 1/. Thus only speeds above that given
without a shunt field regulator can be obtained by
this method. Speeds below those given by
V Ia Ra
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(b) Back e.m.f. when Ia D 60 A,
E3 D 500 ⊲60⊳⊲0.2⊳
D 500 12 D 488 volts
1 n1
E1
D
Now
E3
3 n3
i.e.
1 ⊲10⊳
476
D
since 3 D 0.8 1
488
0.81 n3
Figure 22.29
from which,
are obtained by increasing the resistance in the
armature circuit, as shown in Fig. 22.29(b), where
V Ia ⊲Ra C R⊳
n/
Since resistor R is in series with the armature, it
carries the full armature current and results in a large
power loss in large motors where a considerable
speed reduction is required for long periods.
These methods of speed control are demonstrated
in the following worked problem.
speed n3 D
Problem 28. A 500 V shunt motor runs at
its normal speed of 10 rev/s when the
armature current is 120 A. The armature
resistance is 0.2 . (a) Determine the speed
when the current is 60 A and a resistance of
0.5 is connected in series with the
armature, the shunt field remaining constant
(b) Determine the speed when the current is
60 A and the shunt field is reduced to 80 per
cent of its normal value by increasing
resistance in the field circuit.
(a) With reference to Fig. 22.29(b), back e.m.f. at
120 A, E1 D V Ia Ra D 500 ⊲120⊳⊲0.2⊳ D
500 24 D 476 volts. When Ia D 60 A,
E2 D 500 ⊲60⊳⊲0.2 C 0.5⊳
⊲10⊳⊲488⊳
D 12.82 rev=s
⊲0.8⊳⊲476⊳
Series-wound motors
The speed control of series-wound motors is
achieved using either (a) field resistance, or
(b) armature resistance techniques.
(a) The speed of a d.c. series-wound motor is given
by:
V IR
nDk
where k is a constant, V is the terminal voltage,
R is the combined resistance of the armature and
series field and is the flux. Thus, a reduction
in flux results in an increase in speed. This
is achieved by putting a variable resistance in
parallel with the field winding and reducing
the field current, and hence flux, for a given
value of supply current. A circuit diagram of
this arrangement is shown in Fig. 22.30(a). A
variable resistor connected in parallel with the
series-wound field to control speed is called
a diverter. Speeds above those given with no
diverter are obtained by this method. Problem
29 below demonstrates this method.
D 500 ⊲60⊳⊲0.7⊳
D 500 42 D 458 volts
1 n1
E1
D
Now
E2
2 n2
1 ⊲10⊳
476
D
since 2 D 1
458
1 n2
from which,
i.e.
speed n2 D
⊲10⊳⊲458⊳
D 9.62 rev=s
476
Figure 22.30
TLFeBOOK
D.C. MACHINES
(b) Speeds below normal are obtained by connecting a variable resistor in series with the
field winding and armature circuit, as shown
in Fig. 22.30(b). This effectively increases the
value of R in the equation
V IR
nDk
and thus reduces the speed. Since the additional
resistor carries the full supply current, a large
power loss is associated with large motors in
which a considerable speed reduction is required
for long periods. This method is demonstrated
in problem 30.
Problem 29. On full-load a 300 V series
motor takes 90 A and runs at 15 rev/s. The
armature resistance is 0.1 and the series
winding resistance is 50 m. Determine the
speed when developing full load torque but
with a 0.2 diverter in parallel with the field
winding. (Assume that the flux is
proportional to the field current).
At 300 V, e.m.f.
E1 D V IR D V I⊲Ra C Rse ⊳
D 300 ⊲90⊳⊲0.1 C 0.05⊳
D 300 ⊲90⊳⊲0.15⊳
D 300 ⊲100.62⊳⊲0.14⊳
D 300 14.087 D 285.9 volts
Now e.m.f., E / n, from which,
E1
1 n1
Ia1 n1
D
D
E2
2 n2
0.8Ia2 n2
Hence
and
Torque, T / Ia and for full load torque, Ia1 1 D
Ia2 2
Since flux is proportional to field current 1 / Ia1
and 2 / 0.8 Ia2 then ⊲90⊳⊲90⊳ D ⊲Ia2 ⊳⊲0.8 Ia2 ⊳
from which,
and
Hence e.m.f.
902
D
0.8
90
D 100.62 A
Ia2 D p
0.8
E2 D V Ia2 ⊲Ra C R⊳
I2a2
D 300 ⊲100.62⊳⊲0.1 C 0.04⊳
⊲90⊳⊲15⊳
286.5
D
285.9
⊲0.8⊳⊲100.62⊳n2
new speed, n2 D
⊲285.9⊳⊲90⊳⊲15⊳
⊲286.5⊳⊲0.8⊳⊲100.62⊳
D 16.74 rev=s
Thus the speed of the motor
from 15 rev/s (i.e. 900 rev/min)
(i.e. 1004 rev/min) by inserting a
resistance in parallel with the series
has increased
to 16.74 rev/s
0.2 diverter
winding.
Problem 30. A series motor runs at
800 rev/min when the voltage is 400 V and
the current is 25 A. The armature resistance
is 0.4 and the series field resistance is
0.2 . Determine the resistance to be
connected in series to reduce the speed to
600 rev/min with the same current.
With reference to Fig. 22.30(b), at 800 rev/min,
e.m.f.,
E1 D V I⊲Ra C Rse ⊳
D 400 ⊲25⊳⊲0.4 C 0.2⊳
D 300 13.5 D 286.5 volts
With the 0.2 diverter in parallel with Rse (see
Fig. 22.30(a)), the equivalent resistance,
⊲0.2⊳⊲0.05⊳
⊲0.2⊳⊲0.05⊳
D
D 0.04
RD
0.2 C 0.05
0.25
By current division, current
0.2
I D 0.8 I
I1 (in Fig. 22.30(a)⊳ D
0.2 C 0.05
349
D 400 ⊲25⊳⊲0.6⊳
D 400 15 D 385 volts
At 600 rev/min, since the current is unchanged,
the flux is unchanged.
Thus E / n or E / n and
E1
n1
D
E2
n2
Hence
from which,
and
Hence
385
800
D
E2
600
⊲385⊳⊲600⊳
D 288.75 volts
800
E2 D V I⊲Ra C Rse C R⊳
E2 D
288.75 D 400 25⊲0.4 C 0.2 C R⊳
Rearranging gives:
400 288.75
D 4.45
25
from which, extra series resistance, R D 4.45 0.6
i.e. R = 3.85 Z.
0.6 C R D
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Thus the addition of a series resistance of 3.85 has
reduced the speed from 800 rev/min to 600 rev/min.
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 133 Further problems on the
speed control of d.c. motors
1 A 350 V shunt motor runs at its normal speed
of 12 rev/s when the armature current is 90 A.
The resistance of the armature is 0.3 .
(a) Find the speed when the current is 45 A
and a resistance of 0.4 is connected in
series with the armature, the shunt field
remaining constant
(b) Find the speed when the current is 45 A
and the shunt field is reduced to 75 per
cent of its normal value by increasing
resistance in the field circuit.
[(a) 11.83 rev/s (b) 16.67 rev/s]
2 A series motor runs at 900 rev/min when the
voltage is 420 V and the current is 40 A. The
armature resistance is 0.3 and the series field
resistance is 0.2 . Calculate the resistance to
be connected in series to reduce the speed to
720 rev/min with the same current.
[2 ]
3 A 320 V series motor takes 80 A and runs
at 1080 rev/min at full load. The armature
resistance is 0.2 and the series winding
resistance is 0.05 . Assuming the flux is
proportional to the field current, calculate the
speed when developing full-load torque, but
with a 0.15 diverter in parallel with the field
winding.
[1239 rev/min]
22.16 Motor cooling
Motors are often classified according to the type of
enclosure used, the type depending on the conditions
under which the motor is used and the degree of
ventilation required.
The most common type of protection is the screenprotected type, where ventilation is achieved by
fitting a fan internally, with the openings at the end
of the motor fitted with wire mesh.
A drip-proof type is similar to the screenprotected type but has a cover over the screen to
prevent drips of water entering the machine.
A flame-proof type is usually cooled by the
conduction of heat through the motor casing.
With a pipe-ventilated type, air is piped into the
motor from a dust-free area, and an internally fitted
fan ensures the circulation of this cool air.
Now try the following exercises
Exercise 134 Short answer questions on
d.c. machines
1 A . . . . . . converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy
2 A . . . . . . converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy
3 What does ‘commutation’ achieve?
4 Poor commutation may cause sparking. How
can this be improved?
5 State any five basic parts of a d.c. machine
6 State the two groups armature windings can
be divided into
7 What is armature reaction? How can it be
overcome?
8 The e.m.f. generated in an armature winding
is given by E D 2pnZ/c volts. State what
p, , n, Z and c represent.
9 In a series-wound d.c. machine, the field
winding is in . . . . . . with the armature circuit
10 In a d.c. generator, the relationship between
the generated voltage, terminal voltage, current and armature resistance is given by E D
......
11 A d.c. machine has its field winding in parallel with the armatures circuit. It is called a
. . . . . . wound machine
12 Sketch a typical open-circuit characteristic
for (a) a separately excited generator (b) a
shunt generator (c) a series generator
13 Sketch a typical load characteristic for (a) a
separately excited generator (b) a shunt generator
14 State one application for (a) a shunt generator
(b) a series generator (c) a compound generator
15 State the principle losses in d.c. machines
16 The efficiency of a d.c. machine is given by
the ratio (. . . . . .) per cent
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D.C. MACHINES
17 The equation relating the generated e.m.f.,
E, terminal voltage, armature current and
armature resistance for a d.c. motor is E D
......
18 The torque T of a d.c. motor is given by
T D pZIa /c newton metres. State what
p, , Z, I and c represent
19 Complete the following. In a d.c. machine
(a) generated e.m.f. / . . . . . . ð . . . . . .
(b) torque / . . . . . . ð . . . . . .
20 Sketch typical characteristics of torque/armature current for
(a) a shunt motor
(b) a series motor
(c) a compound motor
33 At a large value of torque, the speed of a d.c.
series-wound motor is . . . . . .
34 At a large value of field current, the generated
e.m.f. of a d.c. shunt-wound generator is
approximately . . . . . .
35 In a series-wound generator, the terminal
voltage increases as the load current . . . . . .
36 One type of d.c. motor uses resistance in
series with the field winding to obtain speed
variations and another type uses resistance
in parallel with the field winding for the
same purpose. Explain briefly why these two
distinct methods are used and why the field
current plays a significant part in controlling
the speed of a d.c. motor.
