COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Kenya Medical Training College FACULTY OF CLINICAL SERVICES DEPARTMENT OF CLINICAL MEDICINE COURSE WORK For COMMUNICATION SKILLS BY WANDERA HARRISON SEPTEMBER, 2016 COMMUNICATION SKILLS Introduction Communication is a key element in any human activity. Communication is a learned skill. However, while most people are born with the physical ability to talk, not all can communicate well unless they make special efforts to develop and refine this communication skill. Very often, we take the ease with which we communicate with each other for granted, so much so that we sometimes forget how complex the communication process actually is. Communication takes place when we are supposedly at the same level of understanding and comprehension as other interlocutors. Common forms of communication include speaking, writing, gestures, touch, using pictures and broadcasting. Communication is therefore not what is said whether verbally or non-verbally, but what is understood. What is communication? Communication is a word derived from the Latin word communis or commūnicāre, which means ‘to make common’ or ‘to share’. Communication is the act of conveying intended meaning to another person through the use of mutually understood signs and language. Communication is the art of transmitting information, ideas and attitudes from one person to another. Communication is the process of meaningful interaction among human beings. The basic steps of communication are: the forming of communicative intent, message composition, message encoding, and transmission of signal, reception of signal, message decoding and finally interpretation of the message by the recipient. Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another. When you call or talk verbally to your friend, then you are said to be communicating with your friend. Characteristics of Communication The characteristics of communication include: 1. Communication is a process: Communication is a 2 way process which involves; listening to others (Receiving) message Asserting/Expressing (Sending). 2. Communication is a dynamic: it is ever changing depending on the variables at play. 3. Communication is a complex a process. 4. Communication is a two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not only exchange (encode-decode) information but also create and share meaning. 5. Communication involves the sharing of information using a code. 6. Communication occurs between people and sometimes animals 7. Communication is irreversible: once one has communicated something it cannot be recalled back. 8. Communication is a system 9. Communication must have the elements of communication: Source, receiver, channel, message, noise, feedback. 10. Communication can be verbal/ non verbal or visual. 11. Communication can be accidental especially in non-verbal Communication Theories Cognitive Dissonance Theory Cognitive Dissonance Theory argues that the experience of dissonance (or incompatible beliefs and actions) is aversive and people are highly motivated to avoid it. In their efforts to avoid feelings of dissonance, people will avoid hearing views that oppose their own, change their beliefs to match their actions, and seek reassurance after making a difficult decision. Communication Accommodation Theory This theoretical perspective examines the underlying motivations and consequences of what happens when two speakers shift their communication styles. Communication Accommodation theorists argue that during communication, people will try to accommodate or adjust their style of speaking to others. This is done in two ways: divergence and convergence. Groups with strong ethnic or racial pride often use divergence to highlight group identity. Convergence occurs when there is a strong need for social approval, frequently from powerless individuals. Coordinated Management of Meaning Theorists in Coordinated Management of Meaning believe that in conversation, people co-create meaning by attaining some coherence and coordination. Coherence occurs when stories are told, and coordination exists when stories are lived. CMM focuses on the relationship between an individual and his or her society. Through a hierarchical structure, individuals come to organize the meaning of literally hundreds of messages received throughout a day. Cultivation Analysis This theory argues that television (and other media) plays an extremely important role in how people view their world. According to Cultivation Analysis, in modern Culture most people get much of their information in a mediated fashion rather than through direct experience. Thus, mediated sources can shape people’s sense of reality. This is especially the case with regard to violence, according to the theory. Cultivation Analysis posits that heavy television viewing cultivates a sense of the world that is more violent and scarier than is actually warranted. Cultural Approach to Organizations The Cultural Approach contends that people are like animals who are suspended in webs that they created. Theorists in this tradition argue that an organization’s culture is composed of shared symbols, each of which has a unique meaning. Organizational stories, rituals, and rites of passage are examples of what constitutes the culture of an organization. Cultural Studies Theorists in cultural studies maintain that the media represents ideologies of the dominant class in a society. Because media are controlled by corporations, the information presented to the public is necessarily influenced and framed with profit in mind. Cultural Studies theorists, therefore, are concerned with media influenced and framed with profit in mind. Cultural Studies theorists, therefore, are concerned with media influence and how power plays a role in the interpretation of culture. Dramatism This theoretical position compares life to a drama. As in dramatic action, life requires an actor, a scene, an act, some means for the action to take place, and a purpose. A rhetorical critic can understand a speaker’s motives by analyzing these elements. Further, Dramatism argues that purging guilt is the ultimate motive, and rhetors can be successful when they provide their audiences with a means for purging their guilt and a sense of identification with the rhetor. Expectancy Violations Theory Expectancy Violation Theory examines how nonverbal messages are structured. The theory advances that when communicative norms are violated, the violation may be perceived either favorably or unfavorably, depending on the perception that the receiver has of the violator. Violating another’s expectations may be a strategy used over that of conforming to another’s expectations. Face-Negotiation Theory Face-Negotiation Theory is concerned with how people in individualistic and collectivistic cultures negotiate face in conflict situations. The theory is based on face management, which describes how people from different cultures manage conflict negotiation in order to maintain face. Self-face and other-face concerns explain the conflict negotiation between people from various cultures. Groupthink The groupthink phenomenon occurs when highly cohesive groups fail to consider alternatives that may effectively resolve group dilemmas. Groupthink theorists contend that group members frequently think similarly and are reluctant to share unpopular or dissimilar ideas with others. When this occurs, groups prematurely make decisions, some of which can have lasting consequences. Muted Group Theory Muted Group Theory maintains that language serves men better than women (and perhaps European Americans better than African Americans or other groups). This is the case because the variety of experiences of European American men are named clearly in language, whereas the experiences of other groups (such as women) are not. Due to this problem with language, women appear less articulate than men in public settings. As women have similar experiences, this situation should change. The Narrative Paradigm This theory argues that humans are storytelling animals. The Narrative Paradigm proposes a narrative logic to replace the traditional logic of argument. Narrative logic, or