Ancient Greece. From the Mycenaean Palaces to the Age of Homer

EDINBURGH LEVENTIS STUDIES 3 Previously published Edinburgh Leventis Studies 1 Word and Image in Ancient Greece Edited by N. Keith Rutter and Brian A. Sparkes Edinburgh Leventis Studies 2 Envy, Spite and Jealousy: The Rivalrous Emotions in Ancient Greece Edited by David Konstan and N. Keith Rutter EDINBURGH LEVENTIS STUDIES 3 ANCIENT GREECE: FROM THE MYCENAEAN PALACES TO THE AGE OF HOMER Edited by Sigrid Deger-Jalkotzy and Irene S. Lemos Edinburgh University Press © editorial matter and organisation, Sigrid Deger-Jalkotzy and Irene S. Lemos, 2006 © the chapters their authors, 2006 Edinburgh University Press Ltd 22 George Square, Edinburgh Typeset in 11 on 13pt Times NR MT by Servis Filmsetting Limited, Manchester, and printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wilts A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN-10 0 7486 1889 9 (hardback) ISBN-13 978 0 7486 1889 7 (hardback) The right of the contributors to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. CONTENTS Contributors and Editors Abbreviations Introduction Part I viii xv 1 Political and Social Structures 1 The formation of the Mycenaean palace James C. Wright 2 Wanaks and related power terms in Mycenaean and later Greek Thomas G. Palaima 53 3 Mycenaean palatial administration Cynthia W. Shelmerdine 73 4 The subjects of the wanax: aspects of Mycenaean social structure John T. Killen 87 5 ¶ Anax and basileu/ß in the Homeric poems Pierre Carlier 101 6 Kin-groups in the Homeric epics (Summary) Walter Donlan 111 Part II Continuity – Discontinuity – Transformation 7 The Mycenaean heritage of Early Iron Age Greece Oliver Dickinson 8 Coming to terms with the past: ideology and power in Late Helladic IIIC Joseph Maran 9 7 Late Mycenaean warrior tombs Sigrid Deger-Jalkotzy 115 123 151 vi  10 The archaeology of basileis Alexander Mazarakis Ainian 11 From Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age copper metallurgy in mainland Greece and offshore Aegean Islands Maria Kayafa 12 Ethne in the Peloponnese and central Greece Catherine Morgan Part III 213 233 International and Inter-Regional Relations 13 Gift Exchange: modern theories and ancient attitudes Beate Wagner-Hasel 14 Basileis at sea: elites and external contacts in the Euboean Gulf region from the end of the Bronze Age to the beginning of the Iron Age Jan Paul Crielaard 15 Aspects of the ‘Italian connection’ David Ridgway 16 From the Mycenaean qa-si-re-u to the Cypriote pa-si-le-wo-se: the basileus in the kingdoms of Cyprus Maria Iacovou 17 181 Phoenicians in Crete Nicholaos Chr. Stampolidis and Antonios Kotsonas 257 271 299 315 337 Part IV Religion and Hero Cult 18 From kings to demigods: epic heroes and social change c. 750–600  363 Hans van Wees 19 Religion, basileis and heroes Carla Antonaccio 20 Cult activity on Crete in the Early Dark Age: Changes, continuities and the development of a ‘Greek’ cult system Anna Lucia D’Agata Part V 381 397 The Homeric Epics and Heroic Poetry 21 The rise and descent of the language of the Homeric poems Michael Meier-Brügger 417 22 Homer and Oral Poetry Edzard Visser 427  vii 23 Some remarks on the semantics of a‡nax in Homer Martin Schmidt 439 24 Historical approaches to Homer Kurt A. Raaflaub 449 Part VI The Archaeology of Greek Regions and Beyond 25 The palace of Iolkos and its end Vassiliki Adrimi-Sismani 465 26 Early Iron Age elite burials in East Lokris Fanouria Dakoronia 483 27 Athens and Lefkandi: a tale of two sites Irene S. Lemos 505 28 The Early Iron Age in the Argolid: Some new aspects Alkestis Papadimitriou 531 29 The world of Telemachus: western Greece 1200–700  Birgitta Eder 549 30 Knossos in Early Greek times J. N. Coldstream 581 31 Praisos: political evolution and ethnic identity in eastern Crete c.1400–300  James Whitley 597 32 The gilded cage? Settlement and socioeconomic change after 1200 : a comparison of Crete and other Aegean regions 619 Saro Wallace 33 Homeric Cyprus Vassos Karageorghis Index 665 CONTRIBUTORS AND EDITORS Vasiliki Adrimi-Sismani studied at the University of Thessalonica from where she also received her Ph.D. The title of her thesis was ‘Dimini in the Bronze Age. 1977–97: 20 years of excavation’. She is the Director of the XIII Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities in Volos and the director of the excavation at the Mycenaean settlement of Dimini Iolkos. She has published extensively on Mycenaean Thessaly. Carla M. Antonaccio is Professor of Classical Studies, Duke University and CoDirector of the Morgantina Project (Sicily). Author of An Archaeology of Ancestors: Greek Tomb and Hero Cult in Early Greece (1995), ‘Contesting the Past: Tomb Cult, Hero Cult, and Epic in Early Greece,’ ‘Lefkandi and Homer’, ‘Warriors, Traders, Ancestors: the “heroes” of Lefkandi’, she is working on two books: Excavating Colonisation, and Morgantina Studies: The Archaic Settlement on the Cittadella. Pierre Carlier is a graduate of the École Normale Supérieure, ‘Docteur-ès-lettres’ and Professor of Greek History at the University of Paris-X Nanterre. His publications include La Royauté en Grèce avant Alexandre (1984), Démosthène (1990), Le IVème siècle avant J.-C. (1995), Homère (1999) and many articles in journals and conference proceedings on Mycenaean and archaic Greece. J. N. Coldstream, Emeritus Professor of Classical Archaeology at University College London, is a specialist in the record of the Early Iron Age in Greek lands. His output includes, as excavator, co-author and editor, the publication of a Minoan overseas outpost (Kythera, Excavation and Studies, 1973) and of Classical and Hellenistic sanctuary (Knsossos, Sanctuary of Demeter, 1973). The main focus of his research, however, has been concentrated on the Geometric period (900–700 ), and expounded in Greek Geometric Pottery (1968) and Geometric Greece (2nd edition, 2003). With H. W. Catling he edited Knossos North Cemetery, Early Greek Tombs (1996). Jan Paul Crielaard is lecturer in Mediterranean archaeology at the Amsterdam Free University. He obtained his Ph.D. from the University of Amsterdam    ix (thesis: ‘The Euboeans Overseas: Long-distance Contacts and