Deep-Submergence Archaeology

CHAPTER 9 ............................................................................................... DEEP-SUBMERGENCE ARCHAEOLOGY ................................................................................................ SHELLEY W ACHSMANN INTRODUCTION ....................... .. ........ ................................................... ................ ................... waters represent the greatest danger to ships and seafarers, despite the persistence of a modern myth that has ancient mariners hugging the shore for safety (Davis 2000, 2009; Pomey 1997: 18-35; Wachsmann 1998: 295-301).' It is precisely here, at the intersection of water and shore, that ships are most commonly lost. It is doubtful that this fact was lost on ancient seafarers. The open sea represents relative safety for a ship caught in a storm, for the vessel can attempt to outrun the weather. Ships can be overwhelmed by stormy conditions, but their survival rate in the open sea remains far more favorable, and most ships that come to grief do so within several hundred meters of a coastal obstruction (see, e.g., Acts 27:27-32). Apart from the dangers inherent in a lee shore, the perils of shore-based piracy in antiquity gave further incentive to avoid near-shore sailing (de Souza 1999; Ormerod 1987; Wachsmann 199 8 : 320-3 21 ). Thus, even longhaul coastal sailing had good reason to remain well out to sea, although probably staying in sight ofland. Amphoras and other antiquities recovered from the depths in coastal waters by trawler nets presumably derive primarily from ships that sank along such sea lanes. Israel's Mediterranean coast is a good example of this phenomenon (Barag 1963; Gophna 2002; Safrai 1960; Zemer 1978). Other amphora would have reached the bottom as jetsam from passing ships (i.e., Spiess and Orzech 19 81; Wachsmann et al. 2009). Sailing over open water to and from islands located in the Mediterranean and its ancillary seas was already well established by the Neolithic period and in some COASTAL 203 9 lGENCE SMANN ON y much earlier (Strasser et al. 2010). Much of the evidence for this from visitations to, and colonization of, islands (General: Cherry 1981, : Simmons 1991, 2007: 232-263; the Aegean: Broodbank 2000; BroodStrasser 1991; Davis 1992; Tzalas 1995; Tzamtzis 1990). Obsidian obtained and recovered from Mesolithic levels at Franchthi Cave, located in the Peloponnese, could only have arrived by means of water transport and is the earliest evidence for seafaring in the Mediterranean (Tzalas 1995: 459fact that Mesolithic sailor-prospectors reached Melos intimates that they a wide-ranging knowledge of other islands. The present seeming lack of remains on Mediterranean islands may be the result of global sea-level most coastal sites dating to that era are now underwater and presumably thick sediments (Broodbank 2000: 116; Firth in this volume). crossing the open Mediterranean required a sail of several days out of (Figure 9.1). One such route ran from Crete to Egypt and may have by the end of the third millennium BCE (Pritchard 1969: 416; Vercoutter . Wachs mann 1998: 297-299). fresco fragments from Tell el Daba (ancient Avaris) indicate extensive Crete in the mid-second millennium, as does the appearance of emissaries depicted in Theban tombs as bringing their goods to Egypt reigns of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III (Bietak 1992, 1995; Bietak, and Palyvou 2000; Bietak et al. 2007; Vercoutter 1956; Wachsmann Terc:oultter (1956: 51-53, 56-57, 81, 87-88, 91-92) notes that the Egyptians • ships and seafarers, de1;pite :iners hugging the shore for nn 1998: 295-301).' It is lips are most commonly 'so ip caught in a storm, for ｾ＠ overwhelmed by stormy tins far more favorable, and dred meters of a coastal tIgers inherent in a lee her incentive to avoid nearn 1998: 320-321). Thus, even Tell out to sea, although guities recovered from the ve primarily from ships that s a good example of this ner 1978). Other amphora hips (Le., Spiess and Orzech ©D.Davls .ocated in the ｍＨｾ､ｩｴ･ｲＺ｡ｬＱｉ＠ the Neolithic period and in 9.1 Documented Bronze Age sea routes in the eastern Mediterranean. Data provided by the author. Illustration by D. Davis. 204 -t consistently identified these strangers with the "west" and that this strongly implies that the Minoans reached Egypt by sailing straight across the Mediterranean frOIll Crete. Homer (Od. 14:252-258; 17:426) mentions this blue-water route twice and notes that it took five days. Classical sources describe the voyage as taking three to four days (Casson 1995: 287 n. 75). Another documented Bronze Age Mediterranean open-water route stretched from Cyprus to Egypt. In the fourteenth century BCE, Rib-Addi, the embattled and loquacious lang of Byblos, describes sending the Egyptian envoy Amanmasha frolll his court to Egypt in this roundabout manner, apparently to prevent the capture of the vessel by enemy ships patrolling the Syro-Canaanite coast (Wachsmann 19 86). A geological survey of the Eratosthenes Seamount,·which lies astride the CyprusEgypt route, raised granite and basalt rock samples that have been identified as ships' ballast (Krasheninnikov et aL 1994: 118, 125 fig. 6.11: a-c, 126, 128; Mart and Robertson 1998: 702-703). In 1976 the marine geologist Willard Bascom published a challenge to exploration. In a groundbrealang book published decades before its time, entitled Deep Water, Ancient Ships, he laid out a fascinating argument for the survival of shipwrecks of historical and archaeological significance in the depths of the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Based on his study of records kept by Lloyds of London during the mid-nineteenth century, he argued that not only might shipwrecks survive in better condition at great depths than in shallow waters, but also that they might be numerous (Bascom 1976: 71-84). Of all the recorded ships that Bascom studied, about half sank. Some 80% of these did so in proximity to a coastal obstruction. A further 10% of the ships went down in open water, due to causes varying from the mundane to the utterly bizarre (Bascom 1976: 73-76; Regan 1993). The final 10% of ships lost at sea simply disappeared. Bascom notes that in most cases, however, the vessels had been observed heading into weather. ConSidering that no traces were found, he concludes that the majority of these sank in blue water, raising the possible percentage of deepwater wrecks to 20% of all those lost. As he notes, there is no reason to doubt that similar statistics apply to antiquity. FROM SHIP TO SHIPWRECK: THE FORENSICS OF A DEEPWATER SHIPWRECK It is worth pondering the forensic process by means of which a functional, wooden- planked ship becomes a stabilized deepwater shipwreck Research on the effects of benthic biogenic degradation has been ongoing since the 1960s (Cullimore and Johnson 2008; Herdendorf, Thompson, and Evans 1995: 62-78, 159-163; Muraoka 1964,1965, 1966a, 1966b, 1966c, 1967, 1969, 1970). MERGENCE ARCHAEOLOGY " and that this strongly LCross the Mediterranean an open-water route E, Rib-Addi, the embattled ptian envoy Amanmasha :ently to prevent the Cal)ture, lnite coast (Wachsmann which lies astride the s that have been idenUhe<i: blished a challenge to before its time, entitled ment for the survival of n the depths of the Me:ditern :pt by Lloyds of London y might shipwrecks ｾｲｳＬ＠ but also that they might further 10% of the ships mundane to the utterly ships lost at sea simply the vessels had been 0 ;sible percentage of ､･ｬｾｭｖ｡ｴＬ＠ reason to doubt that 10 fHE FORENSICS PWRECK If which a functional, woo eck. Research on the effects tee the 1960s (Cullimore 995: 62-78, 159-163; M 205 that sinks in deep water will not suffer damage by storms, waves, surges, :urrerlts, or the agencies of ancient salvagers, all of which have contributed ;cnlmbli.ng, loss of artifacts, and outright destruction of so many shallowh,r,wr'pr!(s (Casson 1995: 252 n. 108, 370 n. 45; Frost 1968; Muckelroy 1978: .Drw,-"',, 1997: 42-43; Stewart 1999; Tchernia 1978; Martin in this volume). sinldng in deep water will undergo a much gentler transition. may have occurred even before the vessel slipped beneath the waves. and waterlogging may have already weakened the vessel's timbers Thompson, and Evans 1995: 100, 159-161). Rigging, masts, and sails been cut away during storms or in the aftermath of battles; cargoes may cast overboard in an attempt to lighten the vessel (set:, e.g., Jonah 1:5; Acts discovery at Skerkie Bank near Sicily, and off Chrisi (Gadaranoussi) of Crete, of lines of discarded amphoras represents the archaeological a commonly described phenomenon (Ballard et al. 2000: 1594, 1595 fig. 2, 1618; Foley and Ballard 2004; Wachsmann et al. 2009: 148, 149 fig. 2). If sank as a result of a storm, items may have shifted greatly as the ship ran storm. Additionally, the manner in which the vessel slipped below the ＭｵｬＩｦｩｾＡｨｴＬ＠ listing, capsized, bow or stern first -could result in the displacecargo-stowing abilities of the ancients must not be underestimated, howml=,horas were deSigned, and constantly evolved, specifically for a nautical Such cargoes would have been well secured and perhaps roped down their handles, and cushioned with sufficient dunnage to protect from ATP",th,'r (Pomey and Tchernia1978; Rival, Hesnard, and Bernard-Maugiron the well-aligned rows of amphoras commonly seen on the wrecks of ＾ｲｬ･ｄｾｨｭｴｮ＠ do not preclude these vessels having experienced severe prior to sinking. wooden-planked ships that now exist at great depths must have reached ottom in a more or less intact condition (Muckelroy 1978: 150, 166). The bu<wa.ncv alone of a wooden hull will result in her floating, unless she is carby her contents (ballast, cargo, cannon, etc.). Indeed, numerous reports warships-lacldng cargo and only lightly ballasted-remaining afloat captured and towed away by the victors after they "sank" (Casson 1995: 82; and Williams 1968: 34-35, pIs. 6: e, 7: a [Geom. 32, 38]; Wachsmann 1998: ,171 fig. 8.1A.). If, however, during the wrecldng event a wooden-planked up and spilled her contents in deep water, only a debris field might remain seab01:tOlTI to mark the event. cargo ship sank in deep water, sealed amphora containing air-pockets Implode, perhaps forcing their sealing bungs inside (Bass 1986: 278 ill. 8). mattal:he,d objects not trapped between deck(s) and hull would float back to Lsurta<:e as flotsam. Heavier items that fell free of the ship would sink at their cities and might come to rest at some distance from the shipwreck. In some processes will have formed a visible debris trail (if not covered by subseSe(UlIlentatio11l), which may aid in locating the wreck (Ballard 2008b: 97-104). 206 Anchors that had been deployed to keep the ship from broaching during a would hang below the ship during the descent and, depending on the speed of current, might end up beneath the ship or at some distance from it (Acts 27:17, 40). This may explain the location of a lead anchor stock found some 20 m from main grouping of the Skerlde B shipwreck and the distance that a stone bow Cluc:nOl'\1I lies from the Tanit ship's cargo spread (Ballard et al. 2000: 1599, 1600 fig. 5, 2002: fig. 3; McCann and Oleson 2004C: 128 fig. 7.1, 131 fig. 7-3, 150, 151 figs. 7-44-45). As the ship sanlc, she would have reached a terminal velocity based on her density and drag. RMS Titanic, for example, is estimated to have reached a ter:mirlalll velocity of 25-30 mph (about 40-48 kmh) when she hit the seabed at a depth of m (Uchupi, Ballard, and Lange 1988-1989: 59)•. Similarly, a study of the copper-clad Central America led to the estimate that it had taken the ship about 18 minutes the time that she sank beneath the waves till her collision with the seabed, some m below. The vessel's impact velocity is calculated at 7-3 kmh (Herdendorf, lll()mpson,1 and Evans 1995: 64). In deep water, a sinldng ship will tend to right herself and, therefore, will .. <q41 mally impact the seabed more or less on an even keel (R. D. Ballard, pers. ｾＧｈｬＬｌ＠ Ballard et al. 2000: 1616). Just before the ship hits the bottom, if it consists of UIH_Ull-<,'II1I solidated sediments, the pressure wave beneath the hull will blow a crater in seabed sediment O. Morris, pers. comm.). Craters, which are presumably relics this phenomenon, have been recorded by means of micro bathymetry on the eighth-century BCE Phoenician shipwrecks Tanit and Elissa, found at a depth 400 m off the Mediterranean coast of Egypt (Ballard et al. 2002: 155 fig. 4, 157 fig. Singh, Whitcomb et al. 2000: 156 fig. 4, 157 fig. 5). The force of the vessel's impact the seabed may result in weakening, or even cracldng the hull open. At the very it is an addilional opportunity for items to shift, particularly if the vessel hits seabed bow or stern first. Most of the Mediterranean's deep seabed consists of unconsolidated sectirnlents.