Public Engagement in Science and Technology: Setting the Scene

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Public Engagement in Science and Technology: Setting the Scene ! ! ! ! Distribution limited to DG RTD, JRC HQ and IPSC hierarchy ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Ângela Guimarães Pereira Tom Wakeford Bruna De Marchi Paula Curvelo Sarah Davies Inês Crespo Lucia Vesnic-Alujevic ! ! ! ! 2 ! 013 ! European Commission Joint Research Centre Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen Contact information Ângela Guimarães Pereira Address: Joint Research Centre, Via Enrico Fermi 2749, TP 361, 21027 Ispra (VA), Italy E-mail: angela.pereira@jrc.ec.europa.eu!! Tel.: +39 0332 78 5340 http://ipsc.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ http://www.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ Legal Notice Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission is responsible for the use which might be made of this publication. 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JRC © European Union, 2013 Printed in Italy Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Table"of"Contents" " Preamble"......................................................................................................................"3" Organisation"of"this"report"......................................................................................."4" Chapter"1"......................................................................................................................"6" Post:normal"relationships"between"science"and"society:"implications"for"public" engagement" 1.1"Scientific"knowledge"as"a"powerful"mean"of"representing"reality"......................"6" 1.2"Models"of"publics’"involvement"in"science"........................................................."7" a."Public"Understanding"of"Science"(PUS)"............................................................."7" b."From"deficit"to"dialogue"..................................................................................."8" c)"Moving"engagement"upstream"........................................................................"9" 1.3"Motivations"and"places"for"public"involvement"in"science"................................."9" Researchers"views"about"public"engagement"in"science"......................................"9" 1.4"REFLECTIONS"........................................................................................................."10" 1.5"From"PUS"to"“co:produced"facts”"....................................................................."11" Models"of"Science"and"Policy:"From"Expert"Demonstration"to"Post"Normal" Science"................................................................................................................"11" Post:normal"science"and"Extended"Peer"Review"................................................"12" Knowledge"Co:production,"“Civic"Epistemologies”"and"Contextual"approaches"13" From"PUS"to"“co:produced"facts”"......................................................................."14" 1.6"Publics"engagement"in"science"and"technology"..............................................."15" Places"of"engagement"in"science"and"technology".............................................."16" Doing"it"with"ICT"................................................................................................."17" “We"have"to"learn"to"think"in"a"new"way”".........................................................."19" References".............................................................................................................."20" Chapter"2"...................................................................................................................."25" Some"historical"reflections"on"science"communication"for"public"debate" 2.1"Introduction"......................................................................................................"25" 2.2"The"history"of"knowledge"systems"..................................................................."30" Local"and"bureaucratic"knowledge"systems"......................................................."30" Democracy".........................................................................................................."31" Local"and"global"expertise".................................................................................."31" Measurement"and"Judgment"............................................................................."31" Knowledge"and"Power"........................................................................................"32" The"impact"of"impact"of"the"colonial"era"on"knowledge"systems"......................"33" The"marginalisation"of"citizen"science"................................................................"35" 2.3"The"future"of"technocracy"................................................................................"40" 2.4"Gender"equality"................................................................................................"41" 2.5"How"people"are"disempowered"by"current"modes"of"science"communication"43" 2.6"Final"thoughts"..................................................................................................."45" Chapter"3".".................................................................................................................."46" ‘Lost"in"translation’:"top:down"approaches"to"public"participation" 3.1"Introduction"and"theoretical"background"........................................................"46" 3.2"Diverse"Experiences".........................................................................................."47" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 1" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' 3.3"Europe:"between"good"intentions"and"institutional"inertia"............................."48" 3.4"Issues"to"address"in"participation"....................................................................."52" 3.5"Conclusion"........................................................................................................"55" References".............................................................................................................."56" Chapter"4"...................................................................................................................."60" Public"debate"and"citizen"engagement"in"different"areas"of"science" 4.1"Public"Engagement"with"Science"(PES)"............................................................."60" Public"Engagement"with"Science"and"Scientific"Governance"............................."61" PES"–"Ambiguities"of"the"field"............................................................................."63" 4.2"Public"engagement"in"different"fields"of"science"and"technology"...................."66" Public"engagement"in"Medical"Research"and"Healthcare"Sector"......................."66" Public"engagement"in"Bioengineering"and"Biotechnology"....................................."69" Public"engagement"in"Nanosciences"and"Nanotechnology"................................"73" Public"engagement"in"Climate"Change"and"Climate"Engineering"......................."75" 3.3"Conclusion"........................................................................................................"77" References".............................................................................................................."79" Chapter"5"...................................................................................................................."88" Deeper"forms"of"Public"Engagement"–"extended"peer"review" 5.1"Introduction"......................................................................................................"88" 5.2"Historical"evolution"of"scientific"publications:"from"1960s"onwards"................"89" 5.3"Traditional"publishing"and"problems"................................................................"90" 5.4"New"ways"of"publishing"and"problems"it"encounters"......................................."92" 5.5"Conclusion:"reshaping"science"and"reshaping"the"world".................................."95" References".............................................................................................................."96" CHAPTER"6".................................................................................................................."98" Planning"and"evaluating"public"participation:"Emotion,"sites,"and"objects" 6.1"Public"Participation"..........................................................................................."99" 6.2"Non:traditional"forms"of"interaction".............................................................."101" Testimonies"and"personal"experience".............................................................."101" Art,"drama"and"dance"......................................................................................."102" Opening"up"scientific"spaces"............................................................................"103" Object:oriented"engagement"..........................................................................."104" 6.3""Evaluation"of"Participation"............................................................................"106" References"............................................................................................................"108" Chapter"7".................................................................................................................."110" In"the"field:"Projects"of"public"engagement"in"science"and"technology" 7.1"Introduction"...................................................................................................."110" Projects"aims"and"initiatives"............................................................................."110" Processes"of"engagement"................................................................................."111" Tools"of"engagement"........................................................................................"112" 7.2"Conclusion"......................................................................................................"113" 7.3"Interviews"......................................................................................................."114" " " " Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 2" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Preamble" '“Responsible'Research'and'Innovation'(RRI)'is'a'transparent,'interactive'process'by' which'societal'actors'and'innovators'become'mutually'responsive'to'each'other'with' a'view'to'the'(ethical)'acceptability,'sustainability'and'societal'desirability'of'the' innovation'process'and'its'marketable'products'(in'order'to'allow'a'proper' embedding'of'scientific'and'technological'advances'in'our'society)”1" In"the"Horizon"2020,"RRI"is"a"“cross:cutting”"action."A"key"pillar"of"RRI"is"citizen"engagement" in"the"processes"of"research"and"innovation."Given"that"one"of"the"objectives"of"engagement" should"be"alignment"of"social"values,"societal"concerns,"grand:challenges"to"the"research"and" innovation"proposals,"we"need"to"diagnose"now"what"challenges"and"what"needs"lie"ahead" with"the"current"practice"of"societal"engagement"in"the"debates"of"science"and"technology," so"that"different"forms"of"“encouragement”"can"be"sought"within"the"RRI"perspective."Public" engagement"has"been"justified"in"so"many"ways"of"normative"and"prescriptive"nature,"being" embedded"in"many"public"policies"as"mandatory"in,"e.g."environmental"planning,"industrial" risk"assessments"and"the"like."But"that"has"not"been"the"case"for"science"and"technology" development."What"we"have"most"of"the"times"is"what"we"can"call"“experiments”"that"are" often"framed"in"the"so"called"“public"understanding"of"science”"syndrome":"rather"than"a" perspective;"i.e."the"suggestion"that"the"publics'have"a"deficit"of"knowledge"that"needs"to"be" cured."What"the"RRI"framework"suggests"(and"we"concur)"is"that"engaging"the"publics'in" research"and"policy"is"an"ethical"issue."It"is"a"matter"of"responsibility"in"an"uncertain"and" untrustworthy"world,"but"is"also"a"matter"of"solidarity:"it"is"through"collective"enterprise"that" we"will"live"the"lives"we"wish"to"live"on"the"basis"of"values"and"norms"that"we"collectively" decide"upon."Hence,"citizen"engagement"in"science"and"technology"(as"opposed"to"consumer" engagement),"is"not"just"needed"it"is"an"urgent"matter"that"innovation"and"policy"processes" need"to"make"genuine"room"for." This"report"constitutes"the"basis"for"a"book"on"public"engagement"in"science"and"technology." We"have"collected"here"“departing"points”:"history,"past"experience"and"practice,"reflections" on"appreciated"effects"of"past"public"engagement"exercises"in"order"to"later"make"sense"of" the" impacts" of" public" engagement" on" techno:science" developments" and" propose" a" framework"for"the"evaluation"of"such"an"important"citizenship"function"in"our"democracies." In"doing"so,"we"also"actively"suggest"that"public"engagement"is"a"way"of"knowing"on"its"own" right"and"that"is,"we"would"argue,"the"ultimate"reason"why"we"need"public"engagement"on" the"processes"that"are"changing"radically"humane"ways"of"producing"knowledge"and"the"way" people"live"their"lives."" At" a" recent" workshop" organized" by" DG" RTD" about" public" engagement2"a" number" of" time" slots"were"dedicated"to"reflect"upon"public"engagement"impacts."A"review"of"the"literature" shows"that"a"great"deal"of"the"reflection"and"learning"about"public"engagement"exercises"is" focused" on" its" political" and" social" reification," as" well" as" process" and"practice" evaluation" (in" particular" methodological" aspects)" and" offers" less" of" what" one" can" understand" as" “measurable" impacts”" of" public" engagement" in" science" and" technology" development." But" about"what"dimensions"shall"one"look"for"impacts"of"public"engagement?"In"order"to"do"this" we" need" to" offer" a" “public" engagement”" concept" that" drives" our" enquiry;" in" here" we" understand" public" engagement" in" science" and" technology" development" as" “extended" peer" review”" of" those" processes," a" central" concept" on" what" Funtowicz" and" Ravetz" (1993)" have" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 "Von"Schomberg,Rene"(2011)"‘Prospects"for"Technology"Assessment"in"a"framework"of"responsible"research"and" innovation’"in:"Technikfolgen'abschätzen'lehren:'Bildungspotenziale'transdisziplinärer'Methode,"P.39:61," Wiesbaden:"Springer"VS" 2 "“Building"Public"Engagement"in"Horizon"2020”"European"Commission,"Brussels"6:7"November"2013,"hosted"by" the"Ethics"and"Gender"Unit"of"DG"Research"and"Innovation"(DG"RTD)"–"European"Commission." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 3" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' described" as" “post:normal" science”." Moreover," we" frame" our" quest" on" the" science" policy" model"described"by"Funtowicz"(2006):"an"extended'model'that"acknowledges"that"“science”" (understood" as" the" activity" of" technical" experts)" is" included" in" the" (policy," innovation," research)"process"as"one"part"of"the"relevant'knowledge"being"brought"in"as"evidence"to"a" process.""In"this"model,"the"ideal"of"rigorous"scientific"demonstration"is"replaced"by"that"of" open" public" dialogue." Engaged" citizens" become" both" critics" and" creators" in" the" knowledge" production"process"as"part"of"an"extended"peer"community." Hence," in" here" we" articulate" two" levels" and" a" side" effect" that" need" to" be" part" of" an" evaluation"framework"of"public"engagement:" 1) Knowledge' production:" for" example," influencing" or" setting" the" research" agenda;" avoiding"type"III"errors"and"contributing"or"scrutinising"with"values"and"knowledges" beyond"the"techno:scientific."In"practice,"contributing"to"the"enhancement"of"quality" of"knowledge"production"and"acknowledging"it"as"collective"endeavour." 2) Societal'change:"for"example,"what"types"of"societal"processes"change"due"to"public" engagements"with"science"and"technology?"What"involved"communities"make"out"of" their"engagement"in"those"processes?"What"initiatives"or"strategies"get"activated"at" community"level?"Co:creation"of"governance"practice"in"areas"that"are"traditionally" delegated"to"institutions;"" 3) Outreach:" about" the" science" but" also" involving" people" not" usually" involved," adding" voices"not"usually"heard." A" framework" for" assessing" public" engagement" needs" to" be" tailored" to" the" context" and" objectives" of" the" exercise" but" in" particular" for" techno:science" developments" it" needs" to" investigate"how"values,"norms"and"other"ethical"aspects"get"negotiated"in"the"production"of" the" knowledge" that" supports" the" design" and" implementation" of" those" techno:science" developments." Hence," the" framework" itself" needs" to" include" an" extended" community" of" “evaluators”." Organisation*of*this*report* Hence,"this"report"contains"some"reflections"of"public"engagement"in"science"and"technology" thoroughly"illustrated"with"case"studies."Interviews"were"made"with"practitioners"to"explore" what"issues"are"or"can"be"evaluated."" Chapter* 1:" The" growing" concentration" of" economic" power" and" energy," have" important" implications" for" the" involvement" of" the" public" in" policy" processes" concerning" socio: environmental" issues." In" this" view," the" epistemic" framework" of" post:normal" science" challenges" the" model" of" Public" Understanding" of" Science," and" the" thesis" of" the" public’s" inability" to" act" on" scientific" issues," supporting" instead" the" launch" of" various" efforts" for" democratizing"science."Such"an"extension"of"participation"calls"for"a"reflection"on"the"nature" of"the"knowledge,"which"is"being"produced"and"on"what"might"be"the"criteria"and"processes" for" ensuring" quality." This" chapter" deals" with" these" questions" through" an" exploration" of" different"models"of"participation"and"co:construction"of"knowledge,"which"refer"to"different" perspectives" on" the" relationships" between" science" and" society." In" particular," if" exclusive" reliance"on"scientific"knowledge"validated"by"the"academic"community"is"no"longer"tenable," then" quality" in" decision:making" is" linked" to" the" extent" to" which" multiple" subjects" can" be" involved"and"participate"in"a"process"of"dialogue:"an"extended"peer"community"which"is"able" to"balance"previous"power"differences"between"science"and"society,"and"also"to"enable"co: production" of" civic" science." This" chapter" will" offer" a" number" of" examples" of" contexts" and" places"for"engagement,"with"a"final"reflection"on"the"changes"in"the"ways"of"learning"that"are" required" by" the" ongoing" transformation" of" the" relationship" between" the" public" and" the" scientific"community."" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 4" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Chapter* 2:* this" chapter" offers" a" historical" journey" through" the" interplay" of" public" engagement"and"science"communication."" Chapter* 3:" In" this" chapter" it" is" discussed" what" is" broadly" meant" by" the" expression" “public" participation”:" any" kind" of" involvement" of" the" citizens" in" the" res' publica," from" voting" to" political" activism." After" a" very" brief" reference" to" the" theoretical" debate" on" deliberative" democracy," the" chapter" considers" some" experiences" in" public" participation" touching" on" different" thematic" areas" and" applied" in" diverse" geo:political" contexts." It" then" concentrates" on"the"“participatory"turn”"undertaken"by"European"political"institutions"after"the"BSE"crisis" and"challenges"the"coherence"of"its"main"objective,"i.e.""“restoring"public"trust”."The"chapter" then" discusses" some" key" questions" to" be" addressed" when" implementing" participatory" initiatives" and" denounces" the" tendency" by" political" institutions" to" retain" a" top:down" approach"in"framing"policy"debates,"in"particular"those"regarding"technological""innovation.* Chapter*4:*This"chapter"reviews"practice"of"public"engagement"in"many"fields"of"science"and" technology.* Chapter* 5:" Through" an" historical" analysis" of" peer" reviewing" this" chapter" traces" the" momentum" for" extended" peer" review" and" quality" control" of" publications" with" the" pervasiveness"of"the"Internet."It"looks"primarily"at"the"role"of"blogs"and"social"media,"which" could"contribute"to"the"standard"peer"review"process"and"open"science"to"wider"audience." The"chapter"reflects"on"whether"these"processes"could"also"raise"the"quality"in"science"and" lead"to"the"democratisation"of"knowledge"production." Chapter* 6:* sketches" out" some" of" the" background" to" the" development" of" participatory" methods,"showing"how"notions"of"‘reasoned"argument’"have"become"dominant"in"how"we" discuss" and" evaluate" public" engagement." While" these" are," of" course," important," other" aspects" can" be" missed" out" such" as" emotions," personal" histories," and" creative" modes" of" expression" appear" starkly" out" of" place." All" of" these," the" chapter" suggests," are" in" fact" important" in" our" everyday" negotiations" of" science" and" should" therefore" be" important" in" public" engagement." The" chapter" focus" on" four" different" formats" –" the" use" of" personal" testimony;"art,"drama"and"dance;"the"opening"up"of"normally"secluded"scientific"spaces;"and" object:oriented" engagement" –" which" may" offer" some" inspiration" for" those" wishing" to" incorporate" interactions" which" go" beyond" reasoned" argument" in" public" participation." The" chapter" further" addresses" some" implications" of" these" arguments" for" how" we" think" about," plan,"and"evaluate"public"participation"and"dialogue."" Chapter*7:*reports"on"interviews"made"with"practitioners"in"the"field"of"public"engagement" carried"out"in"2012.* " " " Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 5" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Chapter"1" Post:normal"relationships"between"science"and" society:"implications"for"public"engagement" Ângela'Guimarães'Pereira'' European'Commission'–'Joint'Research'Centre' ! " “Science'and'technology'are'present'in'all'of'the'narratives'that'modern' societies'weave'about'the'world,'as'essential'threads'in'the'tapestry'of' social'reality.”'Jasanoff'2005.' 1.1*Scientific*knowledge*as*a*powerful*mean*of*representing*reality* " One"of"the"most"important"challenges"I"have"had"recently"has"been"in"trying"to"explain"to"my" four"year"old"son"some"of"his"curiosities"about"the"world.""I"now"have"to"explain"everything"I" have"(unconsciously)"taken"for"granted.""Even"if"fantasy"helps"a"great"deal,"most"of"the"time" my"tales"and"metaphors"are"based"on"science.""This"is"hardly"surprising"given"my"engineering" background,"and"also"probably"because"I"too,"as"a"child,"was"not"exposed"to"other"types"of" narratives,"even"although"I"lived"in"Africa." Every"day"we"translate3"scientific"knowledge,"or"are"exposed"to"others’"translations,"in"our" metaphorical" personal" world," using" our" own" vocabulary," our" referential" walks" of" life" and" apply"it"in"our"context"of"significance."Doctors"translate"illness"information"to"their"patients," parents" respond" to" their" children’s" whys" with" science" tales," the" press," movies," radio" or" TV" shows" convey" scientific" stories" to" their" audiences;" arts" often" express" scientific" views" In" regulation,"as"in"the"European"environmental"impact"assessment"(CEC"1997)"and"the"water" framework" directives" (CEC" 2000)," a" non:technical" summary" of" the" specialist" reports" is" requested"to"be"available"to"the"non:specialist"public."Likewise,"among"specialists,"exercises" of" translation" are" done," as" for" instance" when" the" European" Food" Safety" Agency" writes" opinions" to" the" European" Commission’s" Directorate" General" Health" and" Consumption" (DG" SANCO)."" Moreover,"the"producers"of"science,"generally"denominated"as"scientists,"are"often"seen"as" privileged"with"a"power"that"derives"from"their"proximity"to"the"truth."Hence,"it"makes"sense" that" their" narratives" become" tangible" and" accessible" by" all!" The" US" educator" John" Dewey" claimed"that"young"people"should"be"inculcated"with"a"“scientific"attitude”"that"would"help" them"approach"the"issues"and"problems"of"everyday"life"in"a"rational"and"logical"fashion"(in" Dewey"(1934)"quoted"in"Gregory"and"Miller"(2000)." From"a"historical"perspective,"science"as"we"know"it,"appeared"in"the"17th"century"and"was" accompanied" from" day" 1" by" science" popularisation" and" science" fiction." One" of" the" first" science"popularisation"books"was"Galileo’s"“Dialogue”,"published"in"Italian"in"February"1632." Athanasius" Kircher" used" the" then:recent" optical" scientific" discoveries" to" design" spectacular" public" shows" in" Rome" around" 1640" and" created" one" of" the" first" science" museums." The" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 3 "The"word"translation"is"not"probably"the"most"appropriate,"since"there"is"a"great"deal"of"“interpretation”"in"an" activity"of"communication,"which"goes"beyond"the"seeking"of"adequate"vocabulary"and"tries"to"keep"to"the" original"semantics." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 6" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' science" fiction" novel" “Les" états" et" empires" de" la" lune" et" du" soleil”" of" Savinien" Cyrano" de" Bergerac"(a"physicist)"was"published"in"1648."" Also," quite" early," public" involvement" in" science" was" sought" as" means" of" legitimation." For" example," part" of" the" mission" of" the" Royal" Society" of" London," which" was" founded" in" 1660," was" public" demonstrations" of" new" science," as" part" of" its" validation" process4." Historians" of" science"have"pointed"out"the"fact"that"prior"to"the"days"of"peer"reviewed"journals"and"elite" science" societies," the" latest" facts" and" theories" about" science" were" regularly" discussed" in" public" (Miller" 2001)." In" a" way," what" we" understand" today" as" “peer" review”" has" killed" extended"debate"and"promoted"elitism"and"closure"of"the"scientific"community." The" national" history" or" tradition" of" a" country" has" greatly" influenced" the" actions" taken" to" promote" Research" and" Technology" Development" (RTD)" culture" and" public" involvement" in" science"in"that"country"(Miller"et'al."2002;"Jasanoff"2005)."Some"historical"crisis"of"science: society" relationships" has" set" the" stage" for" present" day" attitudes," science" communication" styles"having"taken"different"routes"in"different"countries."In"the"remainder"of"this"chapter"I" will" look" at" the" ways" in" which" the" publics" involvement" in" policy" relevant" science" has" been" conceptualised" especially" in" Europe;" I" will" also" look" at" how" in" practice" researchers" view" engagement"of"the"publics"in"the"development"of"science."I"will"look"into"the"challenges"of" democratising" science" and" how" extended" frameworks" such" as" knowledge" co:production" (Jasanoff"1994)"and"the"post:normal"science"framework"(Funtowicz"and"Ravetz,"1990;"1991;" 1992)"in"which"the"concept"of"extended"peer"review"and"extended"peer"communities"have" developed" can" contribute" to" its" operationalisation." Finally" I" will" reflect" on" the" implications" for" education" and" learning" processes" of" the" introduction" of" these" extended" processes" for" knowledge"creation."" 1.2*Models*of*publics’*involvement*in*science* " In"this"section"I"concentrate"on"the"publics’"involvement"in"policy"relevant"science"in"the"last" decades."The"types"of"processes"I"am"considering"here"relate"to"situations"where"science"is" used"to"inform"a"debate"about"a"specific"policy"issue."In"particular"I"will"adopt"the"three"main" phases" of" ‘public" involvement’" in" science" identified" by" Wilsdon" and" Willis" (2004):" a)" public" understanding" of" science;" b)" from" ‘deficit" to" dialogue’" and" c)" engagement" upstream." They" also"find"correspondence"with"Callon"et'al’s."(2001)"and"others"(see"for"instance,"Felt"2002)" models"of"science"and"public"relations."" a.*Public*Understanding*of*Science*(PUS)* " The" PUS" (or" PUST" if" the" word" technology" is" added" or" yet" PUSH" if" the" Humanities" are" considered" as" in" the" German" approaches" to" the" issue)" developments" since" the" mid:1980s" arose" on" the" assumption" that" the" lack" of" public" support" for" science" and" innovation" was" solely" due" to" lack" of" understanding" or" “scientific" illiteracy”" (Wynne" et" al." 2007)" which" was" also" deemed" to" jeopardise" modern" democracies." This" concept" corresponds" to" Callon’s" (2001)"model"of"science"and"public"relations,"called"the"“public"education"model”." The" response5"from' scientists" to" growing" levels" of" public" detachment" and" mistrust" was" to" embark" on" a" mission" to" inform," a" one" way" transmission" of" knowledge" from" science" to" a" public" imagined" as" passive" and" lacking" in" information." It" is" in" practice" a" pedagogical" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4 "See"for"instance,"Miller,"S.,"Caro,"P.,"Koulaidis,"V."Staveloz,"W."and"Vargas,"R."2002:"Report"from"the"Expert" Group"benchmarking"the"promotion"of"RTD"culture"and"Public"Understanding"of"Science."European"Commission" 5 "One"of"the"most"authoritative"statements"on"PUS"comes"from"the"reports"of"the"UK"Royal"Society,"on"Public' Understanding'of'Science"published"in"1985." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 7" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' approach" which" relies" on" a" “deficit" model”" of" the" public" as" ignorant" and" science" as" unchanging" and" universally" comprehensible" and," therefore," tries" to" increase" the" scientific" knowledge"of"citizens."Some"have"even"elaborated"practical"protocols"with"sound"principles" to"engage"in"such"an"endeavour"like"Gregory"and"Miller"(2000)"–"although"many"aspects"of" the"latter"are"much"beyond"the"PUS"paradigm." Many"have"argued"against"this"paradigm,"because"of"its"ambiguities"like"Duran,"Hansen"and" Bauer" (1996)" who" discussed" the" very" expression:" what" is" the" “public”," what" is" “understanding”" and" what" is" “science”?" and" Jasanoff" (2005)" who" argues" that" the" “u”" of" understanding"in"PUS"implies"the"interest"of"the"public"in"scholarly"issues,"potentially"being," in" this" case," a" source" of" cross:cultural" variance:" failure" to" understand" science" becomes" a" meaningful"dimension"of"difference"among"individuals"and"communities."Gross"(1994)"in"his" work"about"the"rhetoric"of"PUS,"outlines"how"the"deficit"model"incorporates"the"metaphors" of"scientific"sufficiency"and"public"deficiency:"“its"practitioners"do"not"try"to"persuade,"they" assume"that"the"public"is"already"persuaded"of"the"value"of"science”"and"“they"do"not"try"to" build" trust;" they" assume" that" the" public" is" already" trusting”;" hence," this" model" implies" a" passive"public"which"“requires"a"rhetoric"that"acts"to"accommodate"the"facts"and"methods" of"science"to"the"publics’"limited"experience"and"cognitive"capacities.”"Gross:"6." In"much"of"the"research"that"this"concept"has"generated,"there"is"little"evidence"that"public" ignorance"of"scientific"facts"correlates"in"any"meaningful"ways"with"collective"responses"to" science"and"technology;"biotechnology"being"simply"one"domain"for"which"this"observation" holds"true"(Gross"1994;"Evans"and"Durant"1995;"Wynne"1995;"Miller"2001;"Jasanoff"2005)." b.*From*deficit*to*dialogue* " The"UK"BSE6""“scandal”"of"the"mid"1980s"to"mid:1990s"is"often"cited"as"pivotal"in"the"change" of" direction" in" the" relations" between" science" and" policy" making." A" key" moment" was" the" publication"of"the"2000"House"of"Lords"report"on"Science'and'Society"followed"a"year"later"by" the" European" Commission’s" Science' and' Society' Action' Plan" (European" Commission" 2002)," as"well"as"the"EU"5th"Framework"research"programme’s"“Raising"Awareness"of"Science"and" Technology”"activity"of"the"late"1990s.Partly"as"a"result"of"PUS"failings,"public"perception"of" science"worsened"throughout"the"1990s,"and"a"new"language"of"“science"&"society”"towards" dialogue"engagement"emerged."This"phase"corresponds"to"Callon’s"(2001)"model"of"science" and"public"relations"as"a"“public"dialogue"and"participation"model”." “The" GM" Nation?”" –" see" box" 1" –" is" an" example" of" this" phase" in" which" the" UK" government" sponsored" a" debate" on" genetically" modified" crops" with" the" intention" of" having" a" wide: ranging"and"effective"public"debate,"going"beyond"the"“often"polarised"views"in"order"to"find" out"what"people"really"think"about"GM”"(Gaskel"et"al.'2003)."It"is"important"to"note"that"this" debate"springs"from"a"recommendation"of"the"Agricultural'and'Environment'Biotechnology' Commission," which" is" an" independent" body" that" advises" the" UK" government" on" biotechnology" issues" and" their" impacts" on" agriculture" and" the" environment." This" debate" should" “establish" the" full" spectrum" of" the" publics" views" on" GM" and" possible" commercialisation"of"GM"crops,"and"any"conditions"it"might"want"to"impose"on"this”"(AEBC," 2003)."It"is"remarkable"that"the"GM"Nation"was"a"governmental"operation:"as"Jasanoff"(2005)" notes,"in"biotech"times,"upstream"efforts"to"identify"risks"and"explore"ethical"dilemmas"were" led" by" the" science" community" itself." Indeed," many" initiatives" of" public" involvement" in" controversial" issues" depart" from" the" academics" or" NGO’s" and" fewer" from" governmental" institutions." " !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 6 "Bovine"spongiform"encephalopathy"commonly"designated"as"“mad"cow"disease”. Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 8" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' BOX*1:*The*GM*Nation?*[http://www.gmnation.org.uk/]** * The"public"debate"in"the"UK"that"took"place"during"2003"about"genetically"modified"organisms"was"a" unique"experiment"in"public"engagement."It"involved"a"total"of"675"public"debate"meetings,"namely:" •9"foundation"workshops"with"members"of"the"public" •6"national"and"regional"conferences;"small"county"and"local"level"meetings;" •Focus"groups"[narrow'but'deep"meetings]" •Material:"CD:ROM,"brochures"incl."questionnaire" •A"Website"where"people"could"post"comments"and"accompany"progress"of"debate" " Horlick" Jones' et' al.' (2004)" and" Rowe" et' al.' (2005)' made" the" point" that" the" public" was" concerned"about"lack"of"transparency,"especially"in"terms"of"how"results"would"be"used,"as" well"as"the"actual"influence"of"the"views"expressed"in"the"whole"policy"process,"from"events" which" had" not" been" held" early" enough" to" influence" public" policy." Moreover," Wilsdon" and" Willis" (2004)" highlight" that" the" publics" involved" believed" that" there" was" a" genuinely" open" outcome"at"stake"and"that"everyone"believed"that"the"government"had"already"determined" its" preferred" outcomes." As" the" government" did" not" ascertain" its" position," a" deep" public" sense" of" government" dishonesty" developed," aggravated" by" it" being" the" sponsor" of" this" initiative.""" c)*Moving*engagement*upstream* " In" this" (current?)" phase," the" science" community" is" (supposedly)" embracing" dialogue" and" engagement" [recognising" that" many" controversies" had" made" it" a" non:negotiable" clause" of" their"“license"to"operate”]."A"new"term"has"entered"the"lexicon"of"public"engagement:"there" has" been" a" surge" of" interest" in" moving" engagement" “upstream”" [e.g." The" Royal" Society’s" nanotechnology" report" in" 2004 7 :" constructive' and' proactive' debate' about' the' future' of' nanotechnologies' to' ' be' undertaken' now…];" it" focuses" on" establishing" a" two:way" dialogue" between" citizens" and" other" actors" on" science" and" technology" (S&T)" challenges" facing" society."" This"phase"corresponds"to"what"Callon"(2001)"describes"as"the"model"“public"co:production" of"knowledge”,"as"far"as"science"and"public"relations"are"concerned."" But"how"do"researchers"view"public"engagement"in"policy"relevant"science,"at"present?" *1.3*Motivations*and*places*for*public*involvement*in*science* Researchers*views*about*public*engagement*in*science** " In" this" section" contemporary" views" of" researchers" with" regards" to" public" engagement" in" science"will"be"reviewed."The"observations"herein"are"based"on"a"report"from"the"UK"Royal" Society" published" in" August" 2006" (Royal" Society" 2006)," regarding" the" factors" affecting" science" communication" undertaken" by" scientists" and" engineers." This" report" is" based" on" a" survey"done"with"UK"researchers"which"makes"it"specific"for"the"UK"context,"but"(based"on" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 7 "The"Royal"Society"and"The"Royal"Academy"of"Engineering"2004:"Nanoscience"and"nanotechnologies:" opportunities"and"uncertainties,"July" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 9" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' experiences" reported" elsewhere" with" other" researcher" communities)" many" of" the" observations"of"interest"in"this"chapter"apply"to"many"other"contexts." In" the" Royal" Society" report" of" August" 2006," scientists" were" asked" to" define" in" their" own" terms" what" engaging' with' the' nonWspecialist' public' meant' to' them," [in" brackets" the" percentage"that"considered"the"meanings"below]:" ! ! ! ! To"explain"and"promote"PUS"[for"34%]" Highlighting"implications,"relevance"and"value"of"science"[15%]" giving"a"public"lecture"[13%]" listening"to"and"understanding"the"public"[13%]" And"moreover,"respondents"considered"that," ! ! the" most" important" reason" to" engage" the" non:specialist" public" is" to" ensure" the" public"is"better"informed"about"science"and"technology""[for"35%]" "the"least"important"reason"was"to"engage"the"non:specialist"public"to"contribute"to" ethical"discussions"about"science"[5%]" Yet,"69%"of"the"respondents"agreed"with"the"statement"that"is"a"moral"duty"of"scientists"to" engage"with"non:specialist"public"about"the"social"and"ethical"implications"of"their"research." The"interviewees"saw"the"following"as"barriers"to"science"communication"and"involvement" with"the"public:" ! ! ! ! the"need"to"spend"more"time"on"research[64%]" time"taken"away"from"research""[29%]" scientists" who" engage" with" the" public" are" less" well" regarded" by" other" scientists" [20%]" several" researchers" highlighted" that" public" engagement" activity" was" seen" by" peers" as"bad"for"their"career;"“done"by"those"who"are"not"good"enough”"for"an"academic" career," science" communication" being" regarded" as" an" altruistic" activity" and" not" bringing"significant"funding"to"universities."" 1.4*REFLECTIONS* " As"I"said"earlier,"cultural"and"historical"events"in"science"and"public"relations"shape"current" situation"in"different"countries."Yet,"73%"of"the"researchers"that"responded"to"the"UK"Royal" Society"survey"had"no"training"in"communication."So"one"might"think"that"lack"of"skills"and" current" understanding" of" what" a" “normal”" research" activity" is," play" a" big" part" on" the" ways" the" public" engagement" in" science" is" currently" shaped" in" many" countries," along" with" the" historical" context." Science" communication" and" engagement" with" the" public" as" viewed" by" researchers" confirms" that" the" great" majority" of" respondents" still" adopt" the" one:way" information" paradigm." Callon’s" (2001)" model" of" knowledge" co:production" where" citizens" and" concerned" groups" get" actively" involved" in" the" process" of" knowledge" production" is" still" far:off."" Several" normative" and" regulatory" documents" coordinated" by" the" European" Commission," such" as" the" report" on" “democratising" of" expertise”" (European" Commission" 2001)" and" the" report" on" “taking" knowledge" society" seriously”" (Wynne" et" al." 2007)" outlined" the" need" for," and" the" conditions" to," improving" interactions" between" expertise," policy" making" and" public" debate,"as"well"as"new"regimes"of"public"engagement."Different"motivations"can"be"found"to" foster"a"“deeper”"type"of"engagement"which"goes"beyond"the"still"entrenched"paradigm"that" sustains"the"current"interactions"between"expertise,"policy"making"and"public"debate."These" can"be"due"to"the"inevitable"more"inclusive"ways"in"which"democracies"tend"to"develop,"or" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 10" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' because"they"legitimate"a"specific"process;"for"some,"because"such"interactions"are"a"unique" way" to" change" innovation" developments" policy" making" or" yet" a" reflexive" and" accountable" review"of"current"knowledge"production"activities"(Wynne"et"al.'2007)."While"this"surely"has" to" be" embedded" in" an" extended" model" of" governance" of" science" for" policy" making," where" the"public"is"viewed"as"possessing"relevant"resources"that"may"be"relevant"in"a"knowledge" co:production" (Jasanoff" 1994)" process," the" operational" framework" is" varied" and" still" experimental"in"many"cases,"lacking"above"all,"the"institutional"link." 1.5*From*PUS*to*“coYproduced*facts”** " In"this"chapter,"I"am"interested"in"situations"where"public"involvement"is"relevant"in"policy" relevant"science."Therefore,"I"start"to"look"at"models"of"the"relations"between"science"and" policy" and" see" where" in" such" models" a" more" extended" relation" of" the" publics" with" the" science"production"and"deployment"could"find"its"space."Subsequently"I"look"at"the"notions" of"co:production,"civic"epistemologies"and"alternative"contextual"models"that"address"some" of"the"pitfalls"of"the"PUS"model"and"practice." Models*of*Science*and*Policy:*From*Expert*Demonstration*to*Post*Normal*Science* " Funtowicz"(2006)"identified"several"conceptual"models"of"the"relation"between"science"and" decision:making" in" policy" processes." Funtowicz" traces" their" evolution" through" a" deepening" appreciation" of" the" process" of" the" use" of" science" in" policy." Starting" from" the" "modern" model"" of" perfection" and" perfectibility" which" represents" a" classic" “technocratic”" vision," where"there"are"no"limits"to"the"progress"of"humans’"control"over"their"environment,"and"no" limits" to" the" material" and" moral" progress" of" mankind," Funtowicz" offers" an" evolutionary" perspective"of"the"governance"of"science"in"policy"making:"" ! Precautionary' model" (with" uncertain" and" inconclusive" information):" arises" from" discovering"that"the"scientific"facts"are"neither"fully"certain"in"themselves,"nor"conclusive"for" policy;"therefore"an"extra,"normative,"element"is"introduced"in"policy"decisions,"precaution," which"both"protects"and"legitimises"decisions." ! Framing' model' (arbitrariness" of" choice" and" possible" misuse):" arises" from" the" recognition" that" in" the" absence" of" conclusive" facts," scientific" information" becomes" one" among" many" inputs" to" a" policy" process," functioning" as" evidence" in" the" arguments." Stakeholders"perspectives"and"values"become"relevant"and"even"the"choice"of"the"scientific" discipline" to" which" the" “problem”" belongs" becomes" a" prior" policy" decision," part" of" the" debate"among"those"affected"by"the"relevant"issue."" ! Demarcation' model' (possibility" of" abuse" of" science):" arises" because" the" scientific" information"and"advice"that"are"used"in"the"policy"process"is"created"by"people"working"in" institutions" with" their" own" agendas." It" recognises" that" the" “scientific”" information" and" advice" cannot" be" guaranteed" to" be" objective" and" neutral." " In" this" sense," science" can" be" abused" when" used" as" evidence" in" the" policy" process." " A" clear" demarcation" between" the" institutions" (and" individuals)" who" provide" the" science," and" those" where" it" is" used," is" advocated" as" a" means" of" protecting" science" from" the" political" interference" that" would" threaten"its"integrity." ! Extended' participation:' acknowledges" the" difficulties" of" defending" a" monopoly" of" accredited" expertise" for" the" provision" of" scientific" information" and" advice." “Science”" (understood" as" the" activity" of" technical" experts)" is" included" as" one" part" of" the" ‘relevant" knowledge’" is" brought" in" as" evidence" to" a" process." " The" ideal" of" rigorous" scientific" demonstration"is"replaced"by"that"of"open"public"dialogue."Citizens"become"both"critics"and" creators"in"the"knowledge"production"process"as"part"of"an"extended"peer"community." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 11" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' It" is" argued" that" it" is" within" the" “extended" participation”" model" of" science" and" policy" that" new"relations"between"science"and"the"public"are"usefully"operated,"underpinning"phase"3" of"public"engagement"in"knowledge"production."The"“extended"participation”"model"is"both" framed" and" operationalised" within" the" post:normal" science" framework" and" the" concept" of" extended'peer'review,"which"we"address"below." PostYnormal*science*and*Extended*Peer*Review* " “The' insight' leading' to' PostWNormal' Science' is' that' in' the' sorts' of' issueWdriven' science'relating'to'environmental'debates,'typically'facts'are'uncertain,'values'in' dispute,' stakes' high,' and' decisions' urgent' […]' In' postWnormal' conditions,' such' products'the'goal'of'achievement'of'truth'or'at'least'of'factual'knowledge'may' be' a' luxury,' indeed' an' irrelevance.' Here,' the' guiding' principle' is' a' more' robust' one,'that'of'quality.”'(Funtowicz'and'Ravetz,'1990b)' " Funtowicz" and" Ravetz" (1985;" 1990a;" 1992)" represented" how" different" types" of" problem" solving" strategies" and" practice" correspond" to" different" sorts" of" uncertainty" (namely" technical,"methodological,"epistemological)"as"well"as"how"they"relate"to"the"world"of"policy:" decision' stakes" included" “costs," benefits," and" commitments" of" any" kind" by" the" parties" involved”." " The" ‘post:normal" science’" framework" (Funtowicz" and" Ravetz," 1990b;" 1992;" 1993;" http://www.nusap.net)," and" its" guiding" principle," quality," requires" the" participation" of" an" ‘extended" peer" community’" (Funtowicz" and" Ravetz" 1990b)" engaged" in" dialogue" and" the" resolution"of"the"issues"at"stake."An"‘extended"peer"community’"–"see"Box"2"–"consists"not" merely"of"persons"with"some"form"of"institutional"accreditation,"but"rather"all"those"with"a" desire" to" participate" in" ‘extended" peer" review’" processes" for" the" resolution" of" the" issue" (Funtowicz" and" Ravetz" 1990b)." Their" relevance" and" influence" will" depend" on" the" context" where" they" operate," the" eventual" aim" of" the" involvement" and" the" flexibility" of," or" instrumental"use"by,"institutional"“ears”"that"could"benefit"from"their"inputs." Box* 2:* “Extended* Peer* Communities”" are" increasing" in" number," organised" for" different" purposes" and" involved"in"different"ways"and"at"different"steps"in"policy:making"processes."They"are"called"‘citizens"juries’," ‘focus" groups’," ‘consensus" conferences’," etc.," with" correspondingly" varied" powers." They" may" be" engaged" through"regulated"participatory"processes"or"they"may"be"the"initiative"of"specific"interests"or"even"develop" into"formal"settings,"resulting"from"social"mobilisation."But"they"all"have"one"important"element"in"common:" they" assess" the" quality" of" policy" proposals," including" a" scientific" element," on" the" basis" of" the" science" they" master"combined"with"their"knowledge"of"the"ways"of"the"world."The"contribution"of"relevant"social"actors"in" this"case"is"not"merely"a"matter"of"broader"democratic"participation"and"their"verdicts"all"have"some"degree" of"moral"force"and"hence"political"influence."(Funtowicz"2001)" " The"assessment"of"the"quality"of"the"knowledge"inputs"to"policy"issues"by"those"‘extended" communities’" are" in" many" ways" different" from" the" review" processes" of" research" science," professional" practice" or" industrial" development" (Funtowicz" 2001)." Each" of" those" has" its" established"means"for"quality:assurance"of"the"products"of"the"work,"be"they"peer"review," professional" associations," or" the" market." However," what" Funtowicz" and" Ravetz" argued" is" that,"for"new"controversial"problems,"the"maintenance"of"quality"depends"on"open"dialogue" between"all"those"affected."" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 12" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' The" aim" of" knowledge" quality" assurance" by" “extended" peer" review”" is" precisely" to" open" processes" and" products" of" policy" relevant" science" to" those" who" can" legitimately" verify" its" relevance," fitness" for" purpose" and" applicability" in" societal" contexts," contributing" with" extended" insights" and" knowledge:" “extended" facts”." " These" may" include" craft" wisdom" and" community" knowledge" of" places" and" their" histories," as" well" as" anecdotal" evidence," neighbourhood" surveys," investigative" journalism" and" leaked" documents" (Funtowicz" 2001)." Extended"peer"review"faces"several"challenges"such"as,"for"example,"resistances"and"closure" of" institutional" or" established" practice" in" research" and" policy," different" conceptual" and" operational" framings," knowledge" representations" and" mediation" (Guimarães" Pereira" and" Funtowicz"2005)."" Knowledge*CoYproduction,*“Civic*Epistemologies”*and*Contextual*approaches* " This"section"looks"at"the"concepts"of"“knowledge"co:production”"and"“civic"epistemologies”" as"proposed"by"Jasanoff"(1996;"2004;"2005)."" “CoWproduction' is" short" hand" for" the" proposition" that" the" ways" in" which" we" know" and" represent" the" world" (both" nature" and" society)" are" inseparable" from" the" ways" in" which" we" choose"to"live"in"it”."(Jasanoff"2004:"3)"" In"this"framework,"scientific"endeavour"is"not"to"be"understood"as"“a"simple"reflection"of"the" truth" about" nature" nor" an" epiphenomenon" of" social" and" political" interests”" (2004:" 3)." Scientific" knowledge" “both" embeds" and" is" embedded" in" social" practices" identities," norms," conventions," discourses," instruments" and" institutions" –" in" short" all" building" blocks" of" what" we" term" the" social.”" (ib." id.)" Hence," scientific" knowledge" is" not" independent" of" political" contexts" but" coWproduced" by" scientists" and" the" society" within" which" they" are" embedded" (Jasanoff"1996)." As" with" a" post:normal" science" framework," the" co:production" framework," attempts" to" interpret" and" account" “for" complex" phenomena" so" as" to" avoid" the" strategic" deletions" and" omissions"of"most"other"approaches"in"the"social"sciences”"(ib."id.)."" Hence,"this"framework"conceptualises"the"scientific"endeavour"as"intrinsically"embedded"in" the" context" where" it" develops" and" so" scientific" knowledge" as" being" context" dependent," a" notion"that"is"further"developed"in"Giampietro"(2003),"for"whom"scientific"narratives"and"its" framings" are" dependent" on" “who”" initiates" the" process," with" which" purpose," perspectives" and"values." The"ideas"of"co:production"of"knowledge"liaise"with"the"motivations"and"justifications"for"the" ways" in" which" the" publics" hold," develop," represent," communicate" or" express," and" deploy" knowledge."Jasanoff"(2005)"offered"the"term"“civic"epistemology”"to"refer"to"the"culturally" specific,"historically"and"politically"grounded,"public:knowledge"ways:"i.e."what"she"calls"the" ‘institutionalised" practices’" by" which" society" members" “test" and" deploy" knowledge" claims" used"as"a"basis"for"making"collective"choices”"(2005:"255)."Through"this"concept"one"moves" away" from" “a' priori' assumptions" about" what" the" publics" should" know" or" understand" of" science”." “Civic" epistemology”" “conceptualises" the" credibility" of" science" in" contemporary" political"life"as"a"phenomenon"to"be"explained"not"to"be"taken"for"granted”"(2005:"250),"i.e." how" science" claims" become" authoritative" and" through" which" ways" science" inputs" become" legitimate"in"policy"settings."" The" notion" of" “civic" epistemologies”" and" the" “extended" peer" review”" earlier" described," explicitly" recognise" that" the" public" at" large" shares" certain" values," experiences" and" ways" of" testing" and" handling" knowledge" claims." Hence," such" acknowledgement" requires" the" consideration" of" a" relationship" between" the" science" and" the" publics" to" be" necessarily" conceptualised"on"a"basis"different"from"what"was"offered"to"support"the"PUS"movement." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 13" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Gross" (1994)" suggests" a" “contextual" model”" as" the" counterpart" to" the" “deficit" model”" of" PUS."In"the"“contextual"model”,"he"argues,"scholars"do"not"have"a"methodological"security"as" practitioners" of" PUS" claim" to" have," who" often" use" surveys" and" statistical" analysis" to" justify" their"approaches."The"author"suggests"that"case"studies"should"in"this"case"be"considered"as" a" social" scientific" method." In" the" “contextual" model”," interaction" between" science" and" its" publics"is"the"basic"metaphor;"hence"it"depicts"communication"as"a"two:way"flow"between" science" and" its" publics." It" is" never" assumed" that" the" public" is" already" trusting," the" model" implying"a"very"active"public."This"model"implies"the"rhetoric"of"reconstruction"where"public" “understanding”" is" the" joint' creation' of' scientific' and' local' knowledge;' the' genre' is' deliberative.'"Ethical"and"political"concerns"are"always"relevant." From*PUS*to*“coYproduced*facts”* " Jasanoff’s" “co:production”" framework" and" “civic" epistemologies”" help" us" to" realise" that" scientific"endeavour"has"indeed"been"a"collective"one"for"it"results"from"an"implicit"or"explicit" interaction"of"“science"makers”"and"the"contexts"in"which"they"operate."This"is"an"important" recognition," since" those" in" charge" of" scientific" developments" often" assume" positions" of" “independence”,"objectivity,"value"and"passion:free,"and"neutrality"which"become"arguable" in"the"light"of"the"thorough"acknowledgement"of"the"dependencies"of"science"in"its"context."" Post:normal" science" and" its" accompanying" concepts" of" “quality" assurance”" through" “extended" peer" review”" by" “extended" peer" communities”" with" their" “extended" facts”," as" well"as"manifestations"of"more"inclusive"participation"of"publics"in"science"production,"such" as"those"of"the"European"science"democratisation"(CEC"2001)"proposals"seem"to"be"in"a"way," a" natural" path" to" follow." In" a" previous" section" we" argued" that" it" is" within" the" “extended" participation”" model" of" science" and" policy," as" proposed" by" Funtowiz" (2006)," that" new" relations"between"science"and"the"publics"may"be"usefully"operated,"because"it"encourages" (and" justifies)" public" engagement" in" policy" relevant" science" developments." The" “extended" peer"communities”"that"this"model"alludes"to,"are"the"key"concept"in"this"chapter"that"justify" public" engagement" in" science," i.e." the" acknowledgement" that" publics" are" not" passive" recipients" of" knowledge" inputs" provided" by" specialists," but" are" able" to" engage" in" “co: production"of"facts”.""" As"we"have"seen"in"the"previous"sections,"several"authors"while"offering"different"models"of" the"relation"between"the"publics"and"science"production,"have"demonstrated"the"pitfalls"of" the" “deficit" model”" as" the" means" of" interfacing" science" and" society," e.g." Goss’s" (2004)" “contextual" model”" as" presented" earlier." In" contrast" with" the" “deficit" model”," contextual– like" models" have" no" prior" assumptions" about" public" knowledge" and" view" science–societal" relationships" as" a" cooperative" endeavour," leading" to" “co:produced" facts”." The" latter" could" be" defined" as" the" knowledge" produced" as" a" result" of" partnerships" among" those" who" have" relevant" knowledge" that" help" taming" a" specific" problematique," being" it" a" result" of" shared" framing,"data"collection,"shared"scope,"analysis"or"other"forms"of"knowledge"creation." The" concepts" presented" earlier" are" all" important" to" understand" what" questions" the" PUS" paradigm"does"not"address,"making"it"irrelevant"for"collective"action;"for"instance:"" - how" knowledge" is" produced," communicated," legitimised" and" deployed" for" collective" action;" what"are"context"dependencies"to"be"considered"in"a"knowledge"mediation"process;" what"form"interfaces"between"science"and"society"might"have"when"the"objective"is"one" of"debate"instead"of"education." " Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 14" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' The"ways"PUS"practice"has"been"operating"and"its"more"urgent"question"of"what"the"publics" know" about" science," is" relevant" for" the" sole" purpose" of" deciding" what" requirements" are" needed" to" implement" a" strategy" of" knowledge" mediation" when" dialogues" with" the" publics" are"desired."Moving"beyond"the"reductionist"relationship"between"science"and"society"that" PUS"implies,"requires"rethinking"of"“safe"spaces”"for"knowledge"exchange"in"public"debate"to" take" place," with" methodological" implications" for" implementing" those" debates" and" the" knowledge"communication."The"next"section"will"reflect"on"this." 1.6*Publics*engagement*in*science*and*technology* " “Public" engagement" today" can" directly" affect" research." It" has" gone" beyond" debating" controversial" social" impacts" of" applied" science" and" technology" (…)." It" now" delves" into" research"methods"that"are"unique"to"the"laboratory,"such"as"somatic:cell"nuclear"transfer" and"hybrids”.""