The meaning of the heart amulets in Egyptian Art

The Meaning of the Heart Amulets in Egyptian Art Rogério Sousa Abstract Despite the fact that the heart amulet stands amongst the most important items of magical protection in Ancient Egypt, little attention has been dedicated to the study of its symbolism. Although the heart amulets may seem quite simple in shape, its real complexity becomes evident when attention is paid to the formal diversity of this object that in fact was shaped according to different types and styles of depiction. It is also true that the heart amulet was perhaps one of the most frequently depicted amulets in Egyptian art, being a common iconographic feature in some well defined pictorial contexts where it appears as a distinctive attribute of gods or humans. Given the wide diversity of shapes and contexts in which the heart amulet is depicted, we can not expect to find only one meaning attributed to it, nor that its meaning stayed unchanged. In this study, our aim is to point out the main symbolic uses of the heart amulet through the analysis of its artistic rendering and also to highlight its variations throughout the Egyptian history. Our study began with a research that aimed to identify a typology of heart amulets. 1 Although in continuity with that study, this article now focuses on the study of the representation of heart amulets in Egyptian art. Our goal is to collect additional data concerning the symbolic use of this object, which eventually will shed light on its religious meaning. As Michel Malaise has already pointed out in the only available study of the artistic rendering of the heart amulet, 2 representations of the heart amulet can be found in some well-defined classes of objects or pictorial contexts. Nevertheless, distinct patterns of representation of the amulet can be detected throughout time. To identify these symbolic or ritual patterns, our research involved the study of pictorial decoration of temples, tombs, sarcophagi and papyri. Statues and funerary statuettes also provided us with important material concerning the use of the heart amulet. The artistic rendering of the heart amulet, complemented with information available on the archaeological context, can offer us a vivid picture of its use through time. We know that the amulet was already in use as early as the 11th Dynasty among the circle of Theban royalty. 3 However, the first known depiction of the heart amulet is only found in the beginning of the 18th Dynasty, in the Donation Stelae, where the object is used by the young prince. 4 It must be noted that the heart amulet is 1 The results of this work were presented in 2004, at the Ninth International Congress of Egyptologists, Grenoble. See Rogério Sousa, “The heart amulet in Ancient Egypt: A typological study,” in J.-C. Goyon and C. Cardin, eds., Proceedings of the Ninth International Congress of Egyptologists (Leuvein-Paris-Dudley, 2007), vol. I, 713–21. 2 Michel Malaise, “La signification des pendentifs cordiformes dans l´art égyptien,” CdÉ 50 (1975), 105–35. 3 This is the case of the golden object inscribed with the cartouche of Nebhetepre Mentuhotep II (Louvre Museum, N 551). 4 See Ibrahim Harari, “Nature de la Stéle de Donation de Fonction du roi Ahmôsis a la reine Ahmès-Nefertari,” ASAE 56 (1956), pl. II. 59 60 JARCE 43 (2007) found among a group sculpture dated from the same period depicting royal children on the knees of a nurse and that the meaning of the depiction is similar to that of the Donation Stelae. 5 However, the most outstanding example of the royal use of the amulet is found in Deir-el-Bahari. 6 A solar-headed heart amulet is clearly depicted in the Punt’s expedition relief of the funerary temple of Hatshepsut (fig. 1). 7 The queen wears the amulet in a ritual where she gives to Amun all the goods brought from Punt. Interestingly enough, in the context of Thebes, the first documents that portray the use of the amulet by non-royalty are only found from the reign of Amenhotep II on. For example, Amenhotep, “overseer of the builders of Amun,” in the reign of Amenhotep II is portrayed with this amulet on the chest of his coffin. 8 Sennefer, governor Fig. 1. Amulet of illumination. Deir el-Bahari, funerary of Thebes during the reign of the same king, is temple of Hatshepsut, second terrace, south colonnade. also shown with a double heart amulet in the Drawing by the author. decoration of his tomb (TT 96). Maherpa, “bearer of the fan” and an intimate friend of Thutmose IV, also wears a heart amulet on the chest of his precious wooden coffin found in his tomb of the Valley of the Kings (KV 36). 9 Yuia, father of queen Tiye, is depicted with a heart amulet on a vignette of the Book of the Dead, 10 on a shawabty statuette 11 and on a ba bird statuette. 