• When landing on such a bottom, lower parts of the hull would be forced into bottom by the ldnetic energy of the collision. This would also raise a cloud of placed sediment, some of which would sink back onto the ship, beginning process of burying at least the lower parts of the hull. Over time, additional sediments will continue to filter down onto the wreck. Currents may scour sediments away from some parts of the wreck (or artifacts) or cause them to accumulate in other areas (Ballard et al. 2000: 1616 Herdendorf, Thompson, and Evans 1995: 70 fig. 69, 77 fig. 76). If the rate of mentation is high, the wreck may be buried entirely, maldng it nearly impossible locate and study with present technology. Parts of the ship's hull that remain exposed in the water column undergo gentle disintegration as the result of two primary phenomena: marine borers the waterlogging of her timbers. All of the timbers' water-soluble cOlnponents-.• starches, organic acids, and sugars-leach out (Grattan 1987). Bacteria, and to lesser degree fungi, subsequently consume the cellulose (Herdendorf, Th.olllPson,<1I and Evans 1995: 80-82; Kohlmeyer 1969; Wessel 1969). Eventually, even lignin, SUBMERGENCE ARCHAEOLOGY from broaching during a , depending on the speed of distance from it (Acts 27:17, ;tock found some 20 m from listance that a stone bow 2000: 1599, 1600 fig. 5, 2002: ;. 7-3, ISO, 151 figs. 7-44-45). ,inal velocity based on her aated to have reached a hit the seabed at a depth of arly, a study of the COImeT-Clan 1 the ship about 18 minutes ision with the seabed, some 7.3 kmh (Herdendorf, ＮｌｕｾＢｦｊＧ＠ part of the wood cell walls, disintegrates. Wood-boring organisms, mainly boring mollusks (family Pholadidae), aid and abet this process by tuninto the wood. As most of the biological activity takes place in the first meter the seabed, the hull will disintegrate first in the area nearest to the seabed, so one could observe the process in time-lapse photography, the hull would to disappear into the seafloor (Muraoka 1970: ii, 5-6, 12 table 3). As these procontinue, the actual percentage of wood in a timber diminishes until nothing but the calcareous mollusk burrows (Herdendorf, Thompson, and Evans 98, 100, 154, 155 fig. 136, 156 figs. 137-138, 157). As there is a deficiency of calcarbonate at depth, even these burrows will eventually disappear, having disinto the surrounding water column (Morse and Berner Ｎ ｾＹＷＲＩＮ＠ A11tholUg,h the degradation of the wood will be a gradual process, cataclysmic will occur as portions of the hull weaken and fall off in sections. These secof hull will be buried under collapsing cargo and equipment, or remain on the seabed and rapidly disintegrate (Herdendorf, Thompson, and Evans 65,156 fig. 138). longer constrained by the hull, cargo will disperse accordingly. Items cardeck or in castles will come to rest on top of, or next to, the contents stored hull (e.g., Tanit and Elissa wrecks: Ballard et al. 2002: 154 fig. 3 [upper right], 7.1-3, 159 fig. 8, 160 figs. 9.1-3, 7-10, 161; SS Central America: Herdendorf, and Evans 1995: 65). If the ship lists only slightly and if the amphoras are packed, they might simply "lean" to one side. Whether lying horizontally or open amphoras can fill up, acting as sediment traps as current-borne parthat enter their mouths decelerate and settle out inside them 0. K. Hall, pers. t herself and, therefore, will (eel (R. D. Ballard, pers. Ie bottom, if it consists of he hull will blow a crater in ;, which are presumably of microbathymetry on the : and Elissa, found at a rd et al. 2002: 155 fig. 4, 157 [he force of the vessel's np,lct' ng the hull open. At the very particularly if the vessel hits 11' ists of unconsolidated se<iinler he hull would be forced into s would also raise a cloud of cle onto the ship, beginning ull. ue to filter down onto the some parts of the wreck (or ｾ｡ｳ＠ (Ballard et al. 2000: 1010-1.0. 69, 77 fig. 76). If the rate of :ly, maldng it nearly impo:ssit)le in the water column unaergo V phenomena: marine borers lers' water-soluble comp Grattan 1987). Bacteria, and ellulose (Herdendorf, IhlJmpsc 1969). Eventually, even lignin, 207 ｴ･ｲＢｄＬｳＺｶ｣ｾ､＠ with shallow-water shipwrecks, in normal conditions the preservation of the and of other organic items aboard, will be limited to those portions buried in sediment soon after the sinldng. In other words, the lower portions of a hull might be expected to survive in a manner analogous to those of shallow-water shipwrecks that sink into soft sediments away from turbulence (Bascom 1976: 105-u8) . .ll111Ut:.l " recovered from Roman period Skerlde Bank shipwrecks demonstrate from antiquity can survive at depth if rapidly buried in the sediment (Bas1976: 105-118; McCann 1994b: 11 fig. 9, 12 figss 10-11, 13; McCann and Oleson 150-151,152 figs. 7-46-48; McCann and Oleson 2004d: 87, 88 figs. 4.63:a-b, 64; and Giangrande 2004: 201). The situation in the anoxic levels of the Black in very cold waters, such as the Baltic Sea, is exceptional at preserving timbers in the water column, as seen on the Sinop D shipwreck in the former sea and an seventeenth-century Dutch jluit and other, more recent wrecks in the latter. D: Ballard et al. 2001: 619-621; Coleman, Ballard, and Gregory 2003: 1288 fig. 3; 2008: 79-82; Ward and Ballard 2004: 6-12; Ward and Horlings 2008: 160-165; Hagberg et al. 2007; Ronnby 2008). copper and its alloys tend to retard the attack of marine borers on shipwrecks, a of copper ingots similar to the lading of the Uluburun shipwreck, or a bronze ram, 208 THE PROCESS might be expected to aid in the preservation of nearby timbers (Herdendorf, Thompson, and Evans 1995: 66; Pulak 1999b: 212; Uchupi, Ballard, and Lange 1988-1989: 57). Ifleft unburied by sediment, organic cargoes, which may have comprised a considerable percentage of a ship's total cargo, will be consumed and disintegrate, becoming "invisible" and leaving areas of the wreck site seemingly empty. This is the most likely explanation for the gaps noted between clusters of artifacts on the Skerlde D shipwreck (Ballard et al. 2000: 1603 fig. 7, 1608-1609; McCann and Oleson 2oo4d: 53). Eventually, however, the wreck will reach a state of equilibrium, with the upper works gone and the buried remains securely interred. Subsequently, the wreck will be affected solely by geological phenomena or human interventions. Many shipwrecks now lie bUTied beneath meters of sediment and at present are invisible and unattainable with even the most advanced technology. Human intervention can cause devastating damage to shipwrecks even in deep water. While treasure hunters are the most conspicuous despoilers, other more mundane human enterprises can destroy deepwater shipwrecks inadvertently and are just as damaging and infinitely more common. Trawlers represent by far the most serious anthropogenic threat to deepwater shipwrecks; additional dangers to shipwreck may result from the laying of pipelines or cables, the construction of deepwater facilities for power plants, and even the anchor drag of large ships (Gibbins 1991: 167 n. 1; Hiney 2002: cover, 2-12; Smith, Banks, and Banks 2007; Stewart 1999). DEEP-SUBMERGENCE ARCHAEOLOGY Until the last few decades, the archaeological investigation of shipwrecks has been largely limited to those located in depths achievable by diving archaeologists (Bass 1976a: 111-123, 169-184; Delgado 1997; Gibbins 1991: 166-167; Long 1987, 1988, 1998; Pomey 1997: 44). More recently, a number of archaeologically and historically significant shipwrecks lying at depth have been located and studied to various degrees (e.g., Skerkie Bank: McCann and Freed 1994; McCann and Oleson 2004a; the Tanit and Elissa wrecks: Ballard et al. 2002; Stager 2003; Chios: Foley 2008; Foley et aL 2009; Sakellariou et al. 2007: 365-373, 379-380; Egadi Islands (off Sicily): Anonymous 2009; Royal 2008; Ventotene (Italy): Flynn 2009; Black Sea: Davis 2008; Ward and Horlings 2008; Trondheim Harbor: S0reide 2000; Norwegian Sea: S0reide et al. 2006; modern shipwrecks: Ballard 2008b; Ballard and Archbold 1987; Bryant and Hamilton 2007; Church and Warren 2008; Church et al. 2002, 2003, 2004; Ford et al. 2009; Ford, Borgens, and Hitchcock 2010; Jourdan 2009; Warren, Church, and Davey 2004). Deep-submergence archaeology (DSA), the term given here to the archaeological study of cultural resources beyond the limits of traditional diving, may also contribute to our understanding of the distant human past, when much of the UBMERGENCE ARCHAEOLOGY ·timbers (Herdendorf, Ih()mpsc 1, and Lange 1988-1989: 57). If ave comprised a considerable disintegrate, becoming This is the most likely eXJ:>larlatil Skerlde D shipwreck (Ballard 104d: 53). Eventually, however, pper works gone and the ly by geological ｰｨｻｾｮｯｭ･｡Ｈ＠ ried beneath meters of secllm.el l even the most advanced g damage to shipwrecks lSpicuous despoilers, other er shipwrecks inadvertently 11. Trawlers represent by far lipwrecks; additional dallgers 1 s or cables, the construction the anchor drag of large Smith, Banks, and Banks lCHAEOLOGY tigation of shipwrecks has e by diving archaeologists : 166-167; Long 1987, 1988, leologically and historically i and studied to various inn and Oleson 2004a; the ; Chios: Foley 2008; Foley et ｾ｡､ｩ＠ Islands (off Sicily): 09; Black Sea: Davis 2008; )00; Norwegian Sea: S0reide ard and Archbold 1987; rch et al. 2002, 2003, 2004; 'dan 2009; Warren, Church, m given here to the arc;haeollog of traditional diving, may Jman past, when much of 209 water was locked in ice sheets, causing the ocean system to drop signifiHuman habitation sites may exist in areas that are now in deep water 2008a, 2008b; Coleman and McBride 2008; Faught and Flemming 2008; 2009,2010; Ryan et al. 1997; Ryan and Pitman 1998; Firth in this volume). course, each nautical archaeologist could generate a list of shipwrecks at depths worthy of study based on their own research interests. For scholars in seafaring of the early Mediterranean, shipwrecks supplying a relatively picture of a vessel and her contents remain rare prior to the sixth century and hull remains are even scarcer. The Uluburun ship, dating to the last quarthe thirteenth century BCE, carried a rich cargo and remained sufficiently to recover parts of her hull, which indicate that her bUilders used an already " ..lr·"hl" developed form of pegged mortise-and-tenon joinery to edge-join the plarllClflg (Fitzgerald 1996; Pulak 1999a, 1999b; Steffy 1994: 36-37). Dated about later, the more poorly preserved Cape Gelidonya shipwreck may have up during the sinking event; but the hull remains, though they consist of few wood fragments, are sufficient to indicate that her builders also used a form of construction (Bass 1967: 45, 48 figs. 45-46, 49 fig. 48, 50 fig. 51; Pulak : 214, 219-220, 232 table 1, 237 fig. 6; Wachsmann 1989: 192, 1998: 217, 218 fig. Other Bronze Age "shipwrecks" are in truth better described as cargo scatters, derived from nearby land sites, and contribute nothing to our underof ancient ship construction (Dokos: Papathanassopoulos, Vichos, and 1995; Vichos and Papathanassopoulos 1996; Sheytan Deresi: Bass 1976b; Cat2008; Margariti 1998; Cape Iria: Phelps, Lolos, and Vichos 1999; Vichos 1999; and Lolos 1997; Pseira: Bonn-Muller 2009; Hadjidald and Betancourt 2005Valuable though these sites may be in terms of archaeological data, they be considered coherent shipwrecks. ｓｕ｢ｻｾｱｵｬ･ｮｴｹＬ＠ the record of relatively intact hulls only picks up again in the century BCE. From this time, we have a series of vessels: Mazarrone (circa century BCE, Aizpurua and Mendez 1996; Negueruela 2000a: 182-184; 2000b), Bon-Porte and Pabu y Burnu (late sixth century BCE, Bass, and Polzer 2006: 139; Bound 1985, 1991; Greene and Polzer 2004; Polzer in press), Place Jules Verne-9 and Place Jules Verne-7 (last quarter sixth BCE, Pomey 1997: 90-93), and Gela (circa 500 BCE, Freschi 1991, 1996). uv,.auy, an intriguing Phoenician wreck dating to the late seventh or early ＺｩｃｻｾｮｴｬｊｲＨｳ＠ BCE is currently under excavation at Bajo de la Campana, Spain, and hope for hull survival at this site also (Mas 1985; Polzer 2007, 2008, 2009; and Reyes 2007; Roldan Bernal, Miiiano Dominguez, and Martin Camino nVH.laH Bernal, Martin Camino, and Perez Bonet 1995). Thus, regarding ancient ｉｭｾｲ［ｬｮｻ｡