Knowledge Traditions & Practices of India, Vol 1

Knowledge TRADITIONS & PRACTICES OF INDIA Textbook for Class XI CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Shiksha Kendra, 2, Community Centre, Preet Vihar, Delhi-110 092 India Knowledge TRADITIONS & PRACTICES OF INDIA Textbook for Class XI CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Shiksha Kendra, 2, Community Centre, Preet Vihar, Delhi-110 092 India No part of this publication may be reproduced or stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE). Preface India has a rich tradition of intellectual inquiry and a textual heritage that goes back to several hundreds of years. India was magnificently advanced in knowledge traditions and practices during the ancient and medieval times. The intellectual achievements of Indian thought are found across several fields of study in ancient Indian texts ranging from the Vedas and the Upanishads to a whole range of scriptural, philosophical, scientific, technical and artistic sources. As knowledge of India's traditions and practices has become restricted to a few erudite scholars who have worked in isolation, CBSE seeks to introduce a course in which an effort is made to make it common knowledge once again. Moreover, during its academic interactions and debates at key meetings with scholars and experts, it was decided that CBSE may introduce a course titled ‘Knowledge Traditions and Practices of India’ as a new Elective for classes XI-XII from the year 2012-13. It has been felt that there are many advantages of introducing such a course in our education system. As such in India, there is a wide variety and multiplicity of thoughts, languages, lifestyles and scientific, artistic and philosophical perceptions. The rich classical and regional languages of India, which are repositories of much of the ancient wisdom, emerge from the large stock of the shared wealth of a collective folklore imagination. A few advantages given below are self explanatory. • India is a land of knowledge and traditions and through this course the students will become aware of our ancient land and culture. • Learning about any culture particularly one's own culture whatever it may be builds immense pride and self-esteem. That builds a community and communities build harmony. • The students will be learning from the rich knowledge and culture and will get an objective insight into the traditions and practices of India. They will delve deeply to ascertain how these teachings may inform and benefit them in future. • The textbook has extracts and translations that will develop better appreciation and understanding of not only the knowledge, traditions and practices of India but also contemporary questions and issues that are a part of every discipline and field in some form or another. This course once adopted in schools across India can become central to student learning: each student brings a unique culture, tradition and practice to the classroom. The content is devised in a way that the educator becomes knowledgeable about his/her students' distinctive cultural background. This can be translated into effective instruction and can enrich the curriculum thereby benefitting one and all. This insight has close approximation with the pedagogy of CCE. The course is designed in a way that it embodies various disciplines and fields of study ranging from Language and Grammar, Literature, Fine Arts, Agriculture, Trade and Commerce, Philosophy and Yoga to Mathematics, Astronomy, Chemistry, Metallurgy, Medicine and Surgery, Life Sciences, Environment and Cosmology. This can serve as a good foundation for excellence in any discipline pursued by the student in her/his academic, personal and professional life. This book aims at providing a broad overview of Indian thought in a multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary mode. It does not seek to impart masses of data, but highlights concepts and major achievements while engaging the student with a sense of exploration and discovery. There is an introduction of topics so that students who take this are prepared for a related field in higher studies in the universities. The examination reforms brought in by CBSE have strengthened the Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation System. It has to be ascertained that the teaching and learning methodology of CCE is adopted by the affiliated schools when they adopt this course. The contents have to cultivate critical appreciation of the thought and provide insights relevant for promoting cognitive ability, health and well-being, good governance, aesthetic appreciation, value education and appropriate worldview. This document has been prepared by a special committee of convenors and material developers under the direction of Dr. Sadhana Parashar, Director (Academic & Training) and co-ordinated by Mrs. Neelima Sharma, Consultant, CBSE. The Board owes a wealth of gratitude to Professor Jagbir Singh, Professor Kapil Kapoor, Professor Michel Danino, and all those who contributed to the extensive work of conceptualizing and developing the contents. I sincerely hope that our affiliated schools will adopt this new initiative of the Board and assist us in our endeavour to nurture our intellectual heritage. Vineet Joshi Chairman Convenor’s Note by Professor Jagbir Singh In 2012, CBSE decided to introduce an Elective Course 'Knowledge Traditions and Practices of India' for classes XI and XII and an Advisory Committee was constituted to reflect on the themes and possible content of the proposed course. Subsequently Module-Preparation Committees were constituted to prepare ten modules for the first year of the programme to include the following Astronomy, Ayurveda (Medicine and Surgery), Chemistry, Drama, Environment, Literature, Mathematics, Metallurgy, Music and Philosophy. Each module has; I. A Survey article ii. Extracts from primary texts iii. Suitably interspersed activities to enable interactive study and class work iv. Appropriate visuals to engender reading interest, and v. Further e- and hard copy readings. Each module in the course has kept in mind what would be a viable amount of reading and workload, given all that the class IX students have to do in the given amount of time, and controlled the word-length and also provided, where needed, choices in the reading materials. Each Module consists of: I. A Survey Essay (about 1500-2000 words) that introduces and shows the growth of ideas, texts and thinkers and gives examples of actual practice and production. ii. A survey-related selection of extracts (in all about 2000 words) from primary sources (in English translation, though for first hand recognition, in some cases, where feasible, the extracts are also reproduced in the original language and script). iii. Three kinds of interactive work are incorporated, both in the survey article and the extracts comprehension questions, individual and collective activities and projects (that connect the reading material and the student to the actual practice and the environment). iv. Visuals of thinkers, texts, concepts (as in Mathematics), practices. v. Internet audiovisual resources in the form of URLs. vi. List of further questions, and readings. The objective of each module, as of the whole course, is to re-connect the young minds with the large body of intellectual activity that has always happened in India and, more importantly, to enable them (i) to relate the knowledge available to the contemporary life, theories and practices, (ii) to develop, wherever feasible, a comparative view on a level ground of the contemporary Western ideas and the Indian theories and practices, and (iii) to extend their horizons beyond what is presented or is available and contemplate on possible new meanings, extensions and uses of the ideas - in other words to make them think. We have taken care to be objective and factual and have carefully eschewed any needless claims or comparisons with western thought. Such things are best left to the readers' judgement. This pedagogical approach clearly approximates CBSE's now established activity-oriented interactive work inviting the students' critical responses. It is proposed to upload the first year's modular programme to be downloaded and used by schools, teachers and students. As a first exercise, we are aware that the content selection, a major difficult task, can be critically reviewed from several standpoints. We do not claim perfection and invite suggestions and concrete proposals to develop the content. We are eagerly looking forward to receiving the feedback from both teachers and students. That would help us refine the content choice, the length and the activities. We will also thankfully acknowledge any inadvertent errors that are pointed out by readers. The finalisation of this course is thus envisaged as a collective exercise and only over a period of time, the Course will mature. We know that perfection belongs only to God. If our students enjoy reading these materials, that would be our true reward. Prof. Jagbir Singh Convenor Acknowledgment e CBSE ADVISORS • Shri Vineet Joshi, Chairman • Dr. Sadhana Parashar, Director (Academic & Training) CONVENOR Prof. Jagbir Singh Convenor, Former Head Department of Punjabi Delhi University MATERIAL PRODUCTION TEAM Prof. Kapil Kapoor Prof. Shrawan Kumar Sharma Ms. Uma Sharma Prof. of English & Former Pro Vice Chancellor, Jawaharlal Nehru University Ex Craft Coordinator CCRT, Ex TGT, RPVV, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi. Prof. Michel Danino Head Dept. of English Director, Centre for Canadian Studies Gurukul Kangri University Haridwar, Uttarakhand