12 Khaemhat, royal scribe of Amenhotep III, is shown with different kinds of heart amulets in his tomb decoration (TT 57). The famous Ramose, governor of the city of Thebes, also uses the object in a purification ceremony depicted on his Theban tomb (TT 55). However important the use of the heart amulet might have been in this period, the heart amulet seems to have vanished from the depictions of Akhenaten’s reign. Curiously enough, it became increasingly popular among the pictorial and sculptural production of the Ramessid Period. On tomb decoration, in particular, the heart amulet is frequently depicted in scenes related to funerary ceremonies or to the afterlife of royal subjects, as it is the case of Rai, royal scribe and supervisor of the domains of Horemheb and Amon (TT 255), Amenemopet “overseer of the domains of Amun” (TT 41), and Userhat, “funerary priest of the royal cult of Tutmose I” (TT 51). From Deir el-Medina, the tombs of Neferabu (TT 5), Nebenmaet (TT 219), and Irinefer (TT 290) also 5 Cairo Egyptian Museum, JE 98831. See Cynthia Sheikhosleslami, The Egyptian Museum at the Millenium: a Special Exhibition in honor of the VIIIth International Congress of Egyptologists (Cairo, 2000), pl. 22. 6 Nevertheless, archaeological data show that, early in the 18th Dynasty, the amulet was already used among the Theban royal elite. For example, the object was found in the mummies of the king Ahmose and queen Ah-hotep. 7 Second Terrace, south colonnade. 8 Eton College, ECM 1876. Stephen Spurr, Nicholas Reeves and Stephen Quirke, Egyptian Art at Eton College: Selections from the Myers Museum (New York, 1999), 24. 9 Cairo Egyptian Museum, JE 31378 or CG 4219. 10 See Theodore Davis, The Funeral Papyrus of Iouiya. With an Introduction by Édouard Naville (London, 1908), pl. I. 11 Cairo Egyptian Museum, SR 95368. See James Quibell, CG, no 51001–51191: The Tomb of Yuaa and Thuiu (Cairo, 1908), pl. XVIII. 12 Cairo Egyptian Museum, JE 95312. SOUSA 61 show the deceased portrayed with the amulet in afterlife scenes. Occasionally, funerary sculpture also portrayed the deceased with the amulet. During the 21st Dynasty the object stood as an important item of magical protection among the priesthood of Amun where it was frequently depicted on the chest of the anthropoid coffins. Among the coffins found on the royal cache of Deir el-Bahari, some of the most impressive of them were decorated with depictions of the heart amulet, sometimes associated to the images of the solar scarab. 13 Items such as those suggest that complex depictions of the heart amulet were an attribute of a high rank. Also in the collective tomb of Bab el-Gussus, several anthropoid coffins were found showing large depictions of that amulet on their chests. 14 Although the object is seldom found on some women’s coffins, 15 it seems that the depiction of the heart amulet is more closely related to the male priests. Besides the depiction of the amulet on coffins, it was also frequently drawn over the so-called “mythological papyri” typical of the period. Later on, in the Late Period editions of the Book of the Dead, the heart amulet will stand as a mandatory attribute of the deceased, especially in the context of the “cardiac” vignettes. 16 After the 21st Dynasty the amulet is rarely depicted in human contexts, starting to be an iconographical attribute of specific divinities, as the divine children (Horpakhered, Nefertum, or Ihy) or the falcon gods such as Horus 17 or the Akhet bird. 18 At this point we can detect an important development in the use of the heart amulet. Archaeological and iconographic data suggest that, until the beginning of 18th Dynasty, the object seemed to have a strong connection to Theban royalty and possibly could be used with a meaning of “divine” status. From the reign of Amenhotep II on, maybe reflecting the desire of strengthening the loyalty of his high officers, it is possible that the amulet started to be used as a very exclusive decoration. This is suggested by the fact that it can only be found among the individuals more closely connected to the king. Since it could still be viewed as an important sign of the Theban elite, the heart amulet was also seen as an unacceptable symbol to the spirit of Amarna’s reform, which may explain the notorious absence of the amulet among depictions dated from this period. 13 Both of the coffins of Pinedjem II (Cairo Egyptian Museum, JE 26197) and the outer coffin of Nesikhonsu (Cairo Egyptian Museum, JE 26199), his wife, have an elaborated iconographic programme where the heart is a central element. See Georges Daressy, CG, no 61001–61044: Cercueils des cachettes royales (Cairo, 1909), pl. XLII and pl. XLV. 14 It is usually on the finest coffins that the amulet is represented. See the coffin and mummy cover of Padiamon (Cairo Egyptian Museum, CG 6233/CG 6235) and the mummy cover of Pakharu (Cairo Egyptian Museum, CG 6122, now in Alexandria National Museum). About this coffin see Erik Hornung and Betsy Bryan, The Quest of Immortality: Treasures of Ancient Egypt, (Washington, 2002), 158. Depictions of the amulet are also found on CG 6153 and CG 6191. For these coffins see Andrzej Niwinski, CG, no 6069–82: The Second Find of Deir el-Bahri (Coffins) (Cairo, 1999), fig. 113. Similar depictions can be found in the coffin CG 6028 (Cairo Egyptian Museum) and in many other monuments. For the coffin AE 10, in Berna Historical Museum, see Regine Schulz and Matthias Seidel, Egipto: O Mundo dos Faraós, (Lisboa, 1997), 476. For the coffin N 2503533, in the Vatican Gregorian Museum, see Annie Gasse, Les sarcophages de la Troisième Periode Intermédiaire du Museo Gregoriano Egizio (Vatican, 1996), 81, pl. XIII, 2. Also on coffin AF 9593, in the Louvre Museum (unpublished). 