Colonisation as Status Activities in Early Iron Age Greece’). Crielaard published extensively on early Greek exchanges and colonisation. He is also the author of a number of articles on Homeric archaeology. Anna Lucia D’Agata is Senior Research Fellow of CNR/Istituto di studi sulle civiltà dell’Egeo e del Vicino Oriente (Roma), and is co-director of the excavations in the Dark Age, and later, site of Thronos/Kephala (ancient Sybrita) in central-western Crete. She is author of many articles dealing with cult activity on Crete in LM III, and of the volume Statuine minoiche e post-minoiche da Haghia Triada (1999). Currently she is working on diverse projects, also including the publication of a series of volumes on the results of the excavations carried out at Thronos/Kephala. Fanouria Dakoronia is at present Honorary Ephor of Antiquities of Lamia. She was educated in Athens and has held research positions in Germany, Austria, the UK and the US. In 1964 she was employed by the Greek Archaeological Service and since 1977 she has been working at the Ephrorate of Lamia. During her office she has located and excavated a number of new sites and has founded two archaeological Museums (at Lamia and at Atalante). She has published widely on the archaeology of her region and beyond and she has organised a number of international conferences including the Periphery of the Mycenaean World in Lamia 1994. Sigrid Deger-Jalkotzy is Professor of Ancient History at the University of Salzburg, specialising in Aegean Prehistory, Early Greek history and Mycenology. She also is the director of the Mykenische Kommission at the Austrian Academy of Sciences at Vienna. She is full member of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, and corresponding member of the Academy of Athens and of the Academy of Sciences at Göttingen. She was the Third Leventis Professor at the School of History and Classics at the University of Edinburgh in 2003. Some of her publications are: Fremde Zuwanderer im Spätmykenischen Griechenland (1977), E-QETA: Zur Rolle des Gefolgschaftswesens in der Sozialstruktur mykenischer Reiche (1978), co-author of Die Siegel aus der Nekropole von Elatia-Alonaki (1996). She has written around 100 articles in journals and conference proceedings on the interpretation of Linear B texts and on the Mycenaean period and the Dark Ages of Greece. Her current projects are: the study of the end of the Mycenaean civilisation; LH IIIC chronology and synchronisms. She is also publishing the results of the excavations of the LH IIIC settlement at Aigeira/Achaia and with F. Dakoronia the excavations at Elateia/central Greece. Oliver Dickinson is Emeritus Reader in the Department of Classics and Ancient History, University of Durham, UK. He is author of The Origins of Mycenaean Civilisation (1977) and The Aegean Bronze Age (1994), and co-author (with R. Hope Simpson) of A Gazetteer of Aegean Civilisation in the Bronze Age Vol. I: the x    mainland and islands (1979), and is currently completing a book on the transition from Bronze Age to Iron Age in the Aegean. Walter Donlan is Professor Emeritus of Classics at the University of California, Irvine. His main research interests are on early Greek literature and Greek social history. He has published: The Aristocratic Ideal and Selected Papers (1999), and (jointly) A Brief History of Ancient Greece: Politics, Society, and Culture (2004). Birgitta Eder currently holds a research position at the Mykenische Kommission of the Austrian Academy of Sciences. Her main fields of research include the Greek Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages as well as Homer, and she is currently preparing a major work on the so-called western and northern peripheries of the Mycenaean world. She has published Mycenaean and Early Iron Age materials from the region of Elis and in particular from Olympia. Maria Iacovou is Associate Professor of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Archaeology at the University of Cyprus. She is the author of The Eleventh Century BC Pictorial Pottery of Cyprus (1988). She co-edited (with D. Michaelides) Cyprus: The Historicity of the Geometric Horizon (1999). Recently, she edited Archaeological Field Survey in Cyprus: Past History, Future Potentials (BSA Studies 11, 2004). Vassos Karageorghis was educated in the UK (Ph.D. University of London, 1957). He served in the Department of Antiquities from 1952–1989 (Director of the Department from 1963–1989). He excavated extensively in Cyprus. He was the first Professor of Archaeology at the University of Cyprus (1992–1996) and created its Archaeological Research Unit. Since 1990 he has been the director of the Anastasios G. Leventis Foundation (Cyprus). He is the author of many books and articles and has organised numerous conferences on Cypriote archaeology in Cyprus and abroad. He has received many academic honours from various universities and academies. Maria Kayafa studied Archaeology at the University of Birmingham where she obtained her Ph.D. in 2000. Her thesis is entitled ‘Bronze Age Metallurgy in the Peloponnese, Greece’ and deals with the consumption, technology and exchange of metals. She has participated in a number of archaeological conferences and she is currently working as a teacher in Athens. J. T. Killen is Emeritus Professor of Mycenaean Greek and Fellow of Jesus College, University of Cambridge; and Fellow of the British Academy. His publications include: (jointly) Corpus of Mycenaean Inscriptions from Knossos (4 vols 1986–98); (jointly) The Knossos Tablets: A Transliteration (third, fourth, and fifth editions, 1964–89); articles in journals and conference proceedings on the interpretation of Linear B texts and on Mycenaean economy. Antonios Kotsonas completed his doctoral thesis on pottery from the Iron Age cemetery of Eleutherna at the University of Edinburgh, under the supervision    xi of Dr Irene Lemos. He has published on the archaeology of Early Iron Age Crete. Irene S. Lemos is the Reader in Classical Archaeology and a Fellow of Merton College, Oxford. She has published, The Protogeometric Aegean, the Archaeology of the late eleventh and tenth centuries BC (2002). She is the