21 Sketch typical speed/torque characteristics
for a shunt and series motor
37 Name three types of motor enclosure
22 State two applications for each of the following motors:
(a) shunt
(b) series
(c) compound
In questions 23 to 26, an electrical machine
runs at n rev/s, has a shaft torque of T, and
takes a current of I from a supply voltage V
Exercise 135 Multi-choice questions on
d.c. machines (Answers on page 376)
23 The power input to a generator is . . . . . . watts
24 The power input to a motor is . . . . . . watts
25 The power output from a generator is . . . . . .
watts
26 The power output from a motor is . . . . . .
watts
27 The generated e.m.f. of a d.c machine is
proportional to . . . . . . volts
28 The torque produced by a d.c. motor is proportional to . . . . . . Nm
29 A starter is necessary for a d.c. motor because
the generated e.m.f. is . . . . . . at low speeds
30 The speed of a d.c. shunt-wound motor will
. . . . . . if the value of resistance of the shunt
field regulator is increased
31 The speed of a d.c. motor will . . . . . . if the
value of resistance in the armature circuit is
increased
32 The value of the speed of a d.c. shunt-wound
motor . . . . . . as the value of the armature
current increases
351
1 Which of the following statements is false?
(a) A d.c. motor converts electrical energy
to mechanical energy
(b) The efficiency of a d.c. motor is the ratio
input power to output power
(c) A d.c. generator converts mechanical
power to electrical power
(d) The efficiency of a d.c. generator is the
ratio output power to input power
A shunt-wound d.c. machine is running at
n rev/s and has a shaft torque of T Nm.
The supply current is IA when connected to
d.c. bus-bars of voltage V volts. The armature resistance of the machine is Ra ohms,
the armature current is Ia A and the generated voltage is E volts. Use this data to find
the formulae of the quantities stated in questions 2 to 9, selecting the correct answer from
the following list:
(a) V Ia Ra
(b) E C Ia Ra
(c) VI
(d) E Ia Ra
(e) T⊲2n⊳
(f) V C Ia Ra
2 The input power when running as a generator
3 The output power when running as a motor
4 The input power when running as a motor
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
5 The output power when running as a generator
6 The generated voltage when running as a
motor
7 The terminal voltage when running as a generator
8 The generated voltage when running as a
generator
9 The terminal voltage when running as a
motor
10 Which of the following statements is false?
(a) A commutator is necessary as part of a
d.c. motor to keep the armature rotating
in the same direction
(b) A commutator is necessary as part of a
d.c. generator to produce unidirectional
voltage at the terminals of the generator
(c) The field winding of a d.c. machine is
housed in slots on the armature
(d) The brushes of a d.c. machine are usually
made of carbon and do not rotate with the
armature
11 If the speed of a d.c. machine is doubled
and the flux remains constant, the generated
e.m.f. (a) remains the same (b) is doubled
(c) is halved
12 If the flux per pole of a shunt-wound d.c.
generator is increased, and all other variables
are kept the same, the speed
(a) decreases (b) stays the same (c) increases
13 If the flux per pole of a shunt-wound d.c.
generator is halved, the generated e.m.f. at
constant speed (a) is doubled (b) is halved
(c) remains the same
14 In a series-wound generator running at constant speed, as the load current increases, the
terminal voltage
(a) increases (b) decreases (c) stays the same
15 Which of the following statements is false for
a series-wound d.c. motor?
(a) The speed decreases with increase of
resistance in the armature circuit
(b) The speed increases as the flux decreases
(c) The speed can be controlled by a diverter
(d) The speed can be controlled by a shunt
field regulator
16 Which of the following statements is false?
(a) A series-wound motor has a large starting
torque
(b) A shunt-wound motor must be permanently connected to its load
(c) The speed of a series-wound motor drops
considerably when load is applied
(d) A shunt-wound motor is essentially a
constant-speed machine
17 The speed of a d.c. motor may be increased by
(a) increasing the armature current
(b) decreasing the field current
(c) decreasing the applied voltage
(d) increasing the field current
18 The armature resistance of a d.c. motor is
0.5 , the supply voltage is 200 V and the
back e.m.f. is 196 V at full speed. The armature current is:
(a) 4 A
(b) 8 A
(c) 400 A (d) 392 A
19 In d.c. generators iron losses are made up of:
(a) hysteresis and friction losses
(b) hysteresis, eddy current and brush contact losses
(c) hysteresis and eddy current losses
(d) hysteresis, eddy current and copper
losses
20 The effect of inserting a resistance in series
with the field winding of a shunt motor is to:
(a) increase the magnetic field
(b) increase the speed of the motor
(c) decrease the armature current
(d) reduce the speed of the motor
21 The supply voltage to a d.c. motor is 240 V.
If the back e.m.f. is 230 V and the armature
resistance is 0.25 , the armature current is:
(a) 10 A (b) 40 A (c) 960 A (d) 920 A
22 With a d.c. motor, the starter resistor:
(a) limits the armature current to a safe starting value
(b) controls the speed of the machine
(c) prevents the field current flowing through
and damaging the armature
(d) limits the field current to a safe starting
value
23 From Fig. 22.31, the expected characteristic
for a shunt-wound d.c. generator is:
(a) P
(b) Q
(c) R
(d) S
TLFeBOOK
D.C. MACHINES
S
R
Terminal
voltage
Q
P
0
Load current
353
24 A commutator is a device fitted to a generator. Its function is:
(a) to prevent sparking when the load
changes
(b) to convert the a.c. generated into a d.c.
output
(c) to convey the current to and from the
windings
(d) to generate a direct current
Figure 22.31
TLFeBOOK
23
Three-phase induction motors
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
ž appreciate the merits of three-phase induction motors
ž understand how a rotating magnetic field is produced
ž state the synchronous speed, ns D ⊲f/p⊳ and use in calculations
ž describe the principle of operation of a three-phase induction motor
ž distinguish between squirrel-cage and wound-rotor types of motor
ž understand how a torque is produced causing rotor movement
ž understand and calculate slip
ž derive expressions for rotor e.m.f., frequency, resistance, reactance, impedance,
current and copper loss, and use them in calculations
ž state the losses in an induction motor and calculate efficiency
ž derive the torque equation for an induction motor, state the condition for maximum
torque, and use in calculations
ž describe torque-speed and torque-slip characteristics for an induction motor
ž state and describe methods of starting induction motors
ž state advantages of cage rotor and wound rotor types of induction motor
ž describe the double cage induction motor
ž state typical applications of three-phase induction motors
23.1 Introduction
In d.c. motors, introduced in Chapter 22, conductors
on a rotating armature pass through a stationary
magnetic field. In a three-phase induction motor,
the magnetic field rotates and this has the advantage
that no external electrical connections to the rotor
need be made. Its name is derived from the fact that
the current in the rotor is induced by the magnetic
field instead of being supplied through electrical
connections to the supply. The result is a motor
which: (i) is cheap and robust, (ii) is explosion
proof, due to the absence of a commutator or sliprings and brushes with their associated sparking,
(iii) requires little or no skilled maintenance, and
(iv) has self-starting properties when switched to a
supply with no additional expenditure on auxiliary
equipment. The principal disadvantage of a threephase induction motor is that its speed cannot be
readily adjusted.
23.2 Production of a rotating magnetic
field
When a three-phase supply is connected to
symmetrical three-phase windings, the currents
flowing in the windings produce a magnetic field.
TLFeBOOK
THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
This magnetic field is constant in magnitude and
rotates at constant speed as shown below, and is
called the synchronous speed.
With reference to Fig. 23.1, the windings are
represented by three single-loop conductors, one for
each phase, marked RS RF , YS YF and BS BF , the S and
F signifying start and finish. In practice, each phase
winding comprises many turns and is distributed
around the stator; the single-loop approach is for
clarity only.
When the stator windings are connected to a
three-phase supply, the current flowing in each
winding varies with time and is as shown in
Figure 23.1
355
Fig. 23.1(a). If the value of current in a winding is
positive, the assumption is made that it flows from
start to finish of the winding, i.e. if it is the red
phase, current flows from RS to RF , i.e. away from
the viewer in RS and towards the viewer in RF . When
the value of current is negative, the assumption is
made that it flows from finish to start, i.e. towards
the viewer in an ‘S’ winding and away from the
viewer in an ‘F’ winding. At time, say t1 , shown in
Fig. 23.1(a), the current flowing in the red phase is
a maximum positive value. At the same time t1 , the
currents flowing in the yellow and blue phases are
both 0.5 times the maximum value and are negative.
The current distribution in the stator windings is
therefore as shown in Fig. 23.1(b), in which current flows away from the viewer, (shown as )
in RS since it is positive, but towards the viewer
(shown as þ) in YS and BS , since these are negative. The resulting magnetic field is as shown,
due to the ‘solenoid’ action and application of the
corkscrew rule.
A short time later at time t2 , the current flowing
in the red phase has fallen to about 0.87 times its
maximum value and is positive, the current in the
yellow phase is zero and the current in the blue
phase is about 0.87 times its maximum value and is
negative. Hence the currents and resultant magnetic
field are as shown in Fig. 23.1(c). At time t3 , the
currents in the red and yellow phases are 0.5 of their
maximum values and the current in the blue phase
is a maximum negative value. The currents and
resultant magnetic field are as shown in Fig. 23.1(d).
Similar diagrams to Fig. 23.1(b), (c) and (d) can
be produced for all time values and these would
show that the magnetic field travels through one
revolution for each cycle of the supply voltage
applied to the stator windings.
By considering the flux values rather than the
current values, it is shown below that the rotating
magnetic field has a constant value of flux. The
three coils shown in Fig. 23.2(a), are connected
in star to a three-phase supply. Let the positive
directions of the fluxes produced by currents flowing
in the coils, be A , B and C respectively. The
directions of A , B and C do not alter, but their
magnitudes are proportional to the currents flowing
in the coils at any particular time. At time t1 , shown
in Fig. 23.2(b), the currents flowing in the coils are:
iB , a maximum positive value, i.e. the flux is
towards point P; iA and iC , half the maximum value
and negative, i.e. the flux is away from point P.
These currents give rise to the magnetic fluxes
A , B and C , whose magnitudes and directions
are as shown in Fig. 23.2(c). The resultant flux is
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
be repeated for all values of time and shows that
the magnitude of the resultant flux is constant for
all values of time and also that it rotates at constant
speed, making one revolution for each cycle of the
supply voltage.