the logic of good reasons, suggests that people judge the credibility of speakers by whether their stories hang together clearly (coherence and whether their stories ring true (fidelity). The Narrative Paradigm allows for a democratic judgment of speakers because no one has to be trained in oratory and persuasion to make judgments based on coherence and fidelity. Organizational Information Theory This Theory argues that the main activity of organizations is the process of making sense of equivocal information. Organizational members accomplish this sense-making process through enactment, selection, and retention of information. Organizations are successful to the extent that they are able to reduce equivocality through these means. Relational Dialectics Theory Relational Dialectics suggests that relational life is always in process. People in relationships continually feel the pull-push of conflicting desires. Basically, people wish to have both autonomy and connection, openness and protective-ness, and novelty and predictability. As people communicate in relationships, they attempt to reconcile these conflicting desires, but they never eliminate their needs for both of the opposing pairs. The Rhetoric Rhetorical theory is based on the available means of persuasion. That is, a speaker who is interested in persuading his or her audience should consider three rhetorical proofs: logical, emotional, and ethical. Audiences are key to effective persuasion as well. Rhetorical syllogism, requiring audiences to supply missing pieces of a speech, are also used in persuasion. Social Exchange Theory This theoretical position argues that the major force in interpersonal relationships is the satisfaction of both people’s self-interest. Theorists in Social Exchange posit that self-interest is not necessarily a bad thing and that it can actually enhance relationships. The Social Exchange approach views interpersonal exchange posit that self-interest is not necessarily a bad thing and that it can actually enhance relationships. The Social Exchange approach views interpersonal exchanges as analogous to economic exchanges where people are satisfied when they receive a fair return on their expenditures. Social Penetration Theory This theory maintains that interpersonal relationships evolve in some gradual and predictable fashion. Penetration theorists believe that self-disclosure is the primary way that superficial relationships progress to intimate relationships. Although self-disclosure can lead to more intimate relationships, it can also leave one or more persons vulnerable. Spiral of Silence Theory Theorists associated with Spiral of Silence Theory argue that due to their enormous power, the mass media have a lasting effect on public opinion. The theory maintains that mass media work simultaneously with Majority public opinion to silence minority beliefs on cultural issues. A fear of isolation prompts those with minority views to examine the beliefs of others. Individuals who fear being socially isolated are prone to conform to what they perceive to be a majority view. Standpoint Theory This theory posits that people are situated in specific social standpoints-they occupy different places in the social hierarchy. Because of this, individuals view the social situation from particular vantage points. By necessity, each vantage point provides only a partial understanding of the social whole. Yet, those who occupy the lower rungs of the hierarchy tend to understand the social whole. Yet, those who occupy the lower rungs of the hierarchy tend to understand the social situation more fully than those at the top. Sometimes, Standpoint Theory is referred to as Feminist Standpoint Theory because of its application to how women’s and men’s standpoint differ. Structuration Theory Theorists supporting the structurational perspective argue that groups and organizations create structures, which can be interpreted as an organization’s rules and resources. These structures, in turn, create social systems in an organization. Structuration theorists posit that groups and organizations achieve a life of their own because of the way their members utilize their structures. Power structures guide the decision making taking place in groups and organizations. Symbolic Interaction Theory This theory suggests that people are motivated to act based on the meanings they assign to people, things, and events. Further, meaning is created in the language that people use both with others and in private thought. Language allows people to develop a sense of self and to interact with others in community. Uncertainly Reduction Theory Uncertainty Reduction Theory suggests that when strangers meet, their primary focus is on reducing their levels of uncertainty in the situation. Their levels of uncertainty are located in both behavioral and cognitive realms. That is, they may be unsure of how to behave (or how the other person will behave), and they may also be unsure what they think of the other and what the other person thinks of them. Further, people’s uncertainty is both individual level and relational level. People are highly motivated to use communication to reduce their uncertainty according to this theory. MODELS OF COMMUNICATION The purpose of a “model” is to offer a visual representation of a concept with the intent of facilitating its understanding. Models of communication refer to the conceptual model used to explain the human communication process. The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Shannon and Warren Weaver. Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).Traditionally speaking, there are three standard models of the communication process: Linear, Interactive, and Transactional, and each offers a slightly different perspective on the communication process. Linear Model The linear model views communication as a one-way or linear process in which the speaker speaks and the listener listens. Laswell’s (1948) model was based on the five questions below, which effectively describe how communication works: The main flaw in the linear model is that it depicts communication as a one-way process where speakers only speak and never listen. It also implies that listeners listen and never speak or send messages. Interactive Model Schramm (1955) in Wood (2009) came out with a more interactive model that saw the receiver or listener providing feedback to the sender or speaker. The speaker or sender of the message also listens to the feedback given by the receiver or listener. Both the speaker and the listener take turns to speak and listen to each other. Feedback is given either verbally or non-verbally, or in both ways. This model also indicates that the speaker and listener communicate better if they have common fields of experience, or fields which overlap Source: Wood, J. T. (2009). Communication in our lives (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson-Wadsworth The main drawback in the interactive model is that it does not indicate that communicators can both send and receive messages simultaneously. This model also fails to show that communication is a dynamic process which changes over time. Transactional Model The transactional model shows that the elements in communication are interdependent. Each person in the communication act is both a speaker and a listener, and can be simultaneously sending and receiving messages. There are three implications in the transactional model: i. “Transactional” means that communication is an ongoing and continuously changing process. You are changing, the people with whom you are communicating are changing, and your environment is also continually changing as well. ii. In any transactional process, each element exists in relation to all the other elements. There is this interdependence where there can be no source without a receiver and no message without a source. iii. Each person in the communication process reacts depending on factors such as their background, prior experiences, attitudes, cultural beliefs and self-esteem. Transactional model of communication takes into account “noise” or interference in communication as well as the time factor. The outer lines of the model indicate that communication happens within systems that both communicators share (e.g., a common campus, hometown, and culture) or personal systems (e.g., family, religion, friends, etc). It also takes into account changes that happen in the communicators’ fields of personal and common experiences. The model also labels each communicator as both sender as well as receiver simultaneously. ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION There are models which try to explain the communication process. A model is an explanation of the occurrences in a phenomenon. Elements of communication have been explained in different models which attempt to explain the communication process. Communication is a two-way process that results in a shared meaning or common understanding between the sender and the receiver. An understanding of how communication works can help us to understand and improve our communication. The elements of communication enable us to understand how communication works. The basic communication model consists of five elements of communication: the sender, the receiver, the message, the channel and feedback. These are the elements of communication and are explained below: Source /Sender This is the originating point of any communication act. It is the source who gets the urge that necessitates communication for the purpose of satisfying that urge. The stronger the stimulus or the urge the greater is the need to communicate. The greater the need to communicate, the more the need is for effectiveness. The source is also referred to as the sender, or encoder. Encoding is the process of putting ones thoughts into words. Encoder is the person who translates his/her thoughts into meaningful words. Receiver The receiver means the party to whom the sender transmits the message. A receiver can be one person or an entire audience of people. A receiver is the eventual recipient of the message. The receiver is also the decoder of the message. Decoding of a message is as integral to communication as encoding it. Decoding is the process of giving meaning to the encoded message. It can also be referred to as extracting the embedded meaning or interpreting what was encoded by the sender. The ability of the receiver in decoding the message correctly is decisive in understanding the message in its holistic sense. Noise/ Barriers Anything that is competing the source’s and the receivers’ attention is called noise. Barriers to communication are the factors that contribute towards the total or partial loss or failure of the communication. In simple terms they can be referred to as those features that act as blocks to the desired outcome of any communication process. They are many and very multidimensional in nature. Noise can be internal or external. a) Internal: Noise that is coming from within the interlocutors such as a headache, anger, stress, e.t.c b) External noise: Noise from the environment such as; cars passing, children shouting, siren from an ambulance e.t.c. Message The message is the most crucial element of effective communication. A message can come in many different forms, such as an oral presentation, a written document, an advertisement or just a comment. The message is not necessarily what the sender intends it to be. Rather, the message is what the receiver perceives the message to be. As a result, the sender must not only compose the message carefully, but also evaluate the ways in which the message can be interpreted. Channel The message travels from one point to another via a channel of communication. The channel sits between the sender and receiver. There are many channels, or types, of communication channels for example, from the spoken word to radio, television, an Internet site or something written, like a book, letter or magazine. Every channel of communication has its advantages and disadvantages. For example, one disadvantage of the written word, on a computer screen or in a book is that the receiver cannot evaluate the tone of the message. For this reason, effective communicators word written communications clearly so they don't rely on a specific tone of voice to convey the message accurately. The advantages of television as a channel for communication include its expansive reach to a wide audience and the sender's ability to further manipulate the message using editing and special effects. Feedback The last element of effective communication is feedback. This is the response from the receiver and later the source. Feedback is the receiver's response or reaction to the sender's message. The receiver can transmit feedback through asking questions, making comments or just supporting the message that was delivered. Feedback helps the sender to determine how the receiver interpreted the message and how it can be improved. Without feedback the communication process breaks down. The feedback given determines the direction the communication process will take. A communication process that employs all the elements works as follows: The source has an urge–a need that requires being satisfied encodes the message in verbal and/or non-verbal language that is considered to best communicate the message according to the intent.. In order to make that happen, it has to be in a form and format that conveys the intent in the best possible manner. This message is encapsulated in the linguistic conventions such as symbols i.e., words besides signs that can be referred to as non-verbal language. The message will go through a channel, a means of communication such as e-mail, face to face or phone conversation, letter, presentation etc. The receiver will then decode the message using conventions, cultural or contextual background, and language skills. The message that is received or interpreted might or might not be the same as the sent one and may not necessarily meet the intent of the messenger. THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS The communication process is relatively simple and is divided into three basic components: a sender, a channel, and a receiver. The sender will initiate the communication process by developing an idea into a message. This is also known as encoding. The sender will then transmit the message through a channel, or a method of delivery; think of things like e-mail, phone conversations, instant messages, face-to-face discussion, or even a text message. The message then moves through the channel to the receiver, who completes the communication process by interpreting and assigning meaning to the message, which is also known as decoding . Now, since most communication exchanges involve a continued dialogue between senders and receivers, a feedback loop was added to the communication process. Although I know some of you wish your spouse would forget about this at times, the feedback loop is a critical component in the communication process because it ensures a message was properly received and interpreted by the other party. In the workplace, feedback is especially significant so that a manager can be certain the messages that he or she sends are, in fact, received and interpreted correctly, eliciting the appropriate action from subordinates Functions/Importance of communication Human beings communicate for various reasons. Here are some of the reasons why we must communicate: 1. To change in behavior 2. To influence others 3. To express our thoughts and emotions through words & actions. 4. It is a tool for controlling and motivating people. 5. It is a social and emotional process. 