15 Unet (Louvre Museum, AF 9593), Direpu (Cairo Egyptian Museum, CG 6028) and Ikhi (N 2503532) are songstresses of Amun. They wear the amulet on the chest of their coffins. Nesitanebetacheru and Unet also show the amulet on the scene of the weighing of the heart displayed on their coffins. However, the coffin of Unet was not made for a lady, but for a male priest: the lid of the coffin depicts a male priest, but the side decoration of the coffin depicts the female songstress. Anyway, we may take as a rule that, when a couple is depicted, it is always the man that wears the amulet. See Book of the Dead of the architect Kha and his wife Merit, from Deir el-Medina (TT 8) and the funerary papyrus of Yuya (from KV 46). 16 For the study of the “cardiac” vignettes of the late versions of the Book of the Dead see Rogério Sousa, “The cardiac vignettes of the Book of the Dead (Late Period),” BAEDE 17 (2007), 39–53. 17 See Cairo Egyptian Museum, JE 30335, in Jean-Pierre Corteggiani, L’Égypte des pharaons au Musée du Caire (Paris, 1986), 160. 18 See Cairo Egyptian Museum, SR 6850 (unpublished). 62 JARCE 43 (2007) On the other hand, in the Ramessid Period, depictions of the amulet became more frequent among tomb decoration of Theban necropolis. However, they seem to have changed their meaning, since they are not used in a political context but in a religious one, in strong association with the afterlife. The amulet is also an important object among depictions of Theban clergy of the 21st Dynasty. From then on, the amulet started to be an iconographic attribute of child divinities. Even when a person (especially the king) wore the amulet, it seems that the intention was to identify himself with a child god. This is the case of the Pharaoh, very frequently depicted with the amulet in the context where the identification with the child god (such as Ihy or Horpakhered) is intended. Fig. 2. Amulet of illumination. Anthropoid coffin of Unet, 21st Dynasty. Louvre Museum (AF 9593), Paris. Drawing by the author. Symbolic Contexts in the Use of Heart Amulets Our hypothesis is that variations detected in the use of heart amulets may be due to variations in its meaning. The great diversity of artistic depictions of the heart amulet may in fact be grouped in four major symbolic contexts in which the amulet is invested with different symbolic meanings and perhaps with distinct ritual functions. 19 Heart of illumination In this particular and highly exclusive context, the heart amulet is used as a symbol of an illuminated conscience, which in early New Kingdom could only be attributed to the king. With this meaning, the amulet was depicted with a solar disk on top of it and, in that way, it seemed to be used as an attribute of the god Horus, especially in his falcon manifestation. 20 Very rarely, the solar-headed amulet is also shown in certain royal rituals. This is the case of the dedication of offerings performed by Hatshepsut to the god Amun, at Deir el-Bahari. Here, the sovereign wears a pectoral composed by a solar-headed heart flanked by two sacred serpents. This splendid piece of jewelery is used by the queen in a ritual context that was devised to prove her ability to guarantee the divine cult. In this way, the solar headed heart amulet could help to demonstrate that the queen successfully performed the royal task of connecting the divine realm and the earthly world, through her “illuminated” mind. In this context, the heart amulet seems to be a tangible sign of the divine status of the Pharaoh. Topped by the solar disk, the amulet might have been a symbol of identification of the king’s heart with the sun, and signaled the illumination of his conscience (that is to say, his ability to perform maet in the very same way that the sun did at the cosmic level). It is also interesting to see that the solar-headed amulet was frequently depicted on the chest of the 21st Dynasty coffins of the Theban priests of Amun (fig. 2). 21 This use seems an appropriation of an 19 Although these categories may in fact be largely representative of the depictions of the heart amulet in Egyptian Art, we can add to these major themes a few exceptional motifs which will be the focus of our analysis in another article. 20 See the avian statue of Horus: Cairo Egyptian Museum, JE 30335. 