23.3 Synchronous speed
The rotating magnetic field produced by three-phase
windings could have been produced by rotating a
permanent magnet’s north and south pole at synchronous speed, (shown as N and S at the ends of
the flux phasors in Fig. 23.1(b), (c) and (d)). For this
reason, it is called a 2-pole system and an induction
motor using three phase windings only is called a
2-pole induction motor. If six windings displaced
from one another by 60° are used, as shown in
Fig. 23.3(a), by drawing the current and resultant
magnetic field diagrams at various time values, it
may be shown that one cycle of the supply current
to the stator windings causes the magnetic field to
move through half a revolution. The current distribution in the stator windings are shown in Fig. 23.3(a),
for the time t shown in Fig. 23.3(b).
Figure 23.2
the phasor sum of A , B and C , shown as in
Fig. 23.2(c). At time t2 , the currents flowing are:
iB , 0.866 ð maximum positive value, iC , zero,
and iA , 0.866 ð maximum negative value.
The magnetic fluxes and the resultant magnetic
flux are as shown in Fig. 23.2(d).
At time t3 ,
iB is 0.5 ð maximum value and is positive
iA is a maximum negative value, and
iC is 0.5 ð maximum value and is positive.
The magnetic fluxes and the resultant magnetic
flux are as shown in Fig. 23.2(e)
Inspection of Fig. 23.2(c), (d) and (e) shows that
the magnitude of the resultant magnetic flux, , in
each case is constant and is 1 12 ðthe maximum value
of A , B or C , but that its direction is changing.
The process of determining the resultant flux may
Figure 23.3
TLFeBOOK
THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
It can be seen that for six windings on the stator,
the magnetic flux produced is the same as that
produced by rotating two permanent magnet north
poles and two permanent magnet south poles at
synchronous speed. This is called a 4-pole system
and an induction motor using six phase windings is
called a 4-pole induction motor. By increasing the
number of phase windings the number of poles can
be increased to any even number.
In general, if f is the frequency of the currents
in the stator windings and the stator is wound to
be equivalent to p pairs of poles, the speed of
revolution of the rotating magnetic field, i.e. the
synchronous speed, ns is given by:
ns =
357
Problem 3. A three-phase 2-pole motor is
to have a synchronous speed of
6000 rev/min. Calculate the frequency of the
supply voltage.
f
then
Since ns D
p
frequency, f D ⊲ns ⊳⊲p⊳
6000
2
D 100 Hz
D
60
2
Now try the following exercise
f
rev=s
p
Exercise 136 Further problems on
synchronous speed
Problem 1. A three-phase two-pole
induction motor is connected to a 50 Hz
supply. Determine the synchronous speed of
the motor in rev/min.
From above, ns D ⊲f/p⊳ rev/s, where ns is the
synchronous speed, f is the frequency in hertz of
the supply to the stator and p is the number of pairs
of poles. Since the motor is connected to a 50 hertz
supply, f D 50.
The motor has a two-pole system, hence p, the
number of pairs of poles, is 1. Thus, synchronous
speed, ns D ⊲50/1⊳ D 50 rev/s D 50 ð 60 rev/min D
3000 rev=min.
Problem 2. A stator winding supplied from
a three-phase 60 Hz system is required to
produce a magnetic flux rotating at
900 rev/min. Determine the number of poles.
Synchronous speed,
ns D 900 rev/min D
900
rev/s D 15 rev/s
60
Since
f
60
f
ns D
then p D
D4
D
p
ns
15
Hence the number of pole pairs is 4 and thus the
number of poles is 8
1 The synchronous speed of a 3-phase, 4-pole
induction motor is 60 rev/s. Determine the frequency of the supply to the stator windings.
[120 Hz]
2 The synchronous speed of a 3-phase induction
motor is 25 rev/s and the frequency of the
supply to the stator is 50 Hz. Calculate the
equivalent number of pairs of poles of the
motor.
[2]
3 A 6-pole, 3-phase induction motor is connected to a 300 Hz supply. Determine the
speed of rotation of the magnetic field produced by the stator.
[100 rev/s]
23.4 Construction of a three-phase
induction motor
The stator of a three-phase induction motor is the
stationary part corresponding to the yoke of a d.c.
machine. It is wound to give a 2-pole, 4-pole, 6pole, . . . . . . rotating magnetic field, depending on
the rotor speed required. The rotor, corresponding
to the armature of a d.c. machine, is built up of
laminated iron, to reduce eddy currents.
In the type most widely used, known as a
squirrel-cage rotor, copper or aluminium bars are
placed in slots cut in the laminated iron, the ends
of the bars being welded or brazed into a heavy
conducting ring, (see Fig. 23.4(a)). A cross-sectional
view of a three-phase induction motor is shown in
Fig. 23.4(b).
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Figure 23.5
conductors on the rotor, so that a torque is produced
causing the rotor to rotate.
23.6 Slip
Figure 23.4
The conductors are placed in slots in the laminated iron rotor core. If the slots are skewed, better
starting and quieter running is achieved. This type of
rotor has no external connections which means that
slip rings and brushes are not needed. The squirrelcage motor is cheap, reliable and efficient. Another
type of rotor is the wound rotor. With this type
there are phase windings in slots, similar to those in
the stator. The windings may be connected in star or
delta and the connections made to three slip rings.
The slip rings are used to add external resistance to
the rotor circuit, particularly for starting (see Section 23.13), but for normal running the slip rings
are short-circuited.
The principle of operation is the same for both
the squirrel cage and the wound rotor machines.
23.5 Principle of operation of a
three-phase induction motor
When a three-phase supply is connected to the stator
windings, a rotating magnetic field is produced.
As the magnetic flux cuts a bar on the rotor, an
e.m.f. is induced in it and since it is joined, via the
end conducting rings, to another bar one pole pitch
away, a current flows in the bars. The magnetic
field associated with this current flowing in the
bars interacts with the rotating magnetic field and
a force is produced, tending to turn the rotor in
the same direction as the rotating magnetic field,
(see Fig. 23.5). Similar forces are applied to all the
The force exerted by the rotor bars causes the rotor
to turn in the direction of the rotating magnetic field.
As the rotor speed increases, the rate at which the
rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor bars is less and
the frequency of the induced e.m.f.’s in the rotor
bars is less. If the rotor runs at the same speed as
the rotating magnetic field, no e.m.f.’s are induced
in the rotor, hence there is no force on them and no
torque on the rotor. Thus the rotor slows down. For
this reason the rotor can never run at synchronous
speed.
When there is no load on the rotor, the resistive
forces due to windage and bearing friction are small
and the rotor runs very nearly at synchronous speed.
As the rotor is loaded, the speed falls and this causes
an increase in the frequency of the induced e.m.f.’s
in the rotor bars and hence the rotor current, force
and torque increase. The difference between the
rotor speed, nr , and the synchronous speed, ns , is
called the slip speed, i.e.
slip speed = ns − nr rev=s
The ratio ⊲ns nr ⊳/ns is called the fractional slip
or just the slip, s, and is usually expressed as a
percentage. Thus
slip, s =
ns − nr
ns
× 100%
Typical values of slip between no load and full
load are about 4 to 5 per cent for small motors and
1.5 to 2 per cent for large motors.
Problem 4. The stator of a 3-phase, 4-pole
induction motor is connected to a 50 Hz
supply. The rotor runs at 1455 rev/min at full
load. Determine (a) the synchronous speed
and (b) the slip at full load.
TLFeBOOK
THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
(a) The number of pairs of poles, p D ⊲4/2⊳ D 2
The supply frequency f D 50 Hz The synchronous speed, ns D ⊲f/p⊳ D ⊲50/2⊳ D
25 rev=s.
(b) The rotor speed, nr D ⊲1455/60⊳ D 24.25 rev/s.
ns nr
ð 100%
Slip, s D
ns
25 24.25
ð 100%
D
25
D 3%
Problem 5. A 3-phase, 60 Hz induction
motor has 2 poles. If the slip is 2 per cent at
a certain load, determine (a) the synchronous
speed, (b) the speed of the rotor, and (c) the
frequency of the induced e.m.f.’s in the rotor.
Slip, s D
ns nr
ns
359
ð 100%
Rotor speed, nr D ⊲1200/60⊳ D 20 rev/s and s D 4.
Hence
ns 20
ns 20
4D
ð 100% or 0.04 D
ns
ns
from which, ns ⊲0.04⊳ D ns 20 and
20 D ns 0.04 ns D ns ⊲1 0.04⊳. Hence synchronous speed,
20
D 20.83P rev/s
1 0.04
D ⊲20.83P ð 60⊳ rev/min
ns D
D 1250 rev=min
Now try the following exercise
(a) f D 60 Hz and p D ⊲2/2⊳ D 1 Hence synchronous speed, ns D ⊲f/p⊳ D ⊲60/1⊳ D
60 rev=s or 60 ð 60 D 3600 rev=min.
(b) Since slip,
ns nr
sD
ð 100%
ns
60 nr
2D
ð 100
60
Hence
2 ð 60
D 60 nr
100
i.e.
2 ð 60
nr D 60
D 58.8 rev/s
100
i.e. the rotor runs at 58.8 ð 60 D 3528 rev=min
(c) Since the synchronous speed is 60 rev/s and
that of the rotor is 58.8 rev/s, the rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor bars at ⊲60 58.8⊳ D
1.2 rev/s.
Exercise 137 Further problems on slip
1 A 6-pole, 3-phase induction motor runs at
970 rev/min at a certain load. If the stator is
connected to a 50 Hz supply, find the percentage slip at this load.
[3%]
2 A 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor has 8 poles.
If the full load slip is 2.5 per cent, determine
(a) the synchronous speed,
(b) the rotor speed, and
(c) the frequency of the rotor e.m.f.’s
[(a) 750 rev/min (b) 731 rev/min (c) 1.25 Hz]
3 A three-phase induction motor is supplied
from a 60 Hz supply and runs at 1710 rev/min
when the slip is 5 per cent. Determine the synchronous speed.
[1800 rev/min]
4 A 4-pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor runs
at 1440 rev/min at full load. Calculate
(a) the synchronous speed,
(b) the slip and
(c) the frequency of the rotor induced e.m.f.’s
[(a) 1500 rev/min (b) 4% (c) 2 Hz]
Thus the frequency of the e.m.f.’s induced in
the rotor bars is 1.2 Hz.
23.7 Rotor e.m.f. and frequency
Problem 6. A three-phase induction motor
is supplied from a 50 Hz supply and runs at
1200 rev/min when the slip is 4 per cent.
Determine the synchronous speed.
Rotor e.m.f.