director of the excavations on Xeropolis at Lefkandi. Joseph Maran is professor of Pre- and Protohistory at Heidelberg University, from which he also received his Ph.D. He finished his habilitation at Bonn University. His research focuses on Aegean Archaeology and on the prehistory of the Balkans. Since 1994 he has been the director of the Tiryns excavation of the German Archaeological Institute, and from 1998 to 2002 he co-directed an interdisciplinary project combining an intensive survey and geoarchaeological research in the Basin of Phlious (Corinthia). Alexander Mazarakis-Ainian is Professor of Classical Archaeology at the University of Thessaly (Volos). His main field of specialisation is the archaeology and architecture of Early Iron Age and archaic Greece on which he has published widely in journals, and conferences. His monograph From Rulers’ Dwellings to Temples: Architecture, Religion and Society in Early Iron Age Greece (1100–700 B.C.) (1997) is considered the main study of early Greek architecture. He is directing a number of archaeological surveys and excavations: Kythnos, Skala Oropou, in northern Attica, and at Soros (ancient Amphanai), in Thessaly. Michael Meier-Brügger is Professor in Indo-European Linguistics at Freie Universität Berlin. He is the editor of the Lexikon des frühgriechischen Epos (Thesaurus Linguae Graecae, Universität Hamburg). His main interests are: Greek linguistics; Greek vocabulary; Indo-European Linguistics of the Classical triad Greek, Latin, Indoiranian; Anatolian languages of the first millennium  of Asia Minor (specially Carian). Some of his publications are: Griechische Sprachwissenschaft (1992); Indogermanische Sprachwissenschaft, (first published 2000, 2nd edition 2002, English edition 2003). Catherine Morgan is Professor in Classical Archaeology at King’s College London. Her publications on the Greek Early Iron Age include Athletes and Oracles (1990), Isthmia VIII (1999) and Early Greek States beyond the Polis (2003). She also works in the Black Sea, and is currently co-directing the Stavros Valley Project in northern Ithaca. Thomas G. Palaima is Dickson Centennial Professor of Classics and Director of the Program in Aegean Scripts and Prehistory. His research interests include Mycenaean and Minoan society (especially ethnicity, kingship, religion, economy, record-keeping and warfare); decipherment techniques and history of scholarship relating to the Ventris decipherment; textual and sealing administration (sphragistics); and the development and uses of Aegean writing. He xii    delivered the 2004 annual Leventis lecture: The Triple Invention of Writing in Cyprus and Written Sources for Cypriote History (2005). Alkestis Papadimitriou graduated from the History and Archaeology department of the University of Athens; she was awarded her doctorate from the Albert Ludwig University of Freiburg, Germany. She was research assistant to the late Klaus Kilian in the German Archaeological Institute’s excavations of Tiryns. In 1991 she joined the Archaeological Service of the Greek Ministry of Culture, and was appointed to the IV Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities in the Agrolid. She is in charge of the archaeological sites of Tiryns, Argos and Hermione. She was member of the Committee for the organisation of the new archaeological museum at Mycenae and she was in charge of the proceedings which led to inscribe Mycenae and Tiryns in the World Cultural Heritage List of UNESCO. She is supervising the restoration program of the citadel of Tiryns funded by the European Union. She is currently the elected Secretary of the Union of Greek Archaeologists Kurt A. Raaflaub is David Herlihy University Professor and Professor of Classics and History as well as Director of the Program in Ancient Studies at Brown University, Providence RI, USA. His main interests cover the social, political, and intellectual history of archaic and classical Greece and the Roman republic, and the comparative history of the ancient world. Recent (co-)authored or (co-)edited books include Democracy, Empire, and the Arts in Fifth-Century Athens (1998); War and Society in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds (1999); The Discovery of Freedom in Ancient Greece (2004); Social Struggles in Archaic Rome (2nd edition 2005), and Origins of Democracy in Ancient Greece (2006). David Ridgway taught European and Mediterranean archaeology at Edinburgh University from 1968 until his retirement in 2003. His books include Italy before the Romans (1979), edited with Francesca R. Serra Ridgway; The First Western Greeks (1992, and in Italian, Greek, French and Spanish editions); Pithekoussai I (with Giorgio Buchner, 1993); The World of the Early Etruscans (2002). He was Jerome Lecturer (Ann Arbor and Rome) in 1990–1991, Neubergh Lecturer (Göteborg) in 2000, and is currently working as an Associate Fellow of the Institute of Classical Studies, University of London. Martin Schmidt has been a member of the staff of the Lexikon des frühgriechischen Epos (LfgrE) in Hamburg, Germany since 1974. His publications include: Die Erklärungen zum Weltbild Homers und zur Kultur der Heroenzeit in den bTScholien zur Ilias (Zetemata 62) (1976), many contributions to LfgrE (among them articles on basileus, demos, dike, Zeus, themis, laos, ieros, xeinos, Olympos, polis) and other articles in journals and proceedings on Homerica and on ancient scholarship. Cynthia W. Shelmerdine is the Robert M. Armstrong Centennial Professor of Classics at the University of Texas at Austin. Her main research interests are in    xiii Aegean Bronze Age archaeology, and Mycenaean Greek language, history and society. She is currently ceramic expert for the Iklaina Archaeological Project, and editor of the forthcoming Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Recent articles include ‘Mycenaean Society’ in Y. Duhoux and A. Morpurgo Davies (eds), Linear B: A Millennium Survey (forthcoming) and ‘The Southwestern Department at Pylos,’ in J. Bennet and J. Driessen (eds), A-NO-QO-TA: Studies Presented to J. T. Killen (Minos 33–34, 1998–1999, published 2002). Nicholaos Chr. Stampolidis is Professor of Classical Archaeology