Guest Professor, IIT Gandhinagar, & Visiting Faculty, IIM Ranchi Ms. Kiran Bhatt Freelancer: Content Developer, Resource Person - SCERT, DIET (RN) New Delhi. Prof. Avadhesh Kumar Singh (Retd.) Head of Dept. (English), Modern School, Vasant Vihar, New Delhi Ms. Anjali Shukla Professor & Director School of Translation IGNOU Ms. Heemal Handoo Bhat DAV Public School, Sector - 7, Rohini, New Delhi - 110085 Shaheed Rajpal DAV Dayanand Vihar, New Delhi Dr. Sandhya S. Tarafdar Dr. P. Ram Manohar, MD (Ayurveda) Director and CSO, AVP Research Foundation, 36/137, Trichy Road, Ramanathapuram P.O., Coimbatore641045, Tamil Nadu, India Mr. Pundrikakash Ms. Archana Sharma PGT History, K.V. Vikaspuri, New Delhi Vice Principal, Physics, RPVV, DoE, Kishan Dr. B. S. Dashora ELT Group (Retd. Principal), Bhopal, Ganj, New Delhi Madhya Pradesh. Ms. Rashmi Kathuria Maths, Kulachi Hansraj Model School, Ashok Vihar, New Delhi Ms. Shubhika Lal Dr. Sanjay Kumar Ms. Kusum Singh K.V., SPG Complex, Sector - 8, Dwarka, New Delhi DAV Public School, Sector-14, Gurgaon (Retd) Associate Professor, Delhi University, Founder member and Trustee International Forum for India's Heritage. PO Box 8518, Ashok Vihar, Delhi 110052. Ms. Bindia Rajpal ELT, Free Lancer, New Delhi The Air Force School, Subroto Park, New Delhi Grateful Thanks to: Dr. Vipul Singh Ms. Reeta Khera Dr. Rajnish Kumar Mishra, JNU Dr. J. Sreenivasa Murthy (Sanskrit/Philosophy) Head, Department of Sanskrit, M.E.S College, Bangalore - 560 003 Prof. Bharat Gupt MLNC, University of Delhi, South Campus, VVDAV Public School, D- Block, Vikaspuri, New Delhi New Delhi Modern School, Vasant Vihar, New Delhi Ms. Gayatri Khanna Dr. Santosh Kumar Shukla, JNU Mr. Albert Abraham Former Report Writer, CBSE CO-ORDINATOR Ms. Neelima Sharma EDITORS Prof. Kapil Kapoor, Prof. of English & Former Pro Vice- Chancellor Consultant (ELT), CBSE New Delhi Jawahar Lal Nehru University Prof. Michel Danino, Guest Professor, IIT Gandhinagar & Visiting Faculty, IIM Ranchi SUPPORTING MEMBERS (CBSE) Mr. Yogeshwar Mr. Abhimanyu Kumar Gupta Ms. Prabha Sharma Asstt. Record Keeper Computer Assistant Computer Assistant Contents • • • • • • • • • • Modules 1 Astronomy in India 1 Modules 2 Chemistry in India 31 Modules 3 Indian Literatures Part 1 Indian Literatures Part 2 59 96 Modules 4 Indian Philosophical Systems 133 Modules 5 Indian Traditional Knowledge on Environmental Conservation 163 Modules 6 Life Sciences (1) Ayurveda for Life, Health and Well-being 189 Life Sciences (2) The Historical Evolution of Medical Tradition in Ancient India 209 Life Sciences (3) Plant and Animal Science in Ancient India 229 Modules 7 Mathematics in India 247 Modules 8 Metallurgy in India 287 Modules 9 Music in India 317 Modules 10 Theatre and Drama in India 343 Astronomy in India: A Survey In every ancient culture, astronomy was born before mathematics: there is, in fact, no need of maths to look at the sky, observe the periodicity of the moon’s phases, of a few identifiable planets, the northward or southward journey of the sunrise on the eastern horizon through the year, or What do you think were the ancients’ immediate needs that they thought could be met through an observation of the night sky? to trace imaginary lines between the stars. The Beginnings of Indian Astronomy And that is indeed how the story of astronomy always begins. In India, those beginnings are not adequately documented. The first ‘astronomical’ objects, found in the Andamans, belong to the palaeolithic era, some 12,000 years ago; they are calendar sticks noting the waxing and waning* of the moon by incising daily notches on a wooden stick. Observe this stick and interpret its various sections. How can they be related to the phases of the moon? One of the calendar sticks found in the Andaman islands, apparently recording lunar phases across several months * The apparent increase (waxing) and decrease (waning) of the moon’s disc from new moon to full moon and back, in the course of a lunar month. 1 Patterns of rock art found in Kashmir, such as a double sun or concentric circles, have convinced some scholars that they were depictions of a supernova and meteor showers respectively, perhaps witnessed some 7,000 years ago. Ring-stones found at Mohenjo-daro, the largest city of the Indus civilization (2600-1900 BCE), which exhibit rows of small drilled holes, have been interpreted as calendrical devices keeping track of the sunrise at different times of the year. The perfect east–west alignment of streets in the same city has been attributed to the sighting of the star cluster Pleiades (Kṛttikā). While the above statements remain speculative, it is well recognized that ancient people everywhere felt a need to relate to the universe by tuning in to the rhythms of celestial objects. Some of the ring-stones found at