When an induction motor is stationary, the stator and
rotor windings form the equivalent of a transformer
as shown in Fig. 23.6
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(b) Synchronous speed, ns D f/p D 50/4 D
12.5 rev/s or ⊲12.5 ð 60⊳ D 750 rev/min
ns nr
Slip, s D
ns
12.5 nr
hence 0.06 D
12.5
Figure 23.6
The rotor e.m.f. at standstill is given by
N2
E2 D
E1
N1
⊲0.06⊳⊲12.5⊳ D 12.5 nr
and rotor speed,
where E1 is the supply voltage per phase to the
stator.
When an induction motor is running, the induced
e.m.f. in the rotor is less since the relative movement
between conductors and the rotating field is less.
The induced e.m.f. is proportional to this movement,
hence it must be proportional to the slip, s. Hence
when running, rotor e.m.f. per phase D Er D sE2
N2
i.e. rotor e.m.f. per phase D s
E1 ⊲2⊳
N1
Rotor frequency
The rotor e.m.f. is induced by an alternating flux
and the rate at which the flux passes the conductors
is the slip speed. Thus the frequency of the rotor
e.m.f. is given by:
ns nr
fr D ⊲ns nr ⊳p D
⊲ns p⊳
ns
However ⊲ns nr ⊳/ns is the slip s and ⊲ns p⊳ is
the supply frequency f, hence
fr = sf
nr D 12.5 ⊲0.06⊳⊲12.5⊳
⊲1⊳
⊲3⊳
Problem 7. The frequency of the supply to
the stator of an 8-pole induction motor is
50 Hz and the rotor frequency is 3 Hz.
Determine: (a) the slip, and (b) the rotor
speed.
D 11.75 rev=s or 705 rev=min
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 138 Further problems on rotor
frequency
1 A 12-pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor
runs at 475 rev/min. Determine
(a) the slip speed,
(b) the percentage slip and
(c) the frequency of rotor currents
[(a) 25 rev/min (b) 5% (c) 2.5 Hz]
2 The frequency of the supply to the stator of a
6-pole induction motor is 50 Hz and the rotor
frequency is 2 Hz. Determine
(a) the slip, and
(b) the rotor speed, in rev/min
[(a) 0.04 or 4% (b) 960 rev/min]
23.8 Rotor impedance and current
Rotor resistance
The rotor resistance R2 is unaffected by frequency
or slip, and hence remains constant.
Rotor reactance
Rotor reactance varies with the frequency of the
rotor current. At standstill, reactance per phase,
X2 D 2fL. When running, reactance per phase,
Xr D 2fr L
(a) From Equation (3), fr D sf. Hence 3 D ⊲s⊳⊲50⊳
from which,
3
slip, s D
D 0.06 or 6%
50
D 2⊲sf⊳L
from equation (3)
D s⊲2fL⊳
i.e.
Xr D sX2
⊲4⊳
TLFeBOOK
THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
then
Figure 23.7
Figure 23.7 represents the rotor circuit when
running.
P2
Pm
D
2ns
2nr
Pm
Pm
nr
D
or
D
nr
P2
ns
nr
D1
ns
ns nr
D
Ds
ns
TD
P2
ns
Pm
1
P2
P2 Pm
P2
from which,
Hence
361
P2 Pm is the electrical or copper loss in the rotor,
i.e. P2 Pm D I2r R2 . Hence
Rotor impedance
Rotor impedance per phase,
Zr D
slip, s =
R22 C ⊲sX2 ⊳2
⊲5⊳
P2 =
⊲6⊳
Rotor current
From Fig. 23.6 and 23.7, at standstill, starting
current,
N2
N1
E1
E2
=
I2 =
Z2
R22 + X22
⊲9⊳
or power input to the rotor,
At standstill, slip s D 1, then
Z2 D R22 C X22
rotor copper loss
I 2 R2
= r
rotor input
P2
Ir2 R2
s
⊲10⊳
23.10 Induction motor losses and
efficiency
Figure 23.8 summarises losses in induction motors.
Motor efficiency,
⊲7⊳
h=
Pm
output power
=
× 100%
input power
P1
and when running, current,
N2
E1
s
Er
N1
=
Ir =
Zr
R22 + .sX2 /2
⊲8⊳
Problem 8. The power supplied to a
three-phase induction motor is 32 kW and the
stator losses are 1200 W. If the slip is 5 per
cent, determine (a) the rotor copper loss,
(b) the total mechanical power developed by
the rotor, (c) the output power of the motor
if friction and windage losses are 750 W, and
(d) the efficiency of the motor, neglecting
rotor iron loss.
23.9 Rotor copper loss
Power P D 2nT, where T is the torque in newton
metres, hence torque T D ⊲P/2n⊳. If P2 is the
power input to the rotor from the rotating field,
and Pm is the mechanical power output (including
friction losses)
(a) Input power to rotor D stator input power
stator losses
D 32 kW 1.2 kW
D 30.8 kW
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Figure 23.8
From Equation (9),
slip D
rotor copper loss
rotor input
rotor copper loss
5
D
100
30.8
from which, rotor copper loss D ⊲0.05⊳⊲30.8⊳
D 1.54 kW
i.e.
(b) Total mechanical power developed by the rotor
D rotor input power rotor losses
D 30.8 1.54 D 29.26 kW
(c) Output power of motor
D power developed by the rotor
friction and windage losses
D 29.26 0.75 D 28.51 kW
(d) Efficiency of induction motor,
output power
D
ð 100%
input power
28.51
ð 100%
D
32
D 89.10%
Problem 9. The speed of the induction
motor of Problem 8 is reduced to 35 per cent
of its synchronous speed by using external
rotor resistance. If the torque and stator
losses are unchanged, determine (a) the rotor
copper loss, and (b) the efficiency of the
motor.
(a) Slip, s D
ns nr
ns
D
ns 0.35ns
ns
ð 100%
ð 100%
D ⊲0.65⊳⊲100⊳ D 65%
Input power to rotor D 30.8 kW (from Problem 8)
rotor copper loss
Since s D
rotor input
then rotor copper loss D ⊲s⊳⊲rotor input⊳
65
D
⊲30.8⊳
100
D 20.02 kW
(b) Power developed by rotor
D input power to rotor
rotor copper loss
D 30.8 20.02 D 10.78 kW
Output power of motor
D power developed by rotor
friction and windage losses
D 10.78 0.75 D 10.03 kW
Efficiency,
output power
D
ð 100%
input power
10.03
ð 100%
D
32
D 31.34%
TLFeBOOK
THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 139 Further problems on losses
and efficiency
1 The power supplied to a three-phase induction
motor is 50 kW and the stator losses are 2 kW.
If the slip is 4 per cent, determine
(a) the rotor copper loss,
(b) the total mechanical power developed by
the rotor,
(c) the output power of the motor if friction
and windage losses are 1 kW, and
(d) the efficiency of the motor, neglecting
rotor iron losses.
[(a) 1.92 kW (b) 46.08 kW (c) 45.08 kW
(d) 90.16%]
2 By using external rotor resistance, the speed of
the induction motor in Problem 1 is reduced
to 40 per cent of its synchronous speed. If
the torque and stator losses are unchanged,
calculate
(a) the rotor copper loss, and
(b) the efficiency of the motor.
[(a) 28.80 kW (b) 36.40%]
363
If there are m phases then torque,
2
N2
2
s
E 1 R2
m
N1
TD
2ns R22 C ⊲sX2 ⊳2
i.e.
N2
m
N1
T =
2pns
Dk
2
R22
sE12 R2
+ .sX2 /2
⊲11⊳
sE21 R2
R22 C ⊲sX2 ⊳2
where k is a constant for a particular machine, i.e.
torque, T ∝
R22
sE12 R2
+ .sX2 /2
⊲12⊳
Under normal conditions, the supply voltage is usually constant, hence Equation (12) becomes:
23.11 Torque equation for an
induction motor
T/
Torque
2
1
Ir R2
P2
D
TD
2ns
2ns
s
(from Equation (10))
N2
E1
s
N1
From Equation (8), Ir D
R22 C ⊲sX2 ⊳2
Hence torque per phase,
2
N2
s2
E21
1
N1
R2
TD
2
2
2ns R2 C ⊲sX2 ⊳ s
i.e.
2
N2
2
s
E 1 R2
1
N2
TD
2ns R22 C ⊲sX2 ⊳2
/
R22
sR2
C ⊲sX2 ⊳2
R2
R22
C sX22
s
The torque will be a maximum when the denominator is a minimum and this occurs when
R22
D sX22
s
i.e. when
sD
R2
X2
or
R2 D sX2 D Xr
from Equation (4). Thus maximum torque occurs
when rotor resistance and rotor reactance are equal,
i.e. when R2 D Xr
Problems 10 to 13 following illustrate some of
the characteristics of three-phase induction motors.
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Problem 10. A 415 V, three-phase, 50 Hz, 4
pole, star-connected induction motor runs at
24 rev/s on full load. The rotor resistance and
reactance per phase are 0.35 and 3.5
respectively, and the effective rotor-stator
turns ratio is 0.85:1. Calculate (a) the
synchronous speed, (b) the slip, (c) the full
load torque, (d) the power output if
mechanical losses amount to 770 W, (e) the
maximum torque, (f) the speed at which
maximum torque occurs, and (g) the starting
torque.
(a) Synchronous speed, ns D ⊲f/p⊳ D ⊲50/2⊳ D
25 rev=s or ⊲25 ð 60⊳ D 1500 rev=min
ns nr
25 24
(b) Slip, s D
D 0.04 or 4%
D
ns
25
(c) Phase voltage,
415
E1 D p D 239.6 volts
3
Full load torque,
2
N2
m
sE21 R2
N1
TD
2ns
R22 C ⊲sX2 ⊳2
from Equation (11)
3⊲0.85⊳2
⊲0.04⊳⊲239.6⊳2 ⊲0.35⊳
D
2⊲25⊳
⊲0.35⊳2 C ⊲0.04 ð 3.5⊳2
803.71
D ⊲0.01380⊳
0.1421
D 78.05 Nm
(d) Output power, including friction losses,
Pm D 2nr T
D 2⊲24⊳⊲78.05⊳
D 11 770 watts
Tm D ⊲0.01380⊳
R22
sE21 R2
C ⊲sX2 ⊳2
from part (c)
0.1⊲239.6⊳2 0.35
D ⊲0.01380⊳
0.352 C 0.352
2009.29
D ⊲0.01380⊳
D 113.18 Nm
0.245
(f) For maximum torque, slip s D 0.1
ns nr
Slip, s D
i.e.
ns
25 ns
0.1 D
25
Hence ⊲0.1⊳⊲25⊳ D 25 nr and
nr D 25 ⊲0.1⊳⊲25⊳
Thus speed at which maximum torque occurs,
nr D 25 2.5 D 22.5 rev=s or 1350 rev=min
(g) At the start, i.e. at standstill, slip s D 1. Hence,
2
N2
m
E21 R2
N1
starting torque D
2ns R22 C X22
from Equation (11) with s D 1
⊲239.6⊳2 0.35
D ⊲0.01380⊳
0.352 C 3.52
20 092.86
D ⊲0.01380⊳
12.3725
i.e. starting torque = 22.41 Nm
Hence, power output D Pm mechanical losses
D 11 770 770
D 11 000 W
D 11 kW
(e) Maximum torque occurs when
R2 D Xr D 0.35
Slip, s D
Hence maximum torque,
R2
0.35
D 0.1
D
X2
3.5
(Note that the full load torque (from part (c)) is
78.05 Nm but the starting torque is only 22.41 Nm)
Problem 11. Determine for the induction
motor in Problem 10 at full load, (a) the
rotor current, (b) the rotor copper loss, and
(c) the starting current.