21 See Unet’s coffin (Louvre Museum, AF 9593) especially the outer coffins of Pinedem II and Nesikhonsu (Cairo Egyptian Museum, JE 26197 and 26199) and the mummy cover of Padiamon (Cairo Egyptian Museum, CG 6235). SOUSA 63 object that, in the past, had been invested with a strong regal status and, from the religious point of view, symbolized the illumination of the conscience or, in other words, the identification of the heart with the sun. However, an important distinction must be drawn between these two different uses: in the 18th Dynasty the object was used in earthly life by the king in order to demonstrate the divine status that enabled him to guarantee the divine cult. Amongst 21st Dynasty Amon priests, the object was used strictly in afterlife as a funerary symbol of resurrection. Furthermore, these later representations depict an important mystery of the beyond: they illustrate the solar-Osirian union between the heart (taken as a symbol of Osiris) and the solar disk, which guarantee the perpetual renewal of the world. 22 Heart of wisdom From the reign of Amenhotep II to the Amarna period, the heart amulet became an object frequently depicted in the Theban necropolis, especially among the highest officials of the king. Most of the time coloured by yellow pigments, the object depicted in those situations was the golden heart amulet, which was a decoration offered by the king as a sign of wisdom. In fact, rather than a magical substitute of the heart, the amulet was depicted in these contexts as a distinctive sign of a high rank and royal favor due to the virtue and the wisdom of the functionary. Such is the case of Sennefer, the governor of the city of Thebes during the reign of Amenhotep II. This important officer was depicted with a double heart amulet in a group statue found in Karnak 23 and in the pictorial decoration of his tomb (TT 96), in Cheik Abd el-Gurna. In his statue he is also portrayed with the typical necklace of the “gold of honour,” which is an argument frequently presented to defend the function of the double heart amulet as a royal decoration. This interpretation is also confirmed by the fact that, in his tomb, this amulet is inscribed with the cartouches of Amenhotep II. Although rarely represented elsewhere, the double heart amulet is also depicted in the splendid tomb of Khaemhat (TT 57), royal scribe and inspector of the granaries of Upper and Lower Egypt under the reign of Amenhotep III. Georges Legrain pointed out that the double heart amulet was in fact a iconographical expression of the term ibui (¡bw¡) that can be translated as a superlative (“heart of hearts”) or as “icon” or “image,” in the sense of a tangible image of a god. 24 In Karnak, pharaohs had an ibui, “image,” that received a special cult. It is possible that the officers invested with that decoration might have been involved in a cult of the king. In that case, these officers were themselves an “image” of the king for the subjects that did not see the Pharaoh directly. In such a context, the amulet became a powerful symbol of wisdom that distinguished the officer as an ally of the Pharaoh in his task of keeping the cosmic order. Of course, it is needless to say that such an object became a venerable and probably very rarely attributed distinction. Meanwhile, it is possible that the single heart amulet made of gold could be invested with this same meaning. Thanks to the virtue and knowledge gained on earthly life, the officer could receive a royal honor that would also be useful in the beyond, since it could be used by the deceased in the court of Osiris as a royal safe-conduct to eternal life. In fact, once used in the court of Osiris, the object attested that the Pharaoh regarded the deceased as righteous, a man that performed maet during his 22 These depictions follow the iconographic trend of the period that was significantly enriched by motifs that celebrated the duality between the symbols of Osiris and Ré. See Andrzej Niwinski, “The solar-Osirian unity as principle of the theology of the «State of Amun» in Thebes in the 21st Dynasty,” JEOL 30 (1987–1988), 87–106. 23 Cairo Egyptian Museum, JE 36574, see Hornung, The Quest for Immortality, 95–96. 24 See George Legrain, “Le mot ¡bwy, image, icone,” RT 11 (1905), 181. 64 JARCE 43 (2007) earthly life. Therefore, the fact that the amulet was given by the king during the lifetime of the officer does not exclude a funerary use: the golden amulet symbolized after all the immortal heart of the officer, a conquest of his intelligence and honor. An example of such use can be seen in representations of lustration ceremonies performed in the ritual context of the erection of the mummy over a sand hill that, from the reign of Amenhotep II on, became an important feature of tomb decoration among the elite funerals of the period. 