6. Communication for improving self-confidence 7. Entertain 8. Educate 9. Establish relationships 10. Inform 11. Solve problems 12. Make orders 13. Give directions One-Way Communication In one-way communication, information is transferred in one direction only, from the sender to the receiver. There isn't any opportunity for the receiver to give feedback to the sender. Bob is going out of town on a weekend business trip this morning. He wants his secretary to order lunch for the executive board meeting next week. As Bob heads out the door, he jots down a note for his secretary and leaves it on her desk. The model of one-way communication looks like this: Sender (Bob)-----------> Message (Order lunch) ---------> Receiver (Secretary) One-way communication is frequently used when the sender wants to give factual information or when they want to persuade or manipulate their audience and gain their cooperation. Disadvantages of one-way communication Lack of Feedback There are numerous instances in which one-way communication eliminates opportunities for important feedback. Employee evaluations should include two-way conversations rather than just one-way performance assessments, for example, according to the Robert Half company. In a traditional review, a manager shares scores and advise with employees. This scenario eliminates opportunities for the employee to assess his own performance and for the manager to gain insights on how to properly motivate him. In a work team with strong experts , a manager who applies only one-way communication will struggle to draw out new ideas and discussion among team members on the merits of those ideas. Harm Employee Morale A major indirect pitfall of only using one-way communication is the potential for damaged employee morale. When workers don't have the ability to share insights or feedback, they may feel stifled, inhibited and unappreciated Two-way communication Two-way communication is a form of transmission in which both parties involved transmit information. Two-Way communication has also been referred to as interpersonal communication. Common forms of two-way communication are: Amateur Radio, CB or FRS radio contacts. Chat rooms and Instant Messaging. Computer networks . In-person communication. Telephone conversations. Advantages of two way communication Allows instant feedback Seeking for clarification and interaction between sender and receiver is possible. Communication is quick and effective. Levels of communication 1. Intrapersonal (Within a person) 2. Interpersonal (Face to face) 3. Mass communication Intrapersonal Communication Intrapersonal communication is also known as self-talk or thinking, and refers to the ways we communicate with ourselves. We use intrapersonal communication to plan our lives, rehearse scenarios before we act them out, and tell ourselves what to do or not do. The way we communicate with ourselves greatly affects our self-esteem. A person who tells himself, "I'm so stupid" when he fails an exam will likely have poorer self-esteem than someone who thinks, "I did really well on the previous four exams. I must have just been having an off day, and I'll do better next time." Interpersonal Communication Interpersonal communication is the communication we have with other people. This type of communication varies from highly impersonal to extremely personal. The degree to which we communicate, or fail to communicate, with others influences how our relationships with them develop, continue or come to an end. Public Communication Public communication refers to public speeches that we deliver in front of audiences. Public communication serves three main purposes: to entertain, to persuade and/or to inform. It is different from other forms of interaction in that it requires greater levels of planning and preparation on the part of the speaker and involves less direct interaction. Audience members still interact with the speaker via mostly nonverbal symbols, but there is a lesser degree of give and take than there is in one-on-one conversations. Mass Communication Mass communication refers to any type of media that is used to communicate with mass audiences. Examples of mass media include books, television, radios, films, computer technologies, magazines and newspapers. Although mass communication does include certain computer technologies, it does not include technologies like email that are used to communicate one-on-one with someone. Mass communication is responsible for giving us views of events, issues and people from cultures that differ from ours. It enables us to learn what is going on in distant places in the world and lets us learn the viewpoints of people and cultures with whom we do not have direct contact Forms/Types of Communicating Verbal Communication All forms of communication can be categorized as either verbal or nonverbal. Both verbal and nonverbal communication can be subdivided into either vocal or non-vocal. Verbal communication involves using speech to exchange information with others. We usually communicate verbally in face-to-face conversations such as; meetings, interviews, conferences, speeches, phone calls e.t.c. Much of the communication that takes place between people is both verbal and non-verbal; that is, it is based on language and gestures. Verbal communication of the vocal category includes spoken language, while non-vocal verbal communication involves written communication as well as communication, that is transmitted through sign language, finger spelling, Braille, or other similar alternatives to verbal language. Written Communication Written communication involves any type of interaction that makes use of the written word. Communication is a key to any endeavor involving more than one person. Communicating through writing is essential in the modern world and is becoming ever more so as we participate in what is now commonly called the information age. In fact, written communication is the most common form of business communication. It is essential for small business owners and managers to develop effective written communication skills and to encourage the same in all employees. The information age has altered the ways in which we communicate and placed an increasing emphasis on written versus oral communications. Paraverbal/paralinguistic/ paralanguage features Paralinguistic or paralanguage features are the aspects of spoken communication that do not involve words. They add emphasis or shades of meaning to what people say. Paralinguistic features accompany verbal communication and are the vocal signals beyond the basic verbal message. Paralinguistic elements in a person's speech, convey meaning beyond the words and grammar used. Examples of paralinguistic features include pitch, rate, quality of voice and amplitude. Other forms of paralanguage can also include laughter or imitative speech. Prosody, which is the rhythm, pattern, stress, rate, volume, inflection and intonation of a person's speech, is also a form of paralanguage. People express meaning not just in what they say but in the way they say it. The paralinguistic features employed by a speaker provide hint to the meaning, communicate the speakers’ attitudes and convey their emotion. Paralinguistic features also alert the listener as to how to interpret the message. Many of these paralinguistic features are culturally coded and inherent in verbal communication, often at a subconscious level. Non-Verbal Non-verbal communication is a type of communication that employs gestures and body language. The term "body language" is sometimes used to denote non-verbal communications. "Body Language" is the communication of personal feelings, emotions, attitudes, and thoughts through body-movements such as gestures, postures, facial expressions, touch, smell, walking styles and positions among others. These movements can be done either consciously or involuntarily; more often they ‘happen’ subconsciously, and are accompanied, or not accompanied, by words. There are basically three elements in any face-to-face communication. These three elements account differently for the meaning of the message:  Words account for 7%  Tone of voice accounts for 38% and  Body language accounts for 55% of the message. Our body language and tone of voice should be consistent with the words we use. This is only possible when we say what we mean to say and say it rightly. Otherwise we can confuse people and reduce the prospect of getting our message across to be understood. Non-verbal communication can lead to misunderstandings, communication failure and even conflicts if the interlocutors are careless. Non-verbal communication includes: (P)OSTURES & GESTURES (E)EYE CONTACT (O)RIENTATION (P)RESENTATION (L)OOKS (E)PRESSIONS OF EMOTION Body language and kinesics are based on the behavioral patterns of non-verbal communication. Body language can actually contradict