Mohenjo-daro, with rows of small drilled holes that appear to point to the sunset across the year. (Courtesy: Erkka Maula) A few thousand years ago, the Rig-Veda, the oldest of the four Vedas, spoke of a year of 360 days divided into twelve equal parts and used a five-year yuga (era), probably as a first attempt to reconcile the lunar and solar years (by the addition of a month after those five years). It clearly recorded a solar eclipse, although in a metaphorical language. And it has recently been proposed that its mention of ‘3,339 gods’ was actually a reference to the 18-year cycle of eclipses known as the saros; if so, this points to a very 2 early tradition of astronomical observation. A few centuries later, the Yajur-Veda considered a lunar year of 354 days and a solar year of 365 days, and divided the year into six ṛtus or seasons of two months each. The Yajur-Veda also gave the first list of 27 nakṣatras or lunar mansions, that is, constellations along the path of the moon on the celestial sphere. The 27 nakṣatras, with the earth in the centre. (Courtesy: M.S. Sriram) How many of these nakṣatras (or constellations on the path of the moon) are you familiar with? Can you identify some of them in the sky on a clear night with the naked eye? Because of the need to keep time for the proper conduct of rituals, calendrical astronomy grew more sophisticated in the late Vedic period, with the Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa of Lagadha as its representative text (and, if we may call it so, the first extant Indian scientific text). On the basis of its own astronomical data, it has been dated between the 12th and the 14th centuries BCE by most scholars. The length of the sidereal day (i.e. the time taken by the earth to complete one revolution with respect to any given star) it uses is 23 h 56 min 4.6 s, while the correct value is 23 h 56 min 4.091 s; the tiny difference is an indication of the precision reached in that early age. The Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa also discusses 3 solstices (ayanānta) and equinoxes (viṣuva) and uses two intercalary lunar months (adhikamāsa) to catch up with the solar calendar.* In some ways, this text remains the foundation for India’s traditional luni-solar calendars. The Early Historical Period The second period extended from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE and was marked by astronomical computations based on the risings and settings of planets, their revolutions, etc. Jain astronomy also developed in this period, based on a peculiar model of two sets of 27 nakṣatras, two suns and two moons; it nevertheless resulted in precise calendrical calculations. This is also the period when huge scales of time were conceived of such as a ‘day of Brahmā’ (or kalpa) of 4.32 billion years, which curiously comes close to the age of the earth (4.5 billion years). Of course, there are much longer time scales to be found in Jain texts and in the Purāṇas. While some scholars have discerned Babylonian and Greek influences at play during this and the next periods, the issue remains open. Nevertheless, such influences seem clear enough in the introduction of the seven-day week a few centuries BCE (late Vedic India divided the month only into two lunar fortnights or pakṣa, one light and one dark), and of the zodiac of 12 signs (rāśi), first recorded in the Compare the Indian rāśis to the twelve signs of the European zodiac. What conclusions can you draw? Yavanajātaka (c. 269 CE). * The solar year is about 365.24 solar days, while the lunar year is, at most, 360 days. After a few years, the difference between the two will grow so much that a month needs to be added to the lunar year to restore a broad coincidence between the two systems. This is the intercalary month. 4 The Siddhāntic Era There are many gaps in our knowledge after the above period and before the start of what has been called the golden age of Indian mathematics and Why is this era of Indian astronomy called ‘golden’? Make a list of three major contributions of that age. astronomy. Beginning in the 5th century CE, this is the Siddhāntic era, when texts called siddhāntas were composed — a Sanskrit word meaning ‘principle’ or ‘conclusion’, but which applies here to a collection of conclusions or a treatise. Their chief characteristics were the use of trigonometric methods and epicyclic* models for the computations of planetary positions. Āryabhaṭa I (born 476 Find out the name of the first ever satellite launched by India. Why do you think it was so named? CE), working near what is today Patna, ushered in this era with his Āryabhaṭīya, which dealt concisely but systematically with developments in mathematics and astronomy. Among other things, it discussed units of time and features of the celestial sphere, described the earth