Isaiah 56-66 Trito Isaiah

Isaiah 56–66 Isaiah 56–66 Andreas Schüle The Oxford Handbook of Isaiah Edited by Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer Print Publication Date: Jan 2021 Subject: Religion, Judaism, Christianity, Literary and Textual Studies Online Publication Date: Oct 2020 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190669249.013.8 Abstract and Keywords This chapter discusses the redaction history and theological message of Isa 56–66 (Third Isaiah). It makes a case for essentially two core compositions that each contains a theo­ logically consistent message of prophetic criticism and future promise. The first composi­ tion—comprising Isa 58:1–59:21 (prophetic criticism) and Isa 60:1–62:12 (messianic age) —depicts the salvation that the people of Israel may obtain if they heed God’s voice. In many ways this is reminiscent of the prophetic criticism that one finds in the Book of the Twelve (Amos and Hosea in particular). Likewise, the second core composition—compris­ ing Isa 63:7–64:11 (self-accusation) and Isa 65:1–25; 66:1–24 (new heaven and earth)— promises salvation to those who remain faithful to God’s commands. Keywords: Trito-Isaiah, redaction criticism, Bernhard Duhm, social criticism, Sabbath, Zion, prayer, repentance, lament, Yehud 7.1. History of Research THE technical term “Third Isaiah” (or Trito-Isaiah) was coined in the late nineteenth cen­ tury by the Swiss scholar Bernhard Duhm, who was at the time one of the leading experts in the field of prophetic literature.1 According to Duhm, the book of Isaiah owes its exis­ tence to three individual prophets: the historical Isaiah of Jerusalem, who lived in the sec­ ond half of the eighth century BCE; a nameless prophet (“Second Isaiah”), who witnessed the downfall of the Babylonian Empire and the return of the exiled Jews to their home­ land; and a student of this Second Isaiah, who prophesied to the generations after the re­ turn from exile. While Duhm supports a one-prophet hypothesis for Isa 56–66, he also recognizes the par­ ticular character of these chapters as a literary composition. More specifically, he sees two sections: Isa 56–60* and Isa 61–65(66)*.2 The first begins with the famous promise of salvation for foreigners and eunuchs and ends with the great vision of people streaming to Zion in Isa 60. The broadening of the perspective, along with the possibility of expand­ Page 1 of 16 PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). © Oxford University Press, 2018. All Rights Reserved. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in Oxford Handbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 08 October 2020 Isaiah 56–66 ing the people of God to include individuals and groups that do not belong to Israel by ge­ netic descent, frames this composition, at the center of which stands the critique of Israel (Isa 57–59). The second section opens with the appearance of the messianic spirit-bearer (Isa 61:1–3) and closes with the announcement of the new heaven and the new earth (Isa 65–66). Again, salvation history is the frame, this time around Israel’s confession of sin (Isa 63:7–64:11). In their own ways, both compositions emphasize the contrast between the divine promis­ es and Israel’s dubious suitability as the people of God. Those who followed Duhm kept his perception of two sections, but these sections were increasingly viewed diachronically.3 A different approach was presented by Claus Westermann and Odil (p. 129) Hannes Steck, which is widely regarded as the standard model today.4 The start­ ing point for this model is the dependence of Third Isaiah on Second Isaiah, which Steck sees as centered in Isa 60–62.5 In view of this dependence, he concludes that these chap­ ters originally served as a new ending for Isa 40–55.6 However, Isa 60–62 was then sand­ wiched between materials of different genres and theological content. What was initially seen as a conclusion to Isa 40–55 thus came to be perceived to be the core of its own lit­ erary structure. This relative independence is further illustrated by a framework, which Steck recognizes primarily in Isa 56:1–8 and 65 (with Isa 66 as an ending designed for the book of Isaiah as a whole).7 A critical examination of these models cannot be given here.8 The problem with Steck’s approach may be that it offers a hypothesis that is plausible for the origin of Isa 60–62 but less so for the surrounding texts. Furthermore, it raises the question of why Isa 56–66 follows the development model of independent book with a core and a frame, though for Steck, in contrast to Duhm, Third Isaiah was never an independent piece of literature. 7.2. Two Core Compositions If one examines Third Isaiah for elements of structure and arrangement, duplications be­ come readily apparent.9 For example, there are two passages in which (eschatological) salvation is discussed: Isa 60–62 and Isa 65–66. These two passages parallel each other in that they both connect the final salvation events with Zion. The final age of the world dawns on Mount Zion, which has with repercussions for the whole cosmos. Furthermore, it is striking that there are not only two sections that deal with salvation ex­ pectations but also two that deal with Israel’s guilt. Even with a prevailing hope that Is­ rael will finally find peace in Zion, no attempt is made to disguise the insight that Israel does not (yet) deserve it. In Isa 58:1–59:21, this is expressed in the form of prophetic crit­ icism of both social and cultic issues. In Isa 63:7–64:11, this criticism is articulated in the form of a prayer of repentance by the people, who lay out their failures and insufficien­ cies before God. Viewed in the context Isa 56–66, the passages of criticism and promise form two theologi­ cally consistent compositions: Page 2 of 16 PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). © Oxford University Press, 2018. All Rights Reserved. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in Oxford Handbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 08 October 2020 Isaiah 56–66 Criticism Promise Compo­ sition 1 Isa 58:1–59:21 (prophet­ ic criticism) Isa 60:1–62:12 (messianic age) Compo­ sition 2 Isa 63:7–64:11 (self-accu­ sation) Isa 65:1–25; 66:1–24 (new heaven and earth) Interestingly, Steck already recognized that the promise of a new heaven and a new earth in Isa 65 should be understood as God’s answer to Israel’s prayer of repen­ tance.10 The prayer of repentance is a form of self-accusation to which God (not uncriti­ cally) reacts. (p. 130) This raises the question as to whether one should understand chapters 58–62, too, as such a composition. For reasons that are peculiarly protestant, this approach has rarely been considered. Already Duhm had judged that Third Isaiah showed a marked tendency toward a “works righteousness” and, thus, was a theological step backward from Second Isaiah. According to Duhm, in Third Isaiah, salvation must be earned and purchased, as opposed to the free grace of Second Isaiah.11 Since then, this assessment has been repre­ sented in various forms. According to this understanding, Isa 60–62 contains an uncondi­ tional promise of salvation, whereas the announcements of Isa 58–59 are conditional.12 This divergence is seen as so fundamental that one cannot assume these to be part of a unified planned composition. And yet, what has been seen as “works righteousness” since Duhm could be the actual point of Isa 58–62: Israel should change its ways in order to be ready for the coming salvation, which is exactly what the “headline” in Isa 56:1 says: “Maintain justice, and do what is right, for soon my salvation will come and my deliver­ ance be revealed” (NRSV).13 Overall, it is noteworthy that there are some “red threads” that connect Isa 58–59 and Isa 60–62. Criticism and promise are united by the light-dark metaphor that is characteristic of Isaiah as a whole. Israel’s state is seen as grasping in the dark and as a state of con­ finement and death (Isa 59:9–10):14 Therefore justice is far from us, and righteousness does not reach us; we wait for light, and lo! there is darkness; and for brightness, but we walk in gloom. We grope like the blind along a wall, groping like those who have no eyes; we stumble at noon as in the twilight, among the vigorous as though we were dead. This self-evaluation positively correlates the image of light with the healing that will come with God’s (final) revelation, when the people finally put an end to their injustices (Isa 58:8): Then your light shall break forth like the dawn, and your healing shall spring up quickly; your vindicator shall go before you, the glory of the LORD shall be your rear guard. Page 3 of 16 PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). © Oxford University Press, 2018. All Rights Reserved. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in Oxford Handbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 08 October 2020 Isaiah 56–66 What are here juxtaposed as analysis of the present and promise for the future becomes an expression of fulfillment in Isa 60:1–2: Arise, shine; for your light has come, and the glory of the LORD has risen upon you. For darkness shall cover the earth, and thick darkness the peoples; but the LORD will arise upon you, and his glory will appear over you. Salvation will come and even now already announces itself. Yet for Third Isaiah, it is also critical that Israel takes its role in the salvation event seriously, through appropri­ ate cultic and ethical measures. In other words, piety and orthopraxy are integral compo­ nents of salvation. (p. 131) 7.2.1. The First Composition: Isaiah 58:1–62:12 With this in the background, we can take a closer look at the critical prophecies from Isa 58–59 and Isa 63–64. 7.2.1.1. Isaiah 58–59 In Isa 58–59, one gets the impression that the repercussions of the Babylonian era are still being felt: the temple lies in ruins, and the city is not yet truly habitable (Isa 58:12). More important is the atmosphere conveyed. Although the exile was in fact over, there had not yet been any real experience of salvation. The political situation had certainly changed; the Persians may have been more tolerable overlords than their predecessors; yet neither in its internal nature nor its external form was Israel more than a province on the margins of the Persian Empire. Israel had not become any holier since the time of the exile; its sense of righteousness was not more pronounced, and its vulnerability to the worship of foreign gods no less alarming than in earlier periods (this impression is partic­ ularly conveyed in Isa 57:3–13). This realistic and self-critical view of the situation is found in Isa 58–59 and explains the qualitative leap between the here and now and the hoped-for salvation depicted in Isa 60–62.15 The project of a “new beginning” after the ex­ ile had not yet reached its goal. Furthermore, the prophecy of Third Isaiah contains a very clear sense of self-expectation. Precisely because the true Israel is not just any peo­ ple, it must not resign itself to the abuses and flaws of what some (or even most) perceive to be “normal.” In Isa 58:1, someone, presumably a prophet, is charged with reproaching Israel for its apostasy: “Shout out, do not hold back! Lift up your voice like a trumpet! An­ nounce to my people their rebellion, to the house of Jacob their sins.” Following that, the gap between pious gestures and moral actions, as seen in the indifference to the poor and needy, is denounced (Isa 58:4–7): Look, you fast only to quarrel and to fight and to strike with a wicked fist. Such fasting as you do today will not make your voice heard on high. Is such the fast that I choose, a day to humble oneself? Is it to bow down the head like a bulrush, and to lie in sackcloth and ashes? Will you call this a fast, a day acceptable to the LORD? Is not this the fast that I choose: to loose the bonds of injustice, to undo the thongs of the yoke, to let the oppressed go free, and to break every yoke? Is it Page 4 of 16 PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). © Oxford University Press, 2018. All Rights Reserved. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in Oxford Handbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 08 October 2020 Isaiah 56–66 not to share your bread with the hungry, and bring the homeless poor into your house; when you see the naked, to cover them, and not to hide yourself from your own kin? Although this may sound like the social criticism of the book of Amos, there is a difference. Here, it is particularly about ritual and worship seeming to have no real mean­ ing for or impact on ethics. This is shown first in terms of fasting. Fasting (in the sense of regulated rituals of self-denial and repentance) seems to have arisen in the exilic/post-ex­ ilic periods (see, e.g., the fast days in Zech 8:18–19).16 Third Isaiah makes the accusation against his audience that, though they hold to the practice of fasting, their actions contra­ dict the spirit of these rituals. Someone who truly recognizes and regrets their transgres­ sions and, thus, fasts cannot subjugate others but should take care of the needy. (p. 132) The other example that Third Isaiah addresses in this context is Sabbath observance (Isa 58:9b–12, 13–14): If you remove the yoke from among you, the pointing of the finger, the speaking of evil, if you offer your food to the hungry and satisfy the needs of the afflicted, then your light shall rise in the darkness and your gloom be like the noonday. The LORD will guide you continually, and satisfy your needs in parched places, and make your bones strong; and you shall be like a watered garden, like a spring of water, whose waters never fail. Your ancient ruins shall be rebuilt; you shall raise up the foundations of many generations; you shall be called the repairer of the breach, the restorer of streets to live in. If you refrain from trampling the Sabbath, from pursuing your own interests on my holy day; if you call the Sabbath a delight and the holy day of the LORD honourable; if you honour it, not going your own ways, serving your own interests, or pursuing your own affairs; then you shall take delight in the LORD, and I will make you ride upon the heights of the earth; I will feed you with the heritage of your ancestor Jacob, for the mouth of the LORD has spoken. The Sabbath as a weekly holiday is a central identity marker to the exilic/post-exilic com­ munity. As with fasting, it goes to the core of the emerging Jewish identity during these periods.17 Just as fasting is a rite that should have a real effect on one’s attitude and be­ havior toward one’s neighbor, the Sabbath is a rite that is meant to honor God (Isa 58:13). Here, too, Third Isaiah’s audience falls short as they go about their everyday activities or engage in empty talk (Isa 58:14). Thus, the prophetic criticism is primarily directed at themes of Jewish identity and, more precisely, the gap between orthodoxy and orthopraxy. Third Isaiah acknowledges that his audience does indeed seek after God (Isa 58:2). The criticism, however, is that this does not give rise to the appropriate ethical attitudes and behavior or to true fear of God. Unlike in the books associated with the eight-century prophets, Third Isaiah does not an­ nounce God’s judgment against Israel as a result of these grievances. The consequence of Israel’s failure is not punishment but instead delayed salvation. Deportation, loss of Page 5 of 16 PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). © Oxford University Press, 2018. All Rights Reserved. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in Oxford Handbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 08 October 2020 Isaiah 56–66 land, and the destruction of the temple are no longer threats, presumably because the people had already experienced this and, in some sense, it was already in the past. (p. 133) The observation and evaluation of the social and cultic deficits continues into Isa 59, al­ though the conclusions are different. Here, too, one finds the picture of a people that lags behind what it should be. Particularly memorable is the picture of Israel’s sins hiding God’s face (Isa 59:1–2): See, the LORD’s hand is not too short to save, nor his ear too dull to hear. Rather, your iniquities have been barriers between you and your God, and your sins have hidden his face from you so that he does not hear. It is worth noting several things about these verses. There is no threat of God’s wrath or judgment; rather, it is argued that Israel has obstructed their relationship with God through their own behavior.18 The relationship between the people and God is broken and with it, also, the prospect of salvation and healing. This motif of disruption or separation is expressed with the verb ‫( בדל‬hiphil), “to divide, separate.” This verb is firmly anchored in the priestly concept of order. God divides and differentiates the different parts of the world from one another and, in so doing, establishes them (Gen 1:4, 6, 7, 14, 18). This no­ tion corresponds with instructions found in the Holiness Code that deal with the separa­ tion between the sacred and the profane (Lev 20:25–26). In Isa 59:2, this priestly termi­ nology is taken up and turned upside down. With its sin, Israel creates a separation pre­ cisely where it should not