＠ shipwrecks, virtually any vessel predating the seventh century BCE in deep water would be of sufficient archaeological and historical signifto make her worthy of study. e considerations put into perspective the remarkable discovery of not one, late-eighth-century BCE Phoenician shipwrecks found in deep water by of the NR-l off the northern coast of Egypt in 1997 and subsequently stud- 210 THE PROCESS ied by Ballard and Stager in 1999 (Ballard et al. 2002; Gore 2001: 91-93; Stager 2003). Dating to about the time when Homer is believed to have written his epics, not only are these vessels exceptional in being the first Levantine Phoenician shipwrecks found, but they also date to a century for which we have no other recorded shipwrecks. Deep-submergence archaeology is indeed more costly than a conventional shipwreck excavation, but there are significant trade-offs. A variety of factors-daylight hours, decompression, and cold, to list but a few-limit conventional shipwreck excavations. On the other hand, DSA is a round-the-clock operation, with control teams worldng in shifts. Once a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) reaches the seabottom, barring truly inclement weather or the unexpected, work can continue uninterrupted on a 24-hour work schedule (Figure 9.2). Additionally, an ROV or an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) can carry out site recording, which takes up an extraordinary amount of total bottom-time on any conventional underwater excavation, far more effectively than archaeological divers (Figure 9.3) (Ballard et al. 2000: 1602, 2002: 154; Foleyet al. 2009; Singh, Pizzaro et al. 2000; Warren and Church 2003; Warren, Church, and Westrick 2008; Yoerger et al. 2007). Some might argue that no ship in deep water should be touched until all the appropriate excavation tools have been developed. However, technology does not develop on its own: it is purpose-driven and can be improved upon only by initiating actual work Additionally, this approach leaves the deep seas open to treasure hunters, while excluding nautical archaeologists, which is clearly an unacceptable Figure 9. 2 This MaxRover class remotely operated vehicle (ROV), owned by Greece's Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR), has beenused effectively for checking anomalies and for other archaeological purposes. It is rated to 2,000 m. Photograph by the author. UBMERGENCE ARCHAEOLOGY 211 )02; Gore 2001: 91-93; eved to have written his 'st Levantine Phoenician lch we have no other rec:onie ostly than a conventional A variety of rac:t0l:S--Q,lVI11!11 t conventional shipwreck ｾ＠ operation, with control (ROV) reaches the seal)ottor )rk can continue unint1errupt ly, an ROV or an au1:on0l11l0 g, which takes up an extraOf( nal underwater excavation, ｾＮＳＩ＠ (Ballard et al. 2000: DO; Warren and Church 07). hould be touched until all ｾｯｷ･ｶｲＬ＠ technology does improved upon only by the deep seas open to lich is clearly an unacc:e]:)tat licle (ROV), owned by mused effectively for ch,edjnl ｾｳＮ＠ It is rated to 2,000 m. r. Recovery of Woods Hole's Autonomous Benthic Explorer (ABE) \uton()m'DUS Underwater Vehicle (AUV). Reproduced with lond permission ofthe WHOI/ABE Group. Given present realities, by not expanding into these new areas, the archaecommunity would be harming its own interests. chaleollogists have lagged behind treasure hunters in the race to develop and strategies for excavating shipwrecks at depth (e.g., SS Central America: Thompson, and Evans 1995; Kinder 1998; Thompson 1998; wreck idenBuen Jesus y Nuestra Senora del Rosario: Moore 1997; the Black Swan Cc)laJ)in1to 2008). Treasure-hunting groups have developed their own techfor retrieving and raising artifacts from the deep-sea floor. As tools for exexploiting the deep seas continue to develop rapidly, and become purchase and operate, treasure-hunting initiatives will continue to expand into the deep sea. These regions are appealing, as deep waters to a large synonymous with international waters and, therefore, at present at least, beyond the reach of governmental controls and restrictions (Elia 2000; . Irion, Ball, and Horrell 2008; McCann and Oleson 2004b: 23-24; O'Keef something is done to change this trend, we stand the danger oflosing Ifront:ier of archaeology (Colapinto 2008; Goodheart 1999; Koerner 1999). risk of stating the obvious, the archaeological excavation of a shipwreck is a highly complex affair, requiring diverse areas of expertise. The role of ｡･ＨＩｬｏｉｾｩｳｴ＠ within this multidimensional operation requires a paradigm shift. 'entional excavations, be they terrestrial or marine, the principal investigator ears the overall responsibility for the entire expedition. The new paralO\'ITe,rer. calls for a somewhat different approach-one in which the archaethe specialists brought to the site by the oceanographers. A good analogy relationship between submariners and "spooks" in naval intelligencemissions (Sontag, Drew, and Lawrence-Drew 1999). Just as is not the role gatherers to drive submarines, similarly, running technical 212 THE PROCESS aspects of the project should not be the responsibility of the archaeologists. Rather, their responsibility must be focused on, and limited to, the archaeology. The totality of archaeological exploration at great depths-discovering, recording, excavating, and recovering-requires function-specific tools. Deep Submergence Archaeological Excavations (DSAE), however, takes advantage of a remarkable existent toolkit, designed for a variety of oceanographic purposes other than the study of ancient shipwrecks. Truly, we would not be considering DSAE at all were it not for such advances as side-scan sonar, bottom-penetrating sonar, Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS), dynamic positioning, fiber optics, high-definition video, ROVs, and a host of other technologies (Coleman and Ballard 2008; Newman, Gregory, and Howland 2008). Viewed from this perspective, missing technologies remain challenging yet relatively minor problems. Deepwater archaeological survey is already at an advanced stage. Through experience and experimentation, strategies for locating shipwrecks in deep water have developed considerably in recent years (Ballard 2008a, 2008b; Herdendorf, Thompson, and Evans 1995: 46-52; Jourdan 2009; Sakellariou 20072008; Sakellariou et al. 2007). What is laddng at present is a comprehensive methodology for deepwater excavation. In addition, it seems to me that the most important element to bring with us in approaching wrecks at depth is a sincere and intense sense of humility. We are poised to reach back to human treasures that have not been seen since they sank. In such a situation it is important to remember that just because a technical ability exists, it does not necessarily have to be used. The ultimate goal of DSAE will be to develop the technologies and the skills that will permit expeditions to excavate and safely raise the contents and hull of an entire ship for conservation, study, and display. The technological toolldt to accomplish this remains years away, if not decades. Yet the future ability to reach this goal should dictate present steps. For the purpose of this discussion, let us imagine a deepwater shipwreck of unique archaeological/historical significance to make it a worthwhile candidate for excavation. This wreck lies on a flat abyssal plain of negligible gradient consisting of unconsolidated sediments. A significant portion of the hull survives buried in the sediment beneath the wreck's inorganic contents. These may indude anchors, amphoras, pithoi, ingots, stone blocks, pillars, ballast, and the like. Embedded in this matrix are numerous smaller artifacts, down to the size of a bead. That these minute artifacts are hardly a theoretical concern is demonstrated by the thousands of beads found scattered throughout the Uluburun shipwreck (Ingram 2005; Pulal<: 1997: 245)· A shipwreck must be considered a complex artifact rather than a habitation site (Muckelroy 1978: 215-225). For that reason, most nautical archaeologists will prefer to excavate an entire shipwreck. At this pioneering stage, however, it would be premature to excavate an entire deepwater shipwreck. Rather, by excavating several controlled archaeological sections, an expedition will be able to address the most pertinent questions raised by a shipwreck: the date, the source(s) of the cargo, the last itinerary, the cultural identity of the vessel's home port, and the construction techniques used in the building of the hull. -SUBMERGENCE ARCHAEOLOGY ty of the archaeologists. I to, the archaeology. great depths-discovering, ction-specific tools. Deep lOwever, takes advantage ty of oceanographic , we would not be COlllS11Qer'1l can sonar, bottom-pen,etratIl DGPS), dynamic pot;itic>llin 1st of other technologies Iwland 2008). Igies remain challenging yet :urvey is already at an ad'varlO rategies for locating shlPwrec llt years (Ballard 2008a, mdan 2009; Sakellariou ethodology for deepwater )Ortant element to bring tense sense of humility. We ot been seen since they just because a technical lltimate goal of DSAE will mit expeditions to excavate ｾｲ＠ conservation, study, and nains years away, if not :e present steps. gine a deepwater ｳｨｩｰｶＮＧｲ･Ｈｾｫ＠ ce it a worthwhile caIldi,date. llegligible gradient ｣ｯｲｬｳｩｴｾ＠ 'the hull survives buried in hese may include anchors, and the lilce. Embedded in :ize of a bead. That these rated by the thousands of : (Ingram 2005; Pulalc 199T fact rather than a habitation lutical archaeologists will stage, however, it would be :. Rather, by excavating ,ill be able to address the , the source(s) of the cargo, )me port, and the ｬｈＢＬｾＧ＠ 213 we lack a vessel's ethnic identity, it is difficult to evaluate a ship's historical Yet one of the most perplexing problems that arise in the archaeology ships remains the identification of a vessel's homeport. Cargoes are of in determining a homeport, as a ship can carry a cargo loaded at any Late Bronze Age vessel loaded to the caprails with Mycenaean Greek stirrup example, might have traded them at the last port of call for a cargo of Syrocopper-oxhide ingots from the home port (Bass 1967: 165). For MediterBronze and Iron ａｧｾ＠ ships there are several indicators that, taken together, help determine ethnic identity, including personal items belonging to the passengers, balance-pan weight sets, cultic items, and stone anchors or stones (Bachhuber 2006; Bass 1967: 163-167; Pulakl9-96, 1998, 2008: 300ｲｹ｡ＨｾｨｳＮｭｮ＠ 1998: 211-212, 2000: 815-820). With the notable exception of the most of these items normally would have been located at the stern, which served as the crew's quarters. hulls narrow at their extremities, resulting in structural changes, the best to learn about the vessel's construction is found amidships. Excavators take advantage, however, of any locations where hull remains might be with minimal excavation as, for example, areas covered only by stone or a layer of ballast stones. to excavation, an accurate site plan must be generated. Advanced solubeen developed for this purpose (Ballard 1993; Ballard et al. 2000; Foley 09; Mindell et al. 2004; Singh, Adams et al. 2000; Singh, Romans et al. 2000, Howland, and Pizarro 2004; Whitcomb, Yoerger, and Singh 1999a, :Whitc;OlYlb et al. 1999). very nature of photomosaics precludes their use for accurate measurements . 