at the University of Crete (Rethymnon) and Director of the Museum of Cycladic Art (Athens). He has published The Altar of Dionysus on Cos (1981 and 1987), A New Fragment of the Mausoleum (1987–1988) and The Sealings of Delos (1992). He is the director of the excavations at Eleutherna (1985 onwards, related publication: Reprisals, 1996). He has organised a number of conferences and exhibitions, as well as editing and publishing catalogues: Eastern Mediterranean 16th–6th c. B.C. (1998, with V. Karageorghis), The City beneath the City (2000, with L. Parlama), Cremation in the BA and EIA in the Aegean (2001), Interconnections in the Mediterranean (2002), Ploes, From Sidon to Huelva, Interconnections in the Mediterranean, 16th–6th c. B.C. (2003) and Magna Graecia: Athletics and the Olympic Spirit in the Periphery of the Greek world (2004, with G. Tassoulas). Edzard Visser is Professor of Classical Philology at the University of Basel. His main research interests are: Homer (especially the technique of oral versemaking), Athens in the fifth century and Plato’s philosophy. His Ph.D. thesis on Homerische Versifikationstechnik was published in 1986; he has also published, Homers Katalog der Schiffe (1997). Beate Wagner-Hasel is Professor for Ancient History at the University of Hannover and co-editor of the journal Historische Anthropologi. Her recent publications include Der Stoff der Gaben: Kultur und Politik des Schenkens und Tauschens im archaischen Griechenland (2000); Streit um Troia: Eine wirtschaftsanthropologische Sicht (in Historische Anthropologie 11/2, 2003); Le regard de Karl Bücher sur l’économie antique et le débat sur théorie économique et histoire, in H. Bruhns (ed.), L’histoire et l’économie politique en Allemagne autour de 1900 (2003). Work in progress: Social history of old age in antiquity; Karl Bücher and ancient economy. Saro Wallace received her Ph.D. in Classical Archaeology from Edinburgh University in 2001. She has published articles on EIA economy and society in Crete and is working on a monograph provisionally entitled Early Iron Age Crete and the Aegean: A Sociocultural History, on new plans and studies of the Early Iron Age site at Karfi, Crete, and on the preparation of a body of surface ceramic material from Late Minoan IIIC–Archaic sites in Crete for publication in the next several years. She has taught at Bristol and Cardiff and from 2006 she will be a Lecturer in Archaeology at Reading University. xiv    Hans van Wees is Reader in Ancient History at University College London. He is the author of Status Warriors: War, Violence, and Society in Homer and History (1992); co- editor (with N. Fisher) of Archaic Greece: New Approaches and New Evidence (1998); editor of War and Violence in Ancient Greece (2000); and author of Greek Warfare, Myths and Realities (2004). James Whitley is an archaeologist specialising in Early Iron Age and archaic Greece, and is currently Director of the British School at Athens. Publications include Style and Society in Dark Age Greece (1991) and The Archaeology of Ancient Greece (2001), which won the Runciman prize for 2002. He has participated in fieldwork in Britain, Greece and Italy, and since 1992 he has been directing a survey in and around the site of Praisos in eastern Crete. James C. Wright is Professor and Chairman of the Department of Classical and Near Eastern Archaeology at Bryn Mawr College. His main research interests are in the Pre- and Proto-historic Aegean and in Greek architecture and urbanism; land-use and settlement; method and theory, GIS and cultural geography. He has published widely on such subjects and edited and contributed to The Mycenaean Feast (2004). ABBREVIATIONS 1. Contributed Works Aegean and the Orient Cline, E. H. and Harris-Cline, D. (eds) (1998), The Aegean and the Orient in the Second Millennium BC: Proceedings of the 50th Anniversary Symposium, Cincinnati, 18–20 April 1997 (Aegaeum 18), Liège and Austin: Université de Liège and University of Texas at Austin. Ages of Homer Carter, J. B. and Morris, S. P. (eds) (1995), The Ages of Homer: A Tribute to Emily Townsend Vermeule, Austin: University of Texas Press. A-NA-QO-TA Bennet, J. and Driessen, J. (eds) (1998–99), A-NA-QO-TA: Studies Presented to J. T. Killen (Minos 33–34), Salamanca: Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca. Archaic Greece Fisher, N. and van Wees, H. (eds) (1998), Archaic Greece: New Approaches and New Evidence, London: Duckworth. Celebrations of Death Hägg, R. and Nordquist, G. C. (eds) (1990), Celebrations of Death and Divinity in the Bronze Age Argolid: Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium at the Swedish Institute in Athens, Stockholm: Paul Åströms Förlag. Chronology and Synchronisms Deger-Jalkotzy, S. and Zavadil, M. (eds) (2003), LH IIIC Chronology and Synchronisms: Proceedings of the International Workshop Held at the Austrian Academy of Sciences at Vienna, May 7th and 8th, 2001, Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Colloquium Mycenaeum Risch, E. and Mühlestein, H. (eds) (1979), Colloquium Mycenaeum: Actes du sixième Colloque international sur les textes mycéniens et égéens tenu à Chaumont sur Neuchâtel du 7 au 13 septembre 1975, Neuchâtel et Genève: Faculté des lettres, Neuchâtel, et Librairie Droz. Crisis Years Ward, W. A. and Sharp Joukowsky, M. (eds) (1992), The Crisis Years: The xvi  12th Century B.C.: From Beyond the Danube to the Tigris, Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt. Cyprus-Dodecanese-Crete Karageorghis, V. and Stampolidis, N. (eds) (1998), Eastern Mediterranean: Cyprus-Dodecanese-Crete 16th–6th cent. B.C.: Proceedings of the International Symposium Rethymnon, 13–16 May 1997, Athens: University of Crete and A. G. Leventis Foundation. Cyprus 11th Century Karageorghis, V. (ed.) (1994), Cyprus in the 11th Century B.C.: Proceedings of the International Symposium, Nicosia 30–31 October 1993, Nicosia: University of Cyprus and A. G. Leventis Foundation. Defensive Settlements Karageorghis, V. and Morris, Chr. E. (eds) (2001), Defensive Settlements of the Aegean and the eastern Mediterranean after c.1200 B.C.: Proceedings of an International Workshop Held at Trinity College