verbal communications and reveal our inner feelings about any particular person or topic either intentionally or unintentionally. The way in which you fold your arms, cross your legs, sit, stand, walk, move your head, eyes, lips reveal what you may be thinking or feeling. For example, you may be sitting and conversing with a person; suddenly, he leans forward and with both arms clutches the chair. By doing so he non-verbally communicates to you his desire to end the meeting. Body language has shed new light on the dynamics of relationships. Hands Gestures Hands and arms are used by most of us to communicate our thoughts. People rub arms together, keep their arms closed, and clinch the fists. All these tell what the person has in his mind involuntary. It is a way that people non-verbally communicate positive expectations. Hands clenched together seems to be a confident gesture as some people who use it are often smiling and sound happy. However, if the hands are clenched too tightly, it is indicative of frustration or hostile attitude. Eye Gestures/facial expression Facial expression, offers the most readily observable group of gestures. We focus our eyes on the face more often than on any other part of the body, and the expressions we see there have widely accepted meanings. If a prospect's eyes are downcast and face turned away, you're being shut out, however, if the mouth move, he is probably considering your presentation. If his eyes engage yours for several seconds at a time with a slight, one-sided smile extending at least to nose level, he is weighing your proposal. It is only when you see 'eye to eye' with another person that a real basis for communication can be established. Other forms of nonverbal communication include: Touch, smell, distance. The number of people in a communication situation affects the use of non-verbal communication. The more the persons involved, the more complex the use and understanding of the non-verbal communication becomes. However, to decipher the non-verbal communication it is important to see, interpret and understand them holistically and in a context, while identifying the different types of personalities involved. Importance of Non- Verbal Communication 1. Repetition – They can reinforce what is already being said 2. Contradiction – They can contradict the message and make the speaker seem untruthful 3. Substitution – They can take the place of words 4. Complementing – They can compliment a verbal message, for instance, a pat on the back 5. Accenting – They can underline a certain point in the message Communication Barriers 1. Physiological Barriers Physiological barriers may result from individuals' personal discomfort, caused, for example, by ill health, poor eye sight, or hearing difficulties. These may also affect one’s personality in many different and mostly negative ways. This can best be handled by working on developing a positive perception as certain physiological features contributing to barriers may not be curable. 2. Physical Barriers Physical barriers include:  Office doors, barrier screens, separate areas for people of different status  Large working areas or working in one unit that is physically separate from others.  Distance Research shows that one of the most important factors in building cohesive teams is proximity. Proximity in different cultures is different and therefore needs to be taken in the right context. It has been observed that people coming from rural backgrounds with more physical space available may not feel comfortable in closed quarters as they tend to have larger personal spaces as compared to people living in urban conditions. This aspect alone can become a significant psychological barrier if they subconsciously feel “threatened” by inadvertent “invasion” of their personal space in case an urbanite approaches them in close proximity considering it as a normal personal space. 3. Cultural Barriers Culture prescribes behavior. Humans can adapt to different culture once we come to accept it and appreciate that cultures are different so that we can be recognized from others and that no specific connotations need to be attached to one culture or the other. 4. Language Barriers Language that describes what we want to say in our terms may present barriers to others who are not familiar with our expressions, buzz-words, and jargon. When we couch our communication in such language, it is a way of excluding others. In a global setting the greatest compliment we can pay another person is to talk in their language. 5. Interpersonal Barriers Withdrawal is an absence of interpersonal contact. It is both refusals to be in touch with others. 6. Psychological Barriers There are 3 types of psychological barriers would be discussed as they are the most common ones. a. Perceptual barriers b. Emotional Barriers, and c. Experiential barriers. Perceptual barriers The problem with communicating with others is that we all see the world differently. A bad experience would perceptually block out unpleasant things. This could be in the shape of avoiding it and if that is not possible by altering the behaviors i.e., response types in different ways. Similarly, retention filters out things that feel good, and gives the tendency to forget those things that are painful. It is very interesting to note that how our experiences taint or color our perceptions. Perceptual barriers can significantly alter our understanding and thus affect our communication. They are deep rooted and work in conjunction with our experiences. Emotional barriers One of the other chief psychological barriers to open and free communication is the emotional barrier. It is comprised mainly of fear, mistrust, and suspicion. As mentioned earlier the roots of our emotional mistrust of others lie in our childhood and infancy when we were taught to be careful what we said to others. Experiential barriers Experiential barriers on the other hand become barriers by virtue of not having experienced them leading to altered interpretation and comprehension. Our experience shapes our view of the world. For example, when children experience trauma at the hands of trusted adults (especially family members) their emotional link with the adult world is severed, creating distrust. They are left with three companions: guilt, fear and feelings of inferiority. 7.Stereotypes Stereotypes are widely circulated ideas or assumptions about particular groups. Stereotypes are usually negative attitudes which people use to justify discrimination of conflict against others. According to Pennington (1986) " there are two characteristics of stereotypes 1. People are categorized on the basis of very visible characteristics e.g. race, nationality, sex, dress and bodily appearance; 2. All members of a particular group are assumed to have the same characteristics; and The effects of stereotyping are seen as gross over simplified and over generalized descriptions. They operate to overestimate differences existing between groups and under estimate differences within groups. Stereotypes distort reality since the over estimation between groups and under estimation within groups bear little relation to the truth. Stereotyping acts as a barrier to communication because people make pre-conceived judgment about people which are unfounded if their character does not relate to their appearance. Stereotyping has a halo effect. Halo effect is the use of a single attribute to describe a person or object fully. For example, if a person is friendly we may use this attribute to assume that they are punctual and good at their job. Another important aspect of stereotyping is perception. 