21-22; Singh, Adams, et al. 2000: 321-322). Accurate site plans can be from the optical data by means of stereophotogrammetry, a method that in use for many years in shallow-water excavations (Bass 1976a: 96-97, 1982: 24-26). For this purpose, the merging of microbathymetric maps data may be the solution (Singh, Whitcomb et al. 2000; Singh, Roman Mindell et al. 2004). ideal world, archaeologists could get a virtual "sneak peak" into a shipthe onset of excavation to permit them to formulate the best excavaA prototype high-frequency, narrow-beam sub-bottom profiler for this purpose was first deployed on Jason during the 1999 survey of the Elissa wrecks (Mindell and Bingham 2001). Further refinement of such a and a better understanding of the data it generates, could significantly predisturbance examination. requires creative robotic solutions to handle a bewildering assortment and artifacts that may vary considerably in size, weight, volume, and structural strength. Solutions to raising many types of artifacts artifact that is moved in the context of excavation must first receive some firmly secured identification (Wachsmann 2007-2008: 137 fig. 6). Repeat 214 THE PROCESS optical recording of a depot has been employed to record the few artifacts that might be moved and stored during an archaeological survey of a wreck (Singh, Adams et al. 2000: 326 fig. 6). An excavation, however, will generate too many displaced objects to depend solely on this manner of recording. Additionally, pottery on deep shipwrecks undergoes stress resulting from benthic processes not normally encountered in ceramics from shallower wrecks (Ballard et al. 2000: 1614-1616; Piechota 1994; Piechota and Giangrande 2004: 196-197, 2008). Thus, the fragility of these artifacts also must be taken into consideration when stockpiling them: an artifact might shatter even during the most careful handling. The process of excavation favors a method of stabilizing the ROV on site, and several versions of frameworks or railing have been developed for this purpose (Alfsen 2006; Coleman, Ballard, and Gregory 2003: 1289, 1290 fig. 9; S0reide 2000; S0reide, Jasiinski, and Sperre 2006: 11-12; Webster 2008: 57 figs. 4.18-19). Two distinct actions compose controlled underwater excavation: the gentle raising of sediment into the water column without harming or moving the artifacts embedded in it, and the transportation of the sediment off-site. To transport off-site the large quantities of sediment generated by the excavation, a Venturi dredge is the tool of choice: it is commonly used on conventional underwater excavations in water too shallow to allow for an airlift (Breitstein 2003: 12 fig. 5 and n. 8, 14 fig. 7; Dean et al. 1992: 211-213, 310-312). The dredge's task is not to excavate into the sediments, but rather to act as a slurry conveyer belt to transport sediments off-site after they have been raised into the water column by other methods. The slightest disturbances of these unconsolidated sediments-the movement of an amphora, for example-raises clouds of fine silt that remain suspended in the water until it settles out and/or is transported off-site by the current (Ballard et al. 2000: 1607). This phenomenon lowers visibility to the degree that work must often cease. Thus, in a low-velocity current this problem alone can result in a significant drop in on-site productivity. Solutions have been developed to solve this problem (Herdendorf, Thompson, and Evans 1995: 54). The most recent of these is the "snuffier" excavation tool, which sucks up the suspended silt as it is being excavated (Figure 9-4; Coleman, Ballard, and Gregory 2003: 1289-1290; Webster 2008: 49-55). A diving archaeologist has three-dimensional vision and tactile sense. Two forward-facing cameras on the ROV Nemo generated a three-dimensional image that, upon transmission to an optically polarized monitor, created a threedimensional display (Herdendorf, Thompson, and Evans 1995: 57-58). Similarly, the ROV Hercules allows the pilot the option of force feedback manipulation (B. Buxton, pers. comm.). Cases may arise when it might be preferable to raise a group of small artifacts in their in situ spatial arrangement. Thus, on the SS Central America, Nemo raised gold coins in their original stacldng position by placing an open-bottomed aluminum mold with a form-fitting skirt of soft material over the selected feature and then injecting the mold with liquid silicon (Herdendorf, Thompson, and Evans 1995: 53-54, 58 figs. 49-50,59 fig. 51). For larger items, ROVs can employ simple yet remarkably dexterous tools like those developed for Jason, nicknamed the "Cowcatcher" and 215 gical survey of a wreck ｾｶ･ｲＬ＠ will generate too many recording. Additionally, 1 benthic processes not nOJrm.1U (Ballard et al. 2000: 16 -197,2008). Thus, the tragililtYI tion when stockpiling them: handling. stabilizing the ROV on site, eveloped for this purpose ｾＹＰ＠ fig. 9; S0reide 2000; gS.4.18- 19). derwater excavation: the harming or moving the lent off-site. To transport :cavation, a Venturi dredge is underwater excavations in 2 fig. 5 and n. 8, 14 fig. 7; I excavate into the sediments, iediments off-site after they ds. The slightest dis1turt)ances '. an amphora, for excl.mlple-l·ais ater until it settles out 2000: 1607). This phell()men( :n cease. Thus, in a IOVIJ-VeIOCl lilt drop in on-site prc)du.cti'vi ill (Herdendorf, Thompson, snuffier" excavation tool, i (Figure 9-4; Coleman, B ). 1 vision and tactile sense. ated a three-dimensional led monitor, created a Evans 1995: 57-58). Similarly, ｾ､｢｡｣ｫ＠ manipulation (B. raise a group of small Ｂｲｴｩ｢Ｌｾ＠ mtral America, Nemo raised g an open-bottomed alUlmirm ｾｲ＠ the selected feature and hompson, and Evans 1995: n employ simple yet renlarJlcab cknamed the "Cowcatcher" 9.4 The ROV's left robotic arm holds the "snuffier" in place to collect suspended as the right robotic arm gently brushes away sediment clinging to timbers on D shipwreck, Black Sea. Reproduced with land permission of the Institute for EX})iOlration and University of Rhode Island Center for Ocean Exploration and Archaeological Oceanography, URI Graduate School of Oceanography. Spank" (McCann 1994a: 97, color figs. 12,27; Webster 2008: 58,58 fig. 4.20-21). be deployed safely to retrieve a wide range of artifacts varying in size and from an amphora to an oil lamp. A hydraulic suction cup may be used to medium-sized artifacts, up to the size of an amphora, while an intertool set for use with an ROV's robotic arm adds additional functionality 2007-2008: 139 fig. 8; Webster 2008: 55,56 figs. 4.15-17, 57). controlled system is required to raise particularly heavy items without them or their immediate surroundings. Prior to the excavation oftheSS America, Nemo raised the ship's bell, weighing 125 kilograms (Herdendorf, on, and Evans 1995: 51, 52 fig. 38, 53 fig. 39). How this procedure affected the hull is not reported. Bronze Age anchors may weigh up to half a ton 1998: 255-293). Heavy metal items, such as copper ingots, might con{\a,>th,',. to a degree that it would be preferable to raise them as a consolidated than individually. During the excavation of the Cape Gelidonya shiparchaeologists removed a group of concreted oxhide ingots as a single then separated them on land (Bass 196T 28 figs. 11-12, 29 figs. 13-16). Exmight find anchors or ingots stored in the hull, separated from the hull only by a thin layer of dunnage and/or ballast stones; even in a shipwreck .• ｵＮＬｾ＠ hull preservation, such items may be expected to have pressed the of the hull beneath them into the sediment, and thus preserved it, as in the Uluburun shipwreck (Pulak 1998: 212 fig. 24, 1999b: 212). Thought should to the potential need to strengthen badly corroded artifacts prior to (Peachey 1990). 216 THE PROCESS Paleoethnobotanical materials uncovered during an excavation can contain valuable clues to shipboard life and ghost cargoes (Uluburun: Haldane 1990, 1993; Pulak 2008: 295-296; Madrague de Giens: Tchernia et ai. 1978: 112-118; Skerkie Bank: Beck, Stewart, and Stout 1994; Ward 2004; Tantura Lagoon: Bryant 1995; Wachsmann and Kahanov 1997: 14; Wachsmann, Kahanov, and Hall 1997: 11; Yasslada: Bryant and Murry 1982; Bozburun: Gorham 200oa, 2000b; the Betsy: Weinstein 1992; Mardi Gras: Ford et ai. 2009: 164-173). Additionally, discolored patches of sediment, which have been noted on both shallow- and deepwater wrecks, may indicate decomposed materials and should be retrieved for study (Ballard et al. 2000: 1612; McCann and Oleson 2004e: 101; Pulak 1989: 6-7). DNA information may also be collected remotely (Foley et aL 2009). Wood-be it hull timbers, dunnage, or firewood-may survive beneath cargo and gear. Branches used for onboard firewood and other purposes that would have been cut close in time to the ship's loss are particularly valuable for dendrochronological study (Kuniholm 1997; Kuniholm et ai. 1996; Pomey 1998; Pulak 1998: 213-214). Leather products also tend to escape attack by benthic organisms, presumably due to the tannic acids used in their curing process (Ballard and Archbold 1987: 207, 218; Herdendorf, Thompson, and Evans 1995: 163 fig. 146, 164 fig. 147,165 figs. 150-151). Lowly bilge mud may be one of the most valuable sources for learning about a ship's history. Composed of detritus collecting primarily amidships, it may contain information on shipboard life hidden in a potpourri of spilled cargoes, garbage, and coprolites containing pollen, phytoliths, fungi, and a collection of other plant remains. Bilge mud stands out quite clearly on a shipwreck buried in sand (Wachsmann and Kahanov 1997: 14 fig. 16). It might be difficult to identify it in benthic sediment, so care should be taken to collect all the sediment in the areas where it tends to collect (along the keel/keel-plank and wedged between frames and planking). Control core samples must be retrieved from the seafloor around a shipwreck during the predisturbance survey to ensure against contamination (Davis 2008: 76, 77 fig. 7; Wachsmann 2007-2008: 141 fig. 10; Webster 2008: 46-49). Artifacts may be retrieved to the surface by means of an "elevator;' a device deSigned to raise items without requiring the ROV to break surface (Figure 9.5; Ballard 1993: 1680 fig. 4, 1683, 1998: 38; Bowen et ai. 2000; Ford et al. 2009: 22-23; Webster 2008: 44-45). As excavation proceeds, the hull should be kept cradled in its outer sedimentary matrix, as the timbers will not have sufficient structural strength to support their own weight. Robotically applied polysulfide molds could be used to record hull structure underwater (Murdock and Daley 1981, 1982). To learn even more about the construction of the hull, consideration should be given to raising a section across it in the manner carried out on the Madrague de Giens shipwreck (Pomey 1978: 76-80 figs. 10-11, pI. XXVIII: 2). Robotically raising a hull-section intact from great depth might be considered the single most complex task to be accomplished at the present stage of technological development. It is important to emphasize that such a project on a deepwater shipwreck of UBMERGENCE ARCHAEOLOGY ing an excavation can cOlltailn Haldane 1990, 19 nia et a1. 1978: 112-118; , Tantura Lagoon: Bryant 1, Kahanov, and Hall 1997: rham 2000a, 2000b; the 4-173). Additionally, dis1coi()rec both shallow- and ､･ｅｾｰｷＧ｡ｴｬ＠ ould be retrieved for study )1; Pulak 1989: 6-7). DNA 2009). Dd-may survive beneath lnd other purposes that articularly valuable for delldr'O et a1. 1996; Pomey 1998; pe attack by benthic ｯｱｾ｡ｮｪｳｬ＠ ir curing process (Ballard and Evans 1995: 163 fig. 146, 217 ｾｕｬｵ｢ｲｮＺ＠ lable sources for learning g primarily amidships, it a potpourri of spilled cal'goes liths, fungi, and a collection :learly on a shipwreck buried It might be difficult to ) collect all the sediment in eel-plank and wedged b t be retrieved from the sea.tlOOl Lrvey to ensure against c0l1taln l007-2008: 141 fig. 10; lrface by means of an "eleva tor :ing the ROV to break 8; Bowen et a1. 2000; Ford et m proceeds, the hull should the timbers will not have eight. Rob otic ally applied ture underwater (Murdock 1 9.5 An elevator with artifacts in its containers rising from the sea. Reproduced kind permission of the Institute for Exploration and University of Rhode Island for Ocean Exploration and Archaeological Oceanography, URI Graduate School of Oceanography. the hull, consideration should carried out on the Madrague 1. XXVIII: 2). Robotically 1sidered the single most cOlnpJle: technological development. It on a deepwater shipwreck ＧＭｌｾｕｈＺ［＠ gicalJhistorical significance should be attempted only after careful con sidand only following much experimentation on a "sacrificial" wreck of relanegligible significance. Due to the structural weakness of waterlogged wood, retrieval method for this envisioned section might be to encase it prior to (Wachs mann 2007-2008: 139, 142, 144). the end of any excavation that reveals ship's timbers and other organic matethe excavated section of the hull must be reburied to ensure that exposed timdo not fall prey to benthic organisms and that cargo does not shift due to One method used successfully on shallow-water shipwrecks is to cover the with a layer of synthetic sandbags (Breitstein 2003: 16 fig. 10, 17 fig. 12, 18 fig. Bernier, and Stevens 2007: 149-152). An ROV could deploy beanbagsacks complete with Velcro tabs that cause them to "coagulate" on contact with other. These bags could be filled with copper pellets to further repel marine larvae. PUBLICATION results from the archaeological project must be presented in a final scientific report, and disseminated to the general public as well. Given the digital nature of DSAE, which depends on electronic recording, such an 218 excavation would be ideally positioned to take the lead in examining the many exciting possibilities in employing electronic media before the general archaeo_ logical community. Directions for this potential include, but are not limited to, the following possibilities: • Color photographs are prohibitively expensive to publish in most scientific reports. By using electronic media or a Web site, however, an archaeological report could include an almost unlimited number of color images. • A selection of the most significant artifacts raised could be recorded as three-dimensional computer-generated models for a "virtual" museum. The user could manipulate an architect's avatar as' if the artifact itself were held in the hand (Wachsmann, in press). • Three-dimensional constructs of the excavation area could demonstrate to the viewer the general lay of the land and the spatial relationships between artifacts in situ (e.g., VIZ-Tantura). Talting this one step further, cliclting on an artifact would take the viewer to information about it. Alternately, the viewer could call up site plans displaying the spatial relationships of differing types of artifacts. • Footage of the excavation process can be provided via streaming video from a Web site to purchasers of the publication, or to create documentary movies (Aig and Haywood 2008). Well-indexed video would permit the reader to call up the materials regarding the discovery and find location of any given artifact. When translated into a virtual reality format, it would allow the user to experience the excavation. All of the above possibilities-and there are others, such as site-specific roleplaying games for children and live Web sites-can be served up in popular formats for the general public and for educational purposes, contributing to the cultural awareness of DSA's value (Corbin and Smith 2008; Hall 2008). The possibilities are confined only by the limits of our imagination. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................... . ..... .............................................................................................. I have received much welcome help in preparing this article and wish to thank the following persons for ldndly giving of their time, knowledge, and experience: Robert D. Ballard, Bridget Buxton, Carlos Cabrera, Alexis Catsambis, Dwight Coleman, Dan Davis, John Hall, Jeff Morris, Mark Polzer, Cemal Pulak, Hanumaunt Singh, the late J. Richard (Dick) Steffy, Louis Whitcom, and Dana Yoerger. Special thanks to the Institute for Exploration and the University of Rhode Island Center for Ocean Exploration and Archaeological Oceanography, URI Graduate School of Oceanography, and Woods Hole OceanographiC Institution (WHOI) for permission to use here photos from their expeditions and of their equipment. Q -SUBMERGENCE ARCHAEOLOGY lead in examining the a before the general arc:haeo- 21 9 NOTES ..... ............................... . ................................ . ................ . ......................... elude, but are not limited ve to publish in most or a Web site, however, an st unlimited number of :ed could be recorded as This article is an updated and condensed version of Wachs mann (2007-200B). It references to deep-submergence salvage operations from shipwrecks of ilaE!ol()gicaJ and historical significance carried out by organizations for commercial These are discussed here because they contain important information regarding umented benthic site formation processes on wooden-planked ships and other related to this discussion. These references do not condone the salvage of such for commercial profit, a practice that I believe to be antithetically opposed preservation and the understanding of the past. ; for a "virtual" museum. C the artifact itself were held 1 area could demonstrate to patial relationships between : one step further, elielting REFERENCES ........... . ................... . ....................................... . ....................................... n about it. Alternately, the )atial relationships fed via streaming video to create documentary would permit the reader to , and K. Haywood. 200B. Through the sea snow: The central role of videography in Deep Gulf Wrecks Mission. International Journal of Historical Archaeology 12 (2): 145· C. G.-G., and J. L. S. Mendez. 1996. Extraccion y tratamientos del barco Fenicio I) de la Playa de la Isla (Puerto de Mazarron, Mazarron). In Cuadernos de AnmeoloS[la Maritima 4, 217-225. Cartagena: Museo Nacional de Arqueologfa ld find location of any ormat, it would allow the lers, such as site-specific E served up in popular ;, contributing to the [all 2008). The possibilities ,NTS cle and wish to thank the ld experience: Robert D. ight Coleman, Dan Davis, Singh, the late 1. Richard s to the Institute for Expic)rati< Exploration and ａｲ｣ｨｾｬ･ｯＬｩＨ＠ and Woods Hole Oceano M. 2006. Digging deep: Revolutionary technology takes archaeologist to new Archaeology 59 (3): 2B-33. 2009· Levanzo I wreck 2006, RPM Nautical. Online at www.rpmnautical.org/ levammVlrre,clchtnrr. Accessed 23 December 2009. C. 2006. Aegean interest on the Uluburun Ship. American Journal of An-;haeo/(J,{;Y 110: 345-363. R. D. 1993. The MEDEA/JASON Remotely Operated Vehicle System. Deep-Sea ｩｒ･ｾ［｡ｲ｣ｨ＠ 140 (B): 1673-16B7199B. High-tech search for Roman shipwrecks. National Geographic 193 (4): 32-4l. 200Ba. Seaching for ancient shipwrecks in the deep sea. In Archaeological Oceanog, ed. R. D. Ballard, 131-147. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 200Bb. The search for contemporary shipwrecks in the deep sea: Lessons learned. In An;haeol'o£",ical Oceanography, ed. R. D. Ballard, 95-127. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Un.iversi1;v Press. R. D., and R. Archbold. 19B7- The discovery of the Titanic. New York: Warner/ Mcldil>on Press. R. D., F. T. Hiebert, D. F. Coleman, C. Ward, J. S. Smith, K. Willis, B. Foley, Croff, C. Major, and F. Torre. 2001. Deepwater archaeology of the Black Sea: The 00 season at Sinop, Turkey. American Journal of Archaeology 105 (4): 607-623. R. D., A. M. McCann, et al. 2000. The discovery of ancient history in the deep sea advanced deep submergence technology. Deep-Sea Research I47: 1591-1620. R. D., L. Stager, D. Master, D. Yoerger, D. Mindell, L. L. Whitcomb, H. Singh, and Piechota. 2002. Iron age shipwrecks in deep water off Ashkelon, Israel. American ofArchaeology 106: 151-16B. 220 Barag, D. 1963. A survey of pottery recovered from the sea off the coast ofIsraeI. Israel Exploration Journal 13: 13-19, pI. 5. Bascom, W 1976. Deep water, ancient ships: The treasure vault of the Mediterranean. Garden City: Doubleday & Company. Bass, G. F. 1976a. Archaeology beneath the sea. New York: Harper Colophon Books. - - . 1976b. Sheytan Deresi: Preliminary report. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 5: 293-303· --.1982. The excavation. In Yassi Ada I (Nautical Archaeology Series 1), ed. G. F. Bass and F. H. van Doorninck Jr., 8-31. College Station: Texas A&M Press. --.1986. A Bronze Age shipwreck at Ulu Burun Ｈｋ｡ｾＩＺ＠ 1984 campaign. American Journal of Archaeology 90: 269-296, pI. 17. Bass, G. F., ed. 1967. Cape Gelidonya: A Bronze Age shipwreck. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, n.s. 57:8. Philadelphia: AmerIcan Philosophical Society. Bass, G. F., D. N. Carlson, and M. E. Polzer. 2006. A brief history of ships' hulls and anchors as revealed along the Turkish coast by the Institute of Nautical Archaeology. In Studies in honor of Hayat Erkanal: Cultural reflections, ed. B. Avun y, 138-144. Ankara: Homer Kitabevi. Beck, C. W, D. R. Stewart, and E. C. Stout. 1994. Appendix D: Analysis of naval stores from the Late-Roman ship. In Deep water archaeology: A Late-Roman ship from Carthage and an ancient trade route near Skerki Bank off northwest Sicily, ed. A. M. McCann and J. Freed, 109-121. Ann Arbor: Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplemental Series 13. Bietak, M. 1992. Minoan wall-paintings unearthed at ancient Avaris. Egyptian Archaeology 2: 26-38. - - . 1995. Connections between Egypt and the Minoan world: New results from Tell el-Dab'al Avaris. In Egypt, the Aegean and the Levant: Interconnections in the second millennium BCE, ed. W. V. Davies and 1. Schofield, 19-28, pIs. 1-4, 14-17. London: British Museum Press. Bietak, M., N. Marinatos, and C. Palyvou. 2000. The Maze Tableau from Tell el Dab'a. In Proceedings of the First International Symposium, the Wall Paintings of Thera (Thera, Hellas, 30 August-4 September 1997), vol. 1, ed. S. Sherratt, 77-90. Athens: Thera Foundation. Bietak, M., N. Marinatos, C. Palivou, and A. Brysbaert. 2007. Taureador scenes in Tell EI-Dab'a (Avaris) and Knossos: Denkschriften der Gesamtakademie Bd. 43. Vienna: OAW, Verlag der Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Bonn-Muller, E. 2009. First Minoan shipwreck. Archaeology 63 (1): 44-47. Bound, M. 1985. Early observations on the construction of a preclassical wreck, at Campese Bay, Island of Giglio. In Sewn plank boats: Archaeological and ethnographic papers presented to a conference at Greenwich, November 1984, BARIS 276, ed. S. McGrail and E. Kentley, 49-65. Oxford: BAR. - - . 1991. The Giglio wreck, a wreck of the Archaic period (c. 600 BCE) off the Tuscan Island of Giglio: An account of its discovery and excavation; A review of the main finds. ENALIA Supplement 1: 5-36. Bowen, M. F., P. J. Bernard, D. E. Gleason, and 1. 1.Whitcomb. 2000. Elevators-autonomous transporters for deep sea benthic sample recovery. Woods Hole, MA: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Breitstein, S. 2003. Logistic and operational aspects of the excavation. In The Maagan Mikhael ship: The recovery of a 240o-year-old merchantman, vol. 1, ed. E. Linder and Y. Kahanov, 8-23. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society and University of Haifa. Broodbank, C. 2000. The island archaeology of the early Cyclades. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 221 ｾ｡＠ C., and T. E Strasser. 1991. Migrant farmers and the neolithic colonization of off the coast of Israel. Israel Antiquity 65: 233- 245. vault of the Mediterranean. and D. Hamilton. 2007. Deep-water excavation: Unlocldng the secrets of the Harper Colophon Books. Gras shipwreck. Geoconnections IS-21. M., Jr. 1995. Preliminary pollen analysis of sediments collected from Tantura INA Quarterly 22 (2): IS-19· M., Jr., and R. E. Murry Jr. 19S2. Appendix E: Preliminary analysis of amphora In Yassi Ada I (Nautical Archaeology Series 1), ed. G. E Bass and E H. van Jr., 327-331. College Station: Texas A&M Press. 1995. Ships and seamanship in the ancient world. Reprint with addenda and Baltimore: Johns Hopldns University Press. A 200S. The Bronze Age shipwreck at Sheytan Deresi. MA thesis, Texas A&M ational Journal of Nautical :haeology Series 1), ed. G. E :'exas A&M Press. i): 19S4 campaign. American 'reck. Transactions of the :an Philosophical Society. :fhistory of ships' hulls and nstitute of Nautical An:ha.eolog) tions, ed. B. Avun<;:, 13S-144· dix D: Analysis of naval stores 19 S1. Pattern and process in the earliest colonization of the Mediterranean Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 47: 41-6S. The first colonization of the Mediterranean islands: A review of recent Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 3: 145- 22 1. A, 1. Landry, D. J. Warren, and J. S. Smith. 2003. Underwater Intervention 2003: Alcoa Puritan: Deepwater discovery and investigation; Underwater intervention Late-Roman ship from :hwest Sicily, ed. A. M. McCann chaeology, Supplemental Series cient Avaris. Egyptian Ar'cht1eO'lo New Orleans, LA (February). A., and D. J. Warren. 200S. The 2004 Deepwrecks Project: Analysis of World era shipwrecks in the Gulf of Mexico. International Journal of Historical ｾｭＧｮｬｲＩＨＺｶ＠ 12 (2): S2-102. A., D. J. Warren, A. W. Hill, and J. S. Smith. 2002. The discovery ofU-166: history with new technology. Offshore Technology Conference Proceedings 14136 , Houston, TX (May). A., D. J. Warren, J. B. Weirich, and D. Ball. 2004. Underwater Intervention te Wall Paintings of Thera rrerratt, 77-90. Athens: Thera 2007. Taureador scenes in Tell ｾ･ｳ｡ｭｴｫ､ｩ＠ Bd. 43. Vienna: Wissenschaften. ology 63 (1): 44-471 of a preclassical wreck, at Ilogical and ethnographic papers BARIS 276, ed. S. McGrail [9 84, )eriod (c. 600 BCE) off the xcavation; A review of the titcomb. 2000. ｅｉｾｶ｡ｴｯｲＧｳＭｬＢＰＱ＠ very. Woods Hole, MA: Woods the excavation. In The Maagan ;hantman, vol. 1, ed. E. Linder ety and University of Haifa. yCyclades. Cambridge: ｲＧ｟Ｎｾｬ＠ 20 0 4: to the U-166: Working together to meet the challenge of deepwater archaeology; intervention proceedings. New Orleans, LA (February). J. 200S. Secrets of the deep: The dispute over what may be the biggest sunken ever found. New Yorker (April 7): 44-55· D. E 200Sa. Archaeological and geological oceanography of inundated coastal : An introduction. In Archaeological oceanography, ed. R. D. Ballard, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Sinkholes in Lake Huron and the possibility for early human occupation on ｓｵｬ｛Ｉｭ･ｲｾ［､＠ Great Lakes Shelf. In Archaeological oceanography, ed. R. D. Ballard, . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. D. E, and R. D. Ballard. 200S. Oceanographic methods for underwater archaeosurveys. In Archaeological oceanography, ed. R. D. Ballard, 3-14. Princeton, NJ: University Press. D. E, R. D. Ballard, and T. Gregory. 