Dublin, 7th–9th May, 1999, Nicosia: Trinity College Dublin and A. G. Leventis Foundation. Early Greek Cult Practice Hägg, R., Marinatos, N. and Nordquist, G. C. (eds) (1988), Early Greek Cult Practice: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium at the Swedish Institute at Athens, 26–29 June, 1986, Stockholm: Paul Åströms Förlag. Economy and Politics Voutsaki, S. and Killen, J. (eds) (2001), Economy and Politics in the Mycenaean Palace States: Proceedings of a Conference held on 1–3 July 1999 in the Faculty of Classics, Cambridge, Cambridge: Cambridge Philological Society. Euboica Bats, M. and D’Agostino, B. (eds) (1998), Euboica: L’Eubea e la presenza euboica in Calcidica e in Occidente, Napoli: Centre Jean Bérard and Istituto Universitario Orientale. Floreant Studia Mycenaea Deger-Jalkotzy, S., Hiller, S. and Panagl, O. (eds), (1999), Floreant Studia Mycenaea, Akten des X Internationalen Mykenologischen Colloquiums in Salzburg vom 1–5 Mai 1995 (Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, PhilosophischHistorische Klasse Denkschriften 274), Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Forschungen in der Peloponnes Mitsopoulos-Leon, V. (ed.) (2001), Forschungen in der Peloponnes: Akten des Symposions anlässlich der Feier ‘100 Jahre Österreichisches Archäologisches Institut Athen’, Athen 5.3.– 7.3.1998, Athens: Österreichisches Archäologisches Institut. Fortetsa Brock, J. K. (1957), Fortetsa: Early Greek Tombs near Knossos (BSA Supplementary Volume 2), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.  xvii Greek Renaissance Hägg, R. (ed.) (1983), The Greek Renaissance of the Eighth Century BC: Tradition and Innovation: Proceedings of the Second International Symposium at the Swedish Institute in Athens, 1–5 June, 1981, Stockholm: Swedish Institute at Athens. Greek Sanctuaries Marinatos, N. and Hägg, R. (eds) (1993), Greek Sanctuaries: New Approaches, London/New York: Routledge. Homeric Questions Crielaard, J. P. (ed.) (1995), Homeric Questions: Essays in Philology, Ancient History and Archaeology, Including the Papers of a Conference Organised by the Netherlands Institute at Athens, Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben. Isthmia Morgan, C. (1999), Isthmia VIII: The Late Bronze Age Settlement and Early Iron Age Sanctuary, American School of Classical Studies at Athens: Princeton University Press. Italy and Cyprus Bonfante, L. and Karageorghis, V. (eds) (2001), Italy and Cyprus in Antiquity 1500–450 B.C.: Proceedings of an International Symposium Held at the Italian Academy for Advanced Studies in America at Columbia University, November 16–18, 2000, Nicosia: C. and L. Severis Foundation. Knossos North Cemetery Coldstream, J. N. and Catling, H. W. (eds) (1996), Knossos North Cemetery: Early Greek Tombs (British School at Athens Supplementary Volume 28), London: The British School at Athens. Laconia Survey Cavanagh, W., Crouwel, J., Catling, R. W. V. and Shipley, G. (eds) (2002), Continuity and Change in a Greek Rural Landscape: The Laconia Survey, Vol. 1: Methodology and Interpretation, London: The British School at Athens. La Crète mycénienne Driessen, J. and Farnoux, A. (eds) (1997), La Crète mycénienne: Actes de la table ronde internationale organisée par l’École française d’Athènes (BCH Suppl. 30), Athènes: École française d’Athènes. Lefkandi I Popham, M. R., Sackett, L. H. and Themelis, P. G. (eds) (1980), Lefkandi I, The Iron Age: The Settlement; The Cemeteries (British School at Athens Supplementary Volume 11), London: Thames and Hudson. Lefkandi II.1 Catling, R. W. V. and Lemos, I. S. (1990), Lefkandi II, The Protogeometric Building at Toumba: Part I: The Pottery (British School at Athens Supplementary Volume 22), Oxford: Thames and Hudson. Lefkandi II.2 Popham, M. R., Calligas, P. G. and Sackett, L. H. (eds) (1993), Lefkandi II, The Protogeometric Building at Toumba, Part 2: The Excavation, Architecture and xviii  Finds (British School at Athens Supplementary Volume 23), London: Thames and Hudson. Lefkandi III Popham, M. R. with Lemos, I. S. (1996), Lefkandi III: The Early Iron Age Cemetery at Toumba (British School at Athens Supplementary Volume 29), Alden: Thames and Hudson. Mediterranean Peoples Gitin, S., Mazar, A. and Stern, E. (eds) (1998), Mediterranean Peoples in Transition, Thirteenth to Early Tenth Centuries BCE: In Honor of Professor Trude Dothan, Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society. Meletemata Betancourt, P. P., Karageorghis, V., Laffineur, R. and Niemeier, W.-D. (eds) (1999), Meletemata: Studies in Aegean Archaeology Presented to Malcolm H. Wiener as He Enters His 65th Year, Liège and Austin: Université de Liège, University of Texas at Austin Minoan Farmers Chaniotis, A. (ed.) (1999), From Minoan Farmers to Roman Traders: Sidelights on the Economy of Ancient Crete, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. Minotaur and Centaur Evely, D., Lemos, I. S. and Sherratt, S. (eds) (1996), Minotaur and Centaur: Studies in the Archaeology of Crete and Euboea Presented to Mervyn Popham (BAR International Series 638), Oxford: Tempus Reparatum. Mykenaïka Olivier, J.-P. (ed.) (1992), Mykenaïka: Actes du IXe Colloque international sur les textes mycéniens et égéens organisé par le Centre de l’Antiquité Grecque et Romaine de la Fondation Hellénique des Recherches Scientifiques et l’École française d’Athènes, 2–6 octobre 1990, Athènes: École française d’Athènes and Kentron Hellenikes Kai Romaikes Archaiotetos. Nahöstliche Kulturen und Griechenland Braun-Holzinger, E. A. and Matthäus, H. (eds) (2002), Die nahöstlichen Kulturen und Griechenland an der Wende vom 2. zum 1. Jahrtausend v. Chr. Kontinuität und Wandel von Strukturen und Mechanismen kultureller Interaktion. Kolloquium des Sonderforschungsbereiches 295 ‘Kulturelle und sprachliche Kontakte’ der Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, 11–12 Dezember 1998, Möhnesee: Bibliopolis. New Companion Morris, I. and Powell, B. (eds) (1997), A New Companion to Homer (Memnosyne Supplement 163), Leiden: E. J. Brill. Nichoria II McDonald, W. A. and Wilkie, N. C. (eds) (1992), Excavations at Nichoria in Southwest Greece, Volume II: The Bronze Age