TLFeBOOK
THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
(a) From Equation (8), rotor current,
N2
E1
s
N1
Ir D
R22 C ⊲sX2 ⊳2
D
⊲0.04⊳⊲0.85⊳⊲239.6⊳
0.352 C ⊲0.04 ð 3.5⊳2
8.1464
D 21.61 A
0.37696
(b) Rotor copper
D
loss per phase D I2r R2
D ⊲21.61⊳2 ⊲0.35⊳
D 163.45 W
Total copper loss (for 3 phases)
D 3 ð 163.45
D 490.35 W
(c) From Equation (7), starting current,
N2
E1
⊲0.85⊳⊲239.5⊳
N1
Dp
I2 D
0.352 C 3.52
R22 C X22
D 57.90 A
(Note that the starting current of 57.90 A is
considerably higher than the full load current of
21.61 A)
Problem 12. For the induction motor in
Problems 10 and 11, if the stator losses are
650 W, determine (a) the power input at full
load, (b) the efficiency of the motor at full
load and (c) the current taken from the
supply at full load, if the motor runs at a
power factor of 0.87 lagging.
(a) Output power Pm D 11.770 kW from part (d),
Problem 10. Rotor copper loss D 490.35 W D
0.49035 kW from part (b), Problem 11. Stator
input power,
P1 D Pm C rotor copper loss C rotor stator loss
D 11.770 C 0.49035 C 0.650
D 12.91 kW
365
(b) Net power output D 11 kW from part (d), Problem 10. Hence efficiency,
11
output
D
ð 100% D
ð 100%
input
12.91
D 85.21%
p
(c) Power input, P1 D 3 VL IL cos (see Chapter 20) and cos D p.f. D 0.87 hence, supply
current,
12.91 ð 1000
P1
IL D p
D p
D 20.64 A
3 VL cos
3⊲415⊳0.87
Problem 13. For the induction motor of
Problems 10 to 12, determine the resistance
of the rotor winding required for maximum
starting torque.
From Equation (4), rotor reactance Xr D sX2 At the
moment of starting, slip, s D 1. Maximum torque
occurs when rotor reactance equals rotor resistance
hence for maximum torque, R2 D Xr D sX2
D X2 D 3.5 Z.
Thus if the induction motor was a wound rotor
type with slip rings then an external star-connected
resistance of ⊲3.5 0.35⊳ D 3.15 per phase
could be added to the rotor resistance to give maximum torque at starting (see Section 23.13).
Now try the following exercise
Exercise 140 Further problems on the
torque equation
1 A 400 V, three-phase, 50 Hz, 2-pole, starconnected induction motor runs at 48.5 rev/s
on full load. The rotor resistance and reactance
per phase are 0.4 and 4.0 respectively, and
the effective rotor-stator turns ratio is 0.8:1.
Calculate
(a) the synchronous speed,
(b) the slip,
(c) the full load torque,
(d) the power output if mechanical losses
amount to 500 W,
(e) the maximum torque,
(f) the speed at which maximum torque
occurs, and
(g) the starting torque.
[(a) 50 rev/s or 3000 rev/min (b) 0.03 or 3%
(c) 22.43 Nm (d) 6.34 kW (e) 40.74 Nm
(f) 45 rev/s or 2700 rev/min (g) 8.07 Nm]
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
2 For the induction motor in Problem 1, calculate at full load
(a) the rotor current,
(b) the rotor copper loss, and
(c) the starting current.
[(a) 10.62 A (b) 135.3 W (c) 45.96 A]
3 If the stator losses for the induction motor in
Problem 1 are 525 W, calculate at full load
(a) the power input,
(b) the efficiency of the motor and
(c) the current taken from the supply if the
motor runs at a power factor of 0.84
[(a) 7.49 kW (b) 84.65% (c) 12.87 A]
4 For the induction motor in Problem 1,
determine the resistance of the rotor winding
required for maximum starting torque [4.0 ]
The rotor resistance of an induction motor is usually small compared with its reactance (for example,
R2 D 0.35 and X2 D 3.5 in the above Problems), so that maximum torque occurs at a high
speed, typically about 80 per cent of synchronous
speed.
Curve P in Fig. 23.9 is a typical characteristic for
an induction motor. The curve P cuts the full-load
torque line at point X, showing that at full load the
slip is about 4–5 per cent. The normal operating
conditions are between 0 and X, thus it can be
seen that for normal operation the speed variation
with load is quite small – the induction motor is
an almost constant-speed machine. Redrawing the
speed-torque characteristic between 0 and X gives
the characteristic shown in Fig. 23.10, which is
similar to a d.c. shunt motor as shown in Chapter 22.
23.12 Induction motor torque-speed
characteristics
From Problem 10, parts (c) and (g), it is seen that
the normal starting torque may be less than the full
load torque. Also, from Problem 10, parts (e) and
(f), it is seen that the speed at which maximum
torque occurs is determined by the value of the rotor
resistance. At synchronous speed, slip s D 0 and
torque is zero. From these observations, the torquespeed and torque-slip characteristics of an induction
motor are as shown in Fig. 23.9
Figure 23.10
If maximum torque is required at starting then
a high resistance rotor is necessary, which gives
characteristic Q in Fig. 23.9. However, as can be
seen, the motor has a full load slip of over 30 per
cent, which results in a drop in efficiency. Also such
a motor has a large speed variation with variations of
Figure 23.9
TLFeBOOK
THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
load. Curves R and S of Fig. 23.9 are characteristics
for values of rotor resistance’s between those of P
and Q. Better starting torque than for curve P is
obtained, but with lower efficiency and with speed
variations under operating conditions.
A squirrel-cage induction motor would normally follow characteristic P. This type of machine
is highly efficient and about constant-speed under
normal running conditions. However it has a poor
starting torque and must be started off-load or very
lightly loaded (see Section 23.13 below). Also, on
starting, the current can be four or five times the
normal full load current, due to the motor acting
like a transformer with secondary short circuited. In
Problem 11, for example, the current at starting was
nearly three times the full load current.
A wound-rotor induction motor would follow characteristic P when the slip-rings are shortcircuited, which is the normal running condition.
However, the slip-rings allow for the addition of
resistance to the rotor circuit externally and, as a
result, for starting, the motor can have a characteristic similar to curve Q in Fig. 23.9 and the high
starting current experienced by the cage induction
motor can be overcome.
In general, for three-phase induction motors, the
power factor is usually between about 0.8 and 0.9
lagging, and the full load efficiency is usually about
80–90 per cent.
From Equation (12), it is seen that torque is
proportional to the square of the supply voltage. Any
voltage variations therefore would seriously affect
the induction motor performance.
23.13 Starting methods for induction
motors
Squirrel-cage rotor
(i) Direct-on-line starting
With this method, starting current is high and
may cause interference with supplies to other
consumers.
(ii) Auto transformer starting
With this method, an auto transformer is used
to reduce the stator voltage, E1 , and thus the
starting current (see Equation (7)). However,
the starting torque is seriously reduced (see
Equation (12)), so the voltage is reduced only
sufficiently to give the required reduction of
the starting current. A typical arrangement is
shown in Fig. 23.11. A double-throw switch
367
Figure 23.11
connects the auto transformer in circuit for
starting, and when the motor is up to speed
the switch is moved to the run position which
connects the supply directly to the motor.
(iii) Star-delta starting
With this method, for starting, the connections
to the stator phase winding are star-connected,
so thatpthe voltage across each phase winding
is ⊲1/ 3⊳ (i.e. 0.577) of the line voltage. For
running, the windings are switched to deltaconnection. A typical arrangement is shown
in Fig. 23.12 This method of starting is less
expensive than by auto transformer.
Wound rotor
When starting on load is necessary, a wound rotor
induction motor must be used. This is because
maximum torque at starting can be obtained by
adding external resistance to the rotor circuit via slip
rings, (see Problem 13). A face-plate type starter is
used, and as the resistance is gradually reduced, the
machine characteristics at each stage will be similar
to Q, S, R and P of Fig. 23.13. At each resistance
step, the motor operation will transfer from one
characteristic to the next so that the overall starting
characteristic will be as shown by the bold line in
Fig. 23.13 For very large induction motors, very
gradual and smooth starting is achieved by a liquid
type resistance.
23.14 Advantages of squirrel-cage
induction motors
The advantages of squirrel-cage motors compared
with the wound rotor type are that they:
TLFeBOOK
368
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Figure 23.12
Figure 23.13
(i) are cheaper and more robust
(ii) have slightly higher efficiency and power factor
23.15 Advantages of wound rotor
induction motors
(iii) are explosion-proof, since the risk of sparking
is eliminated by the absence of slip rings and
brushes.
The advantages of the wound rotor motor compared
with the cage type are that they:
TLFeBOOK
THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
(i) have a much higher starting torque
369
Now try the following exercises
(ii) have a much lower starting current
(iii) have a means of varying speed by use of
external rotor resistance.
23.16 Double cage induction motor
The advantages of squirrel-cage and wound rotor
induction motors are combined in the double cage
induction motor. This type of induction motor is
specially constructed with the rotor having two
cages, one inside the other. The outer cage has high
resistance conductors so that maximum torque is
achieved at or near starting. The inner cage has
normal low resistance copper conductors but high
reactance since it is embedded deep in the iron core.