(Taylor"2007:"163)"" A"whole"issue"on"science"and"policy"published"by"Nature,"in"September"2007,"heralds"public" engagement" in" science" and" technology" as" an" inevitable" and" well" grounded" activity" for" research" operation." " There" is" a" whole" body" of" literature" mainly" based" on" case" studies," reflecting"on"the"challenges,"opportunities"and"motivations"for"the"publics"to"be"engaged"in" the" science" production" processes" especially" when" dealing" with" policy" relevant" science." “Public" engagement”" is" viewed" with" enthusiasm" to" implement" more" inclusive" governance" styles."The"implementation"of"participatory"activities"within"policy"and"decision"making"have" evolved," nowadays" being" the" subject" of" regulation" and" becoming" more" formalized" within" existing" regulatory" frameworks" (see" e.g." De" Marchi" et' al.' 2001)." Still," oftentimes," in" public" engagement," the" publics" are" involved" in" some" limited" manner" in" the" practices" of" policy" making" contrasting" with" the" predominant" model" of" representative" democracy" where" the" public"is"“involved”"solely"by"voting"and"election"mechanisms"(Guimarães"Pereira"et'al.'2005;" Rowe" et' al.' 2005)." The" question" now" seems" not" to" be" whether" public" involvement" should" occur,"there"is"a"great"deal"of"normative"argumentation"for"doing"it;"the"questions"seem"to" be" now" about" how" it" should" occur," at" which" point" of" the" process," its" impacts" and" in" what" fields" is" it" legitimate" and" relevant" (Joly" and" Rip," 2007;" Taylor" 2007)." Notwithstanding" the" more"accommodating"tendency,"effective"public"engagement"exercises"are"full"of"difficulties" of"theoretical"(what"is"effectiveness"in"this"context?),"practical"(how"do"we"assess"that?)"and" of"political"(how"can"this"be"done"in"often"contested"terrains?)"natures"(Rowe"et'al.'2005)." Elsewhere" (see" e.g." De" Marchi" et' al.' 1998)," a" number" of" principles" essential" to" ensure" an" effective" involvement" of" “extended" peer" communities”" were" described." A" first" principle," ‘knowledge:sharing’" refers" to" the" necessity" of" recognising" and" appreciating" the" different" types" of" knowledge" that" different" agents" can" bring" into" a" dialogue." For" example," citizens" exposed"to"a"certain"risk"are"not"a"tabula'rasa."They"derive"much"relevant"knowledge"from" everyday"experience,"dealing"with"real"world"problems."Acknowledgement"of"community’s" ‘resources’" refers" to" all" the" available" talents," expertise," connections," etc." of" different" community"members,"which"include"also"social"and"communicational"skills,"as"well"as"access" to" extended" networks." A" policy" dialogue" facilitates" the" elicitation" of" such" resources" which," once"discovered,"can"be"enhanced"and"used"in"a"social"learning"process." Many"argue"that"changes"are"necessary"in"the"institution"and"culture"of"science"to"one"that" supports" more" participatory" and" deliberative" research" designs" (Cortner" and" Moote" 1999;" Bellamy" and" Dale," 2000;" Funtowicz" et' al." 2000;" Wondolleck" and" Yaffee" 2000;" Pound" et' al." 2003;"Bellamy"et'al.,"2004;"Burgess"and"Clark"2006;"Wynne"et'al."2007)."Joly"and"Rip"(2007)" sustain" that" public" engagement" in" science" and" technology" is" thriving," especially" in" the" UK," suggesting"that"in"a"number"of"case"studies,"such"involvement"has"been"fruitful"for"scientists" and"members"of"the"public."" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 15" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' In"order"to"implement"participatory"activities,"practitioners"often"assume"that"citizenship"is" given." Writers" about" these" issues" often" focus" on" how" best" to" involve" people" in" policy" and" decision" processes" and" less" on" what" it" means" to" be" a" citizen" and" how" its" varied" attributes" express"in"public"engagement"(Jasanoff,"2004),"in"other"words"also"focusing"on"the"bases"for" inclusion"and"exclusion"instead"of"the"purposes"served"by"wider"inclusion."" We"would"argue"that"these"issues"are"not"disconnected;"the"loose"link"that"these"processes" often" have" with" their" potential" institutional" “ears”" is" at" present" the" most" important" bottleneck" of" these" processes." So," on" examining" the" methodological" aspects" of" public" participation"implementation,"one"should"look"at"the"reasons"why"the"civic"and"the"political" worlds"do"not"connect,"examining"expectations"from"those"involved"and"the"meanings"of"the" involvement." Wynne" et' al.' (2007)" distinguish" between" invited" and" uninvited" participation," between"explicit"and"implicit"forms"of"participation,"between"the"private"and"public"arenas" (e.g." media" debates)" –" see" box" 3" for" the" meanings." These" are" contextual" aspects" of" involvement" of" the" publics." They" frame" the" ways" in" which" such" processes" are" conducted," both"conceptually"and"methodologically"speaking."" Although" those" who" advocate" democratisation" of" science" and" more" inclusive" science" and" governance"approaches"certainly"have"a"reason"to"cheer"the"evolution"it"has"taken"over"the" last"decades,"we"are"still"far"from"an"extended"model"of"science"and"policy." " * Box*3:"Contextual*aspects*in*which*public*involvement*may*occur."After"Wynne"et'al.'(2007)." " ! Invited/uninvited"participation"concerns"the"legitimacy"of"societal"voices"and"how"that"is"determined"in"relation the"framework"where"they"operate;" ! Explicit* or* implicit" participation" tries" to" capture" the" fact" that" publics" can" be" absent" presences," in" the" sense" proxies"might"be"used"to"integrate"publics"views"in"policy"making"processes"such"as"survey"results"or"similar"too by"more"informal"processes."" ! Private*and*public"arenas"set"also"the"context"in"which"public"engagement"is"framed,"one"around"a"vision"of"citi 8 as"individuals"and"the"other"around"the"public"as"represented"through"stakeholders ."" Places*of*engagement*in*science*and*technology** " As" we" said" earlier," public" involvement" methodologies" are" now" beyond" experimentation." There" is" an" immense" body" of" literature" on" participatory" methodologies" (see" for" instance," Morgan," 1998;" Glicken" 1999;" IAP2" 2000;" Frewer" et' al.' 2001;" Van" Asselt" et' al.' 2001;" Peals" 2003;" Slocum" 2003;" Involve" 2005)" that" aim" at" operationalising" public" involvement," discuss" their"appropriateness"and"conditions"for"implementation."Having"said"that,"there"is"space"to" discuss"whether"those"methods,"taken"from"social"research,"are"the"appropriate"interfaces" between" the" publics" and" institutions" involved" in" the" science" –" policy" cycles." Although," the" argument" for" lack" of" connectedness" between" participatory" initiatives" and" institutions" is" grounded" on" stands" of" political" and" cultural" nature," there" is" no" evidence" that" the" methodologies" chosen" are" not" playing" a" hindering" role" as" well." For" instance," a" recurrent" argumentation" about" using" qualitative" methodologies" in" social" research" is" the" issue" of" representativeness," which" links" closely" with" the" methodologies" chosen" and" social:political" context."" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 8 "Wynne"et"al."(2007)"alert"to"the"extensive"use"of"the"stakeholder"model"as"an"ideal"form"of"societal" participation,"which"excludes"a"broader"vision"of"citizenship."The"term"stakeholder"involvement"implies"that"the" issues"‘at"stake’"are"already"agreed."Citizen"involvement"on"the"other"hand"carries"no"such"presumption,"and"thus" more"readily"accommodates"diversities"of"‘local’"cultures"with"different"preoccupations"and"concerns,"meanings" and"worldviews." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 16" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' In" the" EU," two" thirds" of" Member" State" Governments" now" either" have" or" are" developing" mechanisms"of"involving"the"general"public"in"issues"concerning"scientific"and"technological" developments" (Austria," Denmark," Finland," France," Greece," Germany," Ireland," The" Netherlands,"Sweden,"and"United"Kingdom.)"(Miller"et"al."2002)."Denmark"currently"has"the" most" extensive" toolkit" of" participatory" instruments," organised" through" the" Danish' Teknologirådet" (http://www.tekno.dk/)" –" Danish" Board" of" Technology." Denmark" was" also" the"EU"country"that"pioneered"Scientific"Ethical"Committees"to"approve"research"procedures" such" as" medical" trials" In" fact," this" Board," which" informs" parliamentary" deliberations" and" decisions"with"well:crafted"forms"of"direct"elicitation"of"relevant"public"concerns,"meanings" and" attitudes" is" one" of" the" exceptions" to" the" otherwise" overall" realisation" that" many" participatory" initiatives" do" not" have" a' priori" practical" connections" with" real" institutional" policy"processes."" Science" shops" (see" for" instance," Mulder" et' al.' 2006;" " http://www.scienceshops.org/)" are" another" way" of" empowering" citizens," providing" them" with" independent" scientific" and" technological"advice"as"required"for"local"issues,"in"particular."A"science"shop"is"a"“unit"that" provides"independent,"participatory"research"support"in"response"to"concerns"experienced" by"civil"society”"(Mulder,"2006:"279)."Most"science"shops"are"linked"to"universities"and"use" the" work" of" students" under" appropriate" supervision" to" respond" to" civil" society" (mostly" NGO’s)"needs."" Interactive" web:pages" of" leading" scientific" organisations" offer" opportunities" to" the" general" public"to"get"involved"in"discussions"about"future"directions"of"science,"see"for"instance"CNRS" (http://www.cnrs.fr/);"UK"Royal"Society"(http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/),"etc." These"initiatives"may"seem"to"be"at"the"forefront"but"what"remains"unclear,"however,"is"to" what"extent"there"is"a"culture"of"government"acting"on"the"findings"of"such"activities." Doing*it*with*ICT* " In" the" last" decades," we" have" been" addressing" throughout" our" research" projects" the" use" of" Information"and"Communication"Technologies"(ICT)"both"to"promote"spaces"for"interaction" among"the"publics"concerned"and"the"communication"of"science"for"public"debate"of"policy" relevant"scientific"developments"(see"for"instance,"De"Marchi"et'al.,"1998;"Guimarães"Pereira" and" O’Connor," 1999;" Guimarães" Pereira" et' al.' 2001;" 2003a;" 2003b;" 2005;" 2006;" O’Connor" 1998;"2006;"Rosa"et'al.'2008;"De"Sousa"et'al.'2008)."" I"illustrate"the"usage"of"ICT"for"public"debate"of"policy"relevant"science"with"a"project"called" GOUVERNe9," which" aimed" at" the" development" and" pilot" implementation" of" a" user:based" scientifically" validated" process" and" informatics" product" for" the" improved" governance" of" groundwater"resources."In"this"project,"our"activities"consisted"of"organising"and"mediating" the" available" knowledge" about" two" groundwater" resources" case" studies" in" Europe" (see" Guimarães"Pereira"et'al.,"2003a"and"Guimarães"Pereira"et'al."2003b)."" The"methodology"deployed"was"based"on"the"concept"of"quality'assurance'by'extended'peer' review," as" a" normative" procedure" to" construct" the" knowledge" base" upon" which" a" debate" about"water"governance"options"could"start"in"both"case"studies"among"the"relevant"social" actors." What" we" called" the" “GOUVERNe" process”" was" strongly" based" on" trans:disciplinary" principles," combining" hybrid" methodologies," integrating" social" research" methods" with" evaluation"tools,"such"as"multi:criteria"evaluation."" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 9 "Project"no."EVK1:1999:00032:"a"Shared"Cost"Action"financed"by"DG"RTD,"under"FP"5."GOUVERNe"stands"for" Guidelines"for"the"Organisation,"Use"and"Validation"of"information"systems"for"Evaluating"aquifer"Resources"and" Needs.*Online."Available:"http://neptune.c3ed.uvsq.fr/gouverne/"and"http://kam.jrc.it/gouverne." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 17" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' The'GOUVERNe'Process' " Knowledge" scrutiny" in" the" GOUVERNe" process" was" strongly" based" on" social" research." That" was"the"means"to"ensure"that"knowledge"other"than"scientific:technical"was"available"in"the" knowledge"base"to"debate"on"possible"futures"for"groundwater"resources"and"the"associated" river"basins"of"the"two"case"studies"(in"France"and"Greece)."" The" involvement" of" relevant" social" actors" was" done" from" the" very" first" framing" step" which" ensured"that,"early"in"the"process,"their"perspective,"concerns"and"ways"of"representing"the" issues"were"accounted"for."The"research"framing"acknowledged"and"shared"by"the"relevant" community"helps"to"avoid"the"so"called"Type"III"error,"of"addressing"the"wrong"problem,"and" enhances" the" scoping" phase" (i.e." focuses" the" work" of" collecting" relevant" information)." The" extended"involvement"also"means"that"the"issues"addressed"are"shared"and"are"dealt"at"the" appropriate"depth." Clearly," if" the" experts" involved" in" the" process" are" the" only" “digesters”" of" the" available" knowledge" (even" if" the" process" is" inclusionary)," their" research" framing" and" representation" will"be"paramount."This"is"why,"the"quality"check"by"the"relevant"community"throughout"the" whole"process"is"essential"for"compliance"and"effectiveness,"and"why"the"process"of"creating" socially" robust" knowledge" (Gibbons" 1999)" is" a" continuous" inclusionary" process" of" those" concerned."In"GOUVERNe"engagement"of"relevant"social"actors"was"done"at"several"steps"of" the"process."" What" emerged" from" the" processes" of" knowledge" scrutiny" is" that" activities" and" options" explored"together"by"those"concerned,"had"great"advantages"in"terms"of"enhancing"the"final" process" of" dialogue," compared" with" those" activities" structured" solely" by" “experts”:" what" becomes"available"as"a"knowledge"base"to"support"the"ongoing"dialogues"is"perceived"as"coW produced'facts,"issues"becoming"more"easily"appropriated"by"all"those"engaged." One"of"the"main"research"issues"of"this"process"was"how"to"articulate"different"values"and" perspectives," as" well" as" different" representations" of" knowledge" which" may" be" presented" through" alternative" narratives" (language," framing," scales" of" measurement," numerical" models," etc)." GOUVERNe" is" about" knowledge" integration," while" trying" to" keep" diversity" which"in"the"interpretation"of"the"researchers"was"the"creation"of"a"space:"where"different" types" of" knowledge" articulated" in" different" sets" of" semantic" rules," with" different" codes," different" scales" of" evaluation," etc." could" be" represented" through" several" formats" implying" various"degrees"of"specialisation;"where"no"a'priori'“integrative"methodology”"was"applied" as" the" means" of" sharing" knowledge," the" integration" being" made" through" dialogue" and" interactions."" This" entails" the" effort" to" produce" a" sort" of" “knowledge" platform”" that" is" accessible" to" all" those"involved"and"promotes"conviviality"of"different"knowledges,"including"tools"that"help" with" the" process" evaluation," capturing" plurality" and" diversity" and" avoiding" the" pitfall" of" reducing"them"to"something"plausible"but"meaningless."This"was"explored"through"the"use" of" Information" and" Communication" Technologies" (ICT)" and" in" particular" multi:media" knowledge"representation." Building'Spaces'for'Conviviality:'The'TIDDD'Concept' " A" major" development" within" the" GOUVERNe" process" was" the" realisation," the" design" and" prototype" implementation" of" a" new" concept" tool:" TIDDD" (Tools" to" Inform" Debates," Dialogues"and"Deliberations)"deploying"new"ICT."The"main"characteristics"of"this"tool"can"be" defined" as" “tools" that" inform" and" mediate" processes" of" debate," dialogue" or" deliberation" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 18" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' which" involve" social" actors" of" a" governance," policy" or" decision" process”." Mediation" of" knowledge" in" this" case" entails" organisation," communication" and" exchange" of" a" plurality" of" sources"and"types"of"knowledge"(Guimarães"Pereira"et'al."2003b)."In"the"case"of"GOUVERNe," there" was" a" great" deal" of" disciplinary" knowledge," such" as" climate," geological" and" hydrological,"as"well"as"socio:economical,"regulatory,"etc."Scenario"drivers"to"debate"about" future"options"were"devised"together"with"the"social"actors."Hence,"as"some"modelling"tools" were"used"to"characterise"possible"futures,"there"had"to"be"some"work"on"“translating”"that" information" in" order" to" use" it" as" input" for" the" models." TIDDD’s" aim" is" the" creation" of" convivial" contexts" of" exploration," and" “discovery”," where" representations" of" knowledge" come" from" different" actors" in" the" form" of" consistent" narratives," aided" by" a" multiplicity" of" supporting"materials,"namely"multi:media"formats,"metaphors,"etc."In"TIDDD"some"pieces"of" information" were" represented" through" different" media" in" order" to" reach" different" people" involved." TIDDD" can" integrate" other" sources" and" types" of" knowledge" that" may" emerge" during"the"process,"which"is"done"through"the"available"multi:criteria"evaluation"tool." Quality'assurance"through"extended"peer"review"of"TIDDD"contents"and"design"is"one"of"the" basic" principles" of" this" tool," since" its" main" aim" is" to" provide" socially' robust' knowledge" in" contexts" of" societal" debates," and" even" scientific" controversy." This" is" achieved" through" upstream"engagement"of"the"relevant"community"in"the"implementation"of"the"knowledge" base" available" in" TIDDD," where" the" social" actors" check" all" developments" and" ensure" that" contents"and"design"are"suitable"to"start"the"debate"on"groundwater"resources"futures." 'ICT'for'public'debate' " TIDDD" like" tools" were" conceived" as" interfaces" of" mediation" between" policy" spheres" and" other" sectors" of" the" society." This" mediation" is" done" with" the" help" of" specialists," but" what" comes" out" of" the" GOUVERNe" process" is" that" a" new" class" of" expertise" is" emerging," specialising" in" creating" contexts" for" co:production" of" knowledge," in" mediation" of" different" types"of"knowledge,"perspectives"and"values,"and"eventually"specialists"in"making"scattered" non:organised"(for"the"minds"of"the"experts!)"pieces"of"relevant"knowledge"intelligible"to"the" organised"and"oftentimes"poorly"flexible"institutions:"in"a"sense"transWdisciplinary"specialists' (Guimarães"Pereira"and"Funtowicz"2005)." Involvement" of" the" publics" in" science" and" technology" is" about" conviviality" of" different" knowledges.'It"is"hoped"that"TIDDD"like"tools"can"help"creating"the"“safe"spaces”"where"“co: produced"facts”"can"emerge."" “We*have*to*learn*to*think*in*a*new*way”* " In"the"last"sections"of"this"chapter,"we"have"first"given"a"short"historical"perspective"of"how" the" publics" have" been" engaging" with" science," also" alluding" to" the" fact" that" historical" and" contextual" aspects" of" these" relations" still" influence" the" ways" in" which" the" publics" relate" to" science"today;"science"is"after"all"a"co:produced"endeavour."Looking"at"more"recent"phases" of" how" public" involvement" in" science" is" conceived" and" fostered," and" the" still" prevalent" “public" understanding" of" science”" paradigm," one" can" see" that" this" recognition" is" just" an" implicit"one."The"recent"survey"of"researchers"and"engineers"done"in"the"UK"depicts"actual" ways" in" which" many" of" them" see" their" involvement" with" the" public," i.e." such" relationships" are" still" embroidered" within" the" latter" mentality," concepts" and" practice." Hence," looking" at" frameworks"and"models"of"science"and"policy"and"science"and"society,"explanations"for"the" current" state" of" affairs" can" be" found," and" unsurprisingly" that" PUS" still" shapes" those" relationships."Within"such"models"and"frameworks,"calls"for"making"explicit"a"relationship"of" science" and" its" “interlocutors”" based" on" co:operation" and" partnerships" has" been" afoot" for" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 19" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' sometime."Whatever"one"calls"this"relationship"(“extended”,"“co:production”,"“contextual”," etc.)" of" the" publics" having" legitimacy" to" engage" in" the" production" of" science," we" are" essentially" saying" that" research" has" to" be" done" in" a" different" way." While" discussing" the" operationalisation" of" this" engagement," we" identify" issues" of" political," institutional," organisational,"cultural,"civic,"methodological,"etc."that"are"at"the"basis"of"full"embedment"of" public" engagement" in" research" practice," when" such" research" is" relevant" for" policy" making." While" exploring" the" usage" of" ICT," its" is" also" noted" that" despite" their" potential" both" as" connecting" different" knowledges" and" their" “producers”" and" as" a" “safe”" space" for" co: production" of" facts," we" realise" that" ICT" may" challenge" but" will" not" solve" the" established" research"practices"if"changes"on"researchers’"mentalities"and"attitudes,"and"research"culture" in"science"society"relationships"do"not"occur."" And" this" leads" to" the" title" of" this" section:" “We" have" to" learn" to" think" in" a" new" way”." In" a" recent"workshop"on"“Moving"Worldviews”"(Haverkort"and"Reijtjes"2006),"Prof."Dürr"from"the" Max"Plank"Institute"challenged"the"ways"the"majority"of"universities"still"operate."Academics," especially" those" in" technology" studies," often" leave" the" University" thinking" that" they" now" possess"the"crafts"and"are"now"skilled"to"solve"the"problems"of"the"world!"They"are"now"part" of" the" “rationality" crew”" that" will" develop" arguments," evidence," to" inspire" and" justify" the" ways" in" which" the" world" operates." Often" this" translates" into" a" great" deal" of" (perhaps" unconscious)" arrogance" towards" other" knowledges" and" towards" less" specialised" fellow" humans."This"sort"of"“arrogance”"is"indoctrinated"in"staff"and"students"at"the"universities,"as" a"means"of"protection,"but"it"is"also"essentially"a"“way"of"being”"–"in"Portuguese"we"would" say" a" forma' de' estar…" Very" early," the" mission:to:be" taught" to" “universitaires”" is" also" a" didactic"one,"of"training,'educating'others.'' Instead" more" than" ever," the" approach" is" of" humility," humility" about" both" the" limits" of" scientific"knowledge"and"about"when"to"stop"scientisising"all"problematiques."Jasanoff"(2007)" proposes" that" “technologies 10 "of" humility”" are" necessary" to" reflect" on" the" sources" of" ambiguity," indeterminacy" and" complexity," and" to" accommodate" dissent" as" Leach" (2007)" suggests."I"am"unsure"about"the"use"of"the"word"“technologies”"here."Rather,"I"view"humility" as" primarily" a" guiding" concept," which" shall" then" guide" a" change" of" mentalities;" in" public" engagement:"towards"conviviality.' This"change"would"encompass"the"embedding"of"“technologies"of"engagement”"as"a"natural" step" in" research" practice." The" relationships" of" specialists' with" the" publics' would" go" from" a" didactic"mission"to"an"engagement"one."This"will"have"to"go"hand"in"hand"with"learning"how" to" establish" dialogues," knowledge" mediation," “integration" of" knowledges”" and" other" “technologies”"to"make"operational"the"“engagement”"paradigm."" References* AEBC."2003."GM"Nation?"The"findings"of"the"Public"Debate."Report"of"the"AEBC."Available" online"at:"http://www.aebc.gov.uk/aebc/reports/gm_nation_report_final.pdf"(last"accessed:" 14"JULY"2008)." Bellamy,"J.A."and"Dale,"A.P.,"2000.""Evaluation'of'the'Central'Highlands'Regional'Resource' Use'Planning'Project:''A'synthesis'of'findings.""Final"Report"to"LWRRDC,"Project"CTC13,"" CSIRO"Sustainable"Ecosystems,"Brisbane,"November"2000.""http://irum.sl.csiro.au/"" Bellamy,"J.,"Bishop,"B."and"Browne,"A."2004.""Ord'Bonaparte'Program'Evaluation:''Process'and'Impact.'' 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" " " " " Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 24" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Chapter"2" Some"historical"reflections"on"science" communication"for"public"debate" " Tom'Wakeford' Univ.'of'Edinburgh,'UK' " * 2.1*Introduction* Engagement"between"those"with"professional"expertise"and"those"whose"knowledge"comes" from"their"life"experience"is"needed"more"than"ever"before."Society"faces"a"range"of" challenges"for"which"a"better"dialogue"and"understanding"between"its"different"constituent" parts"is"essential." While"few"of"those"of"us"who"have"benefited"from"industrial"technology"would"want"to"go" back"to"pre:industrial"societies,"many"people"–"even"modern"scientists,"doctors"and" engineers"–"are"seeking"a"new"approach."This"would"allow"for"a"common:sense"balance"to" be"achieved"between"the"advantages"of"many"of"the"new"products"and"processes"brought" by"the"industrial"model"of"science"and"technology"and"those"that"local"people"bring"though" existing"know:how."The"new"sets"of"approaches"are"meaningless"if"it"does"not"come"about" by"democratic"processes"that"ensure"the"equal"rights"of"all"humanity,"and"ensures" environmental"sustainability."" Public"debates"about"the"merits"of"new"knowledge"and"the"social"shaping"of"new" technologies"are"not"new."There"are"many"historical"records"of"public"opposition"to"new" technologies"that"threatened"livelihoods,"safety"or"the"environment."To"understand"one,"the" Luddites,"we"need"to"look"at"the"foundation"of"the"UK"academy"of"science." In"seventeenth:century"England,"King"Charles"II"sponsored"an"organisation"promoting"a" novel"kind"of"knowledge"system"that"was"to"have"profound"effects"on"the"development"of" new"innovations"over"the"coming"centuries."Begun"as"a"club"of"aristocratic"English" gentlemen,"the"Royal"Society"of"London"became"the"institution"that"combined"the"two" meanings"of"creditworthiness"–"wealth"and"honour"–"with"the"new"experimental"philosophy" that"had"been"pioneered"during"the"previous"century"by"Renaissance"thinkers"such"as" Galileo,"Da"Vinci,"Copernicus"and"Kepler."" The"principles"on"which"the"Royal"Society"was"founded"drew"on"those"outlined"by"the" seventeenth"century"politician"and"philosopher"Francis"Bacon."His"writings,"such"as"New' Atlantis,"proposed"the"creation"of"a"new"bureaucratically:organised"academy"that"would" “interpret"nature”,"and"create"new"knowledge"in"the"service"of"the"interests"of"an"expanding" empire." Within"a"century"the"Royal"Society"had"not"only"secured"its"place"as"the"key"institution"to" combine"knowledge"and"power"in"Britain,"but"had"spawned"similar"academies"in"Scotland" and"European"neighbours"such"as"France"and"Italy."The"Society"developed"an"elaborate," subtle"and"effective"culture"for"performing"scepticism"and"the"modification"of"truth"claims" based"on"new"experiments."In"the"Social'History'of'Truth,"historian"Stephen"Shapin"describes" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 25" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' how"the"Society"formalised"the"gap"between"technical"knowledge"of"an"expert"elite"and"the" common"sense"know:how"of"everyday"peasants"and"artisans:" “The'testimony'of'the'poor…was'unreliable.'The'accepted'reason'for'this'suspicion' flowed'from'the'compromised'circumstances'of'dependent'and'constrained'people”." William"Gilbert,"a"pioneer"of"theories"of"magnetism,"dismissed"the"testimony"of"such"people" as"equivalent"to"‘the"maunderings"of"a"babbling"hag’."Physician"and"Royal"Society"pioneer"Sir" Thomas"Browne,"commented"on"the"“erroneous"disposition"of"the"people”."Unlike"the"well: healed"class"of"aristocratic"gentlemen"like"himself,"the"ignorance"and"subjugated"status"of" artisans"made"them"readily"deceived"by"“fortune:tellers,"jugglers"and"geomancers”." Browne’s"refusal"to"see"merit"in"any"knowledge"that"had"not"been"generated"by"a"social"and" intellectual"elite"became"underpinned"the"abstract"knowledge"system"that"became" dominant"over"the"following"centuries." The"Royal"Society’s"motto"“nullus"in"verba”"(nothing"[proved]"by"words)""summed"up"their" scepticism"about"theories"that"could"not"be"demonstrated"repeatedly"in"front"of"an" audience"in"a"quiet"and"orderly"space."This"audience"was"made"up"of"exclusively"of"one’s" fellow"aristocrats"who"had"little"concern"as"to"whether"these"experiments"were"of"practical" value"to"those"using"those"knowledge"systems"that"predominated"outside"the"auditorium." The"Society"thus"marginalised"systems"of"knowledge"that"were"of"use"in"everyday"situations" by"both"insisting"that"they"only"had"value"if"they"could"be"performed"in"what"later"became" known"as"a"“laboratory”"and"by"barring"all"but"approved"aristocrats"(women"and"the"Irish" were"also"initially"excluded)"from"being"part"of"the"knowledge"generation"process."Clearly" numerous"other"successful"knowledge"systems"did"exist,"such"as"those"that"produced"the" medieval"cathedrals"such"as"the"one"at"Chartres."Other"examples"include"Micronesian" navigation"systems,"and"the"Inca"and"indigenous"North"American"calendar"systems." The"effect"of"the"Royal"Society’s"growing"influence"over"the"following"centuries"was"to"win" financial"and"political"support"for"their"knowledge"system"at"the"expense"of"those"that"relied" more"on"know:how"and"rules"of"thumb,"and"which"were"applied"in"diverse"local"contexts," often"under"some"form"of"local"democratic"control."The"Society"in"the"twenty:first"century" has"changed"in"many"ways"from"its"seventeenth"century,"as"has"its"social"and"political" context."Yet"many"of"its"key"characteristics"have"become"embodied"in"government" bureaucracies"throughout"the"world."It’s"privileged"position"allows"it,"and"sister" organisations"such"as"the"US"National"Academy"of"Science,"to"continue"to"influence"the" exercise"of"knowledge"and"power"both"nationally"and"internationally." If"a"theory"could"be"demonstrated"by"experiment"repeatedly,"the"Fellows"of"the"Royal" Society"would"record"the"knowledge"as"valid."Largely"centring"on"the"laws"of"physics"that" were"being"established"by"Isaac"Newton"at"this"time,"this"technical"knowledge"was"far"more" replicable"than"the"knowledge"of"a"dynamic"and"complex"natural"world"that"was"constantly" being"produced"by"peasants"and"artisans."By"this"process"the"so:called"“pure”"sciences" practiced"by"politico:scientific"elites"in"their"academies"and"learned"societies"gained"a" supremely"higher"status"than"the"“applied”"research"that"dealt"with"the"real"world."Unlike" peasants"and"artisans,"aristocrats"had"no"need"to"use"their"knowledge"to"feed"or"clothe"their" families."" The"learned"scientific"academies,"in"which"much"of"the"early"experimentation"that"we" recognise"as"modern"was"carried"out,"also"acted"as"spaces"in"which"differences"between" natural"philosophers"could"be"negotiated."Gentlemanly"interactions"between"members"of" these"bodies,"such"as"the"Royal"Society"in"the"UK"and"France’s"Academie"des"Sciences," established"the"rules"of"proper"behaviour"that"later"evolved"into"the"system"of"peer"review" that"continues"to"underpin"the"system"of"scientific"publication,"and"most"state"research" funding."" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 26" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' The"system"of"peer"review,"established"in"the"seventeenth"century"and"based"on" gentlemanly"codes"of"conduct,"has"been"a"remarkably"resilient"and"influential"model"of" production"within"this"particular"knowledge"system."Because"the"benefit"early"Royal"Society" members"gained"from"successful"experiments"was"in"social"rank"rather"than"financial"profit,"" their"“disinterestedness”"and"the"objectivity"of"their"research"made"it"all"the"more" influential."The"trickle:down"of"technical"knowledge"to"educational"institutions"throughout" Europe"led"to"improvements"in"weaponry"and"navigation,"for"example,"that"made"the"rapid" colonisation"of"the"New"World"in"the"seventeenth"to"nineteenth"centuries"all"the"faster.""" A"century"after"the"Royal"Society’s"emergence,"a"small"group"of"men"combined"technical" knowledge"with"practical"mechanical"know:how"to"build"the"foundations"of"the"Industrial" Revolution."Unlike"their"aristocratic"predecessors,"these"provincial"innovators"were"often" socially"non:conformist"and"politically"idealist."James"Watt,"Josiah"Wedgwood,"Erasmus" Darwin"and"Joseph"Priestley":"the"Lunar"Men,"as"they"have"become"known"–"were"not"from" the"same"elite"circles"as"those"who"spent"their"time"at"the"Royal"Society."They"preached" religious"tolerance,"the"abolition"of"slavery"and"even"–"following"the"French"Revolution"–"the" abolition"of"the"monarchy."Priestley"wrote"that"“The"English"hierarchy"has"equal"reason"to" tremble"even"at"an"air:pump,"or"an"electrical"machine”.""Yet"at"the"same"time"as"wishing"to" do"away"with"tyrannical"authority,"they"were"fiercely"ambitious"industrialists"–"looking"for" ways"to"shed"labour"by"developing"machines"to"do"the"jobs"of"humans."Historian"Harmke" Kamminga"(1995)"has"pointed"to"the"consequentially"“schizoid”"roots"of"techno:science,"“in" radical"materialism"and"in"expansionist"free:trade"industrialism”. 11"" In"1769,"Sir"Richard"Arkwright"patented"a"mechanism"that"harnessed"the"power"of"water"in" cotton:spinning."Though"content"to"exploit"their"inventions,"this"archetypical"early" entrepreneur"of"the"Industrial"Age"had"none"of"the"ethical"qualms"of"the"Lunar"Men.""He"was" inventor"of"the"factory"system"in"Britain,"employing"six"hundred"workers,"most"of"them" children,"in"his"first"factory"in"Derbyshire.""His"water"frame"had"been"designed"by"a" clockmaker"called"John"Kay,"but"it"was"Arkwright"who"drove"small"producers"out"of"the" market"by"only"selling"his"water"frames"in"batches"of"one"thousand"units."Arkwright"was" therefore"the"first"to"use"the"power"of"an"industrial"corporation"to"monopolise"a"sector"of" production." Arkwright’s"new"class"of"capitalist"entrepreneur"now"harnessed"new"fossil:fuel"driven"tools," devised"for"them"by"freelance"scientists"and"engineers"into"industrial"processes"of" manufacture."Early"factories"produced"goods"that"were"lapped"up"by"an"emerging"middle" class,"but"which"signed"the"death"warrant"for"the"art"and"industry"of"hundreds"of"thousands" of"artisans"–"first"in"the"UK,"then"in"its"colonies,"the"European"continent"and"beyond."To" make"ends"meet,"these"artisans"had"to"send"their"young"children"into"working"conditions" probably"not"dissimilar"to"those"that"are"today"causing"rocketing"death"rates"in"hi:tech" industrial"societies"that"lack"effective"democratic"systems"of"regulation,"such"as"Bangladesh," India"and"China." The"industrial"revolution"placed"the"power"to"innovate"became"increasingly"concentrated"in" the"hands"of"a"powerful"elite."At"the"same"the"rapid"rise"in"the"number"of"workers"in"the" factories"and"workshops"provided"the"pressure"to"bring"about"social"movements"for" democratic"reform." The"power"of"the"steam"engine"also"relocated"power"away"from"London"towards"the" industrial"regions"of"the"Midlands"and"Northern"England."The"use"of"fossil"fuels"gave" mechanical"knowledge"systems"economic"dominance"over,"and"eventually"eliminated,"a" whole"livelihood"system"of"artisan"knowledge"and"skills,"first"in"Britain,"then"abroad."While" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 11 "Kamminga"H"1995"Interpreting"the"world,"changing"the"world,"and"living"in"the"world:"Is"a"'science"for"the" people'"possible?"In"T."Wakeford"&"M."Walters"Science'for'the'Earth."Wiley,"UK." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 27" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' traditional"weavers"and"iron"smiths"used"locally"available"resources"of"wood,"wool"and" natural"dyes,"the"factories"of"Britain,"and"later"Europe"and"North"America"were"soon" expanding"at"a"rate"that"outstripped"the"national"supply"of"natural"materials."They" theoretically"could"work"twenty:four"hours"a"day,"seven"days"a"week"and"required"the" necessary"inputs"for"such"activity."What"had"been"a"trickle"of"demand"for"natural"resources" such"as"cotton,"rubber"and"metals"from"new"colonies"such"those"in"South"Asia"and"Africa" became"a"flood."These"resources"were"often"obtained"by"force"from"Britain’s"colonial" subjects."Globalisation,"which"had"theoretically"begun"with"the"first"empires"built"by"the" Egyptians"and"Romans,"became"a"rapid"process"of"marginalisation"of"the"poor"across"the" colonised"world"during"the"nineteenth"century."" During"their"early"development,"experiments"on"air:pumps"and"steam"valves"had"taken" place"in"laboratories"far"from"the"sight"of"the"bulk"of"the"population."The"building"of"the" factories"and"other"sites"of"production"accompanied"industrialisation"were"the"first"time" most"ordinary"people"had"encountered"them."Peasants"and"artisans"had"no"democratic" mechanisms"through"which"they"could"put"the"moral"case"against"these"technologies"based" on"the"damage"to"their"livelihoods."Opposition"took"the"form"of"sporadic"riots"and"machine" breaking"following"the"quasi:judicial"trials"of"the"new"technologies"by"ad:hoc"people’s" courts."This"voice"of"popular"dissent,"which"had"spread"from"the"South"West"to"North"West" and"North"East"England"between"1790"and"1812,"was"eventually"suppressed"by"the"use"of" huge"military"force"by"a"Government"fearful"that"such"radicalism"might"become"a"revolution" on"the"scale"of"that"which"had"taken"place"in"France"just"a"few"years"earlier." The"Luddite"uprisings"mark"a"brief"period"during"which"solidarity"between"everyday"people" forced"policy:makers"to"acknowledge"the"legitimacy"of"a"perspective"derived"from"an" “alternative”"knowledge"system."Though"the"protestors"themselves"were"eventually" tortured,"killed"and"imprisoned,"their"resistance"to"industrial"despotism"inspired"the"growing" labour"movement"across"Europe"and"in"North"America." Until"the"rise"of"the"environmental"movement"in"the"1960s"the"Luddite"rebellion"was"one"of" the"few"challenges"to"the"dominant"knowledge"system"that"characterises"techno:science"in" the"Industrialised"world."It"was"characterised"by"a"more"or"less"relentless"marginalisation"of" all"perspectives"that"did"not"meet"the"narrow"social"and"technical"criteria"set"down"by"the" Industrial"barons"of"the"age." During"the"nineteenth"century"aristocrat"hobbyists"such"as"Charles"Darwin"were"overtaken," numerically"at"least,"by"career"scientists."The"training"of"these"professional"scientists"was" funded"by"the"state"–"particularly"significantly"in"the"UK,"US,"Germany"and"later"Japan"–"in" order"to"cement"their"position"as"predominant"industrial"powers."" Public"opposition"to"technology"that"was"“hurtful"to"the"commonality”"(a"phrase"made" famous"by"the"Luddite"Rebellion"of"1812),"was"a"major"component"to"the"rise"of"nineteenth" century"movements"for"the"democratisation"of"power,"particularly"in"Europe."Yet,"the" system"of"representative"democracy"that"emerged"in"the"early"twentieth"century"did"not" include"any"process"whereby"people"could"help"shape"the"direction"of"scientific"research"or" its"application"via"technology."" A"laissez:faire"attitude"towards"the"imposition"of"technologies"on"people"and"planet"came" naturally"to"the"right:wing"capitalists,"there"was"a"debate"on"the"political"left"in"the"late" nineteenth"century"as"to"the"role"of"industrialised"technologies;"on"one"side"was"what"we" would"now"call"the"green"political"stance"of"guild"socialists,"such"as"William"Morris"and" anarcho:syndicalists"such"as"Pyotr"Kropotkin;"on"the"other"was"the"union:led"industrial" socialism"of"Keir"Hardie"and"Lenin."Soviet"Russia"adopted"a"model"of"communist:industrialist" dictatorship"of"the"proletariat"in"which"democracy"was"dispensed"with"altogether." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 28" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' With"the"backing"of"the"government:industrial"complex,"scientists"became"a"powerful" political"force"during"the"twentieth"century,"thinkers"in"the"humanities"continued"in"Morris’s" tradition"of"questioning"the"assumption"among"opinion:formers"that"anything"to"emerge" from"the"laboratory"could"generally"assumed"to"benefit"society."A"faith"in"scientism,"the" belief"that"experimental"science"constitutes"the"sole"source"of"authoritative"knowledge,"to" the"exclusion"of"other"viewpoints"fed"a"number"of"scientific"movements"of"the"early" twentieth"century,"such"as"eugenics"and"biological"anthropology"that"later"became" discredited"after"their"use"by"the"Nazi"regime"in"Germany."During"the"Cold"War"of"the"forty" years"until"1990,"saw"states"on"both"sides"invest"heavily"in"the"professionalization"of"science." Prime"Minister"of"India,"Nehru,"said"that"“the"future"belongs"to"Science"and"those"who"make" friends"with"science”."" A"journalist"beloved"of"the"scientific"establishment,"C.P."Snow"wrote"an"essay"in"1959," Intellectuals'as'Natural'Luddites,"which"echoed"their"despair"at"the"supposed"ignorance"of" non:scientists"about"scientific"facts."He"made"the"L"word"a"term"of"abuse"that"keepers"of"the" faith"of"scientism"throw"at"anyone"who"dares"to"question"the"direction"being"recommended" by"those"promoting"their"own"pet"area"of"industrial"technology,"or"looks"to"lessons"from" history,"or"dares"to"raises"tricky"issues"relating"to"human"rights."For"Snow’s"descendents"who" follow"his"faith"in"scientism,"including"prominent"scientists"around"the"world,"anyone"calling" for"science"to"be"co:determined"by"democratic"debate"are"effectively"modern:day"Luddites":" backward:looking"romantic"extremists"with"whom"it"is"impossible"to"reason.""Harvard’s" Edward"O."Wilson"says"such"people"would"appear"to"prefer"to"live"“in"thatched"huts"and"die" young”."" The"many"challenges"facing"humanity"are"more"pressing"than"ever."Despite"this,"the" engagement"processes"designed"to"improve"decisions"relating"to"science"and"technology"are" usually"carried"out"against"the"backdrop"of"a"low:level"warfare"between"two"polarised" camps"with"self:reinforcing"world:views."On"the"one"side"are"the"techno:optimists"and" “solutionists”"who"believe"science"and"technology"has"the"answer"to"every"conceivable" problem."On"the"other"side"are"the"techno:sceptics"who"begin"their"assessment"of"any"high: tech"development"that"it"is"likely"to"be"bad"for"social"justice"and"ecological"sustainability." Those"whose"job"is"to"communicate"about"science,"engineering"and"technology"with"others," have"increasingly"shifted"from"a"language"transmitting"'facts'"to"one"that"embraces" participation"and"engagement"in"recent"years"(Irwin"2008)."In"organisations"at"the" international,"national,"regional"and"local"levels"thousands"of"initiatives"have"claimed"to" involve,"consult"and"democratise."" While"some"have"questioned"whether"the"reality"of"two:way"engagement"has"it"lived"up"to" its"aspiration"to"be"ethical"and"democratising","others"have"questioned"the"merits"of" dialogue."" There"has"been"frequent"allegations"that"any"attempt"at"democratic"regulation"would" prevent"the"benefits"of"new"technology"being"realised."In"agricultural"biotechnology"alone," systematic"attempts"to"sideline"democratic"dialogue"in"favour"of"rapid"application"of"new" technologies"have"been"stated"by"a"range"of"scientists"and"Government"Ministers 12."" The"field"of"science"engagement"is"inherently"inter:disciplinary."Our"aim"in"this"book"is"not"to" come"up"with"a"single"over:arching"theory"or"framework,"indisputable"facts"or"set"of" guidelines"or"principles."Borrowing"Donna"Harraway’s"phrase"of"being"a"modest"witnesses," our"objective"in"this"report"has"been"to"reduce"our"own"ignorance"and"share"our"ethical" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 12 "See"http://www.nature.com/nbt/wilma/v16n8.901640135.html"and" https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/rt:hon:owen:paterson:mp:speech:to:rothamsted:research." Accessed"1"December"2013." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 29" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' perspective"on"good"practice."" 2.2*The*history*of*knowledge*systems* Different"knowledge"systems"have"existed"since"the"beginning"of"human"history."Those"that" evolved"among"the"peoples"of"Rift"Valley"of"Africa"would"have"been"different"to"those"in"the" Amazonian"Rainforest"or"Scandinavian"tundra"communities."Though"Shakespeare"and"earlier" writers"used"the"word"to"simply"mean"knowledge,"“science”"is"now"commonly"used"to"refer" to"a"particular"set"of"knowledge"systems"that"arose"in"Europe"during"and"after"the"sixteenth" century"AD."This"is"despite"the"term"only"acquired"this"meaning"in"the"nineteenth"century," when"a"particularly"influential"group"of"historians"led"by"William"Whewell"encouraged"a" belief"that"science"had"been"invented"in"a"Scientific"Revolution"three"hundred"years"earlier." Whewell’s"specific"use"of"the"term"“scientist”"as"someone"who"did"the"particular"kind"of" experimental"science"that"underpinned"the"Industrial"Revolution"rapidly"spread"in"the" English"language,"though"it"remained"less"specific"in"other"European"languages."Technology" came"to"mean"the"application"of"this"science."The"rise"of"the"chemical"industry":"agribusiness" with"its"chemical"fertilisers,"the"beginnings"of"the"pharmaceutical"and"food"industries," telegraphy,"electrification"–"made"science"and"technology"increasingly"intertwined."The" result":"often"termed"“techno:science”":"began"to"produce"increasingly"powerful"effects"on" nature"and"society,"which"were"dramatically"changed"in"the"process." The"word"technology"comes"from"the"Ancient"Greek"“techne”,"meaning"craft."However"it"is" commonly"used"to"mean"the"application"of"knowledge"and"practical"know:how"towards"a" certain"end."" What"we"call"“know:how”"and"the"French"call"“savoir:faire”,"the"Ancient"Greeks"called" “mētis”."It"refers"to"the"kind"of"knowledge"acquired"by"applying"rules"of"thumb"in"concrete" local"situations,"such"as"that"used"by"Homer’s"hero"Odysseus"in"trying"to"escape"form"the" Cyclops."The"simple"acquired"knowledge"of"how"to"drive"a"car,"sail"a"boat,"sheer"a"sheep"or" ride"a"bicycle"all"rely"on"our"capacity"for"this"know:how"or"mētis."Each"activity"is"very"difficult" to"perform"well"from"a"series"of"written"instructions."Technology"has"always"relied"on"the" blending"of"technical"knowledge"with"know:how."" Local*and*bureaucratic*knowledge*systems* Technologies"that"are"controlled"locally"are"far"more"likely"to"be"managed"in"such"a"way"that" allows"communities"to"use"the"new"knowledge"and"power"than"large"scale"technologies" administered"from"a"distance."Yet"while"the"reliance"of"professions"such"as"fire:fighters," earthquake"rescuers"and"paramedics"on"know:how"is"obvious,"the"last"hundred"years"has" seen"a"complete"marginalisation"of"the"know:how"that"underpins"farming,"pastoralism"and" other"activities"undertaken"by"rural"subsistence"communities"such"as"stove"building,"water" harvesting"and"agronomists:biodiversity"conservation."" The"large:scale"development"projects"that"have"characterised"post:war"development"in" many"industrialised"countries,"as"well"as"former"colonies"that"have"inherited"a"technocratic" administrative"culture,"have"begun"to"push"local"know:how"out"of"existence."The" administrative"control"over"technologies"is"passed,"of"necessity,"to"clerks"who"do"not" interact"with"the"local"conditions"much"if"at"all."Be"they"extension"workers,"health"promoters" or"pump:fitters,"these"clerks"work"are"obliged"to"work"in"a"routinised"environment"that" demands"the"meeting"of"targets"that"often"have"little"relevance"to"the"situation"on"the" ground."They"usually"cannot"allow"for"the"differences"in"the"way"a"new"technology"might" either"need"to"be"adapted"to"local"conditions,"or"may"in"fact"be"completely"inappropriate."In" most"cultures,"these"clerks"have"little"knowledge"of"the"culture"of"existing"know:how"of"the" communities"with"which"they"work."They"also"lack"incentives"to"listen"to,"let"alone"create" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 30" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' opportunities"for,"feedback"from"those"whose"livelihoods"and"culture"are"transformed"by" the"new"technology’s"introduction.""" Democracy* Aristotle"wrote"that"democracy"(demos"kratos'W'rule"by"the"people)"was"“a"state"where"the" freemen"and"the"poor,"being"in"the"majority,"are"invested"with"the"power"of"the"state”."It"is" not"clear"whether"he,"or"other"writers"in"Ancient"Greece"meant"this"“investment”"to"mean" that"the"people"actually"ruled,"or"just"had"ultimate"sovereignty."Crucially,"women"and"slaves" were"not"considered"worthy"of"being"given"power"in"this"“democratic”"system,"nor"were" they"in"virtually"any"other"civilisation"for"almost"the"next"two"thousand"years." Until"the"late"Victorian"era"the"English"use"of"democracy"had"negative"connotations"of" “mob:rule”."By"contrast"the"first"political"constitution"of"Rhode"Island"in"1641"used"the"term" to"mean"“popular"government…the"power"of"freemen"to"constitute"the"laws”."The" distinction"between"representative"democracy,"where"the"whole"population"(eventually" including"women)"voted"for"representatives"to"act"on"their"behalf"and"participatory" democracy,"or"“people:power”"where"the"whole"population"was"involved"in"making" decisions"themselves,"was"only"made"late"in"the"eighteenth"century."The"term"people:power" is"useful"because"makes"it"emphasizes"that"democracy"is"a"process"in"which"the"amount"of" power"in"everyday"people’s"hands"can"be"lower"or"higher,"not"something"that"can"only"be" completely"absent"(authoritarianism)"or"evidently"present"(e.g."in"a"“democratic”"state)." Writing"just"after"the"Vietnam"War,"cultural"commentator"Raymond"Williams"suggested"that" “no"questions"are"more"difficult"than"those"of"democracy,"in"any"of"its"central"senses”."" Local*and*global*expertise* Part"of"the"rhetoric"of"those"promoting"the"techno:science"is"that"it"is"universally"applicable" store"of"knowledge"and"applications."However,"all"knowledge"is"created"locally."Substantial" funding"may"ensure"that"its"application"is"widespread,"but"each"individual"application"will"be" always"be"a"local"site"of"experiment."" It"was"the"expansion"of"the"laboratory:based"and"industry:linked"scientific"profession"in"the" nineteenth"century"that"have"it"influence"over"state"and"colonial"funds"–"hence"making"it" global."" Measurement*and*Judgment* During"the"course"of"the"nineteenth"century,"the"emerging"profession"of"science"sought"to" reduce"the"“subjective”"influence"of"the"individual"observer"in"scientific"inquiry."More"and" more"recording"instruments"were"introduced"to"eliminate"the"subjectivity"of"perception," measuring"devices"were"standardised"to"reduce"the"variability"of"observations"by"different" observers,"data"were"tabulated"for"impartial"interpretation."The"design"of"the"recording" instruments,"the"decision"of"what"to"measure"and"the"interpretation"of"the"data"were"all" dependent"of"the"theories"and"values"of"the"observer,"but"such"stratagems"nevertheless"had" the"effect"of"making"science"seem"reliable"in"its"methods"of"producing"supposedly"objective," observer:neutral"facts."" The"model"of"techno:science"that"emerged"in"the"twentieth"century"was"based"on" quantitative"measures"of"all"possible"phenomena."However,"those"studying"how"scientists" act"in"practice"have"noticed"that"in"subjects"where"a"community"of"scientists"feel"secure,"the" insistence"on"rigorous"quantification"and"objectivity"is"often"missing."Instead,"the"scientists" use"rules"of"thumb"and"judgement."However,"expert"judgement"cannot"be"distinguished" from"personal"bias,"so"scientists"don’t"speak"about"it"outside"their"close:knit"communities." The"enormous"premium"put"by"scientists"on"the"“objectivity”"of"techno:science"and"its" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 31" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' ability"to"measure"things"exactly"is"merely"a"communication"strategy"to"public"pressures"that" arise"during"controversies."" In"reality,"the"balance"between"judgement"and"measurement"is"not"so"different"in"science" from"many"other"spheres"of"human"activity."Yet"quantification"has"become"the"watchword" for"all"reliable"knowledge."Furthermore,"quantitative"technologies"used"to"investigate"social" and"economic"life"work"best"if"the"world"they"aim"to"describe"can"be"remade"in"their"image." Eugenics"achieved"this"by"reducing"the"complexities"and"diversity"of"its"human"subjects"into" a"small"number"of"characteristics"that"could"then"be"“improved”"via"selective"breeding."This" example"shows"the"dangers"of"seeing"scientific"reasoning"as"superior"to"that"which"takes" place,"for"example,"in"ethics"or"sociology."Another"example"is"the"so:called"Tragedy"of"the" Commons"thesis"of"Garrett"Hardin,"a"pseudo:scientific"theory"which"led"to"disastrous"land" privatisation"policies"in"former"colonies"during"the"1970s"and"80s."" Knowledge*and*Power* The"exercise"of"power":"whether"it"be"field"trials"of"a"new"crop"of"a"foreign"land"or"the" building"of"a"new"satellite:"becomes"a"location"of"knowledge"formation."Conversely,"every" established"piece"of"knowledge"–"whether"it"be"the"measurement"of"atmospheric"pressure" or"the"results"of"a"clinical"drug"trial":"permits"and"assures"the"exercise"of"power."" Different"knowledge"systems"allow"different"roles"for"specialist"scientists"and"engineers"as" opposed"to"non:specialists."Small:scale"subsistence"agriculturalists"best"sustain"their"health" and"livelihoods"by"continually"reflecting"and"experimenting"with"a"large"number"of"different" elements"on"their"farm"in"ways"that"may"have"been"passed"down"with"modification"from" their"ancestors."The"diverse"elements"might"include,"livestock"health,"soil"fertility,"pest"and" predator"prevalence,"water"supply"and"the"moon"cycle."By"contrast"an"agronomist"managing" an"industrial"scale"monoculture"will"use"the"minimum"number"of"factors,"measured" quantitatively,"to"allow"them"to"predict"future"states"of"these"variables."Unlike"the"small" farmer,"their"aim"is"not"to"manage"the"system"to"secure"a"food"supply"and"livelihood"for" themselves"and"their"animals,"but"rather"to"maximise"the"productivity"of"one"or"two" elements"of"the"system"that"bring"the"maximum"financial"gain." The"question"is"not"just"of"a"choice"of"which"knowledges"we"want"to"characterise"out" politics,"but"also"what"sort"of"politics"do"we"want"to"characterise"our"knowledge"systems?" Knowledge"systems"have"developed"since"the"earliest"human"civilisations."Early"systems"of" governance,"whether"over"city:states"or"whole"empires,"often"appointed"specialists"in" particular"knowledge"systems"–"healers,"road:builders,"weapon"developers"and"even" astronomers."For"most"of"human"history,"issues"of"people:power"and"technology"have"been" passed"down"the"generations"orally,"or"via"the"practice"of"know:how"in"the"field"or" workshop."Much"of"the"rich"interactions"of"people,"knowledge"and"power"that"led"to"such" innovations"as"animal"and"plant"domestication,"the"early"use"of"iron"and"water"harvesting" structures,"has"not"been"available"to"historians"except"in"the"form"of"artefacts."" " Box'1' ' Different'models'of'popular'participation'in'public'policy' ' The'system'of'jury'trial'was'brought'to'Britain'with'the'Norman'invaders'in'1066.'Firmly'established' by'the'time'of'the'Magna'Carta'in'1215,'the'jury'involved'ordinary'people'picked'from'a'wide' population'and'allowed'them'to'hear'from'witnesses,'deliberate'in'secrecy'and'to'reach'a'decision'by' majority'vote'that'would'then'be'announced'publicly.' The'perceived'fairness'of'the'jury'system'led'to'it'being'taken'up'across'Britain'as'a'tool'for'achieving' social'justice.'In'towns'around'the'country'a'people’s'court'often'set'what'was'a'“fair”'price'for' Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 32" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' foodstuffs'such'as'bread'and'grain.'Most'famous'was'the'putting'on'trial'of'technology'by'groups'in' the'North'and'West'of'England'who'became'known'as'the'Luddites.'The'principles'of'the'jury'system' have'been'widely'applied'for'the'assessment'of'new'technologies'during'the'last'decade'via'a' technique'known'as'a'Citizens’'Jury' Following'the'Restoration'in'Britain'in'the'late'seventeenth'century'a'new'model'of'governance'moved' away'from'the'Greek'practice'of'demos'kratos'(power'of'the'people'W'democracy).'Influential'opinionW formers'put'forward'a'contract'between'the'rulers'and'the'ruled'that'attempted'to'reconcile'the' tradition'of'popular'democracy'with'antiWdemocratic'structures'such'as'monarchies,'aristocracies,' slavery,'patriarchy'and'the'emergence'of'a'class'of'wealthy'property'owners.'The'objection'to' democracy'that'has'continued'to'this'day'was'that'it'would'lead'to'a'kind'of'“mobWrule”'and'the' overthrow'of'private'property.'Instead,'theorists'of'Government'such'as'John'Locke'and'James'Mills,' judged'that'only'men'(women'were'ignored)'with'a'certain'amount'of'property'could'be'trusted'with' any'political'power'such'as'a'vote'or'serving'on'a'jury.'This'theory'of'possessive'individualism'saw' those'without'property'as'by'definition'ignorant'and'irresponsible'as'they'lacked'a'stake'in'society.' Such'individuals'thus'had'to'be'excluded'from'society.'Calling'somebody'whose'views'you'thought' were'valid'as'“creditWworthy”,'literally'meaning'someone'to'whom'you'would'lend'money'in'the' expectation'that'it'would'be'repaid,'dates'from'this'time.'' The'model'of'liberal'democracy'that'emerged'from'the'seventeenth'century'could'hardly'be'more' different'from'the'ideals'of'participatory'democracy.'It'had'little'to'do'with'collective'decisionWmaking' by'the'people,'and'more'to'do'with'the'protection'of'the'propertyWowning'individual'from'arbitrary' interference.'Even'that'minority'of'the'population'who'had'the'vote'would'not'be'included'in'the' decisionWmaking'process.'Instead,'such'powers'were'vested'in'elected'“representatives”'who'governed' in'their'stead.'Yet'members'of'parliament'would'retain'as'much'independence'as'they'judged'to'be' necessary'for'political'stability'and'in'their'own'interest.'Most'importantly'for'later'developments'in' the'Industrial'Revolution,'those'with'property'could'interfere'with'the'rights'of'those'with'no'property.' Those'individuals'unlucky'enough'to'be'born'without'property'were'destined'to'have'little'chance'of' those'rights'that'we'now'regard'as'basic'to'civilisation.' " The*impact*of*impact*of*the*colonial*era*on*knowledge*systems* The"European"colonies"that"were"entrenched"during"the"Industrial"Revolution"in"the" Americas,"Africa"and"Asia"were"no"more"morally"repugnant"than"those"of"previous"empires." However,"their""exponentially"rising"demands"for"resources"from"industrialising"economies," especially"that"of"Britain,"led"to"a"level"of"resource"theft"and"consequent"de:skilling"of" peasant"and"artisan"communities"that"made"anything"experienced"by"the"populations"of"the" colonising"country"seem"insignificant."Most"notoriously,"the"scores"of"cotton"mills"of"across" industrial"Lancashire"were"fed"at"the"expense"of"the"livelihoods"of"thousands"of"cotton" weavers"in"rural"India."It"prompted"the"then"Governor:General"of"India,"William"Bentinck,"to" exclaim"in"1835"that"“Their"misery"hardly"finds"a"parallel"in"the"history"of"commerce."The" bones"of"the"cotton:weavers"are"bleaching"the"plains"of"India”"(see"Box"2)."Not"only"local" know:how,"but"vast"stores"of"technical"and"academic"knowledge"from"existing"cultures"in" colonies,"such"as"that"of"the"Mogul"(Asia),"Mayan"(Central"America)"and"Chinese"cultures" were"directly"or"indirectly"destroyed"by"the"European"colonisers."" " Box'2:''Case'Study:'Indian'vernacular'knowledge'crushed'by'colonising'British'science'' ' British'Parliamentary'hearings'that'took'place'in'1844'that'had'a'major'impact'of'the'livelihood'of' India’s'cotton'weavers.'Following'boll'weevil'outbreaks'in'the'United'States,'MPs'concluded'that' increasing'cotton'supplies'from'India'and'Egypt'was'the'only'answer.'' PreWindustrial'projects'of'development'instituted'by'previous'Mogul'and'Hindu'rulers'had'deployed'no' state'power'on'the'knowledge'system'of'the'Indian'farmer.'State'powers'mobilised'under'British'rule,' Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 33" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' however,'were'of'a'much'greater'magnitude.''They'had'deep'local'penetration,'and'they'were' designed'to'influence'the'cropping'systems'of'individual'farms'in'order'to'exploit'the'territory’s' resources'efficiently'and'systematically.' Industrial'mechanisms'of'resource'extraction'moved'from'Europe'to'the'East,'as'raw'materials'and' the'use'of'cheap'labour'moved'in'the'opposite'direction.'British'India'became'a'unified'agricultural' territory'for'technical'analysis'and'maximum'productivity,'under'the'gaze'of'a'hierarchical'and' violently'imposed'scientific'system.'Contemporary'Indian'historian'Prakash'suggests'that'industrial' technologies'“had'to'be'tropicalised,'brought'down'to'the'level'of'the'natives'and'even'forced'upon' them,'so'the'argument'went,'if'Britain'was'to'do'its'work'in'India”.'The'colonies'became,'he'suggests' “under'funded'and'overextended'laboratories'of'modernity”.' The'destruction'of'preWcolonial'industries'and'the'forcing'of'workers'onto'the'land'with'little'aid'from' the'British'Raj'caused'widespread'famine.'State'institutions'and'urban'intellectuals'invented'what'we' now'call'“development”.'Soil'scientists,'chemists,'biologists'and'botanists'did'research'that'was' organised'under'the'Imperial'Council'for'Agricultural'Research,'and'was'catalogued'by'the'Royal' Commission'on'Agriculture.'By'the'1900’s'British'India'had'been'made'into'a'laboratory'for'breeding' new'highWyielding'varieties'fifty'years'before'the'Green'Revolution.''' The'British'Raj'instinctively'valued'the'interests'of'Indians'with'substantial'landholdings.'When' agriculture'departments'invented'and'propagated'new'seeds,'animal'breeds'and'farming'techniques,' they'concentrated'their'efforts'on'the'most'profitable'commercial'crops,'especially'sugarcane'and' cotton.'' A'famine'in'parts'of'the'state'of'Maharashtra'in'1877'came'purely'from'loss'of'the'local'safety'net'of' communal'lands,'which'had'been'sold'off'to'large'land'lords'to'whom'Indian'peasants'worked'as' waged'labourers.'Yet'even'a'small'bit'of'land'that'paid'low'economic'returns'could'provide'more' subsistence'stability'than'agricultural'labour.'The'loss'of'grazing'rights'for'small'farmers'meant'a'fall' in'the'animal'population,'another'source'of'livelihood'and'food'security.'Gradually'the'more' prosperous'villagers'became'the'landed'electorate,'and'the'best'endowed'among'them'became'the' core'of'the'later'Green'Revolution.' The'British'ran'exhibitions'aiming'to'educate'Indians'to'recognise'the'authority'of'the'“Western”' industrial'knowledge'system.'