8. Authority Barriers to communication for one reason or the other often get neglected. Knowing them is synonymous to knowing about one’s own barriers sprouting out of one’s personality. Barriers to communication can lead to misunderstanding and confusion. How to be a good communicator To be a good communicator, one needs to: a) Express own reflections and ideas clearly b) Develop relationships c) Provide feedback (answers, reacts) d) Be open to others’ feedback (accept others answer without prejudice, references etc. e) Respect attitudes and opinions of others f) Be tolerant to different customs and cultures g) Give full attention to people while they are talking to you. h) Encourage other people to talk, and ask appropriate questions. i) Present your ideas so that others are receptive to your point of view. j) Treat people fairly and let others know how you want to be treated. k) Value teamwork and know how to build cooperation and commitment. l) Strive to understand other people and to be empathetic. m) Be able to easily win people’s trust and respect. n) Check to make sure you have understood what other people are trying to communicate. o) Follow through on your commitments. p) Be able to work with people you have difficulties with without becoming negative. Effective Communication Although we can all communicate, not all our communication acts are effective. We must all strive to be effective communicators. So, what is effective communication? This is that communication which produces results. It is communication where the intended message is delivered clearly, and the desired feedback is achieved. It is communication that does not give room for misunderstanding. It is the best form of communication. Communication can be effective or it can be misunderstood leading to ineffectiveness. Meaning communication must be effective. Ineffective communication is expensive to the participants because it blocks results. In other words communication is a matter of effectiveness. . Effective communication therefore results in the form of desired outcome. Effective Communication is communication that conveys information to another person efficiently and effectively and so achieves desired outcome. It is important to note that not all communication are effective. This course aims to help the learners to become effective communicators both at the university and later in their professional fields. Communication is a process that can be marked with error such as with messages muddled (i.e., mixed up by the sender, or misinterpreted by the recipient). Miscommunication is avoidable. However, if this is not detected, it can cause tremendous confusion, waste efforts and miss opportunities. In fact, communication is successful only when both the sender and the receiver reach a common understanding regarding the same information as a result of the communication process. Effective communication is about receiving information from others with as little distortion as possible. Communication is a matter of effectiveness, which is dependent on the interlocutors’ (speakers’) communication competency. In other words its effectiveness is dependent on one’s competency in communication. We can therefore say that communication involves intents and efforts from both the sender of the message and the receiver. Effective Communication Skills Effective Communication skills must include: communicating using  Eye contact & visible mouth  Body language  Silence  Checking for understanding  Smiling face  Summarizing what has been said  Encouragement to continue  Asking some questions The 7 Cs of Communication The 7 Cs provide a checklist for making sure that your meetings, emails, conference calls, reports, and presentations are well constructed and clear so your audience gets your message. According to the 7Cs, communication needs to be:  Clear.  Concise.  Concrete.  Correct.  Coherent.  Complete.  Courteous. 1. Clear When writing or speaking to someone, be clear about your goal or message. What is your purpose in communicating with this person? If you’re not sure, then your audience won’t be sure either. To be clear, try to minimize the number of ideas in each sentence. Make sure that it’s easy for your reader to understand your meaning. People shouldn’t have to “read between the lines” and make assumptions on their own to understand what you’re trying to say. 2. Concise When you are concise in your communication, you stick to the point and keep it brief. Your audience doesn’t want to read six sentences when you could communicate your message in three. 3. Concrete When your message is concrete, then your audience has a clear picture of what you’re telling them. There are details (but not too many!) and vivid facts. Your message is solid. Look at these two examples: For Example: a) The Lunchbox Wizard will save you time every day. b) How much time do you spend every day packing your kids’ lunches? No more! Just take a complete Lunchbox Wizard from your refrigerator each day to give your kids a healthy lunch AND have more time to play or read with them! 4.Correct When your communication is correct, it fits your audience. And correct communication is also error free communication. 5.Coherent When your communication is coherent, it’s logical. All points are connected and relevant to the main topic, and the tone and flow of the text is consistent. 6.Complete In a complete message, the audience has everything they need to be informed and, if applicable, take action. Does your message include a “call to action”, so that your audience clearly knows what you want them to do? Have you included all relevant information – contact names, dates, times, locations, and so on? 7.Courteous/consideration Courteous communication is friendly, open, and honest and does not illicit emotions. There are no hidden insults or passive aggressive tones. You keep your reader’s viewpoint in mind, and you’re empathetic to their needs. You must always put yourself in the shoes of the person you are talking to and ask yourself how you would feel if you were to be addressed the way you are addressing your receiver. Consideration in communication creates a healthy work environment. Patterns of Communication in an Organization. In an organization there are mainly four types of communication channels. They are : 1. Vertical Communication 2. Horizontal Communication 3. Diagonal Communication 4. Grapevine Communication While the first three channels of communication are formal ways, the last one is an informal way of communication. Vertical Communication Vertical communication can be divided into two categories i.e. upward communication and downward communication. Downward communication refers to communication that flows from the superior authority to the subordinate authority or from the higher level to the lower level. It is the most important direction of communication and the very nature of the organisation. No organisation can function without it. Downward communication is mostly used give instructions - both written and spoken, letters, memorandum, policy matters, speeches, meeting, information etc. Upward communication refers to communication that flows from the subordinate to the superior or from the lower level to the upper level. It is mainly used by employees to give feedback about various responsibilities and also to give suggestion about how the task was executed. It includes reports, proposals, suggestions, grievances, etc Horizontal Communication When communication takes place between two or more persons who are subordinates working in the same section or department, it is called as horizontal communication. It is one of the most frequently used channels of communication to maintain coordination between people of the same section or level. In this process message flows not only up and down but also sideways. During such interactions the views of each other are made known and decisions are arrived quickly. Here we find no superior or subordinate relationship. Diagonal Communication It includes the horizontal flow of information as well as interaction across different levels of an organisation's hierarchy. Diagonal communication is used to speed up the flow of communication. It makes effective efforts for achieving organisational goals. Grapevine Communication Grapevine communication is a type of informal business communications which develops within an organisation. It means gossip. Usually gossip that spreads and covers a lot of ground (a lot of people) like vines do. However there are disadvantages or limitations to grapevine communication. It has the potential to spread unnecessary gossips.It can be dangerous to the organisation if allowed to grow without monitoring. It may result in character assassination and personal vilification of individuals. It may provoke sudden unwanted and unexpected reactions from emotionally unstable people. Grapevine channel can be moderated but not eliminated. LISTENING SKILLS "We were given two ears but only one mouth, because listening is twice as hard as talking." Listeners must first hear what is said. Listening skills involve identifying and selecting relevant points recognized as having meaning; that are understood and held in short-term memory. These can be related to what has gone before and to what comes after. Any information considered important is selected and stored for future reference in the long term memory” Decoding (understanding) a message is generally easier for the listener if a person is speaking rather than reading something out loud. In addition the speaker's facial expressions, and the stress placed on words help the listener to understand the message. Developing effective listening skills involves two specific steps (Hartley &Bruckman, 2002). These are: 1. To develop the ability to recognize and deal with barriers that prevents you listening with full attention. 