exist, namely between God’s ear and the prayers of Israel. Here the text could take the turn that we know from Isa 58—namely, encouraging and exhort­ ing Israel to turn from its sins and toward its God. That is not what happens here, though. Instead, following the confession of sin, all hope for change is transferred entirely to God (Isa 59:9).19 Thus, God arrives on the scene and takes on the role of the sole savior: He saw that there was no one, and was appalled that there was no one to inter­ vene; so his own arm brought him victory, and his righteousness upheld him. He put on righteousness like a breastplate, and a helmet of salvation on his head; he put on garments of vengeance for clothing, and wrapped himself in fury as in a mantle. (Isa 59:16–17) In the context of Isa 59, this narrative passage is understood as God’s reaction to Israel’s confession of sin. 7.2.1.2. Isaiah 60–62 Viewed in its larger context, Isa 60–62 envisions the salvation that awaits Israel once they have taken the prophetic admonition in Isa 58–59 to heart. Recent research has (p. 134) shown that these three chapters are likely not of one mold.20 Isa 60 is a prophetic oracle for Mount Zion as the recipient of God’s grace. However, Zion’s salvation appears to be something almost otherworldly, because it requires no less than a complete makeover of the world as one knows it: sun and moon will be retired, since the only source of light in this world-to-come will be God’s own glory (Isa 60:2, 19). In the political realm there will be a dramatic shift: no longer will Israelites be the ones who offer tribute to foreign na­ Page 6 of 16 PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). © Oxford University Press, 2018. All Rights Reserved. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in Oxford Handbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 08 October 2020 Isaiah 56–66 tions; rather, the nations, in a ceaseless stream, will come and pay homage to the God who resides on Mount Zion (Isa 60:3–16; cf. Isa 49:17–26). Yet even in this blatant tri­ umphalism, Isa 60:21 seconds the general sense in Isa 58–59 that Israel has yet to be­ come a righteous people. There is a significant change in perspective and sentiment as one transitions from Isa 60 to 61. Here, a prophetic figure announces the good news of liberation and healing to a group of people who are described as imprisoned and suffering (Isa 61:1; cf. Isa 42:22). But whereas Isa 60 envisions the return of Zion’s scattered children from the far ends of the world, the addressees in Isa 61 appear to be the people who are living among the ru­ ins of Jerusalem, waiting for the desolation to come to an end (Isa 61:4), which connects with the view of the destroyed city in Isa 58:12. Interestingly, Isa 61:2 seems to employ the idea of a “year of release” (“a year of YHWH’s favour”) that ends the time of servitude to foreign nations. It is quite conceivable that Isa 60 was written with the different dias­ pora groups in mind, whereas Isa 61 addresses the Judean population that had remained in the country. Isa 62:1–9 may well be an intentional synthesis of Isa 60 and 61, since here the prophetic voice (apparently the same as in Isa 61) returns to Zion’s fate and rejoices in her impend­ ing restoration. There is also a slightly different, less triumphalist and more modest, per­ spective on the foreign nations; they are not cast in the role of vassals of Zion but instead appear as bystanders who witness Zion’s righteousness and glory. Similarly, the redemp­ tive experience of Zion’s children is not that they will finally become the suzerain but that they will be able to enjoy their own produce rather than having to surrender it to other nations (Isa 62:8–9). Looking at Isa 58–62 from a sociological point of view, one notices that Israel is presented as a largely monolithic society. All the people are targeted by the prophetic critique in Isa 58–59, and they are all the recipients of the salvific promise in Isa 60–62. This may not re­ flect the differences between the various groups that subsequently came together in the Persian province Yehud after the exile, but it does reflect that such differences had not yet led to solidified divisions between these groups. The operative distinction is Israelites versus foreign nations, “us” versus “them.” This distinction, however, changes, in the sec­ ond composition of Third Isaiah. (p. 135) 7.3. The Second Composition Turning to the second composition of Third Isaiah, one encounters several literary genres that one would not ordinarily expect to find in a prophetic book. In particular, this second composition is characterized by the “people’s prayer of repentance” (Isa 63:7–64:11) and the divine response to this prayer (Isa 65:1–25). Page 7 of 16 PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). © Oxford University Press, 2018. All Rights Reserved. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in Oxford Handbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 08 October 2020 Isaiah 56–66 7.3.1. The Prayer of Repentance Recently, a lot of work has been done on this particular genre.21 It seems that this form was defined, if not first developed, in the post-exilic period and, as such, captures the reli­ gious self-identity of Israel during this period.22 The prayer of repentance is divided into roughly two parts:23 1. Retrospection: the memory of God’s earlier miracles—Isa 63:7–14 2. Introspection: the confession of their own guilt before God—Isa 63:15–64:11 The first part, the retrospection, looks back to the time of the exodus and the desert wan­ dering up through the entry into the land, where God “brought the people to rest” (Isa 63:14) as expressed here in Deuteronomistic language. This phase, “the days of old,” has a three-part