Accommodations

Gobert, M. (2018). Accommodations. In J.I. Liontas (Ed.) The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching. Wiley. https:// doi.org/10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0319 Accommodations MELANIE GOBERT Framing the Issue Accommodations in English language teaching refer to two different types of accommodations in two different contexts. One type of accommodation is the accommodation of English language learners (ELLs) in the regular classroom and in the evaluation of achieving the standardized curriculum. The second type of accommodation is the accommodation of ELLs with disabilities in the classroom and in the evaluation of their learning. Accommodating these students is not only an issue in the United States and other English-speaking countries, but internationally, as there are currently almost 2 billion people learning English worldwide (Graddol, 2006). When ELL students are identified as having a learning disability (LD), they need the services that students with learning disabilities are entitled to, as well as the services designed to support ELLs (Eppolito, Lasser, & Klingner, 2013). In the US university system, students with learning disabilities are accommodated, but no accommodation is made for English language learners (Kanel, 2004). On the other hand, in the K-12 system in the United States, teachers and policy makers often conflate accommodation for ELLs with accommodation for students who are learning disabled (Schissel, 2014). Cawthorn (2010) calls upon the state to extend the accommodations provided to ELLs throughout their learning career. Educational Testing Services (ETS, 2009) defines ELLs as students who are still developing proficiency in English. English language learners in the United States now make up 9.1% of the public school population, or an estimated 4.4 million students (English Language Learners, 2014). One in nine students is an ELL and most are concentrated in the lower grades (ETS, 2009). The ELL population is now a common feature of historically population-stable states as well as key immigration states and there is a multitude of issues that arise when these students participate in high-stakes state accountability measures (Liu & Barrera, 2013). While many of the ELLs in the United States are Spanish-speaking, many speak a multitude of languages in the home (Liu & Barrera, 2013). These students’ special needs as ELLs require a set of accommodations to participate fully in the regular The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching, First Edition. Edited by John I. Liontas (Project Editor: Margo DelliCarpini). © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. DOI: 10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0319 2 Accommodations classroom environment and they need to be accommodated in standardized and classroom assessment. Making the Case Accommodations are modifications in teaching strategies that allow ELLs to participate fully in the curriculum and modifications in assessment that ensure validity. TESOL International has issued a policy statement that high-stakes standardized tests are unfair to ELLs and cannot be relied upon to provide an accurate assessment of ELL students’ ability in content areas and that ELLs are at a distinct disadvantage that is difficult to accommodate (TESOL International, 2003). Specifically in testing, accommodations refer to changes to testing procedures, including presentations of testing materials, students’ responses to test items, test scheduling, and the testing environment (Educational Testing Services, 2009). There are two types of testing accommodations: (1) direct accommodations, which refer to manipulating the linguistic content of a test item, and (2) indirect testing accommodations, which refer to manipulating the conditions under which the test is administered. According to Educational Testing Services (2009), the limited research available indicates that direct accommodations are more beneficial than indirect accommodations. For example, simplifying the questions on an assessment is more beneficial than giving the ELL student more time. However, test translation has not been shown to be effective because the student may not have the background knowledge an English speaker would have in order to answer the question (Huang, Clarke, Milczarski, & Raby, 2011). Language-based accommodations are the most successful in making tests linguistically accessible to ELLs. The most commonly used are a dual language version of the test, a commercial bilingual dictionary, a commercial English dictionary, a customized bilingual glossary, a customized English dictionary, linguistically modified English, a native-language version of the test, a pop-up glossary (available with computer technology), read-aloud test directions, and read-aloud test questions, all of which have been researched and show varying degrees of success (Abedi, 2014). A number of states are currently using oral translations of tests as an accommodation, but that has not been proven to be effective (Stansfield, 2011). An example of an inappropriate accommodation would be to rewrite the language of a reading passage in such a way that the difficulty of the passage has been reduced (Kieffer, Lesaux, Rivera, & Francis, 2009). Extra time is often given as an accommodation to ELLs to enable them to have enough time to look up words if the accommodation of using a bilingual dictionary is given (Kieffer et al., 2009). The most effective accommodation found by Kieffer et al. (2009) in their meta-analysis of accommodating ELLs on large-scale assessments was to provide a customized English dictionary or glossary. However, grounded research is beginning to show that classroom teachers are extending the approved testing accommodations for ELLs to adapt content and instruction to their specific educational and linguistic Accommodations 3 needs, which may serve as a starting point to diversify currently available test accommodation practices (Schissel, 2014). Pedagogical Implications There are many instructional strategies teachers can use to accommodate ELLs in the public school system. Some of these help with a lack of oral/aural skills and some help with a lack of reading/writing skills. To accommodate ELLs with weak oral/aural skills, one simple accommodation is that ELLS can sit near the teacher to hear better and observe facial expressions more closely. Another strategy to assist ELLs who may be weak in oral skills is to ask simple yes