The emergence and progress of nationalism in Turkey

THE ROUTLEDGE INTERNATIONAL HANDBOOK OF CONTEMPORARY MUSLIM SOCIO-POLITICAL THOUGHT This volume unfolds the ebbs and flows of Muslim thought in different regions of the world, as well as the struggles between the different intellectual discourses that have surfaced against this backdrop. With a focus on Turkey, Egypt, Iran and the Indian subcontinent – regions that, in spite of their particular histories and forms of thought, are uniquely placed as a mosaic that illustrates the intertwined nature of the development of Muslim socio-political thought – it sheds light on the swing between right and left in different regions, the debates surrounding nationalism, the influence of socialism and liberalism, the rise of Islamism and the conflict between state bureaucracy and social movements. Exploring themes of civil society and democracy, it also considers current trends in Muslim thought and possible future directions. As such, it will appeal to scholars across the fields of sociology, anthropology, political science, history and political economy, as well as those with interests in the study of religion, the development of Muslim thought, and the transformation of Muslim societies in recent decades. Lutfi Sunar is Professor of Sociology at Istanbul Medeniyet University, Turkey. He is the author of Marx and Weber on Oriental Societies, the co-editor of Eurocentrism at the Margins and Social Justice and Islamic Economics, and the editor of Debates on Civilization in the Muslim World. THE ROUTLEDGE INTERNATIONAL HANDBOOK OF CONTEMPORARY MUSLIM SOCIO-POLITICAL THOUGHT Edited by Lutfi Sunar First published 2022 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2022 selection and editorial matter, Lutfi Sunar; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Lutfi Sunar to be identified as the author of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. This volume is based on Contemporary Thought in the Muslim World (4 Volumes) originally published by the Presidency for Turks Abroad and Related Communities. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN: 9780367699130 (hbk) ISBN: 9780367699154 (pbk) ISBN: 9781003143826 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Apex CoVantage, LLC CONTENTS Acknowledgements Foreword List of contributors ix x xii Editor’s introduction: contemporary thought in Muslim societies – renewal, diversification, and transformation Lutfi Sunar 1 SECTION I Facing with the modernity 17 1 Turkish modernization as a historical and sociological issue Mahmut Hakkı Akın 19 2 Discussions on tradition and civilization in Egypt Gökhan Bozbaş 32 3 Iranians’ intellectual confrontation with the modern West and modernity M. Mansur Hashemi 45 4 Debates on Tradition and Modernity on the subcontinent Tauseef Ahmad Parray 59 v Contents SECTION II Religion, society, and politics 73 5 The formation and various forms of conservatism in Turkey Mahmut Hakkı Akın 6 Formation of contemporary Islamic thought in Egypt: new pursuits in Islamic legal and political thought Özgür Kavak 75 88 7 Different forms of religious thought in modern Iran Forough Jahanbakhsh 101 8 The voices of Islamic modernism from South Asia M. A. Muqtedar Khan and Ibrahim Enes Aksu 115 SECTION III Islam in the political sphere 127 9 Rethinking Islamism in Turkey: beyond conservative or modernist rejectionism Vahdettin Işık 129 10 The adventure of Islamism in Egypt: a political system–based analysis Muhammed Hüseyin Mercan 143 11 Islamism and post-Islamism in Iran Yadullah Shahibzadeh 156 12 Islam in the Indian subcontinent with particular reference to Pakistan Abdul Rashid Moten 170 SECTION IV Making of the nation-state and changing forms of nationalism 183 13 The emergence and progress of nationalism in Turkey: from imperialism to the global age Öner Buçukcu 185 14 Arab nationalism: emergence, development, and regression Ismail Numan Telci vi 199 Contents 15 Nationalism in Iran: nation-state, nation-building, and the Iranian identity Nail Elhan 212 16 The transition of Islamic thought on nation-states on the Indian subcontinent Omair Anas 227 SECTION V The rise and demise of socialism 241 17 The adventure of socialism in Turkey Öner Buçukcu 243 18 The left and working-class movement in Egypt: a review using the 2011 uprising lens and thereafter Heba F. El-Shazli 255 19 The historical trajectory of the left in 20th-century Iran: trends, debates, and groups Agah Hazir 270 20 The place of socialism in Muslim thought in South Asia Muhammad Reza Kazimi 284 SECTION VI Liberalism and Muslim liberal thought 301 21 Liberalism in Turkey: an incomplete story Hamit Emrah Beriş 303 22 Liberal thought and politics in Egypt M. Tahir Kılavuz 316 23 Rowshan fekran-e dini [new religious thinkers] and the institution of velayat-e faqih: crossing the Rubicon of Islamic law and venturing into discourses on human rights Janet Afary 24 Liberal trends on the contemporary Muslim Indian subcontinent S. M. Mehboobul Hassan Bukhari vii 329 342 Contents SECTION VII State, civil society, and democracy 357 25 Reproduction of religious thought in Turkey: major