“Unwilling'to'acknowledge'them'as'knowing'subjects,'the'British'had'to' regard'Indians'as'always'less'than'adequate,'always'lacking'some'key'attribute”,'suggests'Prakash.'It' was'a'process'of'dissemination,'not'dialogue.'' Unlike'the'checks'and'balances'that'emerging'democratic'struggles'had'imposed'on'industrialisation' in'Britain,'the'dictatorship'of'the'Raj'meant'that'industrial'Imperial'modernity'was'instituted'across'a' continent'with'far'less'“expense”'(to'the'British'exchequer)'and'far'more'ambition.'' After'independence,'Gandhi’s'untimely'death'meant'that'the'Indian'political'elite'were'left'free'to' smooth'over'the'limits'imposed'by'the'association'of'industrial'science'with'alien'dominance.' Educated'in'Britain'and'with'a'huge'admiration'for'the'power'of'industry,'Nehru,'the'first'Prime' Minister'of'independent'India'proclaimed'on'his'inauguration:' ‘It'is'science'alone'that'can'solve'these'problems'of'hunger'and'poverty,'of'sanitation'and'illiteracy,'of' superstition'and'deadening'custom'and'tradition,'of'vast'resources'turning'to'waste,'of'a'rich'country' inhabited'by'starving'people’.' Rather'than'improving'local'livelihood'systems'as'Gandhi'had'advised,'economic'and'technical' expansion'was'to'be'achieved'by'the'training'of'a'new'class'of'engineers,'agronomist,'accountants,' and'scientists'committed'to'raising'productivity'and'efficiency.' ' The"social"movements"that"fought"for"the"rights"of"workers"in"the"Industrial"Age"were"split" between"those,"like"craftsman"William"Morris"and"Indian"independence"campaigner" Mahatma"Gandhi,"who"believed"that"industrialism"was"part"of"the"enemy"of"working"people," and"others"such"as"Kier"Hardie,"pioneer"of"the"UK"Labour"Party,"Soviet"leader"Lenin,"India’s" first"Prime"Minister,"Nehru,"and"many"within"the"European"labour"movement,"who"believed" that"industrial"expansion"could"only"benefit"workers"so"long"as"the"ownership"of"the"means" of"production"was"collective."The"victory"of"this"second,"urban:based"pro:industrial,"group," Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 34" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' paved"the"way"for"a"left:right"consensus"during"the"last"century"that"has"seen"the"know:how" of"rural"communities"further"marginalised"across"the"globe."For"socialists"and"capitalists,"the" knowledge"system"represented"by"science"and"technology"gradually"replaced"religion"as"the" source"of"prophecy"in"the"modern"world."" The"original"theory"of"property:based"democracy"may"have"been"reasonable"under" conditions"of"emerging"capitalism."The"notion"of"equality"based"on"a"republic"of" smallholders"(farmers,"artisans,"small"business"people)"had"some"function"in"promoting" social"justice"in"pre:industrial"societies,"though"it"excluded"women"and"many"of"the"poor." But"today’s"global"economy"is"almost"completely"owned"by"a"couple"of"thousand"trans: national"corporations"and"banks"creating"an"economic,"and"increasingly"technological," dictatorship."Extending"the"right"to"vote"and"protection"from"the"law"to"all,"whatever"their" economic"power,"may"have"given"the"system"slightly"greater"legitimacy,"but"it"has"not" produced"effective"mechanisms"for"tackling"the"inequalities"of"living"standards"and" livelihood"self:sufficiency"that"leave"a"third"of"the"world’s"population"hungry."Apart"from" niche"markets"for"local"small:holder"produced"food"and"crafts,"the"know:how"rural"people" need"for"their"livelihoods"has"no"significant"economic"or"political"support."" Despite"its"failings,"the"property:based"representative"model"of"democracy"has"effectively" been"exported"to"former"colonies."With"those"developing"scientific"and"technological" innovations"seeing"no"need"to"interact"with"the"people"whose"lives"started"to"be" transformed"by"them,"the"stage"was"set"for"the"“high:modernist”"system"of"knowledge: power"that"has"led"to"the"enrichment"of"a"minority"at"the"expense"of"huge"and"rising"poverty" among"rural"communities"across"the"world."" The"elite"dismissal"of"the"knowledge"possessed"by"everyday"people"was"first"institutionalised" in"the"Royal"Society."During"the"following"four"centuries"it"is"hardly"surprising"that"this" attitude"was"further"entrenched"among"organisations"of"scientists"and"bureaucrat"in"the"UK," its"colonies,"the"US,"and"many"European"countries."During"the"early"twentieth"century,"many" decision:makers"in"governments,"large"corporations"and"even"large"unions"came"to"the"view" that"even"university:educated"non:elites,"generally"referred"to"as"“the"public”,"were"too" ignorant"to"be"allowed"to"participate"in"decision"making"beyond"being"given"the"occasional" chance"to"choose"between"two"or"more"political"representatives"via"a"ballot"box."" The*marginalisation*of*citizen*science*** During"the"early"twentieth"century,"many"decision:makers"in"the"governments"of"industrial" societies,"along"with"large"corporations,"and"even"some"unions,"came"to"the"view"that"only" that"expert"knowledge"that"had"been"commissioned"by"governing"elites"should"guide"the" decisions"of"such"elites."The"emerging"“science”"of"economics"was""a"particular"favourite." Knowledge"held"by"non:elites,"especially"that"of"the"working"class"who"had"not"even"finished" their"schooling"was"of"no"value."Such"ignorant"people"should"to"be"allowed"to"participate"in" decision"making"beyond"being"given"the"occasional"chance"to"choose"between"two"or"more" political"representatives"via"a"ballot"box." This"view"was"bolstered"by"French"social"psychologist"Gustave"Le"Bon’s"1895"book"The' Crowd:'A'Study'of'the'Popular'Mind."The"book"spoke"to"elites"who"were"disturbed"at"what" they"saw"as"the"illiterate"thousands"whose"minds"“had"been"thrown"out"of"kilter"by"the"rack" and"strain"of"modern"life”."The"Paris"Commune"of"1870"and"the"spread"of"socialist"ideas" among"the"Parisian"working"class"were,"to"the"ruling"class,"a"terrifying"example"of"the"danger" of"extending"the"vote"to"the"poor."“The"people"now"rule”,"claimed"Le"Bon,"“We"have" substituted"the"divine"right"of"kings"[with]"the"divine"right"of"the"multitude”."“The"claims"of" the"masses…"amount"to"nothing"less"than"a"determination"to"destroy"utterly"society"as"it" now"exists”."The"crowd"was"“little"adapted"to"reasoning”,"whereas"the"middle"class"were" defined"by"rational"powers"of"“conscious"personality”."“it"is"not"with"rules"based"on"pure" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 35" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' equity"they"are"to"be"led,"but"by"seeking"what"produces"an"impression"on"them,"and"what" seduces"them."""" French"philosopher"Gabriel"Tarde"extended"these"ideas"by"suggesting"that"people’s"opinions" and"conversations"were"no"longer"grounded"in"their"collective"experience,"but"instead"were" experienced"as"individuals"acting"in"a"marketplace."According"to"Tarde,"the"use"of"the"mass" media,"rather"than"attempting"to"elicit"the"opinions"of"the"masses"more"directly,"would"lead" to"greater"social"cohesion"and"erase"the"conflicts"that"had"marked"human"history."As"the" private"rights"of"corporations"were"dependent"on"public"acquiescence,"the"public"should"be" educated"to"a"greater"understanding"of"these"rights."" Good"corporate"relations"–"educating"the"consumer"to"be"more"sympathetic"towards" business,"might"serve"as"a"buffer"to"threats"from"the"masses."In"the"US,"the"phone"company" AT&T"pioneered"public"relations"gimmicks"by"subsidising"local"calls"to"make"telephony"seem" like"a"homely"local,"community:building"activity."They"pioneered"the"use"of"a"homely" women’s"voice"to"transfer"calls."Their"market"research"told"them"that"most"Americans"lived" a"local"existence"and"feared"“bigness”." Walter"Lippman,"like"William"Gilbert"four"centuries"before,"saw"public"opinion"essentially"an" irrational"force.""“So"called"public"opinion"is"generally"nothing"more"than"a"naïve"collective" impulse"which"can"be"manipulated"by"catchwords.”"Serious"public"discussion"of"issues"only" yields"a"“vague"and"confusing"medley”,"a"discord"that"would"make"executive"decision: making"difficult."“Action"cannot"be"taken"until"these"opinions"have"been"factored"down," canalized,"compressed"and"made"uniform”."" Historian"Stuart"Ewen"quotes"pioneer"of"public"opinion"research,"Edward"Bernays:" “the'conscious'and'intelligent'manipulation'of'the'organised'habits'and'opinions'of' the'masses”'is'an'indispensable'feature'of'“democratic'society”.'With'the'masses' pounding'at'the'doors'of'the'“higher'strata'of'society”,'he'noted,'ruling'elites'were' turning'to'propaganda'as'the'scientifically'informed'tool'through'which'much'public' submission'might'be'achieved,'“moulding'the'minds'of'the'masses'that'they'will' throw'their'newly'gained'strength'the'desired'direction”.'' These"efforts"were"opposed"by"philosopher"John"Dewey,"who"described"America"as"a"society" in"which"public"sentiment"was"being"systematically"manufactured.""Opinion"polls"had"already" become"powerful"tools"for"forging"public"opinion."Dewey"also"had"strong"views"on"the"role" of"experts"in"decision:making"that"opposed"the"prevailing"order."" Writing"as"early"as"1909,"Dewey"pointed"to"the"dangers"that"arose"whenever"experts" become"detached"from"the"concerns"of"the"public,"or"when"the"public"is"excluded"from"the" process"of"long:term"social"planning."Unless"both"sides"are"engaged"in"continuous"and" mutually"educative"dialogue,"neither"experts"nor"citizens"are,"he"suggested,"capable"of" utilising"the"full"range"of"tools"available"to"them."He"also"proposed"that"experts"could"never" achieve"monopoly"control"over"knowledge"required"for"adequate"social"planning"because" the"extent"to"which"“they"become"a"specialised"class,"they"are"shut"off"from"knowledge"of" the"needs"they"are"supposed"to"serve"."When"insulated"and"unaccountable,"he"argued,"this" "cadre"of"experts""became"not"a"public"resource,"but"a"public"problem."" While"accepting"that"citizens"must"often"depend"on"experts"for"the"gathering"of"facts"and" construction"of"scenarios,"Dewey"attacked"those"who"dismissed"the"public's"capability"to" participate"in"policy:making."He"suggested"that,"given"the"prevailing"culture"of"secrecy"and" propaganda,"citizens"had"not"been"given"a"fair"chance"to"fulfil"their"potential"in"this"role."It" was"impossible"to"presume"the"quality"of"contribution"citizens"might"make"if"balanced" information"were"available."" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 36" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Despite"being"an"immensely"popular"writer,"Dewey’s"ideas"did"not"find"support"either"in"the" corporate"board"rooms"that"funded"the"public"relations"work"of"Lippman"and"Bernays,"nor" among"the"technocrats"who"were"looking"to"expand"industrial"empires"beyond"North" American"borders"(see"box"3)." Another"vital"element"in"the"loss"of"accountability"of"experts"was"that"knowledge"they" created"came"to"be"seen"as"uniquely"objective"and"therefore"immune"from"scrutiny." Kamminga"describes"a"process"whereby"researchers"were"coerced"into"removing"the" politically"uncomfortable"aspects"of"their"knowledge."Active"around"the"time"of"the"1848" revolutions"against"the"autocratic"Prussian"monarchy,"these"young"laboratory"and"medical" researchers"had"similar"radical"ideas"to"those"of"the"Lunar"Men."" They'were'mostly'liberal'democrats,'socialists,'atheists…'and'they'saw'their'science' as'an'integral'part'of'their'social'and'political'ideals:'being'a'scientist'meant'being'in' the'vanguard'of'intellectual,'social'and'political'progress.'The'conservative'backlash' after'1848,'resulting'in'the'consolidation'of'Prussian'hegemony'(and'eventually'in' the'“iron”'rule'of'Bismark'over'a'unified,'centralized'Germany)'caused'a'large' proportion'of'these'radicals'to'abandon'political'activism…'They'almost'invariably' found'themselves'cooperating'willingly'or'unwillingly,'with'an'authoritarian'state' machinery'which'used'the'scientists’'expertise'for…'the'building'of'a'strong' expansionist'nation,'[which]'went'hand'in'hand'with'the'building'of'state'institutions' for'scientific'research'which'served'the'nation.'' By"the"early"twentieth"century,"Dewey"observed"that"bureaucrats"and"the"powerful" institutions"of"the"state"had"become"blinded"to"the"realities"experienced"by"everyday"people" by"their"own"self:image"as"experts."Nothing"illustrates"this"better"than"US"involvement"in"the" Mexican"Agricultural"Program,"as"documented"by"Bruce"Jennings"in"the"Foundations'of' International'Agricultural'Research"(box"3)." " Box'3:''Case'Study:'The'technical'foundations'of'biotechnology’s'divorce'from'public' accountability.' ' In'1943'a'small'team'of'scientists'funded'by'a'US'foundation'began'work'on'Mexican'agriculture.'The' resulting'Mexican'Agricultural'Programme'(MAP)'shaped'a'model'of'technical'assistance'that'was' taken'up'by'United'Nations'bodies,'bilateral'development'agencies'and'has'now'become'entrenched' in'the'agricultural'systems'of'almost'every'country'in'the'world.' The'Rockefeller'Foundation'had'run'a'medical'mission'in'Mexico'since'1913.'By'the'1930s,'many' Mexican'students'had'studied'public'health'at'American'universities'and'returned'to'serve'in'the' national'health'department.'Some'staff'in'the'mission'pointed'out'that'economic'conditions'were'so' poor'in'rural'Mexico'that'public'health'was'impossible'to'achieve'and'therefore'requested'for'the' Foundation'to'set'up'a'cooperative'programme'with'the'Mexican'government.'Though'this'assistance' was'not'forthcoming,'a'visit'by'three'RockefellerWfunded'scientists'to'look'at'the'prospects'of' improving'Mexican'agriculture'was'organised'in'1941.'Prior'to'the'visit,'the'three'scientists'visited'Carl' Sauer,'a'geography'professor'who'the'Foundation'staff'respected'as'being'familiar'with'Latin'America' and'was'in'sympathy'with'the'Foundations'aim'of'focussing'resources'of'agriculture.'' Sauer'recommended'that'the'improvement'of'the'genetic'base'of'agricultural'crops'be'predicated'on' an'understanding'of'the'relation'of'such'work'to'the'accumulated'knowledge'and'skills'of'the'poorer' farmers.'For'example,'improvements'in'agricultural'production'could'be'directed'to'the'rural'poor'by' considering'the'role'of'various'foods'in'their'kitchens.'The'Indians'of'Mexico'should,'he'recommended' “be'encouraged'that'their'ways'are'good'and'they'need'protection'from'exploitation.”'He'argued'that' the'Foundation’s'campaigns'to'increase'the'cultivation'of'wheat'in'Mexico,'Peru'and'Chile'for'foreign' markets'was'far'less'important'than'the'cultivation'of'legumes'for'indigenous'consumption.'“Mexican' Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 37" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' agriculture'cannot”,'suggested'Sauer,'“be'pointed'towards'the'standardization'of'a'few'commercial' types'without'upsetting'native'economy'and'culture'hopelessly.”'' Sauer’s'concern'for'Mexico’s'small'farmers'reflected'widespread'interest'in'the'US'and'elsewhere'in' the'agricultural'knowWhow'as'defined'by'its'participants.'He'rejected'the'“standardizing'tendencies' flowing'out'from'the'urban'centres'to'strip'the'country'of'its'goods'and'pauperise'it'culturally'as'well' as'often'economically”.'' Despite'Sauer’s'evaluation'being'distributed'to'members'of'the'Foundation,'his'suggestion'of'drawing' on'the'agricultural'knowWhow'and'social'needs'of'the'small'farmers'was'ignored.''The'subsequent' planning'and'management'of'MAP'followed'the'technical'logic'of'maximising'the'commercial' production'of'crops'suited'to'export'markets'that'had'been'pioneered'by'the'British'in'its'colonies'(see' Box'1).' Later'Sauer'would'criticise'the'MAP'as'being'“an'exaggeration'of'that'which'we'have'in'our' experimental'work'in'California;'the'interest'is'directed'away'from'subsistence'or'village'agriculture'to' the'needs'of'city'and'factory'and'on'commodities'that'the'privileged'fraction'of'the'population'can' afford”.'Rockefeller’s'own'nutritional'studies'carried'out'between'1942'and'1945'confirmed'Sauer’s' suspicions.' Though'those'funding'MAP'would'portray'the'role'of'its'agricultural'scientists'as'unproblematic,'but' historian'Bruce'Jennings'describes'the'serious'challenges'and'criticisms'these'interventions'faced.' Sauer’s'criticisms'were'dismissed'by'leaders'of'the'Foundation,'who'accused'him'of'merely'trying'to' protect'Mexicans'“picturesque'folk'ways”.'They'compared'Mexico'to'an'antWhill,'which'people'like' Sauer'was'in'process'of'studying.'“They'resent'any'effort'to'improve'the'ants.'They'prefer'to'study' them'as'they'now'are”,'quipped'one'staff'member'in'a'memo.' MAP’s'backers'at'the'Rockefeller'Foundation'were'keen'to'emphasise'that'their'aims'were'tightly' focussed'around'the'technical'procedures'that'would'lead'to'an'increase'in'the'productivity'of' Mexican'agriculture.'They'did'not'consider'the'social'value'or'consequences'of'their'work'to'be'within' their'purely'technical'remit.'This'began'a'trend'for'all'discussions'of'international'agricultural' development'to'be'dominated'by'technical'rather'than'social'discussions.'Questions'concerning'who' should'own'the'land,'which'members'of'the'community'should'receive'water'or'the'level'of'rent'for' land,'not'to'mention'the'longWterm'environmental'impacts'of'the'techniques'used,'have'been' considered'as'lying'outside'the'scope'of'agronomists.'Not'only'do'most'agronomists'not'include'them' in'the'descriptions'of'agriculture'in'different'parts'of'the'world,'but'they'are'consequently'excluded' from'becoming'part'of'the'problem'the'scientist'sees'as'being'necessary'to'be'solved.'' Excluding'social'causes'of'the'persistence'of'problems'in'agriculture'is'a'political'act,'not'merely'a' technical'omission.'Because'international'agricultural'research'sees'biology'as'the'discipline'from' which'it'seeks'authority,'rather'than'sociology'or'political'economy,'it'has'become'impossible'to'draw' on'other'perspectives'on'solving'problems'of'agricultural'development.'The'Mexican'Agricultural' Program'this'placed'a'foreign'socially'regressive'technological'agenda'that'emphasised'the' quantitative'sciences'of'genetics'and'pathology,'while'excluding'the'vital'questions'of'who'would' benefit'from'the'increased'production.'It'was'significant'because'the'programme,'and'the'Foundation,' were'hugely'influential'in'the'establishment'of'the'CGIAR.'' In'the'1960s,'the'MAP'became'one'of'the'thirteen'international'research'centres'of'the'CGIAR,'whose' mandate'was'to'provide'research'in'order'to'provide'sufficient'food'to'feed'the'world’s'hungry' populations.'By'1983,'the'three'United'Nations'organisations'–'the'World'Bank,'the'Food'and' Agriculture'Organisation'and'the'Development'Programme'–'had'been'joined'by'representatives'of' twenty'national'governments'and'several'major'foundations.'The'authority'of'the'different' international'centres'is'supposed'to'be'based'on'the'quality'of'their'science'and'the'extent'to'which'it' furthers'CGIAR’s'mandate.'Despite'the'universal'consensus'among'social'analysts'that'malnutrition'is' as'much'caused'by'social'and'political'factors'as'the'total'sum'of'food'available'–'either'locally'or' globally,'CGIAR'still'maintains'a'role'that'purely'deals'with'the'technical'aspects'of'agriculture.'' " Evaluations"of"the"potential"for"public"debate"in"guiding"future"scientific"and"technological" innovation"has"to"look"at"the"lessons"of"so:called"the"Green"Revolution."With"its"origins"in" the"Mexican"experiment,"the"Green"Revolution"had"its"deepest"roots"in"the"almost"magical" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 38" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' powers"that"many"among"the"world’s"political"elites"in"the"post"war"period"attributed"to"the" techno:scientific"approach"compared"to"the"stagnant"ignorance"of"the"“primitive”"peoples." More'than'half'the'people'of'the'world'are'living'in'conditions'approaching'misery.' Their'food'is'inadequate.'They'are'victims'of'disease.'Their'economic'life'is'primitive' and'stagnant.'Their'poverty'is'a'handicap'and'a'threat'both'to'them'and'to'more' prosperous'areas.'For'the'first'time'in'history,'humanity'possesses'the'knowledge' and'the'skill'to'relieve'the'suffering'of'these'people…I'believe'that'we'should'make' available'to'peaceWloving'peoples'the'benefits'of'our'store'of'technical'knowledge'in' order'to'help'them'realise'their'aspirations'for'a'better'life…And'the'key'to'greater' production'is'a'wider'and'more'vigorous'application'of'scientific'and'technical' knowledge.'President'Truman,'20'January'1949' The"rarely:spoken"motivation"behind"much"of"the"Western"investment"in"agricultural" development"during"this"time"was"stopping"the"spread"of"communism."As"post:war"events"in" poor"agrarian"nations"such"as"China,"Vietnam"and"Indonesia"had"shown,"rural"peasants" found"political"movements"promoting"the"re:distribution"of"land"appealing."Transforming" relatively"autonomous"self:sufficient"smallholders"into"waged"labourers"on"larger"farms"had" the"political"effect"of"weakening"support"for"redistributive"political"forces." India,"which"then"as"now"contains"more"malnourished"rural"poor"than"any"other"country,"did" establish"policies"promoting"land:redistribution"from"the"1950s"onwards."But"the"lack"of" political"and"legal"rights"available"to"marginalised"rural"people,"most"of"whom"had"been" denied"education"and"still"suffered"tremendous"caste"discrimination,"meant"that"in"practice" India"followed"the"same"trend"of"greater"concentration"of"land"holdings"by"those"farmers" who"were"already"comparatively"wealthy."" In"India,"where"there"has"been"a"greater"amount"of"data"available"than"in"many"other"less: industrialised"countries,"replacing"small"farms"with"large"ones"was"justified"on"the"basis"that" larger"ones"would"be"more"productive."This"assumption"had"little"basis"in"evidence"from" many"observations"of"what"really"happened"in"farmers’"fields."Furthermore,"there"was" evidence"that"village"officials"were"sometimes"inflating"the"production"figures"from"Green" Revolution"varieties"in"order"to"gain"favour"from"the"state"agricultural"extension"officers."" In"the"1960s,"the"proportion"of"land"controlled"by"large"farmers"(over"20"acres)"in"India’s" most"productive"region,"Punjab,"had"increased"by"ten"per"cent,"with"those"controlling"100"or" more"acres"having"increased"by"forty"per"cent."It"was"these"larger"farmers"who"could"afford" the"inputs"necessary"for"the"high:yielding"varieties"available"via"the"CGIAR"system,"and"the" previously"self:reliant"small"farmers"who"had"to"work"on"their"land"to"provide"essential" income."While"aggregate"agricultural"production"per"person"rose,"the"proportion"of"people" in"poverty"stayed"the"same."By"1980,"India"had"built"up"huge"stores"of"food"grains,"yet"three" quarters"of"its"rural"population"continued"to"go"hungry."" Studies"by"both"participatory"and"conventional"academic"researchers"have"now" comprehensively"challenged"long:standing"claims"that"the"Green"Revolution"benefited"the" livelihoods"and"health"of"small"farming"communities." During"the"Cold"War,"Western"government’s"faith"in"the"Green"Revolution"went"hand"in" hand"with"a"faith"in"the"far:sightedness"of"corporations,"even"trans:national"corporations" was"shared"by"many"otherwise"independent:minded"scientists,"even"those"who"were" otherwise"supportive"of"the"ecological"movement."" Corporations"have"become"the"world’s"most"powerful"de"facto"bearers"of"sovereignty,"in"the" sense"that"they"are"likely"to"prevail"against"any"opposition."During"the"past"two"decades"a" range"of"analysts"have"warned"of"the"unchecked"power"of"trans:national"corporations"in" national"and"global"economies,"and"in"international"politics."Many"believe"that"the"market"is" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 39" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' now"too"fickle,"easily"manipulated"and"only"occasionally"linked"to"the"needs"of"society"to" have"a"central"place"in"guiding"the"direction,"priorities"and"work"practices"of"science." Industry"will"always"invest"in"science"for"profit,"not"to"increase"overall"knowledge,"freedom" of"inquiry,"professional"integrity"or"for"material"public"benefits."Defenders"of"corporations" are"keen"to"point"out"that"Chernobyl"occurred"under"state"control,"while"the"earlier"Three" Mile"Island"nuclear"incident"occurred"under"corporate"control"and"was"far"less"serious." However"iconic"events"of"the"last"thirty"years"Bhopal,"Shell"in"Nigeria"and"Monsanto’s" terminator"technology"tell"a"different"story."" Academic"science’s"scientific"strength"and"prestige"attracts"industries"seeking"profit,"often"to" the"detriment"of"scientific"integrity"and"public"well:being."Finding"qualified"scientists"without" industrial"ties"to"undertake"technical"performance"assessments,"never"mind"social"critiques," of"pharmaceutical"drugs"is"increasingly"difficult."The"editor"in"chief"of"New"England"Journal" of"Medicine"(NEJM)"once"remarked"that"often,"“we’ve"had"to"give"up"because"the"first"five" or"six"people"on"the"list"all"had"conflicts”.""Technical"performance"of"agricultural" technologies"is"often"measured"by"company"themselves"in"field"trials."Revolving"door"and" financially:influenced"judgements"between"academe"and"industry"have"burgeoned"over"the" past"decades."" Having"stayed"out"of"science"in"the"late"1980s"and"early"1990s,"corporations"came"back"to" funding"science"by"drawing"more"professors"into"trading"their"academic"independence"for" consulting"fees"and"stock"options."A"recent"case"of"the"removal"of"a"Board"member"of"the" Wellcome"Trust"in"the"UK"has"highlighted"concerns"about"the"grey"ethical"area"between" academia"and"industry."Some"academics"have"attempted"to"develop"ethical"codes,"but" commercial"pressures"prevent"academic"institutions"to"provide"any"sort"of"critical" counterweight"to"the"profit:driven"research"agendas"of"large"corporations."US"universities" alone"receive"$1"billion"in"royalties"from"commercial"inventions."The"rights"to"intellectual" property"of"universities"is"exercised"with"little"attention"to"the"resource"and"property"rights" of"the"many"marginalised"groups"who"have"often"provided"the"raw"materials"for"these" innovations"–"particularly"in"the"area"of"biotechnology."" Academic"career"structures"and"Government"evaluations"of"research"quality"such"as"the" UK’s"Research"Excellence"Framework,"value"research"only"by"the"supposed"“prestige”"of"the" journal"to"which"academics"submit"articles."High"status"journals"are"those"that"are"either" based"on"experimental"data,"or"are"highly"abstract."By"definition"such"journals"have"little" relevance"to"policy.""" It"is"hardly"surprising"therefore"that"funding"is"rarely"available"to"investigate"the" consequences"of"these"trends."Policy:makers"and"corporations"are"regularly"heard"to" complain"about"the"lack"of"volume"of"academic"literature"available"to"back"up"arguments" put"by"those"aiming"to"provide"an"alternative"perspective"to"their"own."" Yet"most"funding"systems"for"science"and"social"research"ensures"that"there"will"neither"be" support"from"universities"in"carrying"out"such"studies,"nor"academic"journals"interested"in" publishing"them."John"Abraham’s"Science,'Politics'And'The'Pharmaceutical'Industry"–"a"study" of"the"corporate"capture"of"regulatory"mechanisms"of"pharmaceutical"technologies"is"a"rare" exception."" 