2. To develop and use behaviors which help you to listen. Such behaviors can also serve to let the other person know that you are giving them your full attention. Listening is the absorption of the meanings of words and sentences by the brain. Listening leads to the understanding of facts and ideas. To listen is to pay attention, or sticking to the task at hand in spite of distractions. It requires concentration, which is the focusing of your thoughts upon one particular problem. A person who incorporates listening with concentration is actively listening. Active listening is a method of responding to another that encourages communication. Active listening is composed of six distinct components Hearing: The physiological process of receiving sound and/or other stimuli. Attending: The conscious and unconscious process of focusing attention on external stimuli. Interpreting: The process of decoding the symbols or behavior attended to. Evaluating: The process of deciding the value of the information to the receiver. Remembering: The process of placing the appropriate information into short-term or long-term storage. Responding: The process of giving feedback to the source and/or other receivers. Barriers to Listening The following list identifies just some possible barriers to effective listening; 1. sources of noise 2. Forming a judgment or evaluation before we understand what is being said, or ‘jumping to conclusions’. 3. Hearing what we want to hear. 4. Tuning out a point of view that differs from our own. 5. Formulating and rehearsing our response. 6. Being inattentive - thinking about something else entirely. 7. Having a closed mind- you do not want to hear what the person has to say. 8. Feeling anxious or self-conscious. 9. Judging the person, either positively or negatively. 10. Subjective biases based on ignorance or prejudice. 11. Cultural issues, e.g. listening to the differences in pronunciation of different accent, rather than the content of the message. 12. Excessive and incessant talking or interrupting. It is important that such barriers to listening are recognized and dealt with. With developing awareness, we can have more control over those barriers that are internal to ourselves, and can adopt and use more helpful listening behaviors. LISTENING EFFECTIVELY TIPS Listening effectively is hearing and understanding what a speaker is saying and how it applies to you, and then remembering it for future use and evaluation. There are ways to improve your listening skills for lectures. The following is a list of some basic techniques: 1. Recognize how ideas are organized. Lectures usually begin with some type of introduction, followed by a thesis statement which is supported by additional information. Most professors bring closure to their lecture by summarizing what they have covered. Learn to identify the lecture style that is used by your professor. 2. Become involved in what is being said. Be an avid listener. Constantly analyze what is being said. 3. Cut through (or screen out) distractions. • background noise • unusual accents, dialects, and language mistakes • speaker disorganization, emotion, or habits • unrelated material • your own inner voice 4. Organize statements into main points and supporting reasons. Using an outline form may be helpful. 5. Discriminate between relevancies and irrelevancies. Remember that not all information is important. 6. Maintain an active body state. Keeping alert and having eye-contact with the speaker will help you listen more effectively. In order to improve your listening skills, you will need to practice using the suggested techniques until they become automatic READING SKILLS What is READING? Reading means to CONSTRUCT MEANING FROM TEXT. READING IS A PROCESS THAT MUST INCLUDE THINKING BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER READING. We read in order to MEANING and UNDERSTANDING. The correct READING SPEED is the one that gets you that meaning and understanding. Reading is an art form and good readers do certain things that get them the meaning that the process is designed to extract. How to improve your comprehension during reading: 1. Begin from what you already know (activating prior knowledge). 2. Always try to make sense of what you are reading (context). 3. Ask yourself questions; before, during and after reading. 4. Predict and think about what will happen next in the text, or how your questions will be answered. 5. Read with a purpose. Know why you are reading and what you are reading to find out. 6. Know that as a good reader you often REREAD parts of, or even, the whole text two or more times in order to make sense of what you are reading. The SQ4R Method of reading effectively SQ4R is a flexible reading strategy because it engages the reader during each phase of the reading process. Readers preview/SURVEY (S) the text material to develop predictions and set the purpose for the reading by generating QUESTIONS (Q) about the topic. They READ (1R) actively, searching for answers to those questions. They monitor their comprehension as they summarize WRITE (2R) & RECITE (3R). They evaluate their comprehension through REVIEW (4R) activities. Two general learning components must be addressed as you begin the reading process and the SQ4R method will activate them: First, place the reading in CONTEXT. What is the reading about and do you have any prior knowledge about this subject to help you extract the meaning that you are looking for? The SURVEY and SYSTEMATIC reading puts this process into motion. You get an overview that will "jog your memory" as you search for prior knowledge on the subject. Ask questions about what you don't know. Make the questions simple and general if you don't have much prior knowledge and more specific if this is an area of study that is familiar to you. Using these questions will GUIDE YOUR SPEED AND COMPREHENSION as you attempt to answer them. REMEMBER, THE STUDENT THAT IS ENGAGED IN READING IS MOTIVATED, STRATEGIC, KNOWLEDGEABLE, AND SOCIALLY INTERACTIVE. How to Use SQ4R 1. Survey what you are about to read • Systematic Reading • Think about the title: What do you know about this subject? • What do I want to know? • Glance over headings and/skim the first sentences of paragraphs. • Look at illustrations and graphic aids. • Read the first paragraph. • Read the last paragraph or summary. 2. Question Turn the title and sub-titles into wh-element question. This becomes the major purpose for your reading. • Write down any questions that come to mind during the survey. • Turn headings into questions. • Turn subheadings, illustrations, and graphic aids into questions. • Write down unfamiliar vocabulary and determine the meaning. 3. Read Actively • Read to search for answers to the questions set. • Respond to objectives and use context clues for unfamiliar words. • React to unclear passages, confusing terms, and questionable statements by generating additional questions. 4. Recite • Look away from the answers and the book to recall what was read. • Recite answers to the questions aloud or in writing. • Reread text for unanswered questions. 