milestones and state-society relations Necdet Subaşı 359 26 Imagining Egypt in postnormal times: the state of war Heba Raouf Ezzat 373 27 The concept of Islamic republic in Iran: before and after the revolution Serhan Afacan 387 28 Discussions on democracy and Islamic states: a study on the discourses of Mawdudi, Israr Ahmed, and Ghamidi M. Faisal Awan 401 SECTION VIII Current trends and future directions 415 29 A panoramic view of contemporary Turkish thought: historical developments and current trends Lutfi Sunar 417 30 Contemporary trends in Egyptian intellectual movements Muhammad Soliman Al-Zawawy 436 31 Mapping the trends in Iranian social, cultural, religious, and political thought from the post-1979 era to the present Peyman Eshaghi 450 32 Political economy of Islam and its manifestation in Pakistan: past, present, and future Ahsan Shafiq 464 Index 477 viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This project has a huge amount of work, research, and dedication in its background. It would not have been possible to realize this project if I did not have the support of many individuals and organizations, to all of whom I owe sincere gratitude. This book succeeds our four-volume edited work on the same topic published in Turkish by Presidency for Turks Abroad and Related Communities (YTB). To spread the word farther, YTB supported the idea of publishing the work in English, as well. The English version was, however, created choosing selected chapters from the Turkish edition along with some new chapters. I would like to extend my gratitude to YTB for its permission and support. I would also like to thank the contributors, who hail from different countries and academic institutions. Their ideas and the discussions paved the way and prepared the framework into which this volume fits. I am grateful to all of them for their meticulous work, collaboration, and patience through the publication process. Of course, this book would not have been realized without the help and support of Routledge and its very kind staff. From the first moment I contacted them and shared the idea of this edited volume, they encouraged me to jointly work on this project. Therefore, I specifically thank the editorial team members for their supportive attitude and availability at times their help was needed. I would also like to thank the four “anonymous” reviewers for their invaluable insights. Finally, I would like to thank my colleague Ahsan Shafiq for his invaluable contribution to the entire process of bringing the volume together. This book would not have been realized without his efforts and mastery on every step from editing the chapters to bringing together the volume as a whole. Lutfi Sunar Istanbul, January 2021 ix 13 THE EMERGENCE AND PROGRESS OF NATIONALISM IN TURKEY From imperialism to the global age Öner Buçukcu Introduction One of the most controversial concepts of the past two centuries is nationalism. Benedict Anderson, who is known for his studies on nationalism, claimed, “It is hard to think of any political phenomenon which remains so puzzling and about which there is less analytic consensus” (Anderson, 2001, p. 11). This situation, which Anderson has uncovered with a bit of wonder, is actually the result of how nationalism has been experienced in different societies and in different historical and social contexts. This differentiation in nationalism appears not only at the international level, but also in the understanding of nationalism within a country. These differences are shaped based on historical, international, and religious contexts. Within this context, claiming a consensus to exist on what Turkish nationalism means is difficult, as its different forms are still being debated. This is due to nationalism mostly being the result of political processes and being developed in parallel with a variety of political developments. Consequently, the two terms ulusalcılık and milliyetçilik in Turkish, while both corresponding to nationalism in Western languages, can be understood as two different ways of thinking that also indicate their differences in the political sphere. Rather than defining Turkish nationalism, this chapter explains Turkish nationalism by discussing how it has taken shape throughout history. The birth of nationalism: the Ottoman millet system The Turkish word millet derives from the Arabic mille and is defined as the “religion, sect, or all the people belonging to a religion or a sect, class, community, lineage, or category” (Devellioğlu, 1978). To the Ottomans, this concept referred to a religious differentiation (Eryılmaz, 1992, pp. 11–13). Thus, the millet system also marks a part of Islamic law (Barkey & Gavrilis, 2016, p. 26). While this differentiation had been more inclusive in the beginning, it turned into a more fragmental structure toward the 19th century. Four millets [milel-i erbaa] can be mentioned that were generally accepted in the Ottoman period. These were the Muslim millet, Rumi millet, Armenian millet, and Jewish millet. Milleti sadıka [loyal nation] was another name for the Armenian millet. For example, while Turks, 185