2003. Marine archaeological exploration of Sea. Oceans 2003: Proceedings 3 (22-26): 12S7-1291. D. E, and K. McBride. 200S. Underwater prehistoric archaeological potential on sOllth,ern New England continental shelf off Block Island. In Archaeological an,of[raplhy, ed. R. D. Ballard, 200-223. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. S. O. Smith. 200S. After the fanfare: Education, the lasting legacy. International of Historical Archaeology 12 (2): 157-1SO . D. R., and 1. A. Johnson. 200S. Microbiology of concretions, sediments and chcmis:ms influencing the preservation of submerged archaeological artifacts. o".,'nf;nM.nl Journal of Historical Archaeology 12 (2): 120-132. THE PROCESS 222 Davis, D. 2000. Navigation in the ancient eastern Mediterranean. MA thesis, Texas A&M University. _ _. 2008. Exploration and excavation of two deepwater wrecks in the Black Sea. In The study of ancient territories: Chersonesos and South Italy: 2006-2007 Annual Report, ed. Anonymous, 73-82. Austin: Institute of Classical Archaeology, University of Texas at Austin. _ _. 2009. Commercial navigation in the Greek and Roman world. PhD diss., University of Texas at Austin. Davis, J. 1. 1992. Review of the Aegean prehistory I: The islands of the Aegean. American Journal of Archaeology 9 6: 699-75 6 . de Souza, P. 1999. Piracy in the Graeco-Roman world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dean, M., B. Ferrari, 1. Oxley, M. Redknap, and K. ｗｩｬｾｯｮＬ＠ eds. 199 2. Archaeology underwater: The NAS guide to principles and practice. Dorchester: Nautical Archaeology Society. Delgado, J. P. 1997. Deep water sites. In The British Museum encyclopedia of underwater and maritime archaeology, ed. J. P. Delgado, 126-128. London: British Museum Press. Elia, R. J. 2000. US protection of underwater cultural heritage beyond the territorial sea: Problems and prospects. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 29: 43-5 6 . Faught, M. K., and N. Flemming. 2008. Submerged prehistoric sites: "Needles in haystacks" for CRMs and industry. Sea Technology 49 (10): 37-3 8, 40 -4 2. Fitzgerald, M. A. 1996. Continuing study of the Uluburun shipwreck: Laboratory research and analysis. INA Quarterly 23 (1): 7-9· Flynn, D. 2009. Archaeologists find graveyard of sunken Roman ships. Yahoo News, 23 July. Online at http://news.yahoo.com/ s/nmi20090723/ scnm/us_italy_shipwrecks. Foley, B. 2008. Greek deepwater survey. In Nautical archaeology, 2006-20 07 seasons, ed. J. Delgado. American Journal of Archaeology 112: 331-333. Foley, B. P., and R. D. Ballard. 2004. Amphora alleys I and II. In Deep-water shipwrecks off Skerki Bank: The 1997 survey (Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplemental Series 58), ed. A. M. McCann and J. P. Oleson, 183-194. Portsmouth: Journal of Roman Archaeology. Foley, B. P., K. Dellaporta, D. Sakellariou, et al. 2009. The 2005 Chios ancient shipwreck survey: New methods for underwater archaeology. Hesperia 78: 269-3 0 5. Ford, B., A. Borgens, W Bryant, D. Marshall, P. Hitchcock, C. Arias, and D. Hamilton. Archaeological excavation of the Mardi Gras shipwreck (16GMOl), Gulf of Mexico Continental Slope. OCS Report MMS 2008-037. U.S. Department of the Interior, 2009. Minerals Management Service, New Orleans, LA. Ford, B., A. Borgens, and P. Hitchcock. 2010. The "Mardi Gras" shipwreck: Results of a deep-water excavation, Gulf of Mexico, USA. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 39: 76 -9 8 . Freschi, A. 1991. Note tecniche suI relitto greco arcaico di Gela. In IV rassegna di archeolgica subaquea: IV premio Franco Papa: Atti (Gardini Naxos 13-15 ottobre 1989), ed. P. Gianfrotta, 201-210. Messina: Edizioni P&M Associati. _ _. 199 6 . The sewn plank boat of Gela in Sicily: Preliminary observations about construction of hull. In Tropis IV: Fourth International Symposium on Ship Construction in Antiquity (Athens, 28-31 August 1991), ed. H. E. Tzalas, 187. Athens: Hellenic Institute for the Preservation of Nautical Tradition. Frost, F. J. 1968. Scyllias: Diving in antiquity. Greece and Rome, 2nd ser. 15: 180-185· Gibbins, D. 1991. Archaeology in deep water-a preliminary view. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 20: 163-168 . 223 terranean. MA thesis, Texas ater wrecks in the Black Sea. In rtaly: 2006-2007 Annual Report, ,rchaeology, University of Texas Roman world. PhD diss., Universif ! islands of the Aegean. American ambridge: Cambridge University llson, eds. 1992. Archaeology tice. Dorchester: Nautical ｾｵｭ＠ encyclopedia of underwater mdon: British Museum Press. eritage beyond the territorial rautical Archaeology 29: 43-56. historic sites: "Needles in ｨ｡ｾｹｳｴＺ｣ｫ＠ -38,40-42. un shipwreck: Laboratory res n Roman ships. Yahoo News, 23 sc_nm/us_italy_shipwrecks. haeology, 2006-2007 seasons, ed. 1-333· ld II. In Deep-water shipwrecks haeology, Supplemental Series th: Journal of Roman An:haeol,ogy Ie 2005 Chios ancient shilp'ATre,clc . Hesperia 78: 269-305. )ck, C. Arias, and D. Hamilton. ,hipwreck (16GMo1), Gulf of S. Department of the Interior, Ii Gras" shipwreck: Results of a national Journal of Nautical di Gela. In N rassegna di 1i Naxos 13-15 ottobre 1989), ed. ;ociati. iminary observations about Inal Symposium on Ship 'zalas, 187. Athens: Hellenic 1Rome, 2nd ser. 15: 180-185. lary view. International Journal CTo()anear'I,A. 1999. Into the depths of history: With robots exploring the bounty of ishiP"I'rre(:lcs on the ocean floor, we're faced with the issue of whether to take it or leave Preservation 51 (1): 36-45. R 2002. Elusive anchorage points along the Israel littoral and the Egyptian-Canaanite mcmtJme route during the Early Bronze Age I. In Egypt and the Levant: Interrelations from the fourth through the third millennia BCE, ed. E. C. van den Brink and T. E. Levy, 418-421. Continuum. .• ＭＧｌｈｾ＠ R. 2001. Ancient Ashkelon: Ancient city of the sea. National Geographic 199 (1): 66-93. {Jo,rnalIIl, L. D. 2000a. The archaeobotany of the Bozburun shipwreck. PhD diss., Texas A&M University. ｾＮ＠ 2000b. Gl'apes, wine, and olives: Commodities and other cargo of the Bozburun ｂｹＬｾ｡ｮＱｴｩ･＠ shipwreck. INA Quarterly 27 (1) : 11-:17. D. W. 1987. Waterlogged wood. In Conservation of marine ｾｲ｣ｨ｡･ｯｬｧｩ＠ objects, C. Pearson, 55-67- London: Butterworths. E. S., and M. E. Polzer. 2004. Evidence for a 6th-century lifeboat and its anchor? Quarterly 31 (3, Fall): 12-18. R, M.-A. Bernier, and W. Stevens, eds. 2007- The underwater archaeology of Red Basque shipbuilding and whaling in the 16th century. Vol. 1. Ottawa: Parks Canada. ｦ ｾＴ ､ｪｩＨｬ｡Ｌ＠ E., and P. Betancourt. 2005-2006. A Minoan shipwreck off Pseira Island, East preliminary report. Eulimene 6-7: 79-96. ｴＱ ｟ ｡ｾｯ･ｲｧＬ＠ B., J. Dahm, and C. Douglas. 2007. Shipwrecks of the Baltic. Stockholm: Prisma. C. 1990. Shipwrecked plant remains. Biblical Archaeologist 53 (1): 55-60. 1993. Direct evidence for organic cargoes in the Late Bronze Age. World Archaeology 348-3 60 . W. 2008. Looldng over the archaeologists' shoulders: Web-based public outreach the Deep Wrecks Project. International Journal of Historical Archaeology 12 (2): 6. Ｍｉ･ｲｧｾｬ､ＨＩｴＬ＠ C. E., T. Thompson, and R. D. Evans. 1995. Science on a deep-ocean shipOhio Journal of Science 95 (1): 4-224. J. 2002. Pipeline to history. Texas Shores (Fall): cover, 2- 19. The Odyssey (abbreviated Od.). R. S. 2005. Faience and glass beads from the Late Bronze Age shipwreck at Tlulmrun. MA thesis. Texas A&M University. B. 2002. Cultural resource management of shipwrecks on the Gulf of Mexico outer mtinerltal slope. Second MIT Conference on Technology, Archaeology, and the Deep Boston, MA (April). B., D. Ball, and C. E. Horrell. 2008. The US government's role in deepwater ch2leoJlogy:. The Deep Gulf Wrecks Project. International Journal of Historical ｲ｣ｨｬｾ･ｯｋｙ＠ 12 (2): 75-81. D. W. 2009. Never forgotten: The search for and discovery of Israel's lost submarine ,, -,-,.cU',",'l'-. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. G. 1998. Ship of gold in the deep blue sea. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. B. 1. 1999. The race for riches: Under the sea, treasure hunters and scientists battle history'S bounty. u.s. News and World Report 127 (13, 4 October): 44-50. J. 1969. Deterioration of wood by marine fungi in the deep sea. In Symposium Materials Performance and the Deep Sea (1969), ed. Anonymous, 20-30. ｮｬ［｡ｅｾｰｩＺＧ＠ American Society for Testing and Materials. .eninnilcov, V A., G. B. Undenstev, V I. Mouraviov, and 1. K. Hall. 1994. Geological of Eratosthenes seamount. In Geological structure of the northeastern 224 Mediterranean (Cruise 5 of the research vessel 'llkadmik Nilwlaj Strakhov"), ed. V. A Krasheninnikov and J. K. Hall, 113-130. Jerusalem: Historical Publications, Hall. Kuniholm, P. 1. 1997- Aegean Dendrochronology Project, December 1997 progress report. Ithaca: Malcolm and Carolyn Weiner Laboratory for Aegean and Near Eastern Dendrochronology. Kuniholm, P. 1., B. Kromer, S. Manning, M. Newton, C. Latini, and M. Bruce. 1996. Anatolian tree rings and the absolute chronology of the eastern Mediterranean, 2220-718 B.C. Nature 381: 780-783. Largent, F. 2009. Putting muscle into coastal-entry research. Mammoth Trumpet 24 (3): cover, 1, 8-11, 19. - - . 2010. Finding traces of early hunters beneath the Great Lakes. Mammoth Trumpet 25 (1): 4-7, 20. " Long, L. 1987. Lepave antique Benat 4: Expertise archeologique d'un talus d'amphores a grand profondeur. Cahiers darcheologie subaquatique 6: 99-108. --.1988. Lepave antique des basses de Can (Var): Nouvelle expertise archaeologique Ii l'aide d'un sous-marine. Cahiers darcheologie subaquatique 7: 5-20. --.1998. rarcheologie sous-marine Ii grande porfondeur: Fiction ou realite. In Archeo- logia subacquea: Come opera larcheologo storie dalle acque (VIII Cicio di Lezioni sulla Ricerca applicata in Archeologica Certosa di Pontignano, Siena, 9-15 Dicembre 1996), ed. G. Volpe, 341-379. Firenze: Edizioni All'Insegna del Giglio. Margariti, R. E. 1998. The Sheytan Deresi wreck and the Minoan connection in the eastern Aegean. MA thesis, Texas A&M University. Mart, Y., and H. F. Robertson. 1998. Eratosthenes Seamount: An oceanographic yardstick recording the late Mesozoic-Tertiary geological history of the eastern Mediterranean. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results 160: 701-708. Mas, J. 1985. EI poHgono submarino de Cabo de Palos: Sus aportaciones al estudio del traiico maritimo antiguo. In Arqueologfa Submarina: VI Congreso Internacional de Arqueologfa Sub marina, Cartagena 1982, ed. Museo y Centro Nacionales de Investigaciones Arqueologicas Submarinas, 153-171. Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura, Direcci6n General de Bellas Artes y Archivos, Subdireccion General de Arqueologia y Etnografia. McCann, A. M. 1994a. The technology. In Deep water archaeology: A Late-Roman ship from Carthage and an ancient trade route near Skerlci Bank off northwest Sicily, ed. A M. McCann and J. Freed, 92-98. Ann Arbor: Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplemental Series 13. - - . 1994b. The Late-Roman ship and the non-ceramic finds. In Deep water archaeology: A Late-Roman ship from Carthage and an ancient trade route near Skerki Bank off northwest Sicily, ed. A M. McCann and J. Freed, 11-20. Ann Arbor: Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplemental Series 13. McCann, A. M., and J. Freed, eds. 1994. Deep water archaeology: A Late-Roman ship from Carthage and an ancient trade route near Skerki Bank off northwest Sicily. Ann Arbor: Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplemental Series 13. McCann, A. M., and J. P. Oleson, eds. 2004a. Deep-water shipwrecks off Skerki Bank: The 1997 survey. Portsmouth: Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplemental Series 58. McCann, A M., and J. P. Oleson. 2004b. Introduction: The genesis and significance of the 1997 survey. In Deep-water shipwrecks offSkerki Bank: The 1997 survey, ed. A. M. McCann and J. P. Oleson, 15-24. Portsmouth: Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplemental Series 58. . McCann, A. M., and J. P. Oleson. 2004C. Wreck B (last quarter of the 1st c. AD.). In Deepwater shipwrecks offSkerki Bank: The 1997 survey, ed. A M. McCann and J. P. Oleson, 128-153. Portsmouth: Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplemental Series 58. -SUBMERGENCE ARCHAEOLOGY A M., and J. P. Oleson. 2004d. Wreck D (c. SO-50 B.C.). In Deep-water shipwrecks off Skerki Bank: The 1997 survey, ed. A M. McCann and J. P. Oleson, 4 0 - S9. lik Nikolaj Strakhov"), ed. ｾｭＺ＠ 225 Historical Publications, Hall. Portsmouth: Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplemental Series 5S. A M., and J. P. Oleson. 2oo4e. Wreck F (Mid-1st c. AD.). In Deep-water shipwrecks off Skerki Bank: The 1997 survey, ed. A M. McCann and J. P. Oleson, 90 - 117. Ports.mcmtlh.: Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplemental Series 5S. D. A., and B. Bingham. 