The torque-speed characteristic of the inner cage
is that of a normal induction motor, as shown in
Fig. 23.14. At starting, the outer cage produces the
torque, but when running the inner cage produces
the torque. The combined characteristic of inner and
outer cages is shown in Fig. 23.14 The double cage
induction motor is highly efficient when running.
Exercise 141 Short answer questions on
three-phase induction motors
1 Name three advantages that a three-phase
induction motor has when compared with a
d.c. motor
2 Name the principal disadvantage of a threephase induction motor when compared with
a d.c. motor
3 Explain briefly, with the aid of sketches, the
principle of operation of a 3-phase induction
motor.
4 Explain briefly how slip-frequency currents
are set up in the rotor bars of a 3-phase induction motor and why this frequency varies
with load.
5 Explain briefly why a 3-phase induction
motor develops no torque when running at
synchronous speed. Define the slip of an
induction motor and explain why its value
depends on the load on the rotor.
6 Write down the two properties of the magnetic field produced by the stator of a threephase induction motor
7 The speed at which the magnetic field of a
three-phase induction motor rotates is called
the . . . . . . speed
8 The synchronous speed of a three-phase
induction motor is . . . . . . proportional to
supply frequency
9 The synchronous speed of a three-phase
induction motor is . . . . . . proportional to the
number of pairs of poles
Figure 23.14
23.17 Uses of three-phase induction
motors
Three-phase induction motors are widely used in
industry and constitute almost all industrial drives
where a nearly constant speed is required, from
small workshops to the largest industrial enterprises.
Typical applications are with machine tools,
pumps and mill motors. The squirrel cage rotor type
is the most widely used of all a.c. motors.
10 The type of rotor most widely used in a threephase induction motor is called a . . . . . .
11 The slip of a three-phase
induction motor is
......
given by: s D
ð 100%
...
12 A typical value for the slip of a small threephase induction motor is . . . %
13 As the load on the rotor of a three-phase
induction motor increases, the slip . . . . . .
14
Rotor copper loss
D ......
Rotor input power
TLFeBOOK
370
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
15 State the losses in an induction motor
16 Maximum torque occurs when . . . . . . D
......
17 Sketch a typical speed-torque characteristic
for an induction motor
18 State two methods of starting squirrel-cage
induction motors
19 Which type of induction motor is used when
starting on-load is necessary?
20 Describe briefly a double cage induction
motor
21 State two advantages of cage rotor machines
compared with wound rotor machines
22 State two advantages of wound rotor
machines compared with cage rotor machines
23 Name any three applications of three-phase
induction motors
Exercise 142 Multi-choice questions on
three-phase induction motors (Answers on
page 376)
1 Which of the following statements about a
three-phase squirrel-cage induction motor is
false?
(a) It has no external electrical connections
to its rotor
(b) A three-phase supply is connected to its
stator
(c) A magnetic flux which alternates is produced
(d) It is cheap, robust and requires little or
no skilled maintenance
2 Which of the following statements about a
three-phase induction motor is false?
(a) The speed of rotation of the magnetic
field is called the synchronous speed
(b) A three-phase supply connected to the
rotor produces a rotating magnetic field
(c) The rotating magnetic field has a constant
speed and constant magnitude
(d) It is essentially a constant speed type
machine
3 Which of the following statements is false
when referring to a three-phase induction
motor?
(a) The synchronous speed is half the supply
frequency when it has four poles
(b) In a 2-pole machine, the synchronous
speed is equal to the supply frequency
(c) If the number of poles is increased, the
synchronous speed is reduced
(d) The synchronous speed is inversely proportional to the number of poles
4 A 4-pole three-phase induction motor has a
synchronous speed of 25 rev/s. The frequency
of the supply to the stator is:
(a) 50 Hz
(b) 100 Hz
(c) 25 Hz
(d) 12.5 Hz
Questions 5 and 6 refer to a three-phase
induction motor. Which statements are false?
5 (a) The slip speed is the synchronous speed
minus the rotor speed
(b) As the rotor is loaded, the slip decreases
(c) The frequency of induced rotor e.m.f.’s
increases with load on the rotor
(d) The torque on the rotor is due to the
interaction of magnetic fields
6 (a) If the rotor is running at synchronous
speed, there is no torque on the rotor
(b) If the number of poles on the stator is
doubled, the synchronous speed is halved
(c) At no-load, the rotor speed is very nearly
equal to the synchronous speed
(d) The direction of rotation of the rotor is
opposite to the direction of rotation of the
magnetic field to give maximum current
induced in the rotor bars
A three-phase, 4-pole, 50 Hz induction motor
runs at 1440 rev/min. In questions 7 to 10,
determine the correct answers for the quantities stated, selecting your answer from the
list given below:
(a) 12.5 rev/s
(b) 25 rev/s
(c) 1 rev/s
(d) 50 rev/s
(e) 1%
(f) 4%
(g) 50%
(h) 4 Hz
(i) 50 Hz
(j) 2 Hz
7 The synchronous speed
8 The slip speed
9 The percentage slip
10 The frequency of induced e.m.f.’s in the rotor
11 The slip speed of an induction motor may be
defined as the:
TLFeBOOK
THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
number of pairs of poles ł frequency
rotor speed synchronous speed
rotor speed C synchronous speed
synchronous speed rotor speed
12 The slip speed of an induction motor depends
upon:
(a) armature current
(b) supply voltage
(c) mechanical load
(d) eddy currents
13 The starting torque of a simple squirrel-cage
motor is:
(a) low
(b) increases as rotor current rises
(c) decreases as rotor current rises
(d) high
14 The slip speed of an induction motor:
(a) is zero until the rotor moves and then
rises slightly
(b) is 100 per cent until the rotor moves and
then decreases slightly
(c) is 100 per cent until the rotor moves and
then falls to a low value
(d) is zero until the rotor moves and then
rises to 100 per cent
371
15 A four-pole induction motor when supplied
from a 50 Hz supply experiences a 5 per cent
slip. The rotor speed will be:
(a) 25 rev/s
(b) 23.75 rev/s
(c) 26.25 rev/s
(d) 11.875 rev/s
16 A stator winding of an induction motor supplied from a three-phase, 60 Hz system is
required to produce a magnetic flux rotating
at 900 rev/min. The number of poles is:
(a) 2
(b) 8
(c) 6
(d) 4
17 The stator of a three-phase, 2-pole induction
motor is connected to a 50 Hz supply. The
rotor runs at 2880 rev/min at full load. The
slip is:
(a) 4.17%
(b) 92%
(c) 4%
(d) 96%
18 An 8-pole induction motor, when fed from a
60 Hz supply, experiences a 5 per cent slip.
The rotor speed is:
(a) 427.5 rev/min
(b) 855 rev/min
(c) 900 rev/min
(d) 945 rev/min
TLFeBOOK
Assignment 7
This assignment covers the material contained in Chapters 22 and 23.
The marks for each question are shown in brackets at the end of each question.
1 A 6-pole armature has 1000 conductors and a flux
per pole of 40 mWb. Determine the e.m.f. generated when running at 600 rev/min when (a) lap
wound (b) wave wound.
(6)
2 The armature of a d.c. machine has a resistance
of 0.3 and is connected to a 200 V supply.
Calculate the e.m.f. generated when it is running
(a) as a generator giving 80 A (b) as a motor
taking 80 A
(4)
3 A 15 kW shunt generator having an armature circuit resistance of 1 and a field resistance of
160 generates a terminal voltage of 240 V at
full-load. Determine the efficiency of the generator at full-load assuming the iron, friction and
windage losses amount to 500 W.
(6)
4 A 4-pole d.c. motor has a wave-wound armature
with 1000 conductors. The useful flux per pole
is 40 mWb. Calculate the torque exerted when a
current of 25 A flows in each armature conductor.
(4)
5 A 400 V shunt motor runs at its normal speed
of 20 rev/s when the armature current is 100 A.
The armature resistance is 0.25 . Calculate the
speed, in rev/min when the current is 50 A and
a resistance of 0.40 is connected in series with
the armature, the shunt field remaining constant.
(7)
6 The stator of a three-phase, 6-pole induction
motor is connected to a 60 Hz supply. The rotor
runs at 1155 rev/min at full load. Determine
(a) the synchronous speed, and (b) the slip at full
load.
(6)
7 The power supplied to a three-phase induction
motor is 40 kW and the stator losses are 2 kW.
If the slip is 4 per cent determine (a) the rotor
copper loss, (b) the total mechanical power developed by the rotor, (c) the output power of the
motor if frictional and windage losses are 1.48 kW,
and (d) the efficiency of the motor, neglecting
rotor iron loss.
(9)
8 A 400 V, three-phase, 100 Hz, 8-pole induction
motor runs at 24.25 rev/s on full load. The rotor
resistance and reactance per phase are 0.2
and 2 respectively and the effective rotorstator turns ratio is 0.80:1. Calculate (a) the synchronous speed, (b) the slip, and (c) the full load
torque.