2.3*The*future*of*technocracy* During"the"twentieth"century,"techniques"were"devised"to"isolate"and"domesticate"those" aspects"of"key"variables"that"might"be"expressed"in"numbers"–"a"nation’s"wealth"by"its"gross" national"product,"public"opinion"by"poll"numbers,"values"by"psychological"surveys"and" development"by"key"indicators."The"desire"to"deduce"universal"laws"in"the"life"sciences," hence"allowing"the"same"amount"of"prediction"and"control"as"in"the"physical"sciences," Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 40" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' produced"what"many"now"acknowledge"to"have"been"an"over:investment"in"the"molecular" as"opposed"to"the"ecological"aspects"of"biology"and"evolution."" After"two"hundred"years"during"which"technical"knowledge"–"the"power"of"numbers"–"has" dominated"our"culture,"it"have"become"so"pervasive"as"to"be"almost"inescapable."" Technical"approaches"are"most"suited"to"activities"that"have"a"singular"end"or"goal,"an"end" that"is"specifiable"apart"from"the"activity"itself,"and"one"that"is"susceptible"to"quantitative" measurement."In"agriculture,"such"technical"reformulations"have"translated"into"crude" experiments"to"maximise"the"number"of"kilos"of"a"crop"at"least"cost"per"acre,"as"revealed" through"one:variable:at:a:time"trials"conducted"on"experimental"plots."Issues"of"farming"life" and"community,"family"needs,"long:term"soil"structure,"ecological"diversity"and"sustainability" cannot"easily"be"included"in"this"technical"scheme."Thus,"the"success"of"GM"crops"in"virtually" all"trials"carried"out"during"the"last"ten"years,"has"been"measured"via"mechanical"formulas"of" efficiency"of"production"and,"more"recently,"insect"biodiversity."Both"ends"are"simple," sharply"defined"and"hence"measurable,"yet"of"often"insignificant"relevance"to"a"small"farmer." The"increased"financial,"ecological"and"health"risks"taken"by"such"a"farmer"are"not"included" in"the"assessment." Most"institutions"of"science"are"bureaucratically"calcified"and"averse"to"any"thinking"that" might"challenge"their"established"practices"and"hierarchies."The"technocratic"cultures"of" national"and"global"bureaucracies"have"also"had"a"corrupting"influence"on"science"funding." Academic"“pure”"scientists"shun"conventional"politics,"while"vigorously"employing"non: electoral"techniques"for"obtaining"government"money."" 2.4*Gender*equality** Issues"of"gender"have"been"central"to"the"development"of"both"democracy"and"technology," but"have"been"little"discussed"until"the"last"two"decades."" Women"have"been"excluded"from"decision:making"structures"in"many"cultures,"for"hundreds" of"years."Excluded"from"political"participation"in"ancient"Greece,"they"were"denied"the"vote" in"most"countries"until"sometime"in"the"twentieth"century."Even"when"women’s" participation"has"been"allowed,"men"have"tended"to"take"on"public"roles"in"the"household," while"women"take"on"the"more"private"domestic"roles"of"cook,"cleaner"and"carer."Even"in" successful"movements"to"democratise"technology,"such"as"the"Movement"for"the"Landless" (MST),"women"had"to"form"their"own"rival"organisation"before"the"male"dominated"union" took"notice"of"the"potential"contribution"could"make"to"decision:making"within"the" organisation.""In"the"emerging"area"of"information"and"communication"technology,"men"are" far"more"likely"to"have"the"training"to"make"use"of"computers,"mobile"phones"and"the" Internet"than"women."" In"the"development"of"new"technologies"for"use"by"everyday"people"in"less"industrialised" countries,"divisions"between"men"and"women"are"analogous"to"the"presumed"difference" between"Western"techno:science"and"local"traditions:"Men"are"seen"as"technological" innovators,"whereas"women"are"seen"as"recipients"with"traditional"cultural"practices"that" need"to"be"changed."Whereas"men"design"new"stoves"with"Western"engineers,"women’s" fuel"conservation"techniques"are"considered"a"“cultural"practice”."The"eco:feminism" advocated"Carolyn"Merchant"and"Vandana"Shiva"that"identify"women"as"“mother"nature”"as" suggest"techno:science"to"be"an"oppressor"of"women’s"role"as"nurturer"of"the"natural"world" has"been"accused"of"merely"adding"to"this"problem."Women’s"knowledge"is"rarely"assumed" to"be"the"result"of"innovation"or"experiment,"but"rather"of"tradition." In"technology"as"with"other"realms"of"social"and"economic"study,"gender"analysis"is"seen"by" organisations"as"something"that"should"be"done"by"women"for"women,"rather"than" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 41" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' something"that"both"men"and"women"should"address."Even"NGOs"often"marginalise"status" of"gender"analysis"within"the"organisation,"despite"their"commitment"to"promoting"gender" equality."In"Whose'Development?:'An'Ethnography'of'Aid,"Emma"Crewe"suggests"that"this" “re:establishes"a"social"order"within"which"men"are"continually"recreated"as"the"dominant" class…men"are"experts,"men"travel…women"make"tea"and"organise"the"logistics”."" Crewe’s"experience"is"mirrored"by"studies"within"most"of"the"major"international"donor" agencies."One"recent"study"suggested"that"all"agencies"working"in"the"water"sector"showed"a" wavering"commitment"to"gender"over"time,"which"often"takes"a"back"seat"to"the" technological"demands"of"water"provision."The"need"for"rapid"and"wide"coverage"of"water" schemes,"in"order"to"generate"simple,"strong"messages"for"fundraising,"and"demonstrable" impact"for"accountability"purposes"usually"dominate,"even"while"agencies"acknowledge"the" need"for"communities"to"take"control"of"the"technology,"to"speak"for"themselves"and"take" ownership"if"projects"are"to"be"sustainable."" Often"both"staff"and"trustees"of"these"organisations"feel"that"a"focus"on"gender"will"detract" from"agencies"ability"to"grow"and"expand"its"technical"water"provision"in"line"with"targets" they"have"agreed."However"evaluations"that"take"women’s"rights"as"central"have"shown"that" The"way"that"water"projects"were"carried"out"tended"to"maintain"existing"unequal"social" relations"–"gender,"caste,"and"class"relations"within"the"communities"continued"as"before," ensuring"the"domination"and"control"of"resources,"including"water,"predominantly"by"men"of" high"caste"or"class."Also,"women’s"involvement"in"committees"was"seldom"meaningful"as" decisions"were"still"predominately"made"by"male"members."The"amount"of"time"women" were"spending"collecting"water"was"reduced,"but"that"this"time"was"filled"with"other" livelihood"work"and"was"not"necessarily"improving"women’s"conditions"or"position"in"their" community." Science"and"technology"is"still"dominated"by"white"men"from"well:off"backgrounds"and"with" little"training"or"insight"into"the"lives"of"women,"especially"those"from"marginalised" communities."No"area"of"science"illustrates"this"better"than"research"and"new"technologies" relating"to"the"HIV/AIDS"pandemic."" Of"the"drugs"that"have"been"developed"to"tackle"the"symptoms"of"HIV/AIDS,"very"few"have" been"tested"systematically"on"women,"especially"pregnant"women."Yet"both"these"groups" make"up"a"substantial"and"growing"proportion"of"those"with"the"virus."In"sub:Saharan"Africa," women"account"for"more"than"50%"of"those"infected"."There"is"anecdotal"evidence"that"the" side"effects"of"taking"the"drugs"are"very"different"from"those"displayed"by"men."There"is"also" evidence"that"HIV"treatments"are"far"more"available"to"men"than"women,"because"men"have" more"mobility,"higher"levels"of"literacy"and"money"to"pay"for"either"the"drugs"and"other" costs"associated"with"obtaining"them."" HIV"drug"treatments"often"need"to"be"administered"along"side"support"and"care,"which"again" is"less"available"to"women"than"to"men."Cervical"cancer"is"an"extremely"common"side:effect" of"HIV"infection"among"women,"yet"few"in"poorer"countries"have"access"to"testing"schemes." Women"are"forced"to"access"HIV"services"via"ante:natal"clinics,"which"shows"an"institutional" vision"of"women"as"being"valued"only"around"the"time"of"giving"birth."Older"women,"who" also"suffer"high"HIV"prevalence"therefore"find"it"hard"to"access"treatments."" The"International"Community"of"Women"living"the"HIV/AIDS,"which"has"compiled"much"of" the"evidence"relating"to"these"trends,"has"also"organised"workshops"at"which"women"with" HIV"are"able"to"engage"with"policy:makers"on"improving"the"access"of"women"to"HIV" diagnosis"and"treatments"such"as"cervical"smear"tests"and"anti:retro:viral"drugs." Agriculture"is"another"area"where"hi:tech"innovations"have"had"a"generally"disempowering" effect"on"women"compared"to"men."Whereas"over"half"agricultural"tasks,"including"many"of" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 42" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' the"skill"work"of"seed"sowing"and"seed"saving,"had"been"carried"out"by"women"in"the"past." The"Green"Revolution"technologies"were"more"easily"taken"up"by"those"with"literacy"–" usually"more"common"among"men."Men"therefore"took"increasing"control"over"key" agricultural"decisions"and"the"finances."Women"thus"lost"much"of"their"autonomy"in"being" able"to"feed"themselves"and"their"children,"especially"since"new"techniques"involved"loans" that"might"easily"be"misused"by"male"household"members,"with"the"impacts"of"debt"being" visited"on"the"whole"family."The"Prajateerpu"initiative"(see"section"x"below)"enabled"a" majority"of"marginalised"women"farmers"to"have"a"say"in"the"future"of"agricultural" technology"in"their"region"of"India." 2.5*How*people*are*disempowered*by*current*modes*of*science* communication* The"ability"of"non:elites,"especially"those"living"in"rural"areas,"to"hold"accountable"those"who" develop"new"technologies"that"could"transform"their"livelihoods"and"health"has"decreased" with"the"concentration"of"economic"and"political"power"in"industrialised"cities."Though"there" are"thousands"of"examples"of"this"“ghettoisation"of"the"rural”,"a"powerful"example"comes" from"Andhra"Pradesh"in"Southern"India." BOX'4''Agricultural'Technology'and'Farmer'Suicides'in'SouthernIndia,'1997[8' ' As'an'illustration'of'the'deWskilling'and'pauperising'effects'of'current'modes'of'science'communication,' AR'Vasavi’s'research'in'Southern'India,'summarised'in'Harbingers'of'Rain'is'particularly'insightful.' Bidar'is'a'predominantly'semiWarid'region'on'the'border'of'Karnataka'and'Andhra'Pradesh'in'Southern' India.'Between'December'1997'and'May'1998'twentyWthree'cases'of'suicide'were'reported'from'Bidar' and'the'neighbouring'district'of'Gulbarga.'Vasavi'had'been'making'an'agricultural'and' anthropological'study'of'the'area'for'several'years,'and'was'asked'to'return'to'Bidar'to'further' examine'the'pervasive'distress'in'the'region'and'the'suicides'that'are'its'latest'symptom.'Her' conclusion'is'that'the'suicides,'which'are'a'small'part'of'an'epidemic'of'such'cases'throughout'the' poorer'areas'of'India,'point'to'larger'and'more'pervasive'crises'in'semiWarid'areas'of'India.' Of'the'total'area'of'Bidar,'82'per'cent'is'used'for'agriculture,'with'only'8'per'cent'fed'by'canal' irrigation.'The'rest'is'rain'fed,'with'the'betterWoff'farmers'using'wells'or,'if'power'can'be'afforded'for' pumps,'tube'wells.'Bidar'is'one'of'the'poorest'districts'in'Southern'India,'with'the'majority'of'farmers' owning'less'than'two'hectares'of'land,'and'widespread'sharecropping.'Limited'by'the'low'rainfall'and' soil'type,'preWGreen'Revolution'agriculture'was'mostly'dry'cultivation'or'rainWdependent'cultivation'in' which'a'diverse'range'of'local'sorghum'varieties'were'grown'in'combination'with'oil'seeds,'wheat'and' other'cereals.'Green'manures'such'as'sannhemp'and'diancha'were'widely'grown'and'helped'maintain' the'fertility'of'the'soil,'and'decreased'the'chances'of'pests'and'diseases'taking'hold.'Agriculturalists' were'thereby'able'to'be'selfWreliant'for'most'agricultural'inputs.'During'1966W7'Government'scientists' and'planners,'whose'experience'largely'came'from'agroWecological'regions'with'high'rainfall,' introduced'new'varieties'of'sorghum,'paddy,'wheat'and'sugar.'During'1972W4'the'region'suffered'a' prolonged'drought'that'brought'about'widespread'scarcity.'Rather'than'evaluating'the'effects'the' introduced'crops'might'be'having'on'local'farmers,'however,'the'government'pressed'ahead'with'a' scheme'to'promote'Green'Revolution'packages'of'highWyielding'seeds'and'chemical'inputs.'' ' Whilst'richer'farmers'learn'from'agricultural'assistants,'company'representatives'and'each'other,'they' are'unlikely'to'share'this'knowledge'with'the'lower'castes'to'which'the'poorer'cultivators'belong.'With' no'formal'instruction,'these'marginalised'groups'merely'try'to'watch'and'guess'what'their'more' prosperous'neighbours'are'doing.'Negligence'by'the'promoters'of'Green'Revolution'methods' therefore'led'to'poorer'cultivators'having'much'lower'average'yields'than'if'the'techniques'had'been' used'correctly.'This'is'in'addition'to'frequent'health'problems'that'arose'from'the'incorrect'and'unsafe' application'of'these'chemicals,'which'are'often'poisonous.'' Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 43" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Told'that'their'problems'are'a'result'of'their'own'ignorance,'these'lower'caste'cultivators'feel'helpless' in'the'face'of'the'crises'that'often'arise.'The'particular'trigger'for'the'1997W8'crisis'was'an'epidemic'of' the'Helicoverpa'armigera'insect.'The'1997'insect'outbreak'saw'widespread'crop'loss'among'smaller' cultivators'and'consequently'spiralling'debt,'not'least'because'of'the'pesticides'that'the'farmers'had' been'wrongly'encouraged'to'buy'to'control'the'outbreak.'Vasavi'believes'that'although'climatic' conditions'created'the'ecological'trigger'for'the'growth'of'the'pest,'it'was'the'agencies'promoting' Green'Revolution'pigeon'peas'and'their'required'inputs'that'put'small'cultivators'in'the'position'of' vulnerability'to'pest'attack.'' Having'displaced'‘local'knowledge'and'locally'appropriate'practices’,'Green'Revolution'promoters' allowed'the'spread'of'a'new'system'of'agriculture'without'‘ensuring'the'proper'dissemination'and' practice'of'new'knowledge’.'Finally,'with'a'large'number'of'small'cultivators'in'acute'distress,'the' extension'and'support'apparatus'was'unable'or'unwilling'to'provide'support,'with'the'result'that' many'chose'to'take'their'own'lives.'People'who'had'lost'hundreds'of'dollars'(US)'per'hectare'were' compensated'with'a'few'hundred'rupees'–'less'than'$US10.'‘The'government’'recounts'Vasavi,'‘has' disbursed'cheques'for'sums'so'paltry'that'it'does'not'even'cover'the'bus'ticket'needed'to'cash'the' cheque.’'' " Vasavi"notes"that"Green"Revolution"technologies"have"led"to"small"cultivators,"who"had" previously"shared"agricultural"knowledge"and"practices"with"extended"family"and"caste," becoming"increasingly"isolated"as"atomised"economic"units."In"communities"where" cultivators"came"to"have"closer"links"to"the"market"than"to"their"neighbours,"crop"loss" becomes"a"personal"crisis"rather"than"something"that"joint"households"could"combat" together."The"uniformity"of"loss"of"honour"when"a"crops"fails"and"debts"increase"is"now"a" tragedy"ghettoised"to"an"individual"family,"increasing"the"sense"of"shame"and"isolation" among"those"who"are"already"the"most"socially"excluded." Vasavi’s"work"points"to"a"diverse"and"self"reinforcing"range"of"detrimental"impacts"of"Green" Revolution"technologies"on"the"poorest"cultivators"in"Southern"India."New"technologies" came"to"Bidar"and"different"parts"of"Andhra"Pradesh"via"institutions"ranging"from" international"agencies"to"local"agents"that"had"a"very"clear,"though"perhaps"sometimes" unconscious,"bias"in"favour"of"large,"English:speaking"landowners."This"powerful" combination"of"the"imposition"of"inappropriate"high:input"technologies"and"institutional" bias"undoubtedly"acted"to"the"detriment"of"small"cultivators"who"were"either"non:literate"or" literate"only"in"their"local"language."" A"government:appointed"commission"produced"a"report"in"late"1998"implying"that"many"of" the"suicides,"which"continued"on"into"1999,"2000"and"2001,"actually"arose"from"other"causes" and"were"faked"as"suicides"to"receive"compensation."Other"sections"of"the"government"have" advised"that"the"best"solution"to"the"crisis"is"to"send"psychiatrists"to"the"affected"regions."As" Vasavi"argues"‘resorting"to"psychological"arguments"is"to"deny"the"social"and"economic"basis" of"such"distress’"and"‘helps"deflect"attention"from"the"deep"rooted"problems"in"the"content," orientation,"and"implementation’"of"government"agricultural"policies"that"promote"GR" technologies"and"worsen"already"prevalent"social"exclusion."" Looking"at"the"country"as"a"whole,"Sainath"has"shown"how"the"period"during"which"GR" technologies"have"been"introduced"in"India"has"been"accompanied"by"an"increase"in"poverty" and"social"exclusion,"in"rural"India."Out"of"the"eight"hundred"million"malnourished"people"in" the"world,"one"third"are"still"in"India."Unlike"many"other"Third"World"countries,"most"of" these"ultra:poor"are"in"rural"areas."In"the"1990s"forty"million"more"Indian"citizens"fell"into" destitution."Around"40%"of"India’s"poorest"are"landless"labourers,"45%"are"marginal"farmers" and"7.5%"are"rural"artisans."Untouchables"(‘Dalits’),"women"and"indigenous"peoples"(‘tribals’" or"‘adivasis’)"account"for"most"of"these"three"groups."For"the"bulk"of"the"poor,"land,"water" and"(especially"for"adivasis)"forests"remain"the"most"important"resources."" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 44" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' " Despite"the"headline"claims"for"the"production"achievements"of"the"Green"Revolution," implying"that"more"mouths"are"being"fed"in"India,"recent"statistics"tell"a"different"story." Nutritional"data"suggest"that"average"calorie"intake"declined"steadily"in"both"rural"and"urban" areas"between"1973"and"1994"–"the"years"of"greatest"increase"in"agricultural"production." There"were"only"two"states"that"saw"calorie"intake"rise,"which"were"the"only"ones"to" introduce"effective"redistribution"of"land"and"credit"to"the"landless"–"Kerela"and"West" Bengal."This"supports"Vasavi’s"assertion"that"the"crisis"in"Bidar"was"caused"by"the"imposition" of"Green"Revolution"technology"in"combination"with"the"‘retention"of"the"socially"iniquitous" social"structures"that"form"the"bedrock"of"producing"distress’."The"ability"of"urban"groups"to" organise"politically"also"creates"anti:rural"bias"in"policies"in"many"parts"of"the"world." 2.6*Final*thoughts* The"stories"told"here"are"only"partial"accounts"and"may"contain"details"that"some"may" dispute."However,"what"is"undeniable"is"that"those"in"positions"of"influence"and"power"are" repeatedly"failing"to"learn"the"lessons"of"history"in"science"communication."The"branding" culture"of"consumer"capitalism"has"influenced"the"profusion"of"catchy"acronyms"and"names" that"have"been"attached"to"the"various"tools"aimed"at"engaging"everyday"people"with" techno:science"and"those"who"make"decisions"about"our"future."Examples"include"the" deliberative"polls,"citizens’"juries,"scenario"workshops,"consensus"conferences"and" deliberative"mapping."Each"of"these"techniques"can"be"applied"in"a"way"that"could"reduce" the"power"everyday"people"to"influence"decisions"made"by"a"technocratic"elite."However," they"can"all"be"applied"in"a"different"way"that"will"increase"it."Each"requires"both"an"attitude" that"respects"people’s"right"to"a"voice"and"the"rules"of"thumb,"know:how"and"good" judgement"that"is"necessary"in"the"use"of"any"methodology."" There"is"an"urgent"need"for"an"improved"discourse"about"the"politics"of"science" communication,"based"on"hearing"from"people"whose"perspectives"have"been"marginalised." A"re:visioning"of"research"around"the"food"system,"health"and"the"environment"provides"one" useful"route"to"including"these"new"voices"(http://ourfood.org.uk/)."Such"initiatives"have" roots"in"history,"accounts"of"which"can"that"hopefully"helps"future"science"communicators" learn"some"of"the"lessons"of"those"who"struggled"before"them.""" " " Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 45" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Chapter"3"" ‘Lost"in"translation’:"top:down"approaches"to" public"participation."" * Bruna'De'Marchi' SVT'['Centre'for'the'Study'of'the'Sciences'and'the'Humanities,' University'of'Bergen,'Bergen,'Norway' * * 3.1*Introduction*and*theoretical*background* The"expression"“public"participation”"can"be"understood"in"different"ways,"also"according"to" the"context"in"which"it"is"used."As"an"umbrella"expression,"it"can"be"taken"to"mean"any"kind" of"involvement"of"the"citizens"in"the"res'publica."It"includes"both,"individual"and"collective," organized" action" and" forms" as" different" as" voting," party" and/or" association" membership," political" activism," and" public" protest." However," as" it" is" nowadays" most" commonly" used," ”public" participation”" refers" to" forms" of" engagement" other" than" the" ones" characterizing" liberal" democracies." It" directs" attention" to" the" “civil" society”" and," in" particular," to" tensions" originating" in" it" also" as" a" result" of" dissatisfaction" with" the" political" system" and" its" consolidated" forms" of" public" representation." This" has" been" traditionally" the" territory" of" students" of" collective" behavior" and" social" movements" in" particular," but" customary" conceptual"categories"have"become"obsolete"also"due"to"the"new"possibilities"of"action"and" interaction" made" extensively" and" rapidly" available" by" the" ICT" (information" and" communication"technology)."* On" the" more" theoretical" front," the" notion" of" deliberative" democracy" and" its" different" declinations" in" relation" to" liberal" democracy" has" been" discussed" by" many" scholars" in" different"disciplinary"fields,"notably"philosophy,"political"science,"law,"and"sociology."It"is"not" the" place" here" to" expand" on" such" theoretical" debate," but" it" is" important" to" recall" it" as" a" background" of" the" issues" that" will" be" more" directly" addressed" in" this" article." Indeed" theoretical" attention" is" both" a" response" and" an" anticipation" of" social" and" political" change," specifically" on" the" ways" in" which" liberal" " democracies" attempt" to" construct" consensus" and" regulate"conflict,"taking"into"account"the"requests"and"dissatisfactions"originating"in"the"civil" society."It"is"sufficient"here"to"mention"two"collections"of"essays"which"provide"an"overview" suitable"also"to"a"non:specialist"audience"(Elster"1998;"Bohman"and"Reigh"1999)." The" key" themes" of" the" debate" are" not" new:" they" have" been" the" constituent" ones" in" the" discourse"on"democracy"since"“the"classics”"and"have"never"been"discontinued"throughout" the"XXI"century;"Arendt"(1958)"being"one"outstanding"example."Yet"in"the"last"two"or"three" of"decades"there"has"been"a"resurgence"of"the"preoccupations"for"the"future"of"democracy" itself,"which"renovated"the"theoretical"attention"for"strategies"apt"to"rescue"and"revitalize"it." Notwithstanding"their"diversity,"all"the"normative"models"elaborated"by"the"participants"in" the"contemporary"debate"(Rawls"and"Habermas"being"probably"among"the"most"influential" ones)"challenge"the"understanding"of"democracy"as"the"mere"expression"of"preferences"for" one"or"the"other"party"(or"leader)"on"the"basis"of"self:interest"and"introduce"instead"ideas"of" morality,"rational"dialogue"and"the"common"good." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 46" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Expressions" such" as" “stakeholders" involvement”," " ”civic" engagement," " ”community" empowerment”," “upstream" engagement”," “public" consultation”," “public" deliberation”," “citizen" participation”," and" the" like," gradually" " permeated" the" vocabulary" of" academic," political" and" economic" institutions," public" administrations," and" also" the" private" sector" and" the" media." Far" from" indicating" a" shared" understanding," the" same" terms" are" often" used" by" different" parties" reflecting" quite" different" and" sometimes" incompatible" ideological" inspirations"and"desired"political"outcomes.*" Interestingly" enough," also" in" the" practice" of" social" science" research" a" revival" of" a" more" “participative”" style" of" investigation" started" to" emerge" in" the" late" 1980s:early" 90s" with" a" rediscovery" " of" techniques" that" had" been" long" confined" to" the" margins" of" a" prevailing" quantitative" approach" relying" mostly" on" survey" data" collected" through" pre:structured" questionnaires." Thus," for" example," focus" groups" gained" a" new" popularity" after" being" long" forgotten,"or"confined"to"market"research,""since"the"technique"was"originally"developed""by" two"prominent"sociologists"some"forty"years"before""(Merton"and"Kendall""1946)."" After" mentioning" some" precursory" experiences" in" different" areas," the" paper" will" focus" on" “participation" in" policy" issues”" (in" particular" involving" technological" innovation)" as" conceived," framed" and" enacted" by" public" institutions." It" will" not" address" instead" spontaneous"forms"of"participation"as"well"as"the"broad"area"of"business."" 3.2*Diverse*Experiences** Parallel"to"the"theoretical"debate,""practices""of"public"participation"have"been"going"on"for"a" long"time"in"diverse"locations,"with"pioneer""experiences"dating"back"to"the"1960s""in"the" field"of"urban"and"country"planning"in"Europe"(mainly"northern"countries)"and"the"US."" Although"in"principle"it"seems"reasonable"to"look"for"the"input"of"the"residents"in"the"design" of""infrastructures"and"services"best"suited"to"their"needs"and"preferences,"actual"practice" brings"to"light"contradictions"and"ambiguities"in"the"apparently"neat"distinction"between" selfish"and"collective"interests"(Booth"2010)."Some"authors"(e.g."Evans:Cowley"and"Hollander" 2012;"Poplin"2012)""have"expressed"optimism"that"nowadays"technologies"such"as" geographic"information"systems"(GISs)"and"Internet:based"participation"tools"may"favor"a" more"democratic"planning."Yet"they"remain"cautious"about"expanding"the"borders""of"" “virtual"participation”"indefinitely."Other"experienced""planners,"though"genuinely"believing" in"the"potential"benefits"of"participatory"urban"planning"processes,"have"signaled"that"they" often"end"up"in"reinforcing""technocratic"views"and"existing"power"structures"(e.g."Flyvbjerg" 1998;"Forester"1999)."" Since"long,"scholars"and"practitioners"have"denounced"the"attempts"(more"or"less"conscious," more" of" less" explicit)" from" the" part" of" dominant" groups" (economic," political" or" other)" to" manipulate"and"deceive""weaker"ones""while"pretending"to"empower"them;"in"particular"in" cases" of" externally" initiated" participatory" practices" with" disadvantaged" communities." After" over"four"decades"from"its"first"publication,"Sherry"Arnstein’s"seminal"article"(1969)"remains" an" inspiration" and" a" warning" for" promoters" of" public" participation" in" various" areas" of" research"and"policy."She"signals"the"danger"of""treating"disadvantaged"groups"and"minorities" as"objects"of"socio:political"exercises"and"encourages"instead"the"creation"of"conditions"for" them" to" become" responsible" and" aware" subjects" in" deliberations" concerning" their" health," well:being,"and"preferred"ways"of"life." Disappointment" with" poor" results" and" warnings" about" incompetence" or" bad" faith" are" perhaps" most" notably" exemplified" by" the" collection" of" essays" edited" by" Cooke" and" Kothari" (2002)" dealing" " mainly" with" development" plans" in" post:colonial" countries" promoted" by" national" and" international" organizations." Similar" expressions" of" dissatisfaction" have" been" voiced" with" regard" to" experiences" in" highly" developed" countries," for" example" that" of" the" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 47" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' municipal" Task" Force" on" Poverty" " set" up" in" Ottawa" (Canada)" in" 1997" (Murray" 2011)." Even" when"successful"initiatives"are"undertaken,"their"transfer""to"locations""different"from"those" where" they" were" first" applied" requires" cautious" adjustments." This" is" the" case" for" example" with" " the" innovative" “participatory" budget”" practice" (orçamento' participativo)" initiated" in" Porto" Alegre," Brazil" in" 1989," and" repeated" " in" a" variety" of" geo:political" contexts" (Allegretti" 2012)."" Scholarly"works"in"which"different"forms"of"public"participation"are"reported"and"discussed" are"countless."Also,"they"touch"upon"the"most"diverse"topics"and"include""an"extreme"large" variety" of" purposes" and" interests," from" research," to" business," to" policy." Just" as" a" way" of" exemplification,"besides"the"areas"mentioned"above"(urban"planning,"poverty,"development)" here"is"a"list"of"several"others,"almost"at"random"and"without"any"pretense"of"completeness:" agriculture," climate" change," disaster" prevention" and" planning," health" and" safety," fisheries," forestry,"mining,"energy,"environmental"protection,"and"sustainability."" One"example"in"the"area"of"health"is"illuminating"for"an"aspect"that"will"be"introduced"later," namely" a" caveat" about" restricted" problem" framing." It" is" the" case" of" an" unconventional" alliance" between" medical" experts" and" AIDS" patient" groups" and" activists" in" the" US" in" the" 1990s." The" latter" questioned" the" rather" ineffective" medical" treatment" they" were" receiving" and"provided"information"to"the"former"about"their"lifestyles,"which"resulted"in"the"design"of" new"research"protocols"and"ultimately"in"more"effective"treatment"(Epstein"1995)."In"other" words," there" was" a" consensual" redefinition" of" outcomes," tasks," and" procedures" once" the" medical"doctors"and"the"patients"reciprocally"recognised"their"different"but"complementary" knowledge"and"expertise:"in"science"and"research"on"the"one"hand,"in"the"disease"and"life:" habits"on"the"other."" Another" area" I" want" to" touch" briefly" is" that" of" “environment" and" development”," which" started" to" receive" and" increasing" attention" after" having" been" rather" peripheral" " in" the" national"and"international"political"agendas"until"the"early"1970s."The"UN"Agenda"21"devised" at" the" 1992" Rio" Earth" Summit" (UNCED" 1992)" provided" impulse" for" the" " participation" of" citizens" to" policy" devoted" to" the" construction" of" a" sustainable" future." Chapter" 28" in" particular," dedicated" to" the" contribution" of" local" authorities," recommends" that" objectives" are"established"in"consultation"with"local"populations"and"that"participation"of"women"and" youth"is"encouraged." As" a" non:binding" action" plan," Agenda" 21" was" met" with" quite" diverse" " reactions" by" multilateral"organizations,"national,"regional,"and"local"governments,"ranging"from"hostility" to" indifference" to" commitment." In" any" case" " the" patronage" of" the" UN" over" words" such" as" dialogue," consultation," consensus:building," exchange" of" information," mutual" learning" and" assistance,"eased"their"inclusion"in"the"vocabulary"of"a"multiplicity"of"social"actors"including"" those" usually" excluded" from" decision:making" processes." " " In" voicing" their" requests" of" recognition" and" participation," the" latter" could" now" refer" to" official" pronouncements" and" legitimately"demand"their"practical"implementation." 