2001. A high-frequency, narrow-beam sub-bottom profiler archaeological applications. Oceans, 2001. MTS/IEEE Conference and Exhibition 4: 'ecember 1997 progress report. . Aegean and Near Eastern atini, and M. Bruce. 1996. the eastern Mediterranean, ·ch. Mammoth Trumpet 24 (3): Lakes. Mammoth ｾｲ･｡ｴ＠ TrlJm,f]pt gique d'un talus d'amphores a e 6: 99-1OS. [velie expertise archaeologique atique 7: 5-20. eur: Fiction ou realite. In rlcque (VIII Ciclo di Lezioni no, Siena, 9-15 Dicembre 1996), 3iglio. .1inoan connection in the lilt: An oceanographic ｶ｡ｊｾ､ｳＱｴｩ｣ｫ＠ Iry of the eastern ｍＨｾ､ｩＱｴ･ｮ｡＠ Results 160: 701-70S. , aportaciones al estudio del VI Congreso Internacional de Centro Nacionales de ｉｮＧ｜･ｳｴｩｧｾ＠ v1inisterio de Cultura, Dtreci:i6r [leral de Arqueologia y haeology: A Late-Roman ship i Bank off northwest Sicily, ed. 'nal of Roman Archaeology, finds. In Deep water ｡ｲ｣ｨｩＺｾｯ｛Ａ＠ de route near Skerki Bank off .0. Ann Arbor: Journal of eology: A Late-Roman ship ; off northwest Sicily. Ann 13· ,hipwrecks off Skerki Bank: logy, Supplemental Series 5S. .e genesis and significance :: The 1997 survey, ed. A M. 1of Roman Archaeology, ter of the 1st c. A.D.) . .LU'-',,"V·· • . M. McCann and J. P. ｾＮ｟＠ ..., :upplemental Series 5S. D. A., H. Singh, D. R. Yoerger, L. Whitcomb, and J. Howland. 2004. Precision and imaging of underwater sites at Skerld Banlc using robotic vehicles. In ＯｊｩＺｾ･ｶＭﾷｷｇｬｲｳｨｰ｣ｫ＠ offSkerki Bank: The 1997 survey, ed. A IY:!. McCann and P. Oleson, 25-39· Portsmouth: Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplemental Series 5S. D. 1997. Seahawk. In British Museum encyclopedia of underwater and maritime an:haleo[c)KY, ed. J. P. Delgado, 363-364. London: British Museum Press. 1. S., and R. T. Williams. 1965. Greek oared ships: 900-322 B.C. Cambridge: Dlml)fi<:1ge University Press. J. W, and R. A. Berner. 1972. Dissolution ldnetics of calcium carbonate in sea water: A ldnetic origin for the lysocline. American Journal of Science 272: S40-S51. K. 1975. Maritime archaeology. London: Cambridge University Press. J. S. 1964· Deep-ocean biodeterioration of materials. Part 1. Four months at 5,640 Ft. Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center. 1965· Deep-ocean biodeterioration of materials. Part 2. Six months at 2,340 feet. Ft. VA: Defense Technical Information Center. 1966a. Deep-ocean biodeterioration of materials. Part 3. Three years at 5,300 feet. Ft. VA: Defense Technical Information Center. 1966b. Deep-ocean biodeterioration of materials. Part 4. One year at 6,800 feet. Ft. VA: Defense Technical Information Center. 66c. Deep-ocean biodeterioration of materials. Part 5. Two years at 5,640 feet. H. VA: Defense Technical Information Center. Deep-ocean biodeterioration of materials. Part 6. One year at 2,370 feet. Ft. VA: Defense Technical Information Center. Effect of deep-ocean environment on plastics. In Symposium on materials r.tt()rnclonrp and the deep sea (1969): Materials performance and the deep sea, ed. illo,ny:mous, 5-19. Philadelphia: American Society for Testing and Materials. Deep-ocean biodeterioration of materials-six months at 6,000 feet. Ft. Belvoir, Defense Technical Information Center. L. D., and T. Daley. 19S1. Polysulfide rubber and its application for recording :haeologi.cal ship features in a marine environment. International Journal of Nautical 'cha:eo[iJJ!V 10: 337-342. Progress report on the use of FMC polysulfide rubber compounds for archaeological ships' features in a marine environment. International of Nautical Archaeology 11 (4): 349-352. 1. 2000a. Managing the maritime heritage: The National Maritime ｾ｣ｨ｡･ＨＩｬｯＺｧｩ＠ Museum and National Centre for Underwater Research, Cartagena, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 29: 179-19S. oob. Protection of shipwrecks: The experience of the Spanish Maritime cha.eol.ogilcal Museum. In Underwater archaeology and coastal management (Coastal maKelneil1t Sourcebooks 2), ed. M. H. Mostafa, N. Grimal, and D. Nakashima, Paris: UNESCO. ｭｾｬｰｩｮｧ＠ 226 THE PROCESS Newman, J. B., T. S. Gregory, and J. Howland. 2008. The development of towed optical and acoustical vehicle systems and remotely operated vehicles in support of archaeological oceanography. In Archaeological oceanography, ed. R. D. Ballard, 15- 29. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. O'Keef, P. J. 1999. International waters. In Legal protection of the underwater cultural heritage: National and international perspectives, ed. S. Droomgoole. London: Kluwer Law International. Ormerod, H. [19 24] 1987. Piracy in the ancient world: An essay on Mediterranean history. Liverpool: Dorset. Papathanassopoulos, G., Y. Vichos, and Y. Lolos. 1995. Dokos: 1991 campaign. Enalia Annual 1991 (English edition) 3: 17-37· Peachey, C. 199 0 . Talting conservation underwater at Ulu ｂｾｲｵｮＮ＠ INA Newsletter 17 (3): 10-13· Phelps, W., Y. Lolos, and Y. Vichos, eds. 1999. The Point Iria wreck: Interconnections in the Mediterranean ca. 1200 BCE (Proceedings of the International Conference, Island of Spetses, 19 September 1998). Athens: Hellenic Institute of Marine Archeology. Piechota, D. 1994. Appendix B: Laboratory conservation. In Deep water archaeology: A Late-Roman ship from Carthage and an ancient trade route near Skerki Bank off northwest Sicily, ed. A. M. McCann and J. Freed, 103-107. Ann Arbor: Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplemental Series 13· Piechota, D., and C. Giangrande. 2004. Conservation of archaeological finds. In Deep-water shipwrecks off Skerki Bank: The 1997 survey, ed. A. M. McCann and J. P. Oleson, 195-201. Portsmouth: Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplemental Series 58. _ _. 2008. Conservation of archaeological finds from deep-water wreck sites. In Archaeological oceanography, ed. R. D. Ballard, 65-91. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Polzer, M. E. 2004. An Archaic laced hull in the Aegean: The 2003 excavation and study of the Pabu<f Burnu Ship remains. INA Quarterly 31 (3 Fall): 3-11 • _ _. 2005. Hull remains from the Archaic shipwreck at Pabw;: Burnu, Turkey: Signs of shifting technology? In AlA 106th Annual Meeting Abstracts. Vol. 28, ed. Anonymous, 165. Boston: Archaeological Institute of America. _ _. 2007- INA fieldwork: In Spain. INA Quarterly 34 (3): 13· _ _. 2008. Phoenician rising: Excavation of the Bajo de la Campana site begins. INA Annual 5-10. _ _. 2009. Hard rocks, heavy metals: A report from Bajo de la Campana. INA Quarterly 36 (3): 10. _ _. In press. Laced hull remains from the 6th-century B.C. shipwreck at Pabuc;: Burnu, Turkey. In Tropis IX: Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on Ship Construction in Antiquity (Agia Napa, Cyprus 25-30 August), ed. H. Tzalas. Athens: Hellenic Institute for the Preservation of Ship Construction in Antiquity. Polzer, M. E., and P. Reyes. 2007. Phoenicians in the West: The ancient shipwreck site of Bajo de la Campana, Spain. INA Annual: 57- 61. Pomey, P. 1978. La coque. In Lepave romaine de la Madrague de Giens (Var) (Campagnes 1972- 1975): Fouilles de l'Institute d'archeologie mediterraneenne 34, ed. A. Tchernia, P. Pomey, and A. Hesnard, 75-99, pIs. XXVI-XLI. Paris: Editions du CNRS. --.1981. Lepave de Bon-Porte et les bateaux cousus de Meciiterranee. Mariner's Mirror 67: 225- 243. _ _, ed. 1997. La navigation dans l'antiquite. Aix-en-Provence: Edisud. -SUBMERGENCE ARCHAEOLOGY development of towed optical hides in support t. D. Ballard, 15-29. Princeton, of the underwater cultural 1'/ S. Droomgoole. London: Kluwer essay on Mediterranean history. Dkos: 1991 campaign. Enalia 1 Burun. INA Newsletter 17 (3): ria wreck: Interconnections in the 'national Conference, Island of :e of Marine Archeology. In Deep water archaeology: A ｾ＠ route near Skerki Bank off -107. Ann Arbor: Journal of )f archaeological finds. In rvey, ed. A. M. McCann and an Archaeology, Supplemental ieep-water wreck sites. In Princeton, NJ: Princeton 1. The 2003 excavation and study ｾ｡ｬＩＺ＠ 3-11. t Pabu<;: Burnu, Turkey: Signs of bstracts. Vol. 28, ed. Arlonymlous, ljO de la Campana. INA r nl1nrt.?rlll B.C. shipwreck at Pabu<;: DU1l1l.!, •.• mal Symposium on Ship August), ed. H. Tzalas. Athens: ruction in Antiquity. t: The ancient shipwreck site of sue de Giens (Var) (Camp agnes 'raneenne 34, ed. A. Tchernia, lriS: Editions du CNRS. e Mediterranee. Mariner's Mirror wence: Edisud. 227 1998. Dendrochronologie et dendromorphologie. In Archeologia subacquea: Come opera l'archeologo: Storie di acque, ed. G. Volpe, 432-446. Quaderni del Dipartimento di archeologia e storia delle arti, Sezione archeologica, Universita di Siena, 44. Firenze: Edizione all'insegna del giglio, 1998. P., and A. Tchernia. 1978. La disposition du chargement. In Lepave romaine de la Madrague de Giens (Var) (Campagnes 1972-1975): Fouilles de l'Institute d'archeologie mediterraneenne 34, ed. A. Tchernia, P. Pomey, and A. Hesnard, 19-27. Paris: Editions duCNRS. J. B., ed. 1969. Ancient Near Eastern texts relating to the Old Testament. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. C. M. 1989. Ulu Burun: 1989 excavation campaign. INA Newsletter 16 (4): cover, 4-10. 1996. Analysis of the weight assemblages from the Late Bro-!;ze Age shipwrecks at Uluburun and Cape Gelidonya, Turkey. PhD diss., Texas A&M University. 1997. The Uluburun shipwreck. In Res maritimae: Cyprus and the Eastern Mediter- ranean from prehistory to late antiquity: Proceedings of the Second International Symposium "Cities on the Sea" (Nicosia, Cyprus, 18-22 October 1994), Cyprus American Archaeological Research Institute Monograph Series, vol. 1, ed. S. Swiny, R. L. Hohlfelder, and H. W Swiny, 233-262. Atlanta: Scholars Press. 1998. The Uluburun shipwreck: An overview. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 27: 188-224· 1999a. Hull construction of the Late Bronze Age shipwreck at Uluburun. INA Quarterly 26 (4): 16-21. 1999b. The Late Bronze Age shipwreck at Uluburun: Aspects of hull construction. In The Point Iria wreck: Interconnections in the Mediterranean ca. 1200 BCE (Proceedings of the International Conference, Island ofSpetses, 19 September 1998), ed. W Phelps, Y. Lolos, and Y. Vichos, 209-238. Athens: Hellenic Institute of Marine Archaeology. 2008. The Uluburun shipwreck and Late Bronze Age trade. In Beyond Babylon: Art, trade, and diplomacy in the second millennium B.C., ed. J. Aruz, K. Benzel, and J. M. Evans, 288-305, artifact catalog: 306-310, 313-321, 324-333, 336-348, 350-358, 366-370, 372-378, 382-385. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. G. 1993. The Past Times book of naval blunders. London: Guinness. M., A. Hesnard, and M. Bernard-Maugiron. 1988. III: Le navire; 2: Quelques hypotheses de restitution. In repave romaine Grand Ribaud D (Hyeres, Var). (Archaeonautica 8), ed. A. Hesnard, M.-B. Carre, M. Rival et al., 127-142. Paris: Editions du Centre national de la recherche scientifique. Bernal, B., M. Martin Camino, and A. Perez Bonet. 1995. El yacimiento submarino del Bajo de la Campana (Cartagena, Murcia): Catalogo y estudio de los materiales arqueologicos. Cuadernos de Arqueologia Maritima 3: 11-61. Bernal, B., A. Miftano Dominguez, and M. Martin Camino. 1991. El yacimiento arqueologico subacmitico de "El Bajo de la Campana:' Congreso Nacional de ａｬＧｱｵｾｯＨＩｊｚｩ｡＠ 21: 965-974. J. 2008. The ghost ship: Current state of research and project plan for maritime archaeological exploration, Nov. 2008. Unpublished ms. J. 1., 2010. New Light on Human Prehistory in the Arabo-Persian Gulf Oasis. Current . . Al1thl"ODI:Jlos!V 51: 849-883. J. 2008. Warship Ram discovered ... An ancient naval battle revealed? INA ｮｬＱｉｲｴＢＬｾＮ＠ 35 (2): 6. W B. E, and W C. Pitman III. 1998. Noah's flood: The new scientific discoveries about the event that changed history. New York: Simon & Schuster. THE Ryan, W B. F., W C. Pitman III, C. O. Major, K Shimkus, V. Moskalenko, G. A. Jones, P. Dimitrov, N. Gorur, M. Saldny, and H. yuce. 1997. An abrupt drowning of the Black Sea Shelf. Marine Geology 138: 119-126 . Safrai, B. 1960. Al Kadim v-Yam (On jars and sea). Kibbutz Saar. (In Hebrew.) Sakellariou, D. 2007-2008. Rocks, wrecks or waste? Integration of sub-bottom profiling and side scan sonar data in deep water archaeological research: Site formation and interpretation of geophysical recordings. Skyllis (Deutsche Gesellschaft zur Forderung der Unterwasserarchiieologie e. V) 8 (1-2): 154-168 . Sakellariou, D., P. Georgiou, A. Mallios, V. Kapsimalis, D. Kourkoumelis, P. Micha, T. Theodoulou, and K Dellaporta. 