(8)
TLFeBOOK
Formulae for electrical power
technology
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS:
p
3 Vp
Star IL D Ip
VL D
Delta VL D Vp
p
IL D 3 Ip
PD
p
3 VL IL cos
Input power D output power C losses
Resistance matching: R1 D
Two-wattmeter method
tan D
P D P1 C P2
Generated e.m.f. E D
p ⊲P1 P2 ⊳
3
⊲P1 C P2 ⊳
I0 D
IM D I0 sin 0
Ic D I0 cos 0
⊲I2M C I2C ⊳
Motor:
ð 100%
Equivalent circuit: Re D R1 C R2
Xe D X1 C X2
V1
V2
2
Efficiency, D 1
Ze D
Torque D
V1
V2
2
⊲Re2 C X2e ⊳
losses
input power
Output power D V2 I2 cos 2
Total loss D copper loss C iron loss
2pnZ
/ ω
c
E D V Ia Ra
Efficiency, D
E2 E1
E2
RL
Generator: E D V C Ia Ra
VI
Efficiency, D
ð 100%
VI C I2a Ra C If V C C
E D 4.44 fm N
Regulation D
2
(c D 2 for wave winding, c D 2p for lap winding)
TRANSFORMERS:
V1
N1
I2
D
D
V2
N2
I1
N1
N2
D.C. MACHINES:
P D 3I2p Rp
or
VI I2a Ra If V C
ð 100%
VI
pZIa
EIa
D
/ Ia
2n
c
THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS:
ns nr
ns
f
nS D
p
sD
fr D sf
Xr D sX2
N2
E1
s
Er
N1
D
Ir D
Zr
[R22 C ⊲sX2 ⊳2 ]
ð 100
sD
I2r R2
P2
TLFeBOOK
374
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Efficiency,
input stator loss rotor copper loss
Pm
friction & windage loss
D
D
P1
input power
Torque,
N2 2
m
sE2 R2
sE21 R2
N1
T D
/
2 1
2
2ns R2 C ⊲sX2 ⊳2
R2 C ⊲sX2 ⊳2
TLFeBOOK
Answers to multi-choice questions
CHAPTER 8. EXERCISE 40 (page 91)
CHAPTER 1. EXERCISE 4 (page 7)
1 (c)
6 (b)
11 (b)
2 (d)
7 (b)
12 (d)
3 (c)
8 (c)
4 (a)
9 (d)
5 (c)
10 (a)
1 (d)
6 (c)
2 (c)
7 (d)
3 (d)
8 (a)
4 (a)
9 (a)
5 (b)
10 (b)
CHAPTER 9. EXERCISE 47 (page 102)
CHAPTER 2. EXERCISE 10 (page 19)
1 (b)
6 (d)
11 (c)
2 (b)
7 (b)
12 (d)
3 (c)
8 (c)
13 (a)
4 (b)
9 (b)
5 (d)
10 (c)
2 (d)
7 (b)
3 (b)
8 (c)
2 (b)
7 (c)
12 (b)
3 (c)
8 (d)
4 (b)
9 (c)
5 (c)
10 (a)
CHAPTER 10. EXERCISE 57 (page 125)
CHAPTER 3. EXERCISE 15 (page 27)
1 (c)
6 (c)
1 (c)
6 (a)
11 (a)
4 (d)
9 (d)
5 (d)
1
5
9
13
17
21
(d)
(c)
(i)
(b)
(n)
(d)
2
6
10
14
18
22
(a) or (c)
(f)
(j)
(p)
(b)
(c)
3
7
11
15
19
23
(b)
(c)
(g)
(d)
(d)
(a)
4
8
12
16
20
(b)
(a)
(c)
(o)
(a)
CHAPTER 4. EXERCISE 18 (page 36)
1 (d)
6 (d)
11 (c)
2 (a)
7 (d)
12 (a)
3 (b)
8 (b)
4 (c)
9 (c)
5 (b)
10 (d)
CHAPTER 5. EXERCISE 23 (page 50)
1 (a)
6 (b)
11 (d)
2 (c)
7 (d)
3 (c)
8 (b)
4 (c)
9 (c)
2 (a)
7 (b)
3 (b)
8 (a)
4 (c)
9 (c)
1 (c)
6 (b)
11 (d)
2 (a)
7 (c)
3 (d)
8 (d)
4 (c)
9 (a)
5 (b)
10 (b)
CHAPTER 12. EXERCISE 64 (page 149)
5 (a)
10 (d)
CHAPTER 6. EXERCISE 30 (page 66)
1 (b)
6 (b)
11 (d)
CHAPTER 11. EXERCISE 60 (page 134)
1
6
11
16
(b)
(d)
(a)
(b)
2
7
12
17
(b)
(b)
(b)
(c)
3
8
13
18
(c)
(d)
(b)
(b)
4
9
14
19
(a)
(b)
(b)
(a)
5
10
15
20
(a)
(c)
(b)
(b)
CHAPTER 13. EXERCISE 72 (page 181)
5 (a)
10 (c)
1
6
11
16
(d)
(d)
(b)
(a)
2 (c)
7 (c)
12 (d)
3 (b)
8 (a)
13 (d)
4 (c)
9 (c)
14 (b)
5 (a)
10 (c)
15 (c)
CHAPTER 7. EXERCISE 36 (page 79)
1
6
11
13
(d)
2 (b)
3 (b)
4 (c)
(d)
7 (a)
8 (c)
9 (c)
(a) and (d), (b) and (f), (c) and (e)
(a)
5 (c)
10 (c)
12 (a)
CHAPTER 14. EXERCISE 78 (page 195)
1 (c)
6 (c)
11 (b)
2 (d)
7 (b)
3 (d)
8 (c)
4 (a)
9 (b)
5 (d)
10 (c)
TLFeBOOK
376
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
CHAPTER 15. EXERCISE 86 (page 217)
CHAPTER 20. EXERCISE 113 (page 301)
1
6
11
16
1
6
11
16
(c)
(b)
(b)
(b)
2
7
12
17
(a)
(a)
(c)
(c)
3
8
13
18
(b)
(d)
(b)
(a)
4
9
14
19
(b)
(d)
(c)
(d)
5 (a)
10 (d)
15 (b)
(g)
(a)
(f)
(b)
2
7
12
17
(c)
(g)
(j)
(c)
3 (a)
8 (l)
13 (d)
4 (a)
9 (l)
14 (b)
5 (f)
10 (d)
15 (c)
CHAPTER 16. EXERCISE 94 (page 234)
CHAPTER 21. EXERCISE 126 (page 325)
1
5
9
12
1
6
11
16
20
(d)
(h)
(a)
(d)
2
6
10
13
(g)
3 (i)
(b)
7 (k)
(d), (g), (i) and (l)
(c)
14 (b)
4 (s)
8 (l)
11 (b)
(a)
(a)
(d)
(f)
(b)
2
7
12
17
(d)
(b)
(a)
(c)
3
8
13
18
(a)
4 (b)
(a)
9 (b)
(h)
14 (k)
(b) and (c)
5
10
15
19
(c)
(g)
(j)
(c)
CHAPTER 17. EXERCISE 99 (page 246)
1 (d)
5 (c)
9 (d)
2 (b)
6 (a)
10 (b)
3 (a)
7 (b)
11 (d)
4 (c)
8 (a)
12 (c)
CHAPTER 18. EXERCISE 103 (page 262)
1
6
11
16
(c)
(e)
(g)
(c)
2
7
12
17
(b)
(l)
(b)
(a)
3
8
13
18
(b)
(c)
(c)
(a)
4 (g)
9 (a)
14 (j)
5 (g)
10 (d)
15 (h)
CHAPTER 19. EXERCISE 107 (page 279)
1 (c)
6 (b)
2 (b)
7 (d)
3 (b)
8 (a)
4 (d)
9 (c)
CHAPTER 22. EXERCISE 135 (page 351)
1
6
11
16
21
(b)
(a)
(b)
(b)
(b)
2
7
12
17
22
(e)
(d)
(a)
(b)
(a)
3
8
13
18
23
(e)
(f)
(b)
(b)
(c)
4
9
14
19
24
(c)
(b)
(a)
(c)
(d)
5
10
15
20
(c)
(c)
(d)
(b)
CHAPTER 23. EXERCISE 142 (page 370)
1
6
11
16
(c)
(d)
(d)
(b)
2
7
12
17
(b)
(b)
(c)
(c)
3
8
13
18
(d)
(c)
(a)
(b)
4 (a)
9 (f)
14 (c)
5 (b)
10 (j)
15 (b)
5 (a)
10 (c)
TLFeBOOK
Index
Absolute permeability, 71
Absolute permittivity, 55
A.c. bridges, 120
generator, 183
values, 185
Acceptor circuit, 209
Active power, 214
Advantages of:
squirrel cage induction motor, 367
three-phase systems, 300
wound rotor induction motor, 368
Air capacitors, 64
Alkaline cell, 35
Alternating voltages and currents, 183
Ammeter, 12, 106
Amplifier gain, 267, 269
Amplifier, transistor, 142
Amplitude, 112, 185, 189
Analogue instruments, 105
to digital conversion, 276
Angular velocity, 189
Anode, 29
Apparent power, 214
Armature, 330
reaction, 330
Asymmetrical network, 236
Atoms, 10
Attenuation, 236
bands, 236
Attraction-type m.i. instrument, 105
Audio frequency transformer, 311
Auto transformer, 319
Avalanche effect, 132
Average value, 185
Avometer, 12, 109
Back e.m.f., 338
Balanced network, 236
Band-pass filter, 236, 244
Band-stop filter, 236, 245
Bandwidth, 212, 265
Base, 136
Battery, 32
B-H curves, 70, 71
Bipolar junction transistor, 136
Block diagram, electrical, 9, 10
Bridge, a.c., 120
rectifier, 132
Wheatstone, 118
Brush contact loss, 337
Buffer amplifier, 270
Calibration accuracy, 122
Capacitance, 54
Capacitive a.c. circuit, 199
reactance, 199
Capacitors, 54
charging, 248
discharging, 66, 253
energy stored, 63
in parallel and series, 59
parallel plate, 57
practical types, 64
Capacity of cell, 35
Cathode, 29
Cathode ray oscilloscope, 12, 111
double beam, 112
Cell capacity, 35
primary, 34
secondary, 34
simple, 30
Ceramic capacitor, 65
Characteristic impedance, 236, 237
Characteristics, transistor, 140
Charge, 3, 54
density, 55
force on, 90
Charging a capacitor, 248
of cell, 32
Chemical effects of current, 17, 18, 29
Circuit diagram symbols, 10, 11
Closed-loop gain, 268
Coercive force, 78
Collector, 136
Colour coding of resistors, 25
Combination of waveforms, 191
Common-mode rejection ratio, 266
Commutation, 329
Commutator, 329, 330
Comparison between electrical and magnetic
quantities, 77
Complex wave, 114
Composite series magnetic circuits, 74
Compound winding, 330
Compound wound generator, 335
motor, 344
Conductance, 5, 6
Conductors, 11, 14, 127
TLFeBOOK
378
INDEX
Constant current source, 171
Contact potential, 129
Continuity tester, 109
Control, 89
Cooling of transformers, 312
Copper loss, 314, 337
rotor, 361
Core loss, 337
component, 306
Core type transformer, 311
Corrosion, 31
Coulomb, 3, 11
Coulomb’s law, 53
Crest value, 185
Current, 10
decay in L–R circuit, 257
division, 45
gain, transistor, 145
growth, L–R circuit, 255
main effects, 17
transformer, 323
Cut-off frequency, 236, 238
Cycle, 184
Damping, 89, 105
D.C. circuit theory, 157, 164
generator, 332
characteristics, 333
efficiency, 337
D.C. machine, 328
construction, 329
losses, 337
torque, 339
D.C. motor, 89, 338
efficiency, 344
speed control, 347
starter, 347
types, 341
D.C. potentiometer, 119
transients, 248
Decibel, 115
meter, 116
Delta connection, 291
Delta/star comparison, 300
Depletion layer, 129
Design impedance, 238
Dielectric, 54, 56
strength, 62
Differential amplifier, 272, 274
Differentiator circuit, 260
Digital to analogue conversion, 276
voltmeter, 108
Discharging capacitors, 66, 253
of cell, 31
Diverter, 348
Doping, 128
Double beam c.r.o., 112
Double cage induction motor, 369
Drift, 11
Dynamic current gain, 144
resistance, 227
Edison cell, 35
Eddy current loss, 314
Effective value, 185
Effect of time constant on rectangular wave, 260
Effects of electric current, 17
Efficiency of:
d.c. generator, 337
d.c. motor, 344
induction motor, 361
transformer, 314, 315
Electrical:
energy, 16
measuring instruments, 12, 104
potential, 5
power, 15
Electric:
bell, 84
cell, 30
field strength, 53
flux density, 55
Electrochemical series, 30
Electrodes, 29
Electrolysis, 29
Electrolyte, 29, 34