25 Yellow or red colored, the object depicted in those situations was certainly a golden heart amulet. Although without a solar disk, this amulet might have had a meaning closer to the one exposed before. In fact, rather than a magical substitute of the heart, the amulet might have been depicted to assure that the deceased had the virtue and the wisdom required to allow his identification with the rising sun, which indeed was crucial to go forth by day. Reminiscent of this use of the amulet is probably the depiction of it on the chest of the anthropoid coffins produced until the end of 18th Dynasty. On some of those monuments the amulet, painted in yellow or covered by a gold leaf, is depicted between the hands of the deceased (sometimes holding the signs djed and tjet) and held by a heavy necklace. 26 Void of any other funerary symbols, the depiction of the amulet in this context intends to show that the deceased had already been decorated by the king as a keeper of maet and, in this manner, he had accomplished his task of being a righteous one. The depiction of the amulet on the chest of some funerary statuettes of this period, including shawabtis 27 and statuettes of ba birds probably had the same meaning. 28 Examples like these allow us to think that despite being received on earthly life as a decoration (as a symbol of royal acknowledgment), it was also used in the afterlife. The heart amulet could be a powerful help in the court of Osiris, where the royal decree was going to be observed. The amulet of justification From the Ramessid Period on it is very usual to depict the heart amulet in a funerary context. This can mainly be seen among the vignettes of the weighing of the heart (often painted on tomb walls), 29 where the deceased receives it as a sign of the positive result obtained. The fact that the deceased 25 Representations of this kind can be seen in some of the most elaborate tombs from Theban necropolis. Tombs of Duauaneheh (TT 125), Sennefer (TT 96) provide some of the finest examples of the use of the heart amulet in this context. The tombs of Ramose (TT 55) and Userhat (TT 51) also provide similar depictions of the heart in the context of lustral purification. For the lustral depiction in Userhat tomb see Norman de Garis Davies, Two Ramesside Tombs at Thebes (New York, 1927), pl. XI. For the description of the ritual see Jan Assmann, Mort et l´au-delà dans l´Égypte ancienne (Monaco, 2003), 468–74. These depictions must be distinguished from the funerary libation which had a distinct meaning. See Alan Gardiner, “The Baptism of Pharaoh,” JEA 36 (1950), 3–12. Also Aylward Blackman, “Sacramental ideas and usages in Ancient Egypt,” RT 39 (1920), 45–48 and Cathie Spieser, “L’eau et la regeneration des morts d´après les representations des tombes thébaines du Nouvel Empire,” CdÉ 72 (1997), 221–28. 26 The oldest known type of these representations goes back to the reign of Thutmose III and was elaborated to Amenhotep, the “Overseer of the builders of Amen.” Maherpa, intimate friend of king Thutmose IV, was another great personality to be rewarded with one of these amulets depicted on the chest of an anthropoid coffin. The sarcophagus of Khai (no 2686), an high official buried in Nubia, currently conserved in the Elephantine Museum, also presents a great heart amulet on its chest. 27 See Luís Araújo, Estatuetas Funerárias Egípcias da XXI dinastia (Lisboa, 2003), 108. Also Gae Callender, in Ian Shaw, ed., The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (Oxford, 2000), 182. Although, unfortunately, most of these statuettes do not display the titles of the deceased represented, one of them belonged to Yuya, one of the most eminent individualities of the reign of Amenhotep III. The quality of these objects must alert us to the equally high status of its proprietors. 28 An interesting ba statuette from the tomb of Yuya also presents a heart amulet on its chest. 29 The scene of the weighing of the heart is a common theme depicted among the tombs of Theban necropolis. This is the case of the tombs of Amenemuia (TT 178), Nefersekheru and Pabasa (TT 296), Neferenepet (TT 178), Userhat (TT 51), Rai (TT 255), Nakhtamon (TT 341), Amenemopet (TT 41), Khonsu (TT 31) and Simut (TT 409), to mention only a few of them. SOUSA 65 raise maet-like feathers in his hands (fig. 3) in a gesture of joy and contentment 30 makes very clear the fact that, used in that context, the heart amulet is a reward given by the court of the dead to legitimate the deceased as an Osiris. 31 The vignettes that depict the amulet in scenes of adoration of Osiris must also be interpreted with this meaning. As in the former example, the amulet is used as a decoration of justice that allows the deceased to be in the presence of the god. It is always with this meaning that the amulet is depicted on the chests of the anthropoid coffins produced on the 21st Dynasty. The differences between these representations and those from the former period lie on the fact that they are heavily surrounded by many other funerary symbols: the benu bird, a dog-like figure of Anubis, the solar winged scarab, many winged goddesses, sacred objects like the t·-wr totem and hiero32 Fig. 3. Amulet of justification. Papyrus of Nesipakhachuti, glyphs such as udjat, nefer and neb. Instead of the yellow pigments or the golden leaf Louvre Museum (E 17401), Drawing by the author. used to color the amulet in former periods, now this object is painted in blue or black and it is usually inscribed with the name of Osiris followed by the name of the deceased. Clearly, in this context, the amulet is used as a symbol of the osirification of the deceased and can be seen as an important element of the iconographical constellation of Osiris. 