or no comprehension questions. Teachers should also avoid slang and speak more slowly in a normal tone of voice. Teachers can also assist ELLs weak in oral/aural skills by writing key words, page numbers, homework and deadlines on the board as they may not “hear” them if they are merely spoken. While other students may seem to have a high level of speaking and listening proficiency, many students’ reading and writing levels are far below their grade-level peers. There are several simple accommodation strategies that teachers can use with these ELLs. Because of unfamiliarity with the written language, teachers can give ELLs the option to print instead of writing in cursive. They can also modify assignments so that the student writes less, has simpler questions to answer, and has fewer spelling words. Graphic organizers, wall charts, and word walls will all help students to understand more and acquire language more quickly. Teachers should also provide students with clear summaries of content, as well as a range of resources in a range of levels on topic areas, and models of completed projects and assignments. This will create a richer language learning environment for ELLS and assist them in acquiring English as a second language. ELLs need a lot of vocabulary support, so it is useful to recycle new words often. Discovery learning is encouraged for ELLs, but students will need explicit instructions, both written and spoken, on how to complete the task because of possible weak oral/aural or reading/writing skills. Dictionaries and audiobooks can also aid with understanding content and language acquisition. Finally, tests and assignments for ELLS should be written in clear language that is easy to read (Classroom Accommodations for ESL and ELD Students, n.d.). The second context for accommodations in English language teaching is when an ELL has a learning disability. In the United States, the National Center for Education Statistics (2012) estimates that approximately 7.6% of the 4.4 million ELL students may also have a learning disability, that is approximately 335,000 students. Of the 2 billion international learners of English, many may suffer from undiagnosed learning disabilities and many may have physical disabilities. The tools for identifying learning disabilities among the English-speaking student population may not be effective for use with students who speak other languages due to cultural bias (Abedi, 2009; Huang et al., 2011). Therefore, ELLs with learning disabilities may not be identified if their disability is hidden by their limited 4 Accommodations English proficiency, and many ELLs at the lower end of English proficiency may be incorrectly identified as having a disability because some aspects of what would be categorized as symptomatic of a learning disability for an English speaker (Abedi, 2009; Huang et al., 2011), such as letter reversal or missing letters, are a natural part of the language acquisition process for language learners. The numbers of ELLs have increased dramatically in US schools, but the number of ELLs labeled with a learning disability has doubled—many of these cases are misdiagnosed (Huang et al., 2011). The misidentification of ELLs as learning disabled impedes their language learning even more by depriving them of constant exposure to English in the mainstream classroom (Eppolito et al., 2013). On the other hand, there is a shortage of bilingual special education teachers who understand the second language acquisition process and how to support the needs of ELLs with LDs, which means that ELLs with LDs are taught by special educators who are not qualified to tailor instruction to the students’ needs and cannot deliver culturally responsive teaching practices (Eppolito, Lasser, & Klingner, 2013; Huang, Clarke, Milczarski, & Raby, 2011). Furthermore, in many developing nations of the world, tools for diagnosing learning disabilities may not exist in the local language, so international English Language Learners may have a learning disability that is undiagnosed which may affect their classroom and test performance and the lack of identification of a learning disability will keep these students from getting the teaching and testing accommodations they need to be successful in the curriculum. The WIDA Consortium (2013) recommends several different accommodation strategies to be used for ELLs with LDs. First of all, they recommend translating or signing the test directions if necessary, repeating the directions as necessary, and using directions highlighted by the teacher in the student’s book. The format of the test may also be adapted to accommodate language learners with learning disabilities. Oral reading of a written test is recommended as well as the use of highlighters or place markers in the testing book. Large print or a low vision aid magnification device is recommended for visually impaired students. Use of a noise buffer or audio amplification may be used with hearing impaired students. Students may also read the questions or their responses aloud for both written assessment and reading assessments. These may also be recorded and the oral reading of a listening script is also an acceptable accommodation for a hearingimpaired student. The testing environment may also be adapted for ELLs with learning disabilities. The test may be administered by trained personnel in a nonschool setting. Students may need to sit near the front or near the speaker. Special lighting and acoustics may be provided and a study carrel may be used during the test. The student should be allowed to use equipment and technology used for other school work during the test. The timing and schedule of the test may be adapted in different ways such as giving longer breaks or delivering the test in shorter segments. One of the easiest ways to accommodate ELLs with learning disabilities is by giving them more time to take the test, during the same school day or multiple days. Students may also answer test questions orally or by pointing, if appropriate. Other acceptable accommodations include giving verbal Accommodations 5 praise during the test and giving a practice test before the assessment. Students will feel more relaxed if they have someone present from the school personnel that they are familiar with. Students may also be tested separately in another room or in a small group, or even have the test administered individually if necessary. The following strategies are recommended for accommodating ELLs with LDs in classroom