5. wRite • Make "maps" for yourself. • Reduce the information • Reread or skim to locate and prove your points. • Write down the key terms and ideas in outline form. • Always read/question/recite before marking or taking down notes. • Check yourself against the text. Correct and add to your answer. 6. Review • Answer the major purpose questions. • Look over answers and all parts of the chapter to organize the information. • Summarize the information learned by creating a graphic organizer (concept map) that depicts the main ideas, by drawing a flow chart, by writing a summary, • You can also summarize by participating in a group discussion, or by writing an explanation of how this material has changed your perceptions or applies to your life. STUDY SKILLS To succeed in your studies at the college you must study. Studying is revising the notes you took during lectures, and reading text books with the aim of understanding better what you are reading. For better understanding, it is important that you as a student come up with a study plan that works best for you. We are going to discuss some of the study plans and study tips that will help you to study better and gain good grades at the end of your undergraduate studies. Study tips Prepare a study timetable 1. Draw up a study timetable (see samples below) and block in all activities, work, lectures, and any household or other responsibilities you may have. Include meal times and travel time. Be realistic. This should be an actual timetable, which is possible, not some ideal that can never be achieved. Make enough copies to cover all the weeks leading up to exams or assessment. 2. Work out your most effective study times. When do you study best? Morning, afternoon or evening? 3. Consider: Which subjects need the most study and revision? Estimate how many hours you think you need for each subject and try to match this with the hours available in your weekly planner. 4. Block in some study times, preferably 2-4 hours at a time, with 5-10 minutes’ break every 40-50 minutes. 5. Start at exam periods or due dates for assignments and work backwards, blocking in more study time in the relevant subject closer to the exam/due date. Make sure that you prepare for each exam over several days and don’t fill up the last few days too heavily. Also put in any events which may affect your study times, such as birthdays, social events and work functions. 6. You may want to plan in detail for each study session. Write down which lecture/topic/text you will be researching/ reviewing. This way, you can ensure that you will cover all the required information in the times you have allocated. Consider: What do I want to achieve in this session? (eg: summary/ notes / list of definitions/ language exercise/ essay plan/ list of resources/ timeline). Where will I need to study? Do I need access to a computer/ the internet/ the library? 7. If you have some smaller amounts of time available for study, consider how they could be used: skim reading an article, proofing a draft, sorting a bibliography, organizing reference cards, etc. Travel time on public transport can also be used for reading. Start using your study timetable. See how well it works. What did you leave out? It can be changed as you go, but do this consciously: look at what is not working, which areas you need more time in and change the timetable. This is much better than just throwing the timetable away. Then you can be sure that you will still cover all the material you need to.  Establish your prime study time Your prime study time(PST) is that time when your concentration is at its highest. Everyone has a PST and they all know it. That is why some people wake up early in the morning to study(Such people their PST is early morning) while some stay up late to study. Study the subject you are having trouble with during your PST.  Find a suitable room with comfortable furniture and good lighting  Set a regular time to study  Remove distractions  Avoid clutter Clutter is anything that will distract you from reading what you had scheduled to read. Clutter includes books from other subjects, e.g. if you are studying Literature, then mathematics, Biology and other subject books are clutter because they can distract you from reading. Newspapers and story books are also clutter.  Record assignments in an assignment book or on a calendar  Take notes in class and review them regularly  Make ONE minute act as TWO minutes Anytime you have to wait for something read your short notes. You will be able to kill two birds with one stone. You will be able to do two things at the same time: wait as you read for example, When in the bus going to school, read your short notes. When you are in the restaurant waiting to be served, read your short notes.  Study for tests TYPES OF STUDY PLANS It is important to note that there are other study plans that a student can use, but we are choosing to focus on these because we feel that they are the most applicable to our students. They can all be used simultaneously by one student. 1. Preview Preview is reading about the topic you are going to be lectured on before the lecture. You are often given a course outline beforehand so that it can help you in previewing. Preview gives you an upper hand because you will be able to follow and understand what the lecturer is talking about. It enhances your chances of retaining what is taught. Remember knowledge starts from known to unknown. You can also preview notes from the previous lecture so that you can understand the link between the previous lecture and the current lecture. 2. Studying with Breaks Studying with Breaks also called spaced study is a very good technique for studying. It involves studying for a period then taking a short break followed by another study session. For example, you can study for 2 hours then take a 0minute break followed by another 1 hour of study. Spaced study is good because if used well the student will be able to lock what they are studying in their long term memory (LTM) during the breaks. The breaks act as a reward. Humans thrive when they are rewarded. Your mind will also appreciate the reward. During the breaks reflect on what you have studied. Do not use the breaks negatively. 3. Group Study Studying with a group of your friends can be both a fun and rewarding study method. For effective studying, it is important that you choose your group members wisely and follow a few rules. Study groups should:  Not be the sole method of study and they are not for everyone  Be a form of ‘active learning’ – the strongest kind of learning  Not let one member of the group dominate  Meet no more than 2-3 times a week  Establish responsibilities for each group member  Design rules dealing with respect for each member  Provide contact information for group members Importance of study groups  Help you and your group members: o See the material from a different perspective o Stay motivated and commit more time to study o Share/compare notes and study tips o Engage in discussions and debates on selected topics o Pick up new tips and material from your peers o Quiz each other on factual material Reference Gopal, N, (2009) Business Communication. New Delhi: New Age International Publishers. Sillars, S. (2001) Success in Communication. London: John Murray. Hasson, Gill. Brilliant Communication Skills. Great Britain: Pearson Education, 2012. Hughes, Shirley. Professional Presentations: A Practical Guide to the Preparation and Performance of Successful Business Presentations. Sydney: McGraw-Hill, 1990 Kratz, Abby Robinson. Effective Listening Skills. Toronto: ON: Irwin Professional Publishing, 1995. Kroehnert, Gary. Basic Presentation Skills. Sidney: McGraw Hill, 2010. Lesikar, Raymond V and Marie E. Flatley. Basic Business Communication: Skills for Empowering the Internet Generation: Ninth Edition. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill, 2002. Lesikar, Raymond V., & John D. Pettit, Jr. Report Writing for Business: Tenth Edition. Delhi: McGraw-Hill, 1998. Monippally, Matthukutty, M. Business Communication Strategies. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd., 2001. WANDERA HARRISON