3.3*Europe:*between*good*intentions*and*institutional*inertia* In" Europe" a" momentous" turning" point" for" a" reshuffling" of" institutional" roles" and" responsibilities" in" the" direction" of" more" openness" and" inclusion" was" the" BSE" (Bovine" Spongiform" Encephalopathy)" crisis." About" a" decade" passed" between" 1986," when" the" first" cases" were" diagnosed" in" cattle" in" the" UK" " and" the" acknowledgment" that" the" disease" could" cross" species" barriers" and" be" pathological" to" humans." Evidence" was" first" recognized" in" domestic"cats"and,"starting"from"1995,"in"humans"when"a"disease"with"identical"features"to" those"of"BSE"made"the"first"victims"and""was"recognized"as"a"new"variant"of"CJD"(Creutzfeld: Jakob"Disease)."During"and"following"that"time"the"very"foundations"of"the"European"Union" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 48" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' were" shaken," and" controversy" spread" within" and" between" national" and" supranational" administrations." At" the" same" time" " citizens" became" ever" more" doubtful" about" the" competence"and"good"faith"of"those"in"charge,""both"in"the"political"and"scientific"milieus."" Procedures" and" decision:making" processes" impacting" on" consumers’" health" were" brought" under"scrutiny"in"the"UK"(Philips"et"al."2000)"and"many"weaknesses"were"identified,"including" the"failure"to"separate"responsibilities"for"industrial"sponsorship"and"consumers’"protection." This" had" a" negative" impact" on" the" very" framing" of" the" problems" to" be" managed" and" the" connected" identification" of" the" appropriate" scientific" advice." Faults" in" the" institutional" architecture" were" accompanied" by" a" communication" policy" aimed" at" reassuring" the" public" that" meat" consumption" was" safe," despite" warnings" from" the" part" of" some" experts" that" disease"transmission"through"ingestion"of"infected"food"could"not"be"ruled"out." With" the" purpose" to" avoid" similar" errors" in" the" management" of" future" crises," the" UK" government" implemented" changes" in" both" institutional" structures" and" public" communication" strategies," which" were" taken" up" also" by" other" countries" and" the" EU" itself" (van"Zanenberg"and"Millstone"2001)."A"direct"response"to"the"BSE"crisis"was"the"creation"of" the"European"Food"Safety"Authority"(EFSA)"in"2002"”with"a"number"of"key"tasks"embracing" independent"scientific"advice"on"all"aspects"relating"to"food"safety,"operation"of"rapid"alert" systems,"communication"and"dialogue"with"consumers" on"food"safety"and"health"issues"as" well"as"networking"with"national"agencies"and"scientific"bodies”"(CEC"2000:"3)."" The" participatory" jargon" spread" rapidly" throughout" the" EU" institutions" and" " was" most" significantly" sanctioned" by" the" White" Paper" on" European" Governance," announcing" the" five" principles" of" good" governance:" openness,' participation,' accountability,' effectiveness' and' coherence'(CEC"2001:"10)."The"preparatory"work"was"complex"and"articulated"and"involved" the"setting"up"of"twelve"working"groups"internal"to"the"Commission,"which"interacted"with" many" outside" experts" and" qualified" informers" and" produced" twelve" reports" (EC" 2002a)13." Some"of"these"are"rich"in"insights"and"foresight,"and"their"reading"is"revealing"of"pervasive" tensions"between"institutional"inertia"and"eagerness"for"change."In"particular,"the"report"of" the" working" group" in" charge" of" the" theme" ‘Democratising" expertise" and" establishing" scientific" reference" systems’" (WG1b)" associates" the" idea" of" “democratising" expertise”" with" that" of" “expertising" democracy”." At" the" time" when" a" growing" number" of" policy" decisions" require" knowledge" inputs" of" various" types," it" is" imperative" to" extend" quality" assurance" procedures" to" include" not" only" scientific" excellence," but" also" the" ability" of" expertise" to" respond"to"policy"and"social"concerns."This"goes"together"with"the"creation"of"mechanisms" and" spaces" for" fostering" dialogue" and" interactions" between" experts," the" institutions" of" representative"democracy,"and"citizens"(EC"2002a:"46)." Two" of" the" members" of" WG1b" mentioned" above" " resumed" the" same" theme" the" following" year,"as"guest"editors"of"a"journal"special"issue"in"which"a"number"of"scholars"addressed"the" challenges," both" theoretical" and" practical," of" “linking" the" apparently" separate" logics" of" democracy" …" and" knowledge" development”" (Liberatore" and" Funtowicz" 2003:" 146)." The" image" of" “a" complex" landscape" of" still" unresolved" issues" of" coexistence" and" conflict”" that" they"depict"seems"appropriate"even"a"decade"later."Against"a"real"participatory"turn"works"a" combination"of"many"intertwined"factors"including"practical"difficulties,"personal"and"group" antagonism," intellectual" opposition," organizations’" internal" frictions," overall" bureaucratic" resistance"and"a"real"diversity"of"values"and"interests."" It" seems" to" me" that" one" main" hindrance" to" a" substantial" change" can" be" traced" back" to" an" ambiguity" in" the" definition" of" the" purposes" for" engaging" European" institutions" in" public" participation."As"discussed,"the"“participatory"turn”"originated"from"a"deep"concern"about"a" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 13 "The"date"of"the"published"document,"which"can"be"consulted"online,"is"posterior"to"that"of"the"White"Paper." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 49" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' widening" gap" between" the" civil" society," on" the" one" hand," and" state" and" supranational" institutions"on"the"other."Thus""“restoring"public"trust”"became"a"chief"outcome"of"political" and" administrative" activities," and" the" rhetoric" spread" like" a" leitmotiv" in" the" speeches" of" European"leaders,"as"well"as"in"the"language"of"all"kinds"of"documents" in"the"most"diverse" areas"of"policy"and"regulation,"from"action"plans,"to"research"programs,"recommendations," guidelines"and"directives.""" Such" rhetoric" is" unfortunate" as" it" reveals" the" attachment" to" a" lasting" “tradition" of" guardianship," even" conceived" as" shepherding”" (De" Marchi" and" Ravetz" 1995:" 749)." Unlike" faith,"trust"in"institutions"grows"out"of"experience"of"good"performance"and"moral"integrity" in"safeguarding"citizens’"safety"and"wellbeing."These"are"the"concrete"outcomes"institutions" should"pursue,"rather"than"engaging"in"activities"devoted"mostly"to"captatio'benevolentiae.'"" Some"EU"documents"issued"shortly"after"the"White"Paper"on"Governance"clearly"disclose"the" purpose" to" capture" citizenry’s" acquiescence" to" choices" already" undertaken" in" restricted" circles."For"example,"despite"claims"of"continuity"with"its"predecessor"and"the"adoption"of"a" similar"language"of"responsibility,"partnership,"and"dialogue,"the"Science"and"Society"Action" Plan"aims"first"and"foremost"at"promoting"“the"strategic"goal"set"by"the"European"Union"in" Lisbon:"to"become,"by"2010,"the"most"competitive"and"dynamic"knowledge:based"economy" in"the"world,"capable"of"sustainable"economic"growth"with"more"and"better"jobs"and"greater" social"cohesion”"(EC"2002b:"1)."" A"similar"stance"is"to"be"found"in"the"response"to"another"crisis,'successive"to"the"BSE"one," namely" the" negative" votes" in" France" and" the" Netherlands" on" the" European" Constitution" in" 2005,"which"gave"rise"to"a"“period"of"reflection”"during"which"the"Commission"proposed"a" ‘Plan"D'for"Democracy,"Dialogue"and"Debate’."Although"its"stated"objective"is"“to"stimulate"a" wider" debate" between" the" European" Union’s" democratic" institutions" and" citizens”" (EC" 2005a:" 2)," the" latter’s" needs" are" characterized" in" prevailingly" psychological" terms" even" before"such"debate"is"initiated:"”People"need'to'feel"[italics"mine]"that"Europe"provides"an" added"value"and"they"have"the"ability"to"affect"the"way"decisions"are"taken”"(EC"2005a:"3)." While" the" objective" of" “restoring" public" confidence" in" the" European" Union”" (EC" 2005a:" 3)" maintains"its"institutional"relevance,"it"remains"to"be"seen"whether"it"is"shared"by"a"broader" public."Again"it"seems"to"me"that"the"reasons"why"the"activities"described"in"the"Plan"D"are" not" as" successful" as" expected" are" to" be" found" in" the" lack" of" a" common" understanding" on" what"is"desirable"and"why.""" It" is" undeniable" that" a" great" number" of" initiatives" to" widen" public" participation" have" been" promoted" and" implemented" in" many" areas" such" as" education," youth," culture" and" active" European"Citizenship,"and"it"is"indisputable"that"input"and"feedback"have"been"solicited"and" acquired" via" electronic" surveys," interactive" websites," open" day" events," decentralized" networks"of"EU"local"information"relays,"consultations"with"stakeholders"through"Green"and" White"Papers"and"targeted"focus"groups.."Yet"adherence"from"the"part"of"individual"citizens" and" civil" society" organizations" has" always" been" very" limited" in" numbers" and" has" remained" restricted"to"actors"with"elite"characteristics,"i.e.""groups"with"notable"economic"and"social" resources" (Saurugger" 2008)." Despite" omnipresent" official" remainders" of" the" importance" of" citizenry"engagement,"decision"processes"have"remained"solidly"in"the"hands"of"political"and" administrative"centralized"institutions,"which,"perhaps"inevitably,"tend"to"be"unreceptive"of" issues" framed" in" a" different" language" than" that" of" political" bureaucracies." Thus" the" endorsement"of"participatory"activities"was"often"used"and"perceived""“as"rubber"stamp"and" moral" justification" to" legitimate" a" certain" policy”" (Guimarães" Pereira" and" Funtowicz" 2009:11)."Needless"to"say,"the"EU"enlargement"didn’t"make"things"any"easier"in"this"respect.""" Over"the"years"the"practice"of"convening"expert"committees"has"been"expanded"to"cover"all" kinds"of"issues"with"the"purpose"of"eliminating"uncertainty"not"only"in"the"scientific"domain" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 50" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' but"also"in"that"of"values."In"her"analysis"of"the"origin"and"development"of"European"ethics" advisory" bodies14"Tallacchini" (2009)" has" convincingly" shown" how" the" reproduction" of" the" procedures" of" scientific" committees" in" the" domains" of" culture" and" values" has" gone" in" the" opposite"direction"of"a"two:way"dialogue"between"science"and"society.""She"claims"that"the" institutionalization" of" ethics" with" the" creation" of" committees" and" commissions" led" to" “the" disembodiment" of" values" from" citizens’" and" communities’" real" lives," and" their" reframing" through" de:vitalized" expert" opinions." In" this" sense," citizens’" commitment" is" officially" replaced"by"experts’"committees”"(Tallacchini"op.'cit:"3)."" Although" some" genuine" attempts" to" ground" science" in" society" have" been" conducted," scientific" evidence" has" always" been" the" guiding" and" possibly" exclusive" criterion" in" establishing" that" progress" is" " technological" development" and" innovation." This" conviction" is"" crystal"clear"in"a"recent"interview"of""the"European"Commission"chief"scientific"advisor,"Anne" Glover,"who"declared":"“The"evidence"with"which"I"work"is"independent,"the"evidence"with" which"I"work"does"not"change"according"to"political"philosophy."And"that"should"give"people" a"lot"of"confidence.”""Requested"for"an"example"of"excessive"precaution,"she""answered:"“If" we" look" at" evidence" from" [more" than]" 15" years" of" growing" and" consuming"GMO"foods" globally,"then"there"is"no"substantiated"case"of"any"adverse"impact"on"human"health,"animal" health"or"environmental"health,"so"that’s"pretty"robust"evidence,"and"I"would"be"confident"in" saying" that" there" is" no" more" risk" in" eating"GMO"food" than" eating" conventionally" farmed" food”." And" finally" she" stated" " “" …" knowledge" is" an" international" currency," and" we" are" amongst" the" slowest" in" taking" advantage" of" the" knowledge" we" create," and" that" cannot" be" right""(Fleming"2012)." It" looks" as" if" risk" assessment" is" the" only" the" only" basis" for" regulatory" decisions," while" arguments" referring" to" values," preferences," cultural" traditions," local" interests" (including" economic" ones)" are" deemed" irrelevant" if" not" illegitimate." Moreover," no" question" is" raised" about"the"quantity,"quality"and"origin"of"scientific"evidence,"nor"is"there"any"reflection"that" scientists"may"be"stakeholders"in"a"given"issue"and"not"just"neutral"experts."" This"view"runs"totally"opposite"to"Isabelle"Stengers’"plea"for"“slow"science”,"a"science"that"is" interested" in" the" quality" of" research" as" well" as" its" relevance" for" today’s" issues" (Stengers" 2011)."She"develops"her"argument"starting"with"the"dismissal"from"employment"of""Barbara" Van" Dyck" " by" the" University" of" Leuven" in" June" 2011," for" having" publicly" explained" and" endorsed" the" action" against" a" genetically" modified" potatoes" field" in" Wetteren," in" Belgium." Stengers"ventures"in"a"profound"discussion"about"current"practices"of"research,"the"relation" between"science"and"policy,"and"ultimately"between"science"and"democracy."“I"would"recall" –" she" affirms" :" that" the" very" possibility" of" an" effective" debate" about" genetically" modified" crops"has"been"obtained"through"actions"of"civil"disobedience."More"precisely"those"actions" have"imposed"a"modification"of"the"terms"of"the"debate"…"including"the"very"question"of"the" kind"of"agriculture"we"wish"in"the"future”"(Stengers"2011:"2)."In"her"plea,"Stengers""endorses" the"citizens’"right"to"express"their"preferences"on"the"basis"of"criteria""different"from"those" applied"in"scientific"evaluations."In"other"words"what"is"questioned"in"the"case"of"GMOs"or" any" other" technological" application," is" the" framing" of" the" debate" exclusively" in" terms" of" scientific" risk" assessment," independent" of" whether" the" results" of" such" assessment" are" accepted"or"challenged." !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 14 "The"first"such"body"was"the"GAIEB"(Group"of"Advisers"one"the"Ethical"Implications"of"Biotechnology)" established""in"1991."In"1997"this"was"replaced"by"the"European"Group"on"Ethics"in"Science"and"New" Technologies"(EGE),"now"in"its"fourth""mandate"(2011:2016)." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 51" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' The" currently" ubiquitous" rhetoric" of" the" “knowledge" economy” 15 "and" “the" Innovation" Union”16"takes" it" for" granted" that" benefits" will" be" pervasive" and" extended" to" " all" European" citizens,"consumers,"and"workers"(EC"2010)."Of"course"they"will"be"able"to"contribute"to"the" process" with" their" individual" and" collective" ingenuity," but" the" idea" of" consulting" them" in" setting" the" objectives" is" not" contemplated." " The" following" excerpt" from" the" " Science" in" Society" portal 17 "is" enlightening:" “There" are" times" when" science" can" seem" to" lose" its" connection"to"society"and"its"needs,"and"sometimes"its"objectives"are"not"fully"understood," even" if" they" are" well" intended”." " Such" failed" connection" is" attributed" to" the" inability" of" society"to"understand"not"necessarily""the"methods"of"science,"but"its"unquestionably"good" intentions." This" vision" is" definitely" partial," to" say" the" least," given" that" the" “ambivalence" of" scientists”" has" been" documented" since" long" ago" (Mitroff" 1974)" and," moreover," misgivings" and" misdeeds" in" the" workings" of" science" " are" testified" " by" an" increasing" number" of" retractions" of" papers" in" scientific" journals" due" to" fraud," suspected" fraud" or" other" types" of" misconduct" (see" for" example" Fanelli" 2009;" Corbin" 2012)." In" such" circumstances," repeated" references" to" a" " the" importance" of" a" “two:way" dialogue" of" mutual" respect" and" trust”" between"scientists"and"the"public"sound"as"a"ritual"requisite"in"a"discourse"conveying"quite"a" different" message" overall:" one" of" " necessary" compliance" from" the" part" of" citizens" with" the" choices"of"those"who"not"only"know"best,"but"also"aim"best." While" the" European" political" and" scientific" establishment" subscribe" to" an" interpretation" of" knowledge"in"predominantly"economic"terms,"it"is"perhaps"time"for"the"civil"society"to"go"a" step"further"and"ask"the"question:"“If"knowledge"is"considered"international"currency,"how" should"we"conceive"of"""understanding?”""" 3.4*Issues*to*address*in*participation* The" “participatory" turn”" emerging" in" the" EU" " can" be" detected" also" in" other" areas" of" international" relevance," such" as" conferences," treaties," and" conventions." " Besides" the" documents" issued" in" the" occasion" of" the" Rio" Summit" Declaration" on" Environment" and" Development" (UNCED" 1992," UNEP" 1992)" it" is" sufficient" to" mention" here" the" Aarhus" Convention" (UNECE" 1998)" regarding" environmental" matters" in" general" and" " the" Cartagena" Protocol" on" Biosafety" to" the" Convention" of" Biological" Diversity" (2000)" dealing" specifically" with" LMOs" (Living" Modified" Organisms)." A" wealth" of" documents" were" also" " produced" by" organizations"such"as"the"World"Bank"and"the"OECD"(Organization"for"Economic"Cooperation" and"Development)." All" of" these" are" full" with" words" such" as" public" information," awareness," education" and" consultation,"which"undoubtedly"had"a"great"impact"on"many"areas"of"policy,"including"those" in"which"science"is"a"key"component."For"authorities"and"regulators"to"devise"initiatives"of" public" participation" was" no" longer" an" optional" but" a" binding" obligation." A" switchover" occurred" from" occasional" and" voluntary" initiatives" to" mandatory" (or" at" least" strongly" recommended)" practices," which" competent" authorities" had" to" implement," more" or" less" enthusiastically.""" It"was"not"to"be"expected"that"the"new"requirements"would"trigger"a"radical"conversion"in" the" current" modes" of" operation" of" bureaucracies," and" indeed" the" response" tended" to" be" accommodation" with" partial" adjustments" compatible" with" the" originally" existing" structure" and" functions." At" best" some" space" for" participation" was" created" within" an" existing" set" of" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 15 "The"Lisbon"Strategy"was"an"action"and"development"plan"was"set"out"by"the"European"Council"in"Lisbon"in" March"2000"for"the"economy"of"the"European"Union."Its"aim"was"to"make"the"EU""the"most"competitive"and" dynamic"knowledge:based"economy"in"the"world”"by"2010." 16 "The"Innovation"Union"is"one"of"the"seven"flagship"initiatives"of"the"Europe*2020*strategy"for"a"smart," sustainable""and"inclusive"economy."http://ec.europa.eu/research/innovation:union/index_en.cfm?pg=home" 17 "http://ec.europa.eu/research/science:society/index.cfm?fuseaction=public.topic&id=122 Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 52" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' consolidated"rules"and"procedures,"giving"origin"to"a"kind"of"dedicated"“sub:bureaucracy"for" participation”."" It" would" be" impossible" to" provide" even" a" very" partial" account" of" the" innumerable" experiences" conducted" at" all" levels" of" state" and" local" administration" in" the" most" diverse" areas"of"policy."It"is"worth""instead"to""give"some"attention"to"some"key"aspect"that"need"to" be" considered" in" setting" up" any" “institutionalized”" participatory" activity," i.e." one" set" in" motion"by"a"political"or"administrative""authority." The" first" and" key" question" is" " “what" for?”." In" the" official" documents" the" given" reasons" for" public"participation"are"all"for"the"good:"to"broaden"knowledge,"to"improve"understanding," to"increase"confidence,"to"contribute"to"public"accountability,"to"promote"solidarity"and"to" move"towards"a"positive"future"on"the"basis"of"shared"choices."All"these"justifications"remain" general" and" vague," and" consequently" vague" remain" the" requirements" related" to" stakeholders’" involvement," including" in" those" documents" where" technical:scientific" requirements"are"instead"clearly"defined."" However,"when"it"comes"to"practical"implementation,"the"question"“what"for?”"becomes"a" very"concrete"one,"and"the"answer"to"it"determines"all"what"follows."As"Lim"Li"has"correctly" pointed" out" in" her" analysis" of" the" Cartagena" Protocol" on" Biosafety" ," the" key" issue" remains" what" is" the" place" of" public" participation" in" the" decision" process." “The" identification" of" problems,"needs"and"options"in"relation"to"the"sustainable"use"of"biodiversity":"she"writes":"is" critical" at" an" early" stage" of" any" discussion”" (2007:" 559)." All" too" often," on" this" and" other" themes," participation" has" become" “a" tool" of" legitimation" rather" than" investigation”" (2007:563),"a"kind"of"window"dressing"once"the"main"strategic"decisions"have"already"been" taken"by"technology:driven"rather"than"need:driven"considerations." Often" the" “what" for”" question" is" not" even" explicitly" addressed," in" particular" when" public" participation" is" experienced" as" an" obligation" imposed" from" higher" up" in" the" bureaucratic" hierarchy." If" the" purpose" is" just" to" tick" the" box" “public" participation”" in" the" checklist" of" formal" requirements," then" anything" will" do." If" instead" the" question" is" taken" seriously," the" answer" must" be" constructed" together," or" least" agreed" upon" by" all" the" participants" in" the" process,"so"that"there"is"no"space"for"ambiguity."For"example,"if"the"purpose"of"the"initiators" is"the""promotion"of"a"certain"technology"which"is"already"being"implemented,""this"must"be" clearly" stated" and" not" disguised" as" a" step" in" an" ongoing" decision" process." In" other" words," promotion" is" not" illegitimate," provided" that" everyone" is" put" in" the" condition" of" evaluating" both"the"information"supplied"and"the"configuration"of"the"process"in"the"light"of"a"clearly" stated" purpose." In" this" way" the" invited" participants" can" consciously" choose" between" accepting"and"refusing"to"play"according"to"the"rules"of"the"game"or"can"even"challenge"and" re:negotiate"them.""" In"any"case"the"statement"of"a"the"desired"outcome"is"no"guarantee"that"it"will"be"achieved" as" the" participation" is" a" dynamic" process," open" to" change" and" surprise." For" example" “lay" participants”" may" discover" their" capability" of" providing" valuable" knowledge" inputs," while" “experts”"may"realize"that""the"classical"distinction"between"hard"facts"and"strong"values"is" no"longer"clear:cut"in"the"domain"of"post:normal"science"where"“facts"are"uncertain,"values" in"dispute,"stakes"high"and"decisions"urgent”""(Funtowicz"and"Ravetz"1993)." The" next" problem" to" be" addressed" by" the" institutions" endorsing" a" participatory" process" is" “whom"to"invite”.""The"choice"is"conditioned"by"a"number"of"factors,"including"the"purpose" and" the" subject" of" the" process" and" its" geographical" and" cultural" context." No" doubt" the" criteria" are" different" " if" at" stake" is" the" elaboration" of" a" participated" local" emergency" plan" rather" than" the" siting" of" a" nuclear" power" installation" or" the" revision" of" current" regulations" concerning" food" safety." In" any" case" the" issue" of" “representativeness”" always" comes" out," which" cannot" be" solved" in" either" statistical" or" political" terms." By" definition," a" reduced" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 53" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' exercise" cannot" reach" out" to" all" those" interested" or" affected" and" not" even" to" a" representative"random"sample"of"them."Even"when"the"invitation"is"open,"i.e."it"allows"for" participation"of"those"who"express"an"interest,"it"is"inevitable"that"some"filters"are"applied," be" them" just" numerical." Moreover," invitations" can" be" rejected" for" different" " reasons"" including"an"“in"principle”"rebuttal"of"participation,"be"it"for"lack"of"agency""or"mistrust." The" issue" of" representativeness" is" not" trivial" as" it" is" linked" to" that" of" legitimacy." However," within" the" frame" of" deliberative" democracy," participation" assumes" a" transformative" potential"which"cannot"be"evaluated"with"the"same"criteria"as"those"applied"in"the"frame"of" representative"democracy."" Together"with"the"sorting"out"of"the"participants"goes"the"choice"of"the"methods"to"be"used." Some" have" already" been" mentioned" in" passim," and" it" is" not" the" purpose" of" this" paper" to" explore" them" in" any" detail," as" handbooks" guidelines" and" similar" sources" are" countless" and" cover"every"possible"theme." In" any" case," the" resources" available" are" a" factor" of" major" relevance," which" " constrains" the" decision" of" what" is" actually" feasible" prevailing" over" considerations" of" what" would" be" most" suitable," effective" or" desirable." Large" consultations" require" investments" in" money," time," personnel," facilities," administrative" and" organizational" services," which" are" not" easily" available.""" Nonetheless" some" examples" exist," such" as" the" 1997:1999" UK" government:led" Public" Consultation" on" " Developments" of" the" Biosciences" (PCDB)," described" by" Irwin" as" “a" high: profile" and" forward:looking" consultation" in" a" politically," and" economically," sensitive" area”" (Irwin" 2001:" 4)." " In" his" analysis" of" the" context" and" the" pursuance" of" this" “path:breaking" exercise”,"the"author"shows"how"the"preoccupation"for"restoring"confidence"in"political"and" scientific"institutions"after"the"BSE"crisis"pre:framed"the"consultation"agenda,"so"that"in"the" end"the"initiative"“had"much"to"say"about"the"importance"of"science"but"rather"less"about" the" character" of" modern" citizenship”" (Irwin" 2001:" 15)." Goven" (2003)" advances" similar" reservations" with" regard" to" the" 1996" New" Zealand" consensus" conference" on" plant" biotechnology," whereas" Walmsley" (2009)" expresses" a" more" positive" judgment" on" " a" deliberative" public" consultation" on" bio:banking" in" British" Columbia" in" which" she" claims" that" members" of" the" public"were"able"to"directly"challenge"expert"assumptions." With"the"increasing"pace"of"technological"innovation,"new"products"invade"the"market"much" earlier" than" people" can" became" aware" of" their" origins" and" functionalities," and" of" the" environmental," social," cultural" and" even" ethical" implications" of" their" diffusion." This" is" the" case" for" example" with" nanotechnology" and" synthetic" biology." " “Lay" people”" " tend" to" be" involved,"if"at"all,"once"the"dice"has"already"been"cast"and"they"must"struggle"just"to""catch" up"with"what"is"going"on"instead"of"concentrating"on"the"identification"of"broad""present"and" future"governance"trials.""“The"more"substantive"challenge,"therefore,"is"to"find"the"means" through" which" civil" society" can" engage" with" the" social," political" and" ethical" dimensions" of" science:based"technologies,"and"democratise"their"‘licence"to"operate’”"(Royal"Commission" on" Environmental" Pollution," 2008:" 72)." Such" challenge" cannot" be" faced" by" some" minor" adjustments"but"requires"a"rethinking"of"the"whole"idea"of"democratic"citizenship"in"today" “knowledge"society”"(Wynne"et'al"2007)."Investigations"into"people’s"perceptions"have"shed" light"on"issues"normally"overlooked"by"developers"(e.g."Strand"2012)"but"it"is"for"the"political" institutions" to" receive" " them" as" important" and" legitimate." It" is" not" rarely" the" case" instead" that"the"latter""stigmatize"people’s"concerns"as"a"sign"of"an"anti:scientific"attitude"or"an"a: priori"resistance"to"technological"innovation"(Stillgoe"2007)." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 54" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Incidentally," it" is" important" to" notice" how" the" “participatory" mood”" emerging" in" both" the" research"and"the"political"spheres"spawned"a"demand"for"new"skills"and"services,"generating" an" expanding" market" for" facilitators" and" similar" professional" figures" capable" of" organizing" and" conducting" focus" groups," planning" cells," citizen" juries," consensus" conferences," public" consultations," civic" forums," scenario" workshops" and" débats' publics." Also" many" social" scientists" have" taken" up" the" challenge," devising" innovative" research" strategies" and" techniques" (e.g." Selin" and" Hudson" 2010)." This" " has" offered" opportunities" for" debate" and" comparison"between"scholars""involved"in"participatory"assessment"exercises"concerning"the" same" technology" but" " in" different" geographical" an" political" contexts," " for" example"" nanotechnology"in"Flanders"(van"Oudheusden"M."2011)"and"Arizona"(Guston"2011)."Starting" with" dissatisfaction" about" legally" required" participation" methods" in" the" US," and" through" a" critical" appraisal" of" cases" involving" practices" of" collaborative" public" engagement" from" around"the"world,"some"authors"have""expressed"confidence"that"it"will"be"possible"to"devise" successful" participation" strategies" for" the" 21" century," once" we" reframe" current" limiting" assumptions"(Innes"and"Booher"2004).' 