33 30 This gesture is especially depicted on mythological papyri produced during the 21st Dynasty. See mythological papyri of Khonsumes (Kunsthistorisches Museum, AOS 3859). About this papyrus see Alexandre Piankoff and Natacha Rambova, Mythological Papyri (New York, 1957), pl. 147. Cf. the papyrus of Nesipakachuti (Louvre Museum, E 17401). For this papyrus see idem, pl. 104. Papyrus Nesitanebetaui (Cairo Egyptian Museum, SR 40017). The same gesture is also depicted on the 21st Dynasty coffins, where this theme is very common. See the coffins of Pakharu (Cairo Egyptian Museum, CG 6122/6121, now in National Museum of Alexandria), Padiamon (Cairo Egyptian Museum, CG 6233/6235), Ankhefenmut (Cairo Egyptian Museum, CG 6109), Chebet (Cairo Egyptian Museum, CG 6028), Paser (Louvre Museum, N 2570) and Amenempermut (Cairo Egyptian Museum, CG 6153). 31 In the vignettes of the weighing of the heart, the presentation of the deceased to the god Osiris is the natural consequence of a positive outcome of that procedure. Usually the amulet is given to the deceased before the adoration of Osiris. Although couples can be depicted, men are always the ones that wear the amulet. This is the case of the tomb of Rai and his wife, Nebetaui, (TT 255) where the amulet seems to be connected with the weighing of the heart. 32 See lid of the exterior coffin of Pinedjem II (Cairo Egyptian Museum, JE 26197), but also the coffin of Padiamon (Cairo Egyptian Museum, CG 6233), the coffin and mummy cover of Pakharu (Cairo Egyptian Museum, CG 6122/6121, now in National Museum of Alexandria), the confin of Tjenetethatnetjeru (Cairo Egyptian Museum, CG 6191) and other unidentified coffins (Cairo Egyptian Museum, CG 6153). 33 These coffins, dated from the reign of Pinedjem II, usually have a great usekh necklace, in the center of which is depicted the heart amulet. See typology of these coffins in Andrzej Niwinski, 21st Dynasty Coffins from Thebes (Mainz am Rhein, 1988), 67–96. 66 JARCE 43 (2007) As an Osirian symbol of justification, the amulet is also used by the deceased in many different situations of the life in the beyond. Playing the senet game 34 and to be refreshed by the powers of life given by the tree goddess are only some of the many pleasant situations that can be at hand in the afterlife to the rightful ones. Going forth by day, travel on the solar bark 35 to the paradisiacal fields of Iaru 36 and give praise to the divinities of the beyond 37 are among the many situations where the deceased is often depicted with the heart amulet (fig. 4). Through the representation of the amulet, all these situations of the hereafter were connected to the osirification of the deceased, the true cause to the happiness experienced in the beyond. Nevertheless, the ultimate privilege offered by the amulet was to participate in the great mysteries of the Duat, like the regeneration of the solar disk or the triumph of the solar bark over Apopis. These are some examples that show Fig. 4. Amulet of justification. Coffin, 21st Dynasty. Drawing that the osirification of the deceased allowed after Andrezj Niwinski, The Second Find of Deir el-Bahari him to participate in the mysteries where the sun would triumph over the powers of darkness (Cairo, 1999), 56. and death, from which the entire regeneration of the cosmos would depend on. 38 Generally speaking, this kind of iconographical use of the heart amulet intends to identify the deceased as an Osiris, someone that had overcome successfully the trial of the beyond and from then on could be accepted among the presence of the gods and go forth by day. In this way, the amulet was viewed as an Osirian symbol, a sign of purity and virtue that allowed the deceased to participate in the mysteries of the beyond. The amulet of divine birth Since the beginning of the 18th Dynasty, the heart amulet was used to distinguish royal princes. The oldest record of such use can be found on the Donation Stella, where it is worn by the young prince while his father leads him to the presence of Amun-Ra (fig. 5). 39 The amulet is also found among a group statue of royal princes found in Zagazig that represents a nurse with four princes 34 In the tomb of Nebenmaet (TT 219), from 19th Dynasty, the deceased is depicted playing the senet game with his wife, Meretseguer. See Charles Maystre, Tombes de Deir el-Médineh: La tombe de Nebenmât (no 219) (Cairo, 1936), pl. V. 35 In the tomb of Irinefer (TT 290) the deceased wears the amulet in front of the benu bird while travelling in the solar bark. 36 In the tomb of Amenemopet (TT 41) the deceased is depicted with the heart amulet in several situations of the afterlife: while he visits the Fields of Iaru, among the navigation of the solar bark and in the combat with Apopis. See Jan Assmann, Das Grab des Amenemope (TT41) (Mainz am Rhein, 1991), pl. 40. 