instruction. Teachers are recommended to use teaching methods that exploit students’ preferred or stronger learning modalities (e.g., listening vs. reading, oral vs. written). Teachers should reduce the information students are required to generate independently by providing checklists, reading and/or study guides, and using peer assistance with note-taking. In addition, teachers should explicitly teach study skills, self-monitoring skills, and other coping strategies to support areas affected by the disability. Teachers should also use teacher-directed minilessons to review and reinforce word meaning and modify assessment formats to accommodate language and disability-related needs, such as reading questions to the student, allowing extra time, and developing performance-based assessments. Teaching students discipline-specific language and symbols, as well as strategies to comprehend technical language and increase engagement with texts such as paraphrasing and the interpretation of noun phrases is also beneficial. Teachers should also provide opportunities for oral language development by using group activities with peers and native English speakers. If the school system has the resources, supplementary, intensive reading interventions provided by a reading specialist or special education teacher who is familiar with ESL adaptations should be done (García & Tyler, 2010). Teachers who work with ELLs with LDs should also be knowledgeable about the second language acquisition process, bilingual language and literacy development, and how learning to read in a second or additional language is similar to and different from learning to read in the first language, to be responsive to their students’ linguistic needs (Eppolito et al., 2013). In addition to these strategies, it is recommended that teachers engage in culturally responsive strategies that draw on the students’ historic and linguistic background to create a conducive learning environment. Teachers should learn about their students’ culture and include it in the curriculum through literacy activities that build on and expand the students’ home literacy experiences, such as story-telling, autobiographies, and personal narratives and validating the interactional and communicative styles that students have learned in their homes and communities while explicitly teaching school-expected norms (Eppolito et al., 2013). SEE ALSO: Analyzing Test Results; Classroom Testing; Technology and Assessment; Use of the First Language References Abedi, J. (2009). English language learners with disabilities: Classification, assessment, and accommodation issues. Journal of Applied Testing Technology, 10(3), 1–30. 6 Accommodations Abedi, J. (2014). The use of computer technology in designing appropriate test accommodations for English language learners. Applied Measurement in Education, 27, 261–72. Cawthorn, S. (2010). Assessment accommodations for English language learners: The case of former-LEPs. Practical Assessment Research & Evaluation, 15(13), 1–9. Retrieved from http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=15&n=13 Classroom Accommodations for ESL and ELD Students. (n.d.). Retrieved from http:// www.ed.gov.nl.ca/edu/k12/curriculum/guides/esl/classroom_accommodations.pdf Educational Testing Services. (2009). Guidelines for the assessment of English language learners. Retrieved from http://www.ets.org/s/about/pdf/ell_guidelines.pdf English Language Learners. (2014). Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/ indicator_cgf.asp Eppolito, A., Lasser, C., & Klingner, J. (2013). English language learners and learning disabilities. Advances in Special Education, 24, 141–60. García, S., & Tyler, B. (2010). Meeting the needs of English language learners with learning disabilities in the general curriculum. Theory into Practice, 49, 113–20. Graddol, D. (2006.). English next. British Council. Retrieved from http://www.britishcouncil. jp/sites/britishcouncil.jp/files/eng-english-next-en_0.pdf Huang, J., Clarke, K., Milczarski, E., & Raby, C. (2011). The assessment of English language learners with learning disabilities: Issues, concerns, and implications. Education, 131(4), 732–9. Kanel, K. (2004). Accommodating ESL students in the university. The NEA Higher Education Journal. Retrieved from http://www.nea.org/assets/img/PubThoughtAndAction/ TAA_04Win_06.pdf Kieffer, M., Lesaux, N., Rivera, M., & Francis, D. (2009). Accommodations for English language learners taking large-scale assessments: A meta-analysis on effectiveness and validity. Review of Educational Research, 79(3), 1168–201. Liu, K., & Barrera, M. (2013). Providing leadership to meet the needs of ELLs with disabilities. Journal of Special Education Leadership, 26(1), 31–42. National Center for Education Statistics. (2012). The Condition of Education 2012. Table A-9-1. Number and percentage distribution of 3- to 21-year olds served under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), Part B, and number served as a percentage of total public school enrollment, by type of disability: Selected school years, 1980–81 through 2009–10. Washington, DC: Institute of Education Sciences, US Department of Education. Retrieved from http://www.shawnee.edu/retention/media/ condition.pdf Schissel, J. (2014). Classroom use of test accommodations: Issues of access, equity, and conflation. Current Issues in Language Planning, 15(3), 282–95. Stansfield, C. (2011). Oral translation as a test accommodation for ELLs. Language Testing, 28(3), 401–16. TESOL International. (2003). Position paper on high-stakes testing for K-12 English-language learners in the United States of America. Retrieved from http://www.tesol.org/docs/ pdf/375.pdf?sfvrsn=2 Suggested Readings Abedi, J. (in press). Linguistic factors in the assessment of English language learners. In Handbook of measurement. Oxford, England: University of Oxford/Sage Publications. Accommodations 7 Abedi, J. (in press). Assessing English language learners and/or bilingual students: Critical issues. In M. Basterra, G. Solano-Flores, & E. Trumbull (Eds.), Assessment, language, and culture: A guide for teachers. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. US Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division. (2009). Americans with Disabilities Act: Questions and Answers. Retrieved from http://www.ada.gov/q%26aeng02.htm WIDA Consortium. (2014). Recommended test accommodations for ELLs with disabilities. Retrieved from http://www.wida.us/assessment/access/accommodations.aspx