Occupation, Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press. Nichoria III McDonald, W. A., Coulson, W. D. E. and Rosser, J. (eds) (1983), Excavations at  xix Nichoria in Southwest Greece, Volume III: Dark Age and Byzantine Occupation, Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press. Palaepaphos-Skales Karageorghis, V. (1983), Palaepaphos-Skales: An Iron Age Cemetery in Cyprus (Ausgrabungen in Altpaphos auf Cypern, Vol. 3), Konstanz: Universitätsverlag. Perati Iakovidis, Sp. E. (1969–70), Peratí, to nekrotapheíon, Athens: The Archaeological Society at Athens. Periphery 14th Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities (eds) (1999), Periphery of the Mycenaean World: 1st International Interdisciplinary Colloquium, Lamia 26–29 Sept. 1994, Lamia: TAPA/14th Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities. Placing the Gods Alcock, S. E. and Osborne, R. (eds), Placing the Gods: Sanctuaries and Sacred Space in Ancient Greece, Oxford: Clarendon Press. Polemos Laffineur, R. (ed.) (1999), Polemos: Le contexte guerrier en Égée à l’âge du bronze: Actes de la 7e Rencontre égéenne internationale, Université de Liège, 14–17 avril 1998 (Aegaeum 19), Liège and Austin: Université de Liège and University of Texas at Austin. Politeia Laffineur, R. and Niemeier, W.-D. (eds) (1995), Politeia: Society and State in the Aegean Bronze Age: Proceedings of the 5th International Aegean Conference, University of Heidelberg, Archäologisches Institut, 10–13 April 1994 (Aegaeum 12), Liège and Austin: Université de Liège and University of Texas at Austin. Potnia Laffineur, R. and Hägg, R. (eds) (2001), Potnia: Deities and Religion in the Aegean Bronze Age: Proceedings of the 8th International Aegean Conference, Göteborg, Göteborg University, 12–15 April 2000 (Aegaeum 22), Liège and Austin: Université de Liège and University of Texas at Austin. Problems in Prehistory French, E. B. and Wardle, K. A. (eds) (1988), Problems in Greek Prehistory: Papers Presented at the Centenary Conference of the British School of Archaeology at Athens, Manchester, April 1986, Bristol: Bristol Classical Press. Role of the Ruler Rehak, P. (1995), The Role of the Ruler in the Prehistoric Aegean: Proceedings of a Panel Discussion Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Archaeological Institute of America, New Orleans, Louisiana, 28 December 1992, With Additions, Liège and Austin: Université de Liège, and University of Texas at Austin. Sanctuaries and Cults Hägg, R. and Marinatos, N. (eds) (1981), Sanctuaries and Cults in the Aegean xx  Bronze Age: Proceedings of the First International Symposium at the Swedish Institute in Athens, 12–13 May 1980, Stockholm: Paul Åströms Förlag. Sandy Pylos Davis, J. L. (ed.) (1998), Sandy Pylos: An Archaeological History from Nestor to Navarino, Austin: The University of Texas Press. Tractata Mycenaea Ilievski, P. Hr. and Crepajac, L. (eds) (1987), Tractata Mycenaea: Proceedings of the Eighth International Colloquium on Mycenaean Studies, Held in Ohrid, 15–20 September 1985, Skopje: Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts. 2. Monographs and Reference Works Antonaccio, Ancestors Antonaccio, C. M. (1995), An Archaeology of Ancestors: Tomb Cult and Hero Cult in Early Greece, Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield. Carlier, Royauté Carlier, P. (1984), La royauté en Grèce avant Alexandre, Strasbourg: Études et travaux, Université des sciences humaines de Strasbourg, Groupe de recherche d’histoire romaine 6. Cavanagh and Mee, Private Place Cavanagh, W. C. and Mee, C. (1998), A Private Place: Death in Prehistory, Jonsered: Paul Åströms Förlag. Cline, Wine-Dark Sea Cline, E. H. (1994), Sailing the Wine-Dark Sea: International Trade and the Late Bronze Age Aegean (BAR IS 591), Oxford: Tempus Reparatum. Coldstream, Geometric Greece Coldstream, J. N. (1977), Geometric Greece, London: Routledge, second edition 2003: Geometric Greece 900–700 BC, London: Routledge. Coldstream, Geometric Pottery Coldstream, J. N. (1968), Greek Geometric Pottery: A Survey of Ten Local Styles and Their Chronology, London: Methuen. De Polignac, Origins De Polignac, F. (1995), Cults, Territory and the Origins of the Greek City-State, Translated by J. Lloyd, with a new Foreword by Cl. Mossé, Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Desborough, Dark Ages Desborough, V. R. d’A. (1972), The Greek Dark Ages, London: Ernest Benn. Desborough, Last Mycenaeans Desborough, V. R. d’A. (1964), The Last Mycenaeans and their Successors: An Archaeological Survey c.1200–c.1000 B.C., Oxford: Clarendon. DMic I Aura Jorro, F. (1985), Diccionario Micénico vol. 1, Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Instituto de Filología.  xxi DMic II Aura Jorro, F. (1993), Diccionario Micénico vol. 2, Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Instituto de Filología. Documents2 Ventris, M. and Chadwick, J. (1973), Documents in Mycenaean Greek, Second Edition by John Chadwick, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Eder, Argolis Eder, B. (1998), Argolis, Lakonien, Messenien: Vom Ende der mykenischen Palastzeit bis zur Einwanderung der Dorier, Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Finley, World of Odysseus Finley, M. I. (1977), The World of Odysseus, second edition, London: Chatto & Windus. Kanta, Late Minoan III Kanta, A. (1980), The Late Minoan III Period in Crete: A Survey of Sites, Pottery and Their Distribution, Göteborg: Paul Åströms Förlag Lemos, Protogeometric Aegean Lemos, I. S. (2002), The Protogeometric Aegean: The Archaeology of the Late Eleventh and Tenth Centuries BC, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Mazarakis Ainian, Dwellings Mazarakis Ainian, A. (1997), From Rulers’ Dwellings to Temples: Architecture, Religion and Society in Early Iron Age Greece (1100–700 B.C.), Jonsered: Paul Åströms Förlag. Morgan, Early States Morgan C. (2003), Early Greek States Beyond the Polis, London: Routledge. Morgan, Oracles Morgan, C. (1990), Athletes and Oracles: The Transformation of Olympia and Delphi in the Eighth Century B.C., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Morris, Archaeology Morris, I. (2000), Archaeology as Cultural History: Words and Things