37 In the tomb of Khakhebenet (TT 2), the deceased, adorned with the amulet, prays before Thot. 38 On the 21st Dynasty, pictorial compositions became highly elaborate, turning into the way to express complex theological notions, like the complementarity between solar and Osirian elements. See Niwinski, “The solar-Osirian unity,” 91. 39 See Harari, “Nature de la Stéle de Donation,” pl. II. SOUSA 67 Fig. 5. The amulet of divine birth. Donation stelae. Karnak, temple of Amon-Ré. 18th Dynasty, reign of Ahmés. Drawing after Ibrahim Harari, “Nature de la stéle de donation de fonction du roi Ahmôsis a la reine Ahmès-Nefertari,” ASAE 56 (1956), pl. II. adorned with the amulet. 40 The significance of the use of the amulet in this context is not clear. At that time, the amulet did not seem to have the strong funerary significance that it aquired in later times. It seems likely that, in the beginning of the 18th Dynasty, the amulet was used by the royal family as a symbol of purity. That would explain the later use of the amulet as a royal decoration: it symbolized the rise of the status of the officer to the inner and intimate circle of the “family” of the Pharaoh. From a certain perspective, all of the contexts of use of the amulet previously discussed can also be connected to the idea of purity. While it was used as a royal decoration, it was also a symbol of the purification required to be in the presence of the Pharaoh. The same idea of purity is also underlined in the amulet of justification, since it was the symbol of the purity measured by the weighing of the heart. 40 Cairo Egyptian Museum, JE 98831. See Cynthia Sheikhosleslami, The Egyptian Museum at the Millenium: a Special Exhibition in honor of the VIIIth International Congress of Egyptologists (Cairo, 2000), pl. 22. 68 JARCE 43 (2007) From the Late Period on, the amulet became a typical iconographical element of the divine children. Symbolizing the purity of the primordial times, the amulet was then invested with prophylactic power against evil or demons. That is why Horpakhered is so frequently depicted with the amulet when he takes control over savage beasts. 41 In this context, the amulet is a symbol of the purity that triumphs over corruption and poison. It was this apotropaic power that perhaps explained the wide range of situations in which divine children wear that amulet among temple decoration. Very frequently, the divine children seem to be identified with the PhaFig. 6. The amulet of divine birth. Menat collar. 25th Dynasty, raoh, being depicted with royal attributes such as the sceptres heka and nekhakha, or Bronze, Berlin Egyptian Museum. Photograph by the author. the crown pshent and the nemes headdress. 42 In other cases, these gods are depicted over the lotus 43 or the sema-taui motif (fig. 6), which may be allusive to another attribute of the divine child: to guarantee the recreation of the world and the purifying return to the mythical time of the creation. The wide use of the amulet by these gods may, in fact, be related to the intention of providing a cosmic renewal. Although used as a political statement in the context of temple decoration, these same images could also be used as a symbol of resurrection. On the vignettes of the weighing of the heart of the Greco-Roman Period, the deceased is often depicted as a newborn solar child. Although still connected to the weighing of the heart, the amulet starts to be invested with a wider obstetric meaning, being regarded as a sign of rebirth and of a new life. This subtle change of meaning is also accompanied by a change in the depiction of the heart, which follows the model of the cornice heart amulet, a type of object also highly connected to the idea of regeneration. 44 It is perhaps with this meaning that the amulet was represented over mummiform gods produced on this period, where it is depicted on the center of the usekh necklace. Such is the case of some corn mummies 45 and the statuettes of funerary gods such as Ptah-Sokar-Osíris. 46 Also, the amulet is no longer used on coffins and sarcophagi (fig. 7) as a royal or even an Osirian decoration but as a 41 Cairo Egyptian Museum CG 9402. To this monument see Émile Chassinat, CG: Textes et dessins magiques (Cairo, 1903), pl. II. See also Berlin Egyptian Museum, N 4434. 42 See decoration of the temple of Dendera: François Daumas, Les mammisis de Dendara, (Cairo, 1959). Many statuettes of the god depict him with these symbols: Cairo Egyptian Museum, CG 38182/38176. 43 See Ian Shaw, The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (Oxford, 2002), ii. For the depictions of the god over the sema-taui motif see Alexandre Varille, “La grande porte du temple d´Apet à Karnak,” ASAE 53 (1956), pl. II, and also S. Cauvoille et al., Le temple de Dendara: La Porte d´Ísis, (Cairo, 1999), pls. 34–35. 