2007. Searching for ancient shipwrecks in the Aegean Sea: The discovery of Chios and Kythnos Hellenistic wrecks with the use of marine gelogical geophysical methods. International JQ.urnal of Nautical Archaeology 36: 365-3 81. Simmons, A. H. 1991. Humans, island colonization and Pleiestocene extinctions in the Mediterranean: The view from Akrotiri Aetokremnos, Cyprus. Antiquity 65: 857- 86 9. _ _. 2007. The Neolithic revolution in the Near East: Transforming the human landscape. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. Singh, H., J. Adams, D. Mindell, and B. Foley. 2000. Imaging for underwater archaeology. American Journal of Field Archaeology 27 (3): 319-3 28 . Singh, H., J. Howland, and O. Pizarro. 2004. Large area photomosaicldng underwater. IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering 29 (3): 872- 886 . Singh, H., O. Pizarro, A. Duester, and J. C. Howland. 2000. Optical imaging from the ABE AUV: Designed to provide quantitative stereo and photomosaics of the seafloor. Sea Technology 27 (4): 39-43· Singh, H., C. Roman, O. Pizzaro, B. Foley, R. Eustice, and A. Can. 2008. High-resolution optical imaging for deep-water archaeology. In Archaeological oceanography, ed. R. D. Ballard, 30-40. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Singh, H., C. Roman, L. Whitcomb, and D. Yoerger. 2000. Advances in fusion of high resolution underwater optical and acoustic data. In Proceedings of the 2000 International Symposium on Underwater Technology (May 2000),206-211. Tokyo: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Singh, H., L. L. Whitcomb, D. Yoerger, and O. Pizarro. 2000. Microbathymetric mapping from underwater vehicles in the deep ocean. Computer Vision and Image Understanding 79 (1): 143-161. Smith, C. J., A. C. Banks, and K-N. Papadopoulou. 2007. Improving the quantitative estimation of trawling impacts from sidescan-sonar and underwater-video imagery. ICES Journal of Marine Science 64: 1692-17 0 1. Sontag, S., C. Drew, and A. Lawrence-Drew. 1999. Blind man's bluff: The untold story of American submarine espionage. New York: Harper. S0reide, F. 2000. Technical communication: Cost-effective deep water archaeology; Preliminary investigations in Trondheim Harbour. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 29 (2): 284- 293. S0reide, F., M. E. Jasiinsld, and T. O. Sperre. 2006. Unique new technology enables archaeology in the deep sea: An exploration into how to excavate a shipwreck in 17 0 meters' depth. Sea Technology 47 (10): 10-13· Spiess, F. N., and J. K Orzech. 1981. Location of ancient amphorae in the deep waters of the eastern Mediterranean Sea by the deep tow vehicle. In In the realms of gold: Proceedings of the 10th Confererence on Underwater Archaeology (Fathom Eight -SUBMERGENCE ARCHAEOLOGY LIS, V. Moskalenko, G. A. Jones, 17· An abrupt drowning of the lutz Saar. (In Hebrew.) egration of sub-bottom .profiling cal research: Site formation and eutsche Gesellschaft zur Forderung D. Kourkoumelis, P. Micha, for ancient shipwrecks in the [ellenistic wrecks with the use of OIl Journal of Nautical Archaeology Pleiestocene extinctions in the lOS, Cyprus. Antiquity 65: ｬＺｓｾｩＧＭＱＶｑＮ＠ 'ransforming the human ｬ｡ｾ､ｳ｣Ｉ･Ｎ＠ 19ing for underwater archaeology. 229 Special Publications, NO.1), ed. W A. Cockrell, 149-159. San Marino: Fathom Eight. L. E. 2003. Phoenician shipwrecks in the deep sea. In PLOES ... Sea Routes . .. Interconnections in the Mediterranean 16th-6th c. BCE (Proceedings of the International Symposium Held at Rethymnon, Crete, September 29th-October 2nd 2002), ed. C. Stampolidis and V. Karageorghis, 233-247. Athens: University of Cretel A. G. ＧＭＢｾｃＱ＠ Foundation. J. R. 1994· Wooden ship building and the interpretation of shipwrecks. College Station: Texas A&M Press. D. J. 1999· Formation processes affecting submerged archaeological sites: An Geoarchaeology 14: 565-587. T. F., E. Panagopoulou, C. N. Runnels, P. M. Murray, N. 1hompson, P. Karkanas, W. McCoy, K. W Wegmann. 2010. Stone Age seafaring in the Mediterranean: EVldence from the Plaldas region for Lower Paleolithic and Mesolithic habitation of Hesperia 79: 145-190. A. 1978. Les vrinatores. In L'epave romaine de la Madrague de Giens (Var) Ｈｃｴｬｭｪｄ｡ｧｾｮ･ｳ＠ 1972-1975): Fouilles de !'Institute darcheologie mediterraneenne (Gallia 34, ed. A. Tchernia, P. Pomey, and A. Hesnard, 29-31. Paris: Editions du "",'rviIPw. ｾＸＮ＠ photomosaicldng underwater. DO. Optical imaging from the )hotomosaics of the seafloor. Sea d A. Can. 2008. High-resolution weological oceanography, ed. ty Press. o. Advances in fusion of high Proceedings of the 2000 (May 2000),206-211. Tokyo: I )00. Microbathymetric m<:lpping; '•. Iter Vision and Image '. Improving the quantitative and underwater-video imagery. Iflan's bluff: The untold story of ,e deep water archaeology; nternational Journal of Nautical e new technology enables to excavate a shipwreck in 170 IN It amphorae in the deep waters vehicle. In In the realms ｾｲ＠ Archaeology (Fathom Eight A., P. Pomey, and A. Hesnard. 1978. repave romaine de la Madrague de Giens (Campagnes 1972-1975): Fouilles de !'Institute darcheologie mediterraneenne suppl. 34). Paris: Editions du CNRS. T. 1998. America's lost treasure. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. H. E. 1995. On the obsidian trail: With a papyrus craft in the Cyclades. In Tropis III: International Symposium on Ship Construction in Antiquity (Athens, 24-27 1989), ed. H. E. Tzalas, 441-469. Athens: Hellenic Institute for the Preservation Nautical Tradition. A. I. 1990. "Papyrella": Remote descendant of a middle Stone Age craft? In Tropis Second International Symposium on Ship Construction in Antiquity (Delphi 27-29 1987), ed. H. E. Tzalas, 329-332. Athens: Hellenic Institute for the Preservation Nautical Tradition. E., R. D. Ballard, and W N. Lange. 1988-1989. New evidence about Titanic's final m,Dments:' Resting in pieces. Oceanus 31/4: 53-60. J. 1956. L'Egypt et Ie monde egeen prehellenique. Biblioteque d'etude 22. Cairo: francais d'archeologie orientale. y. 1999. 'The Point Iria wreck: 'The nautical dimension. In The Point Iria wreck: lniten;onne,ctitms in the Mediterranean ca. 1200 BCE (Proceedings of the International ｜ｌＨｭｊｬｾｲ･ｦ｣Ｌ＠ Island ofSpetses, 19 September 1998), ed. W Phelps, Y. Lolos, and Y. Vichos, . Athens: Hellenic Institute of Marine Archeology. , Y., and Y. Lolos. 1997. 'The Cypro-Minoan wreck at Point Iria in the Argolic First thoughts on the origin and nature of the vessel. In Res maritimae: and the eastern Mediterranean from prehistory to late antiquity; Proceedings the Second International Symposium "Cities on the Sea" (Nicosia, Cyprus, October 1994). Cyprus American Archaeological Research Institute Monograph vol. 1, ed. S. Swiny, R. L. Hohlfelder, and H. W Swiny, 321-337. Atlanta: Scholars Press. Y., and G. Papathanassopoulos. 1996. 'The excavation of an Early Bronze Age cargo at 'The first two campaign seasons (1989-1990). In Tropis IV: Fourth International THE PROCESS 230 Symposium on Ship Construction in Antiquity (Athens, 28-31 August 1991), ed. H. E. Tzalas, 519-53S. Athens: Hellenic Institute for the Preservation of Nautical Tradition. VIZ-Tantura. Shipwreck, Tantura Harbor, Israel: The Institute for the Visualization of History. Online at www.vizin.org/projects/master.htm#tantura/htmlltantura.htm. Accessed 23 December 2009. Wachsmann, S. 19S6. Is Cyprus ancient Alashiya? New evidence from an Egyptian tablet. Biblical Archaeologist 49 (1): 37-40. - - . 19S7. Aegeans in the Theban tombs. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 20. Leuven: Uitgeverij Peters. - - . 19S9. Seagoing ships and seamanship in the Late Bronze Age Levant. PhD diss., Hebrew University, Jersusalem. - - . 1995. Seagoing ships and seamanship in the Bronze(l.ge Levant. College Station: Texas A&M University Press and Chatham Press. - - . 2000. Some notes on Mediterranean seafaring during the second millennium B.C. In Proceedings of the First International Symposium: The Wall Paintings of Thera (Thera, Hellas, 30 August-4 September 1997), vol. 2, ed. S. Sherratt, S03-S24. Athens: Thera Foundation. - - . 2007-200S. Deep submergence archaeology: The final frontier. Skyllis (Deutsche Gesellschaft zur Forderung der Unterwasserarchaeologie e. v.) (Proceedings of In Poseidons Reich XII) S (1-2): 130-154. - - . In press. The Gurob ship-cart model and its Mediterranean context. College Station: Texas A&M University Press. Wachsmann, S., and Y. Kahanov. 1997- Shipwreck fall: The 1995 INA/CMS Joint Expedition to Tantura Lagoon, Israel. INA Quarterly 2411: cover, 3-1S. Wachsmann, S., Y. Kahanov, and J. Hall. 1997. The Tantura B shipwreck: The 1997 INA/ CMS Joint Expedition to Tantura Lagoon. INA Quarterly 24 (4): cover, 3-15. Wachsmann, S., et al. 2009. The Danaos Project, 200S: Reconstructing the Crete to Egypt route. In Proceedings of the 9th Hellenic Symposium on Oceanography and Fisheries, May 13-16,2009, Patras, Greece, vol. 1, 146-151. Athens: Association of Employees of the Hellenic Centre for Marine Research. Ward, C. 2004. Appendix A: Archaeobotanical remains. In Deep-water Shipwrecks off Skerki Bank: The 1997 survey, ed. A. M. McCann and J. P. Oleson, 211-213. Portsmouth: Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplemental Series Number 5S. Ward, c., and R. D. Ballard. 2004. Deep-water archaeological survey in the Black Sea: 2000 season. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 33: 2-13. Ward, c., and R. L. Horlings. 200S. The remote exploration and archaeological survey of four Byzantine ships in the Black Sea. In Archaeological oceanography, ed. R. D. Ballard, 14S-173. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Warren, D. J., and R. A. Church. 2003. New technology, the AUV and the potential in oilfield maritime archaeology. In Proceedings: Twenty-First Annual Gulf of Mexico Information Transfer Meeting, January 2002. OCS Study MMS 2003-05, 101-104. New Orleans, LA. U.S. Department of the Interior Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. Warren, D., R. Church, and R. Davey. 2004. Discovering HMS Ark Royal. Hydro InternationalS (7 September): 26-29. Warren, D., R. Church, and R. Westrick. 200S. Using AUVs to investigate shipwrecks: Deepwater archaeology in the Gulf. Sea Technology 49 (10): 15-16, IS. Webster, S. 200S. The development of excavation technology for remotely operated vehicles. In Archaeological oceanography, ed. R. D. Ballard, 41-64. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 231 ens, 28-31 August 1991), ed. H. E. 'reservation of Nautical Tradition. stitute for the Visualization of htm#tantura/htm1!tantura.htm. E. N. 1992. The recovery and analysis of paleoethnobotanical remains from an century shipwreck. PhD diss., Texas A&M University. C. J. 19 69. The information background in the field of biological deterioration of ncmnlletalllC materials. In Symposium on Materials Performance and the Deep Sea ed. Anonymous, 131-141. Philadelphia: American Society for Testing and ･ｩｬｾｨｴ＠ evidence from an Egyptian e Bronze Age Levant. PhD diss., L., D. Yoerger, and H. Singh. 1999a. Advances in Doppler-based navigation of lln,rlerwater robotic vehicles. In Proceedings of the 1999 IEEE International Conference Robotics and Automation 1, 399-406. Piscataway: IEEE Press. 1999 b. Combined Doppler/LBL based navigation of underwater vehicles. In ze Age Levant. College Station: "ro,ceel;un.£s of the 11th International Symposium on Unmanne,d Untethered Submersible 'lcc,l1nC)IOf;;Y (UUST99), 22-25 August 1999, Durham, NH,I-7.. Dvaniensia Analecta 20. Leuven: L., D. Yoerger, H. Singh, and J. Howland. 1999. Advances in underwater robot for deep ocean exploration: Navigation, control, and survey operations. In luring the second millennium I: The Wall Paintings of Thera herratt, 803-824. Athens: Thera e final frontier. Skyllis ＨｄｉｾｵｴＡＬ｣ｨＯ＠ logie e. V) (Proceedings of In terranean context. College lIe 1995 INA/CMS Joint ｅｸｾＩ･､ｩｴ＼＠ :r,3-18. Ira B shipwreck: The 1997 INA/ lrterly 24 (4): cover, 3-15, ｾ･｣ｯｮｳｴｲｵｩｧ＠ the Crete to on Oceanography and fiishp.l"ip.;;. ｾｮｳＺ＠ Association of Employees In Deep-water Shipwrecks off d J. P. Oleson, 211-213. ｦＭＧｯｲｴＮｾｬｭｮＬＢ＠ 'S Number 58. )gical survey in the Black Sea: y 33: 2-13. Ion and archaeological 01H'UP'<T {'\, cicaloceanography, ed. iversity Press. the AUV and the potential in )i-First Annual Gulf of Mexico udy MMS 2003-05, 101-lO4. als Management Service, HMS Ark Royal. Hydro v s to investigate shipwrecks: ｾＹ＠ (lO): 15-16, 18. ogy for remotely operated allard, 41-64. Princeton, NJ: .. research 9: Proceedings of the Ninth International Symposium of Robotics J<esean;n (ISRR '99),9-12 October 1999, Snowbird, UT,I-12. D. R., M. Jakuba, A. M, Bradley, and B. Bingham. 2007. Techniques for deep sea bottom survey using an autonomous underwater vehicle. International Journal of Research 26: 41-54. A. 1978. Storage jars in ancient sea trade. Rev. ed. Haifa: National Maritime Museum