in Iron Age Greece, Oxford: Blackwell. Mountjoy, Regional Mycenaean Mountjoy P. A. (1999), Regional Mycenaean Decorated Pottery, Rahden/Westf.: Marie Leidorf. Nowicki, Defensible Sites Nowicki, K. (2000), Defensible Sites in Crete c. 1200–800 BC (LM IIIB/IIIC through Early Geometric), Liège and Austin: Université de Liège and University of Texas.. Osborne, Making Osborne, R. (1996), Greece in the Making, 1200–479 BC, London and New York: Routledge. Snodgrass, Archaeology xxii  Snodgrass, A. M. (1987), An Archaeology of Greece: The Present State and Future Scope of a Discipline, Berkeley/Los Angeles/London: University of California Press. Snodgrass, Archaic Greece Snodgrass, A. M. (1980), Archaic Greece: The Age of Experiment, London/Melbourne/Toronto: Dent & Sons. Snodgrass, Dark Age Snodgrass, A. M. (1971), The Dark Age of Greece: An Archaeological Survey of the Eleventh to the Eighth centuries BC, second edition 2000, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Van Wees, Status Warriors Van Wees, H. (1992), Status Warriors: War, Violence and Society in Homer and History, Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben. 3. Journals Archaölogischer Anzeiger Athens Annals of Archaeology AA AAA AD Arcaiologiko/n Delti/on AE Arcaiologikh/ Efhmeri/ß AION, ArchStAnt Annali di Archeologia e Storia Antica (Istituto Universitario Orientale, Napoli) AJA American Journal of Archaeology AM Athenische Mitteilungen AntK Antike Kunst AR Archaeological Reports ASAtene Annuario della Scuola Archeologica di Atene AWE Ancient West & East BAR British Archaeological Reports BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research BCH Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique BICS Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies of the University of London BSA Annual of the British School at Athens BSR Papers of the British School at Rome CCEC Cahier du Centre d’Études Chypriotes DdA Dialoghi di Archeologia Ergon To Érgon thß Arcaiologikh/ß Etairei/aß IEJ Israel Exploration Journal JdI Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts JFA Journal of Field Archaeology JHS Journal of Hellenic Studies JMA Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology JRA Journal of Roman Archaeology  JRGZM JRS KCh MeditArch OJA OpAth OpRom PAE PCPS QuadAEI RDAC RendLinc RendPont RM RP RSF SMEA LBA EIA EH MH LH EM MM LM SM SMin PG EPG MPG LPG SPG G EG MG LG xxiii Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums, Mainz Journal of Roman Studies Krhtika/ Cronika/ Mediterranean Archaeology Oxford Journal of Archaeology Opuscula Atheniensia Opuscula Romana Praktika/ thß en Aqh/naiß Arcaiologikh/ß Etairei/aß Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society Quaderni di Archeologia Etrusco-Italica Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus Rendiconti, Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei Rendiconti, Pontificia Accademia Romana di Archeologia Römische Mitteilungen Révue de philologie, de littérature et d’histoire anciennes Rivista di Studi Fenici Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici 4. Other Abbreviations Late Bronze Age Early Iron Age Early Helladic Middle Helladic Late Helladic Early Minoan Middle Minoan Late Minoan Sub-Mycenaean Sub-Minoan Protogeometric Early Protogeometric Middle Protogeometric Late Protogeometric Sub-Protogeometric Geometric Early Geometric Middle Geometric Late Geometric In memory of Dinos Leventis, classicist and patron of Greek studies INTRODUCTION Sigrid Deger-Jalkotzy and Irene S. Lemos Supplied by the generosity of the A. G. Leventis Foundation the Third A. G. Leventis Conference ‘From wanax to basileus’ was organised by Sigrid Deger-Jalkotzy and Irene S. Lemos at the University of Edinburgh, 22–25 January 2003. Sigrid Deger-Jalkotzy was at the time the third Leventis Visiting Professor. The subject of the conference was chosen first because the research interests of the organisers focus on the centuries between the collapse of the Mycenaean palace states (c.1200 ) and the beginning of the archaic period of Ancient Greece (c.700 ) which until recently have been called ‘The Dark Age of Greece’. The term is still used by classical archaeologists, ancient historians and linguists, as well as by scholars of adjacent fields such as Near Eastern studies and European Prehistory. The second reason for organising this conference was the fact that many significant discoveries made during recent decades together with new approaches and intensive research on various aspects of cultural developments require a fresh and comprehensive revision of the period. Obviously the new state of research has rendered the term of a ‘Dark Age of Greece’ highly questionable. Yet since the seminal surveys by A. Snodgrass, V. Desborough and F. Schachermeyr no monographic treatment covering the entire period and all its cultural aspects and developments has been published. The organisers felt that it might not be possible any longer for a single author to perform such a task. Therefore distinguished scholars from all over the world were invited to gather in Edinburgh in order to re-examine old and new evidence on the period. The subjects of their papers were chosen in advance so that taken together they would cover the field with an interdisciplinary perspective, approaching the period under consideration from various disciplines. On these premises the papers cover a wide range of themes. They compare, as well as contrast, aspects of the Mycenaean palace system with the political and social structures emerging after its collapse. Archaeological papers are offered by scholars who have been working and specializing in specific areas of Greece, a number of whom are involved with sites which have changed the study of the period, such as Lefkandi, Knossos, Dimini and regions such as central and western Greece. There are moreover studies of the linguistic developments of 2  Linear B texts as well as on the dialects of Greek and on the developments of early Greek oral poetry including the Homeric epics. The themes and subjects of this book are divided into six groups. Political and social structures are covered by papers focusing on