44 See Rogério Sousa, “The heart amulet in Ancient Egypt: A typological study,” 713–21. In fact, most of the amulets produced in Late Period have the shape of the cornice heart amulet. Besides the obvious funerary use, the heart amulet seems to have been highly praised to be used by the living. However, this later use of the heart amulet by the living ones seems to be connected more to its power to keep evil apart and to guarantee good health than as a sign of high rank, as previously happened. In order to be used in earthly life, amulets became smaller and, in many circumstances, cheaper. 45 See Louvre Museum (E 12183). 46 See Florence Archaeological Museum (number unknown) SOUSA Fig. 7. The amulet of divine birth. Sarcophagus of Setueret. Late Period. Cairo Egyptian Museum (23/1/21/ 9). Photograph by the author. 69 70 JARCE 43 (2007) symbol of rebirth. 47 It is with this same meaning that we can expect to find the depictions of the heart amulet amongst the later vignettes of the cardiac chapters of the Book of the Dead. 48 In other words, during the Ist millennium, the heart amulet seemed to be valued as a symbol of new life and rebirth, being a tangible sign of the power of light and purity of a new and divine childhood. Final Remarks These distinct contexts of representation of the heart amulet show us that the prominent meaning of the heart amulet must be focused on its mental and «psychological» sense, which in fact is the usual understanding of the word ib, “heart” in the hieroglyphic writing. 49 We must also stress out that the heart amulet is nothing more than the three dimensional rendering of this same hieroglyph. Thus, the hieroglyphic reading of the object as the word ib is mandatory in the bi-dimensional pictorial context. As such, although using the physical image of the bull’s heart (hieroglyph F 34), the metaphorical use of the term ib as the seat of the mind is undoubtedly dominant. Therefore, the heart amulet must be seen as the depiction of the mind of the individual but certainly not of his ordinary mind. The use of gold, especially in the earliest examples, must lead us to consider this “heart of gold” as an immortal and solarized mind that was formed thanks to the practice of maet and therefore symbolized the wisdom. For that reason, the heart amulet started to be used as distinctive symbol: first it seems to have been invested by a strong “political” status: it could be gained in earthly life, thanks to a successful career at the service of the Pharaoh. However, by the end of the 18th Dynasty, the heart amulet was mainly associated to the hereafter where it was expected to be given by Osiris as a moral distinction. In fact, as a symbol of wisdom and purity, the heart amulet was a central piece of the weighing of the heart where it was given to the deceased as a symbol of triumph of purity and wisdom over death and corruption. Finally, from the Late Period on, the time that witnessed a massive production of heart amulets, 50 this object seems to incarnate the power of the child divinities and, as such, it seems to have been disinvested from its distinctive function so highly praised in former periods. The widespread of the use of the amulet, even by the lower layers of Egyptian population, seems to be explained by the increase of its apotropaic power which was based on the power of purity to control darkness and evil and to guarantee good health both in earthly life and in the beyond. 51 However distinct they might be, these different semantic contexts of the use of the heart amulet should not let us lose sight of the fact that they all share some common features. In all of them the heart is depicted as the seat of the mind and illustrates the responsibility of each man to keep the maetic order in motion. In fact, the innermost meaning of the heart amulet lies on its ability to symbolize the pure heart as an embodiment of the maetic order. As such, “illumination,” wisdom, purity and renewal are all aspects of the heart filled by maet. CITCEM, Universidade do Porto, Portugal 47 See Sarcophagus of Setueret (Cairo Egyptian Museum, 23/1/21/9) or the coffin of Duasahotep (Cairo Egyptian Museum, 21/11/16/11). 48 See Rogério Sousa, “The cardiac vignettes of the Book of the Dead,” 39–53. 49 That does not exclude that sometimes the amulet could be used, quite parsimoniously, to depict the physical organ. We will explore this subject in a future article. 50 These objects indeed started to be produced massively employing glass and mould casts. Roughly finished, certain heart amulets found in late burials attest a much wider use of apothropaic objects by the Egyptian population. See W. Petrie, Dendereh, Egypt Exploration Fund (London, 1900), pl. XXVI. 51 That explains the prodigality of the use of the amulet in late mummies: far from the centrality and uniqueness of the amulets used in former periods, heart amulets used to the protection of the mummies are numerous and may be placed in any part of the body.