as a rotating sphere hanging in space, and produced a table of the planets’ mean positions. Āryabhaṭa also gave a correct explanation for both lunar and solar eclipses, and stated that the diameter of the earth is 1,050 yojanas (defining the yojana as 8,000 average human heights or about 13.6 km); this is close to the actual dimension, though 12% too large. (His diameters for the planets and the sun are however much too small.) * Because they were using a geocentric system, early Greek and Indian astronomers could not explain the planets’ occasional retrograde motion (as seen from the earth); they assumed that the planets moved along smaller orbits, called epicycles, whose centres revolved around the earth along larger circles (the planets’ mean orbits). 5 A map showing some of India’s astronomers / mathematicians. Their dates of birth as well as their place of birth or work are often approximate. Note that many more names, from Baudhāyana (~ 600 BCE) to Śrīdhara (~ 800) or Āryabhaṭa II (~ 950), simply cannot be placed on the map, as the texts are silent on their locations. (Courtesy: Michel Danino, compiled from various sources) Many brilliant astronomers followed, dealing with issues of coordinate systems, time measurement and division, mean and true positions of celestial bodies, and eclipses. Varāhamihira, Āryabhaṭa’s contemporary, composed in 505 CE a collection of five astronomical texts prevalent during his time; one of the five texts, the Sūrya Siddhānta, was revised later and became a fundamental text of Indian astronomy; two others expounded the principles of Greek astronomy. Varāhamihira extensively discussed the 6 revolutions of planets, eclipses, and the zodiac, often with an astrological background. Bhāskara I (b. 600 CE), the earliest known exponent of Āryabhaṭa I, provided a very useful elucidation of Āryabhaṭa’s astronomy, besides improved calculation methods. A manuscript of a passage of Brahmagupta’s Brahmasphuta Siddhānta. (Courtesy: Bombay University Library) A few years later, Brahmagupta (born 598 CE), who lived near Mount Abu, mistakenly rejected Āryabhaṭa’s view of the earth as a rotating sphere, but contributed Refer to Brahmagupta’s objection to Āryabhaṭa in the selection of extracts from primary texts, and assess its pertinence. * much to calculations of the mean and true longitudes of planets, conjunctions and problems of lunar and solar eclipses, applying to all these his considerable mathematical skills. * The celestial longitude of a celestial body (planet or star) is the arc of the ecliptic measured eastward from the vernal equinox (Aries) to the point where the ecliptic is intersected by the great circle passing through the body. (The ecliptic is the plane of the earth’s orbit.) ‘Mean longitude’ refers to an average value, i.e. the body’s average position, while ‘true longitude’ refers to its actual position at a given time. 7 Ind dian astrono omers could d not have achieved a so much witho out a strongg tradition of o observattion, and th he 22nd chaapter of Braahmagupta’’s magnum opus, the Brahmasphut B ta Siddhāntaa, dealt with h a variety of o astronom mical instrum ments, most of which co ould be easilly made byy any good craftsman: c among them m, a water clock c (ghaṭīī yantra) co onsisting of a bowl witth a small hole at the bottom, b whicch would sin nk in exactlly 24 minutes (a ghaṭī) if placed over water; a gnomon (aa short stick k kept vertically for thee study of th he motion of o its shado ow); a graduated disk or half-disk k; and a scissor-like paair acting as a compass. Those in nstruments and a the com mputational techniques applied to them t were both b adopteed by later scholars, s beeginning by Lalla of the 8th century. Some of the instrumeents described d by Lalla for astronomical a o observations. (Courtesy: Sh hekher Narvek ker) Braahmagupta also authorred a manuaal of astrono omical calcu ulations whiich remaineed popular for centuriees, as testifiied by Al-Biiruni, the Peersian savan nt who cam me to India in i the 11th century as a part of Mahmud of o Ghazni’s entourage.. Al-Biruni was deeplly 8 interested in Indian astronomical techniques, wrote about them at length, and translated texts by Varāhamihira and Brahmagupta into Arabic or Persian. Bhāskara II (b. 1114), better known as Bhāskarāchārya, brought important innovations to both astronomical and mathematical techniques, discussing in particular the mean and true positions of planets, the triple problem of time, direction and place, the risings and settings and conjunctions of the planets, eccentric and epicyclic theories for their motions of planets, and a large number of astronomical instruments. Over all, Bhāskarāchārya greatly improved upon the formulas and methods adopted by earlier Indian astronomers. Inscription of 1128 CE recording King Ratnade