political, administrative and social organisations. On the one hand the origin and development of Mycenaean palatial architecture and of the ‘megaron’ in particular are covered, and the recent results of research on the Linear B texts are presented. On the other hand there are papers dealing with the social and political structures referred to in the Homeric epics. It is clear from these contributions that Homeric terms were used in a fundamentally different way from those of the Mycenaean palace organisation, even if certain titles and technical terms survived. Sadly, it was not possible to include the full text of Walter Donlan’s presentation, but a summary is given in chapter 6. The second group of papers is dedicated to questions of continuity, discontinuity and transformation between the Mycenaean Palace Period and its aftermath. This group starts with the Late Helladic IIIC period which followed immediately after the collapse of the Mycenaean palaces. It is now assumed that this period – though still Mycenaean in character – played a major role in the transformation of the Mycenaean cultural heritage. Papers in this section deal with LH IIIC domestic architecture, tombs and symbolism as testimonies to the transformation of the Mycenaean concept of elites and rulers. At the same time they discuss architectural features and their importance in elucidating differences and similarities in the political and social structures of both periods. The transmission of Mycenaean skills of metalwork and the technological achievements of the post-Mycenaean periods are also taken into consideration, and it is considered to what extent survivals ought to be seen in terms of a transformational process rather than as testimonies to cultural continuity. The last paper outlines the various forms of state formation during the Early Iron Age and especially the importance of the role played by ethne in such developments. Papers in the section on international and inter-regional relations reveal that there was a fundamental change of patterns in inter-regional exchanges after the collapse of the Mycenaean palaces. In this context, aspects of gift exchange in the Homeric epics and a critique of modern theories and their use or abuse of certain Homeric terms are also examined. Links with the western and eastern Mediterranean during the palace period and afterwards are investigated, and the important role in the exchange network of the Early Iron Age played by the Phoenicians is pointed out. The paper delivered at the conference by Christopher Mee covering the area of diplomatic relationships and exchange of goods between the Aegean and the eastern Mediterranean during the Late Bronze Age is not included in this book. He had submitted a similar version of his paper to the forthcoming Companion to the Bronze Age edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine.  3 Fortunately, this topic has been covered by a fair number of conferences and studies of specific aspects.1 The papers referring to religion and hero cult suggest that there was no connection between the hero cults of the archaic period and the concept of divine kingship during the Mycenaean palace period. Instead, a wider perspective of hero cult, religion and political leadership during the Early Iron Age is offered. As a particular case, aspects of continuity and discontinuity in Cretan religious practice from L(ate) M(inoan) IIIC to the end of the Protogeometric period are discussed, including warrior rites in Protogeometric Crete. The section on the Homeric epics and heroic poetry per definitionem covers linguistic and philological investigations. Papers deal with the linguistic developments in Homer and the impact of oral poetry on the composition of the Homeric epics. Moreover, the use of the Homeric epics as a historical source is also addressed. Finally, the archaeology of Greek regions is covered by papers offering summaries of recent discoveries and comprehensive surveys on important regions and areas. The importance of these contributions lies not only in the presentation of recently discovered archaeological material but also in the fact that various aspects and regions are introduced by specialists of the period and often by directors of major archaeological sites. Considering the wide range of subjects covered in an interdisciplinary fashion, the editors are confident that the Proceedings of the Third Leventis Conference of 2003 in Edinburgh will provide an essential and fundamental source of reference on the later phases of the Mycenaean and the Early Iron Ages of Greece for many years. Finally, it is our pleasant duty to acknowledge the support and help of the following institutions and individuals. Above all, our thanks are due to the A. G. Leventis Foundation and Mr George David for the generous financial support for the conference and the publication of the proceedings. Our gratitude also extends to the University of Edinburgh and to the then Head of Classics, Professor Keith Rutter, who kindly helped with the editorial work. Carol Macdonald and especially James Dale of the Edinburgh University Press were most helpful throughout the production of this volume. We owe them many thanks. 1 Most recently the subject has been covered by a number of publications such as: Gale, N. H. (ed.) (1991), Bronze Age Trade in the Mediterranean: Papers Presented at the Conference Held at Rewley House, Oxford, in December 1989, Jonsered: Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 90, Åström; Cline, Wine-Dark Sea; Vivian Davies, W. and Schofield, L. (eds) (1995), Egypt, The Aegean and the Levant, Interconnections in the Second Millennium BC, London: British Museum Press; Cline, E. H. and Harris-Cline, D. (eds) (1998), The Aegean and the Orient in the Second Millennium: Proceedings of the 50th Anniversary Symposium Cincinnati, 18–20 April 1997, Liège and Austin Texas: Aegaeum 18; Stambolidis, N. C. and Karageorghis, V. (eds) (2003), Ploes: Sea Routes – Interconnections in the Mediterranean 16th–6th c.BC. Proceedings of the International Symposium Held at Rethymnon, Crete, September 29th–October 2nd 2002, Athens: University of Crete and A. G. Leventis Foundation.