structure that is reminiscent of the pattern of historical interpretation known from the Deuteronomistic History (e.g., in the so-called judges cycle).24 In Third Isaiah, the drama of history is described in three acts: (a) God finds God’s people in need and saves them out of love and mercy (Isa 63:8–9); (b) the people turn away from God (Isa 63:10), whereupon God hands them over to their enemies; and (c) Israel remembers its prehistory, Moses, and the salvation from Egypt and, thus, is finally brought to rest by God’s spirit (Isa 63:14). This pattern is then applied by the community to its own present situation. Again, it is re­ capitulated that God has rejected his once-beloved but now, as before, rebellious and dis­ obedient people (Isa 63:17): Why, O LORD, do you make us stray from your ways and harden our heart, so that we do not fear you? Turn back for the sake of your servants, for the sake of the tribes that are your heritage. Apparently, this ties into the expectation from the prayer that God will once again, as in “the days of old” reclaim his people and bring them to rest (Isa 63:19a): “We have long been like those whom you do not rule, like those not called by your name.” This res­ cue is still to come. Israel finds itself, as it has before in its history, at the point where the turn toward salvation is expected to happen but has not yet occurred (Isa 64:7–12): (p. 136) There is no one who calls on your name, or attempts to take hold of you; for you have hidden your face from us, and have delivered us into the hand of our iniquity. Yet, O LORD, you are our Father; we are the clay, and you are our potter; we are all the work of your hand. Do not be exceedingly angry, O LORD, and do not re­ member iniquity forever. Now consider, we are all your people. Your holy cities have become a wilderness, Zion has become a wilderness, Jerusalem a desolation. Our holy and beautiful house, where our ancestors praised you, has been burned by fire, and all our pleasant places have become ruins. After all this, will you re­ strain yourself, O LORD? Will you keep silent, and punish us so severely? Page 8 of 16 PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). © Oxford University Press, 2018. All Rights Reserved. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in Oxford Handbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 08 October 2020 Isaiah 56–66 This is where the prayer ends, which begs the question of whether the old pattern still ap­ plies, whether the third step—God’s mercy—will come through once again. The fact that God had not yet intervened and the temple remained in ruins raised the possibility that the relationship with God had been ultimately and irreversibly severed. It is interesting that here, unlike in Isa 58 and 59, evidence of Israel’s guilt apparently does not (any longer) require a prophet. The prophetic criticism has become Israel’s selfaccusation. That Israel calls upon its God for salvation can be found in all the stages of the formation of the Old Testament, but the self-accusation and admission of their sin is only in the later layers, to which Isa 63–64, Neh 9, Ezra 9, and Dan 9 most likely belong.25 In Third Isaiah, the prayer of confession is directed toward God (Isa 64:15) and addresses God as “father” (Isa 63:17; 64:7).26 This is the only such occurrence in the Old Testament. In all other uses of God as “father,” it is said that God is Israel’s father (Deut 32:6) or God expresses disappointment that Israel does not (or not rightly) call upon God as father (Jer 3; 4:11; 31:19). Thus the prayer of repentance can be read as Israel finally doing what it had failed to do before—supported by the hope that God would still be willing to accept the role of father.27 (p. 137) 7.3.2. God’s Answer to the Prayer of Repentance God’s reaction makes it clear that in Third Isaiah the prayer of repentance is not just a confession of sin28 but is, in a narrow sense, an address to God that expects an answer. Thus, Third Isaiah creates space for a critical perception of this prayer of repentance in­ sofar as God’s answer is not exactly what the prayer of repentance hopes for. This be­ comes clear in comparing Isa 63–64 with Neh 9. In Nehemiah the prayer of repentance is not followed by a divine speech but by the voluntary agreement of the people to obey the Torah (Neh 10). This voluntary agreement, in turn, suggests that a new beginning is pos­ sible. In Neh 9, the possibility is open for Israel as a collective to become what it always should have been, provided that it takes the Torah of its God to heart. For Neh 9, the selfpurification of the people of God is decisive in enforcing internally the definition of the Torah and externally the separation from all foreign influences. The situation in the divine speech in Isa 65 is different.29 There is no (longer a) promise that God will have mercy on God’s people as a whole but only on those who prove to be true and faithful.30 The pattern of the past is adopted in Isa 65, but at the same time, a new election is announced. This innovation lies in the opening, with its difficult language (Isa 65:1–2): I was ready to be sought out by those who did not ask, to be found by those who did not seek me. I said, “Here I am, here I am,” to a nation that did not call on my name. I held out my hands all day long to a rebellious people, who walk in a way that is not good, following their own devices. Page 9 of 16 PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). © Oxford University Press, 2018. All Rights Reserved. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in Oxford Handbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 08 October 2020 Isaiah 56–66 It is unclear at this point whether the statement “I let myself be found by those who did not want to know anything about me” refers to the time of the first revelation of YHWH to Israel—that is, in the Exodus from Egypt and the giving of the Torah at Sinai—or to the whole of the history of Israel from the beginning through the exilic period. It is clear, however, that God’s perception of the past is completely different from that expressed in the people’s prayer of repentance. It is not the dramatic relationship cycle of initial affec­ tion, the people’s apostasy, and the subsequent reconciliation. Isa 65, contrary to this de­ piction, provides a summary in which Israel collectively was never really interested in God (“I let those who never asked for me seek me”). In this way, the actual theme of the divine speech is the question of who will be God’s people in the future. Third Isaiah illustrates this new beginning with the image of the vineyard, as is typical of the book of Isaiah as a whole (Isa 65:8): (p. 138) Thus says the LORD: As the wine is found in the cluster, and they say, “Do not de­ stroy it, for there is a blessing in it,” so I will do for my servants’ sake, and not de­ stroy them all. The statement “Do not destroy it, for there is a blessing/could be a blessing in it” is prob­ ably a proverb that generally urges caution against discarding things too quickly, because one can never know if there is some good in it.31 Third Isaiah connects this proverb with the image of the vineyard, in which something good could still be found. Thus, this image of the vineyard stands in contrast with that of Isa 5:1–7 and Isa 27:2–6, particularly with the fact that God does not reject the vineyard as a whole (Isa 5) or rebuild it all together (Isa 27). Instead, God seeks the good within the vineyard. The good juice is to be pre­ served while the pulp is to be discarded. This image, in turn, also calls to mind the image of YHWH as the one pressing the grapes under his feet in Isa 63:1–6. This image is ap­ plied to the true servants of God in Isa 65:9, that is, to those who are to come forth from Jacob/Israel just as the new wine comes forth from grapes: I will bring forth descendants from Jacob, and from Judah inheritors of my moun­ tains; my chosen shall inherit it, and my servants shall settle there. The idea is that this people of God does not yet exist but is just now emerging. Verse 9 marks a new idea: God will (pf. cons.) bring forth descendants of Jacob who shall inherit the land. The Gola is not referred to alone or even primarily here. For Third Isaiah, unlike Ezra/Nehemiah, there is no group predestined for God’s work of salvation. Thus Isaiah speaks of “progeny” (seed) but not with the addition of “holy” as in Ezra 9:2. For Ezra/Ne­ hemiah, there is indeed something like a DNA of the true Israel that begins with Abra­ ham, whose “rest” is in the Gola, and it is from this nucleus alone that the post-exilic new beginning will be formed. In contrast, for Third Isaiah, the true servants are those who act according to the will of God, as expressed in Isa 66:2–5, who “tremble” before the Word of God.32 Page 10 of 16 PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). © Oxford University Press, 2018. All Rights Reserved. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in Oxford Handbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 08 October 2020 Isaiah 56–66 Viewing God’s answer within the social and historical context of Yehud naturally raises the question of whether Third Isaiah identified particular groups of his time with the “ser­ vants of God” in contrast to other groups that did not belong to this category. In this re­ gard, there are three possibilities: (a) One can think of the different groups that devel­ oped a sense of their Jewish identity in the Persian period in potentially conflicting ways: the non-exilic Jews, the Babylonian Gola, and diaspora groups in other parts of the world (e.g., Egypt).33 Perhaps the conflict between Jerusalem and the Samaritans also played a certain role here. (b) The “servants of God” and their opponents refer (p. 139) to different groups (or strata) within a particular societal framework. Thus, current research consid­ ers the possibility that Third Isaiah belonged to Levitical circles that rebelled against the Zadokite priesthood.34 (c) It is finally possible that the new people of God, to whom a new heaven and a new earth are promised (Isa 65–66), was a collective movement made up of members of various groups within the Judean society.35 This new prophetic movement would have made societal boundaries permeable, since membership was not defined by birth or origin, but by choice and effort. In support of this third possibility, Isa 56:1–8 states that even foreigners and eunuchs are granted entry into this new people of God. 7.4. Conclusion Overall, one can observe characteristic shifts in the perception of prophecy within the two parts of the composition of Third Isaiah.36 We can now state that these shifts are pri­ marily due to an altered understanding of the historical relationship between God and people. The first composition is based on the paradigm of the history of judgment and sal­ vation found in Second Isaiah. The periods of Israel’s history, old Israel, the exile, and the return, form the episodes of an overall narrative arch that would reach its conclusion in a final and irreversible period of salvation. Yet this process came to a standstill, and it is just here that the prophecy of Isa 57:14–62:12 begins. The criticism of Israel has as its goal to regain the momentum of salvation history. The emphasis of Isa 63:7–65:25 is different. Here, too, the paradigm of salvation history is initially called upon in the form of the prayer of repentance, but it is thoroughly refuted by the divine response. The somewhat revolutionary prophetic message is that God was now collecting his people anew and from those who are truly God’s “servants.” Thus, be­ longing to the people of God would be a question of self-determination and self-commit­ ment to the will of God. Making this clear, with all its consequences (cf. Isa 66), is the fi­ nal task of prophecy. Bibliography Abalodo, Sebastien. Structure et Théologie dans le Trito-Isaïe: Une contribution à l’unité du Livre. Tesi Gregoriana 208. Rome: Gregorian & Biblical Press, 2014. Balentine, Samuel. “I Was Ready to Be Sought Out by Those Who Did Not Ask.” In Seeking the Favor of God, vol. 1, The Origins of Penitential Prayer in Second Temple Ju­ (p. 140) Page 11 of 16 PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). © Oxford University Press, 2018. All Rights Reserved. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in Oxford Handbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 08 October 2020 Isaiah 56–66 daism, edited Mark J. Boda, Daniel K. Falk, and Rodney Alan Werline, 1–20. SBLEJL 21. Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2006. Barstad, Hans. “Isaiah 56–66 in Relation to Isaiah 40–55: Why a New Reading Is Neces­ sary.” In Continuity and Discontinuity: Chronological and Thematic Development in Isaiah 40–66, edited by Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer and Hans Barstad, 41–62. FRLANT 255. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2014. Bautch, Richard. Glory and Power, Ritual and Relationship: The Sinai Covenant in the Pos­ texilic Period. LHBOTS 471. New York: Bloomsbury, 2009. Bautch, Richard. “Lament Regained in Trito-Isaiah’s Penitential Prayer.” In Seeking the Favor of God, vol. 1, The Origins of Penitential Prayer in Second Temple Judaism, edited by Mark J. Boda, Daniel K. Falk, and Rodney Alan Werline, 83–99. SBLEJL 21. Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2006. Blenkinsopp, Joseph. Isaiah 56–66. AB 19B. New York: Doubleday, 2003. Böckler, Annette. Gott als Vater im Alten Testament: Traditionsgeschichtliche Unter­ suchungen zur Entstehung und Entwicklung eines Gottesbildes. Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus, 2000. Boda, Mark J. “Confession as Theological Expression: Ideological Origins of Penitential Prayer.” In Seeking the Favor of God, vol. 1, The Origins of Penitential Prayer in Second Temple Judaism, edited by Mark J. Boda, Daniel K. Falk, and Rodney Alan Werline, 21–50. SBLEJL 21. Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2006. Duhm, Bernhard. Das Buch Jesaia. HKAT III/1. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 19143. Gärtner, Judith. “‘Why do you let us stray from your paths …’ (Isa 63:17): The Concept of Guilt in the Communal Lament Isa 63:7–64:11.” In Seeking the Favor of God, vol. 1, The Origins of Penitential Prayer in Second Temple Judaism, edited by Mark J. Boda, Daniel K. Falk, and Rodney Alan Werline, 145–163. SBLEJL 21. Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2006. Hanson, Paul D. The Dawn of the Apocalyptic: The Historical and Sociological Roots of Jewish Apocalyptic Eschatology. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1975. Höffken, Peter. Jesaja: Der Stand der theologischen Diskussion. Darmstadt: WBG Academ­ ic, 2004. Lux, Rüdiger. Prophetie und Zweiter Tempel: Studien zu Haggai und Sacharja. FAT 65. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009. Moser, Christian. Umstrittene Prophetie: Die exegetisch-theologische Diskussion um die Inhomogenität des Jesajabuches von 1780 bis 1900. BThS 128. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 2012. Page 12 of 16 PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). © Oxford University Press, 2018. All Rights Reserved. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in Oxford Handbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 08 October 2020 Isaiah 56–66 Rom-Shiloni, Dalit. “Socio-ideological Setting or Settings for Penitential Prayers?” In Seeking the Favor of God, vol. 1, The Origins of Penitential Prayer in Second Temple Ju­ daism, edited by Mark J. Boda, Daniel K. Falk, and Rodney Alan Werline, 51–68. SBLEJL 21. Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2006. Schramm, Brooks. The Opponents of Third Isaiah: Reconstructing the Cultic History of the Restoration. JSOTS 193. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995. Schüle, Andreas. “Build Up, Pass Through: Isaiah 57:14–62:12 as the Core Composition of Third Isaiah in the Book of Isaiah.” In Enduring Questions Answered Anew, edited by Richard Bautch and J. Todd Hibbard, 83–110. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2014. Schüle, Andreas. “Von der prophetischen Kritik zum Bußgebet des Volkes: Der Abschluss der Prophetie in Tritojesaja.” In Denkt nicht mehr an das Frühere! Begründungsres­ sourcen in (p. 141) Esra/Nehemiah und Jesaja 40–66 im Vergleich, edited by Maria Häusl, 25–46. BBB 184. Bonn: Bonn University Press, 2018. Schüle, Andreas. “Who Is the True Israel? Community, Identity, and Religious Commit­ ment in Third Isaiah (Isaiah 56–66).” Int 73, no. 2 (2019): 174–184. Smith, Paul Allan. Rhetoric and Redaction in Trito-Isaiah: The Structure, Growth, and Au­ thorship of Isaiah 56–66. VTS 62. Leiden: Brill, 1995. Spans, Andrea. Die Stadtfrau Zion im Zentrum der Welt: Exegese und Theologie von Jes 60–62. BBB 175. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2015. Steck, Odil Hannes. Studien zu Tritojesaja. BZAW 203. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1991. Stromberg, Jacob. Israel after Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book. OTM. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. Tiemeyer, Lena-Sofia. “Continuity and Discontinuity in Isaiah 40–66: History of Re­ search.” In Continuity and Discontinuity: Chronological and Thematic Development in Isa­ iah 40–66, edited by Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer and Hans Barstad, 13–40. FRLANT 255. Göttin­ gen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2014. Williamson, H. G. M. “Jacob in Isaiah 40–66.” In Continuity and Discontinuity: Chronologi­ cal and Thematic Development in Isaiah 40–66, edited by Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer and Hans Barstad, 219–229. FRLANT 255. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2014. Notes: (1) For an overview of this, see Moser, Prophetie, 93–96. (2) Duhm, Jesaia, xv, xx, 390. (3) Moser, Prophetie, 96–98. (4) Cf. the research summary of Höffken, Jesaja, 91–100. Page 13 of 16 PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). © Oxford University Press, 2018. All Rights Reserved. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in Oxford Handbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 08 October 2020 Isaiah 56–66 (5) Steck, Studien, 14–19. (6) Steck, 17. (7) Steck, 36. For the frame of Third Isaiah in particular, see Stromberg, Exile, 40–72. (8) For a recent overview and critique of current research, cf. Tiemeyer, “Continuity,” 13– 40. (9) For the following, cf. also Schüle, “Prophetische Kritik,” 225–246. (10) Steck, Studien, 38. (11) Duhm, Jesaia, 389. (12) Steck, Studien, 18, 28–30; Stromberg, Exile, 12–13; Smith, Rhetoric, 164–186. (13) Schüle, “Build,” 90–102. (14) Biblical quotes are taken from the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) unless oth­ erwise indicated. (15) Williamson, “Jacob,” 225. (16) Lux, Prophetie, 22–26. (17) For the role of Jewish identity markers (particularly the Sabbath), see Barstad, “Isa­ iah 56–66,” 53–61. (18) The penitential prayer (Isa 63–64) stands in tension to this; here exactly the opposite is said—namely, that God caused the people to turn away from God (Isa 63:17). (19) Cf. Bautch, Glory, 2. (20) Spans, Stadtfrau, 63–67; for a recent proposal to read Isa 60–62 (with the rest of Third Isaiah) as a unity, cf. Abalodo, Structure, 115–185. (21) Boda, “Confession,” 21–27; Balentine, “Ready,” 11–16. (22) Bautch, “Lament,” 98. (23) A more detailed outline than can be developed here is offered by Bautch, “Lament,” 86–87. (24) Many have observed that the prayer of repentance uses Deuteronomistic language and thought forms (cf. Bautch, “Lament,” 88–90). This does not need to be understood as Deuteronomistic theology, however, but may rather be a critical reflection on whether the Deuteronomistic view of history can apply to the current situation. This may also apply to the priestly theology represented in Ezra 9 and Neh 10 among other passages (cf. Boda, “Confession,” 34–43). Page 14 of 16 PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). © Oxford University Press, 2018. All Rights Reserved. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in Oxford Handbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 08 October 2020 Isaiah 56–66 (25) An important aspect of the literary form of the prayers of repentance is the density of intertextual references, which suggests that the ideas presupposed by these prayers al­ ready exist in a wide swath of parts of the Old Testament. Cf. Boda, “Confession,” 46–49, and specifically on the book of Isaiah as a whole, Gärtner, “Why,” 156–162. (26) For this theme as a whole, see Böckler, Gott, 185–219. (27) The designation of God as father can be seen in the new definitions of kinship rela­ tionships that Third Isaiah chooses as an expression of identity; cf. Bautch, Glory, 96–98. (28) For the form-critical connection between penance and confession, see Bautch, “Lament,” 90. (29) Rom-Shiloni, “Setting,” 67, shows that Israel’s prayer of repentance established the “orthodox” form of belief and pushed back on other, less-orthodox forms, such as the “lament of the people” in the post-exilic period, at least within certain groups. This is how Neh 9, particularly, should be characterized. Because of the divine speech, however, Isa 63–64 would then be seen as a critical take on this orthodoxy. The fact that God does not accept this prayer as the foundation for a new covenantal relationship but creates an im­ age of the true servants of God should be seen as evidence of the religious diversity of post-exilic Judaism. (30) Cf. Gärtner, “Why,” 152. (31) Cf. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah, 276, with the note on Deut 9:26. (32) In contrast, see Ezra 9:4; 10:3. (33) Schramm, Opponents of Third Isaiah, 112–172. (34) This view was pioneered by Hanson, Dawn of the Apocalyptic, 95–96. (35) Schüle, “Who Is the True Israel?,” 174–176. (36) What had to be neglected here are the connecting pieces that connect the two parts of the composition (Isa 63:1–6) or establish the connection with Second Isaiah (Isa 56:1– 8, 9–12; 57:1–13). Neither was the relationship between Isa 65 and 66 specifically dealt with. In Isaiah research since Duhm, Isa 66 has been considered to have been composed as the conclusion of the whole book of Isaiah. Andreas Schüle Andreas Schüle is Professor for Theology and Exegesis of the Old Testament at the University of Leipzig, Germany. His most recent volume is Theology from the Begin­ ning: Essays on the Primeval History and Its Canonical Context (FAT; Mohr Siebeck, 2017). Page 15 of 16 PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). © Oxford University Press, 2018. All Rights Reserved. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in Oxford Handbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 08 October 2020 Isaiah 56–66 Page 16 of 16 PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). © Oxford University Press, 2018. All Rights Reserved. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in Oxford Handbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 08 October 2020