Electrolytic capacitor, 65
Electromagnetic induction, 93
laws of, 94
Electromagnetism, 82
Electromagnets, 84
Electronic instruments, 108
Electrons, 10, 29
Electroplating, 30
Electrostatic field, 52
E.m.f., 5
equation of transformer, 308
in armature winding, 330
induced in conductors, 95
of a cell, 31
Emitter, 136
Energy, 4, 16
stored in:
capacitor, 63
inductor, 99
Equivalent circuit of transformer, 312
Farad, 54
Faraday’s laws, 94
Ferrite, 78
Filter, 236
Fleming’s left hand rule, 86
Fleming’s right hand rule, 94
Force, 4
on a charge, 90
current-carrying conductor, 85
TLFeBOOK
INDEX
Form factor, 185
Formulae, lists of, 153, 283, 373
Forward bias, 129, 136
characteristics, 130
Frequency, 184, 189
Friction and windage losses, 337
Full wave rectification, 132
Fuses, 18
Galvanometer, 118
Generator:
a.c., 183
d.c., 328
Germanium, 127
Grip rule, 84
Half-power points, 212
Half-wave rectification, 132
Harmonics, 114
Heating effects of current, 17, 18
Henry, 97
Hertz, 184
High-pass filter, 236, 240
Hole, 128
Hysteresis, 77
loop, 77, 78
loss, 78, 302
Impedance, 201, 205
triangle, 201, 205
Induced e.m.f., 95
Inductance, 97
of a coil, 99
Induction motor, 354
construction, 357
double cage, 369
losses and efficiency, 361
principle of operation, 358
production of rotating field, 354
starting methods, 367
torque equation, 363
-speed characteristic, 366
uses of, 369
Inductive a.c. circuit, 198
switching, 260
reactance, 198
Inductors, 98
Initial slope and three point method, 250
Instantaneous values, 185
Instrument loading effect, 109
Insulation resistance tester, 109
Insulators, 11, 15, 127
Integrator circuit, 260
op amp, 272
Internal resistance of cell, 31
Interpoles, 329
379
Inverting amplifier op amp, 267
Iron losses, 314, 337
Isolating transformer, 321
Iterative impedance, 237
Joule, 4, 6, 16
Kilowatt hour, 6, 16
Kirchhoff’s laws, 157
Lamps in series and parallel, 49
Lap winding, 330
Laws of electromagnetic induction, 94
L–C parallel circuit, 222
Lead acid cell, 34
Leclanche cell, 34
Lenz’s law, 9
Lifting magnet, 85
Linear device, 12
Linear scale, 105
Lines of electric force, 52
Lines of magnetic flux, 68
Load line, 144, 145
Local action, 30
Logarithmic ratios, 115
Losses:
d.c. machines, 337
induction motors, 361
transformers, 314
Loudspeaker, 86
Low-pass filter, 236, 237
LR–C a.c. circuit, 223
Magnetic:
circuits, 68, 74
effects of current, 17, 18
field due to electric current, 82
fields, 68
field strength, 70
flux, 69
flux density, 69
screens, 73
Magnetisation curves, 71
Magnetising component, 306
Magnetising force, 70
Magnetomotive force, 70
Majority carriers, 129
Matching, 317
Maximum power transfer theorem, 179
value, 185, 189
Maxwell bridge, 120
Mean value, 185
Measurement errors, 122
of power in 3 phase system, 183
Megger, 109
TLFeBOOK
380
INDEX
Mercury cell, 34
Mesh connection, 291
Mica capacitor, 64
Minority carriers, 130
Motor cooling, 350
d.c., 89, 328, 338
efficiency, 344
speed control, 347
starter, 347
types, 341
Moving coil instrument, 89
Moving coil rectifier instrument, 105
iron instrument, 105
Multimeter, 12, 109
Multiples of units, 13
Multiplier, 107
Mutual induction, 97, 101
Negative feedback, 265
Neutral conductor, 288
Neutrons, 10
Newton, 4
Nife cell, 35
Nominal impedance, 238
Non-inverting amplifier, 270
Non-linear device, 12, 13
n–p–n transistor, 137
Norton’s theorem, 172
and Thévenin equivalent circuits, 175
n-type material, 128
Nucleus, 10
Null method of measurement, 118
Ohm, 5, 12
Ohmmeter, 12, 108
Ohm’s law, 13
Operational amplifiers, 264
differential amplifier, 274
integrator, 272
inverting amplifier, 267
non-inverting amplifier, 269
parameters, 266
summing amplifier, 271
transfer characteristics, 265
voltage comparator, 272
voltage follower, 270
Paper capacitor, 64
Parallel:
a.c. circuits, 219
connected capacitors, 59
lamps, 49
networks, 42
plate capacitor, 57
resonance, 224, 226
Passbands, 236
Peak factor, 186
Peak value, 112, 185
Peak-to-peak value, 185, 189
Period, 184
Periodic time, 111, 184, 189
Permanent magnet, 68
Permeability, 70
absolute, 71
of free space, 71
relative, 71
Permittivity, 55
absolute, 55
of free space, 55
relative, 55
Phasor, 189
Plastic capacitor, 65
Polarisation, 30
Potential:
difference, 5, 12
divider, 40
gradient, 53
Potential, electric, 5
Potentiometer, d.c., 119
Power, 4, 6, 15
active, 214
apparent, 214
factor, 214
improvement, 230
in a.c. circuits, 213
3-phase systems, 293
measurement in 3-phase systems, 295
reactive, 214
transformers, 311
triangle, 214
p–n junction, 129
p–n–p transistor, 137
p-type material, 128
Practical types of capacitor, 64
Prefixes of units, 3
Primary cells, 34
Principle of operation of:
moving-coil instrument, 89
d.c. motor, 89
3-phase induction motor, 358
transformer, 304
Protons, 10
Q-factor, 121, 210, 227
Q-meter, 121
Quantity of electricity, 11
Radio frequency transformer, 311
Rating, 304
R–C parallel a.c. circuit, 220
R–C series a.c. circuit, 204
Reactive power, 214
Rectification, 132, 194
TLFeBOOK
INDEX
Regulation of transformer, 313
Relative permeability, 71
Relative permittivity, 55
Relay, 85
Reluctance, 73
Rejector circuit, 227
Remanence, 78
Repulsion type m.i. instrument, 105
Resistance, 5, 12, 20
internal, 31
matching, 317
variation, 20
Resistivity, 20
Resistor colour coding, 25
Resonance:
parallel, 224, 226
series, 206, 209
Reverse bias, 130, 136
characteristics, 130
R–L parallel a.c. circuit, 219
series a.c. circuit, 201
R–L–C seies a.c. circuit, 206
R.m.s. value, 112, 185
Rotor copper loss, 361
Scale, 105
Screw rule, 83, 84
Secondary cells, 34
Selectivity, 213
Self-excited generators, 332, 333
Self inductance, 97
Semiconductor diodes, 127, 130
Semiconductors, 127
Separately-excited generators, 332, 333
Series:
a.c. circuits, 198
circuit, 39
connected capacitors, 59
lamps, 49
resonance, 206, 209
winding, 330
wound generator, 335
motor, 343
Shells, 10
Shell type transformer, 311
Shunt, 107
field regulator, 347
winding, 330
wound generator, 334
motor, 341
Siemen, 6
Silicon, 127
Simple cell, 30
Sine wave, 184, 185
Single-phase:
parallel a.c. circuit, 219
series a.c. circuit, 198
voltage, 287
Sinusoidal waveform equation, 189
381
S.I. units, 3
Slew rate, 267
Slip, 358
Solenoid, 83
Speed control of d.c. motors, 347
Squirrel-cage rotor induction motor, 357, 367
advantages of, 367
Star connection, 288
Star/delta comparison, 300
Stator, 329
Steady state, 249
Stopbands, 236
Sub-multiples of units, 13
Sub-system, 10
Summing amplifier, 271
Superposition theorem, 161
Switching inductive circuits, 260
Symbols, electrical, 10, 11
Symmetrical network, 236
Synchronous speed, 355, 356
System, electrical, 9
T-network, 236
Tangent method, 250
Telephone receiver, 85
Temperature coefficient of resistance, 22
Thermal runaway, 147
Thévenin’s theorem, 166
and Norton equivalent circuits, 175
Three-phase:
induction motor, 354
supply, 287
systems, 287
advantages of, 300
power, 293
transformers, 321
Time constant:
CR circuit, 249, 250
LR circuit, 256
Titanium oxide capacitor, 65
Torque equation:
for induction motor, 363
of a d.c. machine, 339
-speed characteristic of induction motor, 366
Transformation ratio, 304
Transformers, 303
auto, 319
construction, 311
current, 323
e.m.f. equation, 308
equivalent circuit, 312
isolating, 321
losses and efficiency, 314, 315
no-load phasor diagram, 306
on-load phasor diagram, 310
principle of operation, 304
regulation of, 313
three-phase, 321
voltage, 324
TLFeBOOK
382
INDEX
Transient CR circuit, 250
Transient LR circuit, 256
Transistor:
action, 137
amplifier, 142
characteristics, 140
connections, 139
symbols, 139
Transistors, 136
True power, 214
Two-port networks, 236
Unbalanced network, 236
Unit of electricity, 16
Units, 3, 7
Variable air capacitor, 64
Virtual earth, 267
Volt, 5, 12
Voltage, 12
comparator, 272
follower amplifier, 270
gain, transistor, 146
transformer, 324
triangle, 201, 204
Voltmeter, 12, 107
Watt, 4, 15
Wattmeter, 109
Wave winding, 330
Waveform harmonics, 114
Waveforms, 184
combination of, 191
Weber, 69
Wheatstone bridge, 118, 170
Work, 4
Wound rotor induction motor, 358, 367
advantages of, 368
Yoke, 329
Zener diode, 132
Zener effect, 132
TLFeBOOK