3.5*Conclusion* As" it" has" been" shown," the" first" experiences" in" public" participation" can" be" traced" back" to" several" decades" ago." Gradually" they" grew" in" numbers" and" extended" to" a" multiplicity" of" contexts," covering" the" most" diverse" issues" in" response" to" a" variety" of" needs" and" with" very" different"purposes.""" On"the"background"of"a"never"fading"theoretical"debate"on"the"cornerstones"of"democracy," the" themes" of" participation" and" deliberation" gained" new" momentum" with" the" perceived" collapse"of"public"trust"which"followed"the"BSE"crisis"in"Europe."The"mandate"of""“restoring" confidence”" " spread" through" governments" and" administrations," which" conceived" a" new" rhetoric" about" the" importance" of" citizens’" engagement" in" policy" processes," having" implications"for"their"health"and"welfare,"including"scientific"and"technological"development."" However""much"was""“lost"in"translation”"with"the"institutional"and"political""uptake"of"the" preoccupations"and"aspirations"expressed"by"the"civil"society.."The"“participatory"turn”"was" indeed" an" attempt" to" respond" to" citizens’" needs" but" these" were" somewhat" pre:defined," rather"than"thoroughly"investigated."The"newly"created"spaces"for"public"participation"were" designed"and"managed"according"to"bureaucratic"criteria"and"procedures,"and"the"legitimate" arguments"for"discussion"were"only"those"which"fit"into"an"already"traced"path"towards"the" economic"growth"via"technological"innovation."" The" debate" on" deliberative" democracy" originated" precisely" from" a" dissatisfaction" with" existent"arrangements,"but"the"normative"models"emerging"from"such"debate,"centered"on" rational" dialogue," gave" rise" to" new" perplexities." For" example" Dryzek" has" raised" the" doubt" that" the" existing" representative" institutions" might" “prove" inhospitable" to" effective" deliberation”""(Dryzek"2000:"7)"whilst""Mouffe"(2000)""has"expressed"a"serious"preoccupation" that" all" the" approaches" privileging" rationality:" be" it" instrumental," deliberative" or" communicative"–"fail"to"address""the"very"question"of"what"are"the"conditions"of"existence"of" the"democratic"subject"(Mouffe"2012:10)."Mouffe"touches"a"key"point,"when"she"writes:"“By" privileging"rationality,"both"the"deliberative"and"the"aggregative"perspectives"leave"aside"a" central" element," which" is" the" crucial" role," played" by" passions" and" emotions" in" securing" allegiance"to"democratic"values”"(Mouffe"2000:10)." The"problems"recognized"at"the"theoretical"level"re:emerge"in"an"acute"form"in"the"practical" implementation" of" participatory" initiatives." Even" when" political" " institutions" attempt" to" engage"in"a"more"fruitful""dialogue"with"citizens,"they"tend"to"pre:determine"what"are"the" legitimate" terms" of" the" debate," notably" leaving" aside" (or" delegating" to" dedicated" expert" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 55" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' committees)" questions" of" values" and" ethics." " The" tendency" to" avoid" an" inclusive" confrontation" reveals" an" inability" (or" unwillingness)" to" recognize" that" conflict" and" antagonism"are"inescapable"and"cannot"be"eliminated"by"procedures"devoted"to"reaching"a" fully"rational"consensus."" This" doesn’t" mean" that" political" institutions" should" a:critically" " take" on" board" any" and" all" social"pleas"and"instances,"nor"that"they"should"promote"activism,"which"would"be"contrary" to" their" very" mandate." Nonetheless" " they" should" be" able" to" understand" and" treat" antagonism"and"conflict"as"signs"of"a"healthy"democracy." ”The" ‘darkness’" that" invades" our" democracies”" (Stengers" 2011)" is" also" the" result" of" a" widening" gap" between" institutions" longing" for" an" impending" innovation:driven" economic" growth"and"progress"on"the"one"side,"and"citizens"who"are"more"and"more"preoccupied"with" their" present" and" immediate" future" predicament" on" the" other." Therefore" it" is" crucial" to" develop"a"constructive"dialogue"which"doesn’t"annihilate"or"mask"differences,"but"brings"to" light" the" uncertainties" and" contradictions" inevitably" embedded" in" any" policy" choice" and," more"broadly,"in"the"workings"of"democracy."" This"is"even"more"urgent"when"new"forms"of"activism"are"made"possible"by"the"growth"and" expansion"of"ICT"and"electronic"media."The"landscape"of"powerful"stakeholders"is"changing" rapidly"and"political"institutions"should"be"open"to"new"inclusions,"and"move"from"reacting" to"crises"to"anticipating"social"demands,"needs"and"aspirations."The"existing"literature"–"only" very" partially" referred" to" in" this" paper" :" offers" no" recipes" or" blueprints," but" it" contains" a" wealth"of"criticisms"and"suggestions"useful"for"reinvigorating"public"participation"in"view"of"" strengthening" democracy" at" the" time" when" the" private" and" public" spheres" of" life" are" so" strongly"intertwined."" 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Walmsley"H."L."2009,"Mad"scientists"bend"the"frame"of"biobank"governance"in"British" Columbia,"Journal"of"Public"Deliberation"5,"1,""Article"6:"1:25." http://services.bepress.com/jpd/vol5/iss1/art6/"(Last"accessed"Nov"20,"2012)"" Wynne," B.," Felt," U.," Callon," M.," Gonçalves," M.E.," Jasanoff," Sh.," Jepsen," M.," Joly," P:B.," Konnopasek,"Z.,"May,"S.,"Neubauer,"C.,"Rip,"A.,"Siune,"K.,"Stirling,"A.,"Tallacchini,"M.,"(2007)"" Science'and'Governance.'Taking'European'Knowledge'Society'Seriously,"Directorate:General" for" Research," EUR" 22700," Luxembourg:" Office" for" Official" Pubblications" of" the" European" Communities."" " " " " Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 59" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Chapter"4" Public"debate"and"citizen"engagement"in"different" areas"of"science" ! Paula'Curvelo' European'Commission'–'Joint'Research'Centre' 4.1*Public*Engagement*with*Science*(PES)* In"the"past"two"decades"many"western"countries"have"been"witnessing"a"growing"trend" towards"new"forms"of"participatory"governance"and"increased"engagement"of"citizens"in"the" fields"of"science"and"technology.""This"trend"is"in"part"explained"by"major"controversies"over" science"and"technology"that"have"proliferated"over"the"past"30"years." In"fact,"the"decisive"and"leading"role"of"science"and"technology"in"our"contemporary"society" has"been"accompanied"by"major"controversies"that"have"their"origin"in"a"wide"range"of" political,"economic"and"ethical"concerns"over"scientific"and"technological"issues.""These" controversies"tend"to"express"political"tensions"and"moral"conflicts"between"experts," decision:makers"and"the"public,"whether"about"the"political"control"over"the"development"of" science"and"technology,"whether"about"the"values"and"principles"underlying"certain" scientific"practices"and"technological"applications"to"pursue"the"common"good"(Hansen," 2010;"Martin"&"Richards,"1995;"Nelkin,"1995)." By"reflecting"on"the"major"transformations"that"occurred"in"modern"society,"the"analysis"of" these"controversies"offers"a"perspective"on"the"dynamics"of"the"relationships"between" science,"policy"and"society."As"stressed"by"Nelkin,"“they'reflect'the'ambivalent'relationship' between'science'and'other'social'institutions'such'as'media,'the'regulatory'system,'and'the' courts”"(Nelkin,"1995,"p."445),"as"well"as"“a'long'history'of'ambivalent'public'attitudes' towards'science”"(Idem,"p."446)."" Therefore,"in"order"to"better"understand"the"pervading"emphasis"on"'public"engagement’"in" the"governance"of"science"and"technology"it"is"important"to"ground"current"debates"within" major"transformations"that"have"been"occurring"in"the"interfaces"between"science,"policy" and"society."The"‘push"of"democratization’"that"the"western"countries"have"been" experiencing"since"the"1960s;"the"perceived"idea"of"the"‘politicization"of"science’"that" started,"in"this"same"decade,"with"the"controversies"over"nuclear"energy"and"environmental" problems;""the"notion"(and"recognition?)"that"science"'misunderstood'"its"own" epistemological"limitations"and"the"public"contexts"within"which"it"had"to"operate;"the" widespread"public"perception"that"experts"are"neither"infallible"nor"neutral;"and"finally," strongly"grounded"in"the"‘normalized’"values"of"neoliberalism,"the"call"for"the" ‘democratization'of'expertise’"in"response"to"a"growing"crisis"of"legitimacy"that"characterises" the"relations"between"citizens"and"the"institutions"that"serve"the"public"interest,"are"all" factors"that"concurred"for"the"new"embedment"of"the"discourse"of"public"trust,"openness" and"democratic"engagement"in"the"current"policy"repertoire"(Cozzens"&"Woodhouse,"1995;" European"Commission,"2001;"Goven,"2006;"A."Irwin,"2006;"A."Irwin"&"Wynne,"1996;"Maasen" &"Weingart,"2005;"Nelkin,"1995;"Newman,"2005)"." In"this"chapter"we"draw"on"a"wide"body"of"literature"from"the"social"sciences"to"analyse"the" current"trend"toward"increased"engagement"of"the"public"in"issues"involving"science"and" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 60" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' technology."We"begin"by"contextualizing"this"theme"within"the"field"of"Science"and" Technology"Studies"(STS),"where"many"of"the"controversial"questions"surrounding"the" phenomena"of"public"engagement"with"science"(PES)"tend"to"be"raised."" In"order"to"provide"an"overview"of"the"phenomenon"of"public"engagement"in"diverse"fields" of"science"and"technology,"we"will"present,"in"the"second"section,"some"initiatives"that"have" been"carried"out"in"different"scientific,"institutional"and"geographical"contexts."" Finally,"we"conclude"this"chapter"with"some"considerations"about"current"conceptions"and" practices"of"governance"in"science"and"technology,"which"we"believe,"may"contribute"to" better"understand"the"major"challenges"that"a"real"‘democratization"of"expertise’"raises"and," related"with"this,"the"relationship"between"public"talk"and"the"broader"culture"of" governance." Public*Engagement*with*Science*and*Scientific*Governance* Over"the"past"few"decades"the"world"has"witnessed"the"impacts"of"important"scientific" discoveries"and"technological"innovations"in"the"most"diverse"sectors"of"society."In"fact,"the" changes"that"have"been"occurring"in"the"social,"political,"and"economical"domains"can"only" be"understood"if"connected"with"the"profound"transformations"that"have"been"driven"by" technological"and"scientific"advancements"in"different"disciplinary"fields"(Health"Sciences," Agriculture,"Biology,"Environmental"Science,"Climatology,"Geography,"Computer"Science,"just" to"name"a"few"examples)."For"that"reason,"the"recurrent"claims"that"argue"for"a"closer" connection"between"science"and"society"with"the"purpose"of"exposing"to"public"scrutiny"the" hidden"assumptions,"values"and"visions"that"are"deeply"embedded"in"science"and"technology" seem"more"than"justified."" Hannah"Arendt"begins"the"prologue"of"The'Human'Condition"with"a"reference"to"the"launch" of"the"first"artificial"satellite"in"1957,"and"quotes"the"Russian"scientist"Konstantin"E." Tsiolkovsky:Kaluga"─"‘Mankind'will'not'remain'bound'to'the'earth'forever’"─"in"order"to" reflect"about"the"human"capacity"for"‘making"new"beginnings’,"and"our"profound"desire"‘to' escape'from'imprisonment'to'the'earth’"(Arendt,"1958)."This"desire,"she"believes,"long" precedes"our"knowledge,"showing"“that'men'everywhere'are'by'no'means'slow'to'catch'up' and'adjust'to'scientific'discoveries'and'technical'developments,'but'that,'on'the'contrary,' they'have'outsped'them'by'decades.'Here,'as'in'other'respects,'science'has'realized'and' affirmed'what'men'anticipated'in'dreams'that'were'neither'wild'nor'idle”."With"this"brief" passage"Hannah"Arendt"makes"the"point"for"the"need"to"resist"against"a"determinist"view"of" the"autonomy"of"technology,"which"assumes"that"the"technical"progress"is"‘an'exogenous' force'influencing'society’"(Feenberg,"2010,"p."8)."" In"fact,"for"science"and"technology"studies"(STS)"the"far:reaching"implications"of"those"claims" (to"open"up"scientific"expertise"to"greater"public"scrutiny)"rely"in"a"set"off"‘boundary' concepts’"(Alan"Irwin,"2008),"of"which"we"highlight"the"concept"of"coproduction,"that" suggests"that"the"‘products'of'technoscience'not'only'influence'but'also'incorporate'and' reaffirm'social'values'and'institutional'practices’"(Sheila"Jasanoff,"2011b,"p."13),"and"which" draws"attention"to"‘the'often'invisible'role'of'knowledge,'expertise,'technical'practices'and' material'objects'in'shaping,'sustaining,'subverting'or'transforming'relations'of'authority’" (Sheila"Jasanoff,"2004,"p."4)."" This"explanatory"power"of"thinking"of"natural"and"social"order"as"being"produced"together" leads"the"STS"sub:field"of"the"‘public'engagement'with'science’":"with"all"the"reservations" appointed"by"Wynne"(2007)":"far"beyond"narrow"perspectives"of"problematizing"the" relationship"between"science"and"democracy,"as"it"would"happen"if"we"were"to"consider"a" one:way"communicational"model"of"public"participation"in"science"in"order"to"address"the" aforementioned"purpose." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 61" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' As"a"matter"of"fact,"a"more"sophisticated"model"of"public"engagement"with"science"(PES)"and" technology"has"been"suggested"for"some"time,"one"that"acknowledges"that"‘public' engagement'needs'to'move'upstream’'in"order"to"consider"new"ways"of"listening"to"and" valuing"more"diverse"forms"of"public"knowledge"and"social"intelligence"at"an"early"stage"of" the"innovation"processes,"if"science"is"to"contribute"to"the"common"good"(Felt"&"Fochler," 2009;"Wilsdon"&"Willis,"2004)."The"basic"assumption"underlying"the"notion"of"‘upstream' public'engagement’"relates"with"the"necessity"of"replacing"the"one:way"normative"deficit" model"of"public"understanding"of"science"–"or,"using"Wynne’s"expression,""‘the'oneWway' normative'notion'of'public'deference'to'science’"(Wynne,"2007,"p."100)":"to"a"more" substantive"model"of"engagement,"which"aims"at"creating"more"socially:robust"scientific"and" technological"solutions"by"way"of"opening"up"questions,"furthering"debates,"exposing" differences"and"interrogating"assumptions"(Wilsdon"&"Willis,"2004)." What"seems"to"be"at"stake"is"not"only"the"need"to"clarify"the"assumptions"and"arguments" that"sustain"the"positions"that"tend"to"stick"between"hope"and"fear"on"science"and" technology":"‘For'those'promoting'the'technologies,'such'developments'hold'promises'of'a' better'world,'for'the'sceptics'they'entail'Faustian'dangers'and'embody'a'lot'of'what'is'wrong' with'the'modern'world’"(Hansen,"2010,"p."1)":""but"to"go"beyond"these"polarized"positions," that"have"been"largely"informed"by"the"‘language'of'risk’"(Adam"&"Loon,"2000),"in"order"to" further"explore"the"context"of"political"uncertainty,"public"debate"and"societal"decision: making"in"which"science"and"technology"have"been"operating"(Alan"Irwin,"2008)."" Furthermore,"and"reflecting"an"increased"awareness"that"‘values'are'needed'to'inform' scientific'and'technical'analysis’"(Douglas,"2005),""the"most"intense"and"stormy"controversies" over"science"and"technology"are"more"related"with"‘moral'uncertainties’":"the'lack'of' commonly'shared'normative'yardsticks'to'underpin'collective'decisionWmaking":""than"with" the"uncertainties"about"the"impacts"and"risks"those"developments"may"raise"(Hansen,"2010)." The"far:reaching"implications"of"this"reality"have"been"deeply"explored"by"new"STS" perspectives"on"scientific"governance,"particularly"in"the"field"of"life"sciences"and" technologies,""through"the"exploration"of"the"‘interoperability'of'biological'knowledge'and' constitutional'norms’,"in"what"can"be"seen"as"a"contemporary""‘(bio)constitutional"moment’," where"“revolutions'in'our'understanding'of'what'life'is'burrow'so'deep'into'the'foundations' of'our'social'and'political'structures'that'they'necessitate,'in'effect,'a'rethinking'of'law'at'a' constitutional'level”"(Sheila"Jasanoff,"2011a,"2011b)."" Therefore,"within"the"context"of"this"chapter,"where"we"seek"to"explore"the"expression"and" meaning"of"public"deliberation"and"citizen"engagement"in"different"areas"of"science,"we" assume"that"the"analytical"framework"for"addressing""the"‘participatory'turn’'(S."Jasanoff," 2003)"in"issues"involving"science"and"technology"should"be"informed"by"key"concepts" (‘coproduction’,"‘framing’,"‘networks’"and"‘situated'knowledge’)"and"approaches"(such"as" ‘boundary'work'approach’18)"of"the"broader"field"of"scientific"governance"–"a"field"that"is"at" the"core"of"STS"and"that"“is'broadly'concerned'with'the'relationships'between'science,' technology,'and'political'power'–'with'special'emphasis'on'democratic'engagement,'the' relationship'between'‘scientific’'and'wider'social'concerns,'and'the'resolution'of'political' conflict'and'controversy”"(Alan"Irwin,"2008,"p."584)." Contrary"to"what"may"appear"at"first"glance,"on"framing"the"field"of"public"engagement"with" science"within"the"broader"domain"of"scientific"governance,"it"is"not"our"intention"to"close" the"inquiry"on"PES"within"established"STS"theories"and"methods."As"many"authors"have"been" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 18 "As"mentioned"by"Irwin"(2008,"p.588)","“One'great'merit'of'the'boundary'work'approach'to'scientific'governance' is'that'it'encourages'a'contextual,'flexible,'and'empirically'focused'understanding'of'specific'cases'but'without' forcing'the'analysis'into'preordained'categories'of'‘science’'and'‘politics’.'Instead,'the'very'processes'whereby' certain'issues,'arguments,'and'phenomena'come'to'be'defined'as'either'‘science’'or'‘nonscience’''constitute'an' important'and'integral'part'of'STS'investigation”." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 62" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' arguing,"it"is"fundamental"to"remain"alert"to"wider"academic"discussions"and"to"draw" attention"to"important"contributions"from"other"areas"of"social"inquiry"(Bucchi"&"Neresini," 2008;"A."Irwin,"2006;"Alan"Irwin,"2008;"A."Irwin"&"Michael,"2003;"Maasen"&"Weingart,"2005;" Wynne,"2007)."In"order"to"stress"the"value"that"interdisciplinary"perspectives"may"bring"to" the"field"of"PES,"we"make"a"brief"reference"to"the"‘Integrated'framework'for'Analysing' Dialogic'Knowledge'Production'and'Communication’"(IFADIA)."As"explained"by"Phillips,"this" theoretical"framework"is"guided"by"two"questions:" “How'can'the'research'traditions'of'dialogic'communication'theory,'science'and' technology'studies'and'action'research'be'drawn'on'in'order'to'build'a'theoretical' framework'for'understanding'and'analysing'the'dialogic'production'and' communication'of'knowledge'in'terms'of'relations'between'the'different'participants' and'knowledge'forms,'and'issues'of'power,'democracy'and'agency?'And'how'is' ‘dialogue’'enacted'through'the'articulation'of'the'discourse,'participation'and' empowerment'in'specific'ways'in'specific'fields'of'practice?”"(Phillips,"2011,"p."23)" Therefore,"by"combining"elements"of"three"theoretical"traditions"(i."dialogic"communication" theory;"ii."science"and"technology"studies’"research"on"public"engagement"with"science;"and," iii."action"research19)"for"understanding"how"dialogue"is"conceptualised,"analysed"and" practised"within"the"three"theoretical"traditions,"this"framework"constitutes"a"good"example" of"the"major"challenges"and"opportunities"that"the"research"on"the"relationship"between" science,"society"and"policy"represents"to"traditional"epistemological"boundaries."" PES*–*Ambiguities*of*the*field* We"live"in"uncertain"times,"where"the"promises"of"scientific"and"technological"developments" seem"to"give"place"to"‘more"and"more"uncertainty"and"the"feeling"that"our"ignorance"is"more" important"that"what"we"know’"(Callon,"Lascoumes,"&"Barthe,"2001,"p."18)."This"condition" had"long"since"been"recognized"(Funtowicz"&"Ravetz,"1990,"1993,"1994),"as"well"as"its"major" implications"for"science:"“The'scientific'process'now'encompasses'the'management'of' irreducible'uncertainties'in'knowledge'and'ethics,'and'the'recognition'of'complexity,' implying'the'legitimacy'of'a'plurality'of'perspectives'and'ways'of'knowing.'In'this'way,'its' practice'is'become'more'akin'to'the'workings'of'democratic'society,'characterized'by' extensive'participation'and'toleration'of'diversity”"(Funtowicz"&"Ravetz,"1994,"p."1885)." In"the"face"of"a"growing"danger"of"‘policy"vacuums’20"and"a"growing"crisis"of"legitimacy,""the" importance"of"public"trust"and"the"need"to"take"‘knowledge"society’"seriously"have"become" a"standard"part"of"the"policy"repertoire"(Ulrike"Felt,"et"al.,"2007).""Therefore,"and"based"on" the"assumption"that"science:public"interactions"might"lead"to"policies"that"will"take"into" account"the"views"and"priorities"of"the"citizens,"it"has"been"suggested"for"a"while"than"one" possible"way"to"address"the"controversies"surrounding"science"and"technology"is"to"promote" the"engagement"and"dialogue"between"the"scientific"community"and"the"public"(A."Irwin," 2006)."In"this"context,"since"the"early"1990s"the"academic"and"policy"discourses"have"been" characterized"by"the"pervading"emphasis"on"public"trust,"transparency"and"democratic" engagement"as"a"prerequisite"for"governance"and"decision:making,"in"general,"and"to"the" governance"of"science"and"technology"in"particular." Still,"the"profound"ambiguity"and"obscurity"concerning"the"‘participatory'turn’"in"issues" involving"science"and"technology"seem"far"from"being"solved."Wynne"draws"attention"to"the" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 19 "The"two"first"theoretical"traditions"are"briefly"discussed"in"this"chapter."The"main"relevance"of"the"Action" Research"tradition"(which"is"not"discussed"in"this"chapter)"comes"from"its"‘perspective'on'the'tensions'that'can' arise'in'the'coproduction'of'knowledge'among'academic'researchers'and'collaborating'partners’"(Idem,"p."44). 20 "Characterized"by"‘a'growing'sense'of'urgency'coupled'with'a'lack'of'knowledge'of'what'to'do'and'a'lack'of' institutions'where'the'issues'could'be'addressed’"(Rommetveit,"Funtowicz,"&"Strand,"2010,"p."150)." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 63" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' confusion"and"disagreement"about"the"object"of"such"processes"–"“what'is'the'object'W' ‘science’?'‘risk’?'‘uncertainty’?“'(…)'“what'is'meant'by'‘science'and'technology’?”":"and"to" the"‘hugely'problematic,'unacknowledged'normative'commitment'to'the'subjectWidentities'of' those'publics’"(Wynne,"2007)."By"exploring"the"configuration"of"‘scientific"citizenship’"Irwin" raises"several"other"questions:"“Does'dialogue'imply'that'public'knowledges'are'given'the' same'status'as'scientific'understandings—or'instead'that'familiar'deficit'notions'of'an' uninformed'public'are'recycled?'Who,'for'example,'gets'to'decide'what'counts'as'a' legitimate'problem'for'discussion?'How'are'the'informative'(or'information'giving)'and' consultative'(or'information'gathering)'dimensions'of'participation'to'be'balanced?'What' happens'when'public'opinion'is'opposed'to'government'policy—or,'more'likely,'when'certain' shades'of'opinion'are'opposed'but'others'are'in'favor?”'(A."Irwin,"2001,"p."3)."While" questioning"the"role"of"participatory"processes"in"decision:making"regarding"science"and" technology"Liberatore"and"Funtowicz"point"out"to"different"logics"underlying"the"conceptions" of"democracy"and"expertise,"“making'the'idea'of'‘democratising'expertise’'—'and' ‘expertising'democracy’'—'a'contradiction'in'terms”"(Liberatore"&"Funtowicz,"2003)."Carolan" considers"that"the"problem"of"the"democratization"of"science"and"expertise"should"imply"a" shifting"from"the"discussion"of"‘science’"to"that"of"‘expertise’,"referring"the"relevance"of"the" concept"of"‘boundary'organizations’"in"order"to"promote"multiple"forms"of"expertise"‘in' action’,"namely"‘contributory'expertise’"and"‘interactional'expertise’"(Carolan,"2006;"Collins"&" Evans,"2002)."In"order"to"characterize"the"many"different"ways"public"engage"with"science" Bucchi"and"Neresini"adopt"a"broad"definition"of"participation"and"propose"an"interpretative" framework"that"comprises"two"principal"dimensions"(or"axes)"of"analysis:"one"defined"by"the" ‘intensity’'of"cooperation"among"different"actors"in"knowledge"production"processes,"the" other"by"the"degree"of"‘spontaneity’'of"public"participation"(Bucchi"&"Neresini,"2008)."Rowe" and"Frewer"put"the"emphasis"on"a"number"of"definitional"issues"that"require"clarification" before"research"on"public"engagement"may"become"meaningful":"in"this"sense"providing" contributions"for"i)"the"clarification"of"key"concepts,"such"as:"public"engagement,"public" participation"and""public"communication"(based"on"the"flow"of"information"between" participants"and"sponsors);"ii)"the"definition"of"a"typology"of"public"engagement"mechanisms" (related"with"key"variables"that"may"affect"effectiveness)";"and"iii)"the"establishment"of"a" framework"for"evaluating"public"participation"methods"and"to"assess"its"effectiveness"(Rowe" &"Frewer,"2000,"2004,"2005).""" As"denoted"by"these"(necessarily,"non:exhaustive)"reflections,"in"spite"of"the"widespread" perceived"importance"on"the"need"to"promote"trust,"transparency"and"dialogue"in"issues" involving"science"and"technology,"there"are"still"many"open"questions"and"a"sense"of" obscurity"surrounding"the"discourses"of"public"engagement"with"science"and"technology":"as" the"emphasis"that"has"been"given"to"definitional"issues"suggest." A"general"definition"of""public"participation":"which"often"covers"its"two"‘synonymous'of' uncertain'equivalence’:"‘public"involvement’"and"‘public"engagement’"(Rowe"&"Frewer," 2005)":"is'the'practice'of'involving'members'of'the'public'in'the'agendaWsetting,'decisionW making,'and'policyWforming'activities'of'organizations/institutions'responsible'for'policy' development”"(2005,"p."253)."This"broad"definition,"as"many"others"that"have"been" proposed,"opens"the"way"to"multiple"interpretations,"containing"in"itself"the"hiatus"where" most"of"the"controversial"questions"concerning"the"‘participatory"turn’"rest:"“which'forms,' features,'and'conditions'of'public'engagement'are'optimal'for'what'purposes,'and'why?”" (PytlikZillig"&"Tomkins,"2011).' Of"these"questions"we"would"like"to"stress"the"priority"that"should"be"given"to"the"last"“for" what"purpose,"and"why?”"–"to"which"the"answers,"inevitably,"provide"the"contextual" meaning"of"the"former"questions."Moreover,"on"considering"the"scope"of"this"chapter,"when" we"think"about"the"organizations"and"institutions"responsible"for"such"function"(policy" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 64" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' development),"we"became"confronted,"almost"inevitably,"with"three"fundamental"questions" about"the"science:policy"interface:"“(i)'What'are'science–policy'interfaces?'(ii)'Why'do'they' exist?'and'(iii)'How'should'they'operate?”'(van"den"Hove,"2007,"p."824):"" “To'the'question'of'what'science–policy'interfaces'are,'the'proposed'answer'is'that' they'are'social'processes'which'encompass'relations'between'scientists'and'other' actors'in'the'policy'process,'and'which'allow'for'exchanges,'coWevolution,'and'joint' construction'of'knowledge'with'the'aim'of'enriching'decisionWmaking.'To'the' question'of'the'rationale'for'the'existence'of'such'interfaces,'the'suggestion'is'that' they'are'processes'that'are'implemented'to'manage'the'intersection'between' science'and'policy.'To'the'question'of'how'they'should'operate,'the'answer'offered' lies'in'a'set'of'normative'requirements'and'challenges'for'science–policy'interfaces”.' Lastly,"and"related"with"these"key"questions"on"the"science:policy"interface,"it"is"also" important"to"highlight"the"emphasis"that"this"‘participatory"turn’"in"issues"involving"science" and"technology"has"been"given"to"the"outcomes":"an"issue"that"tends"to"emerge"as"soon"as" we"raise"questions"about"the"role"and"benefits"of"public"deliberation"and"discursive" participation"initiatives"in"the"context"of"democratic"politics."While"some"authors"arguing" that"“Public'participation'that'isn’t'an'integrated'part'of'the'decisionWmaking'process'is'a' waste'of'time'for'both'the'organization'and'the'public”"(Creighton,"2005,"p."27),"other" authors"emphasize"the"tensions"between"the"attributes"of"a"social"environment"that"would" promote"participatory"democracy"and"those"that"would"be"best"for"deliberative"democracy." As"the"suggestive"title"‘Deliberative'versus'Participatory'Democracy’"indicates,"‘the'theories' of'participatory'democracy'are'in'important'ways'inconsistent'with'theories'of'deliberative' democracy:'the'best'possible'social'environment'for'purposes'of'either'one'of'these'two' goals'would'naturally'undermine'the'other”"(Mutz,"2006,"p."16)." These"tensions"are"at"the"heart"of"the"difficulties"to"link"political"theory"with"empirical" research,"as"it"may"be"attested"by"the"underestimated"importance"given"to"‘non'policyW informing'events’"by"political"theorists."In"fact","the"growing"popularity""of"dialogue"events" without"formal"connections"to"policy"(those"that"do"not"seek"to"inform"public"policy)"in"some" countries"of"Europe"and"U.S.,"tend"to"be"‘underWtheorized’"and"‘under:researched’"in"the" context"of"political"theories"(Davies,"McCallie,"Simonsson,"Lehr,"&"Duensing,"2008)."" Therefore,"the"traditional"emphasis"that"has"been"given"to"the"outcomes"of"public" deliberation"and"discursive"participation"processes"seem"to"contrast"with"the"traditional" theoretical"conceptions"of"‘deliberative'spaces’,"especially"in"what"concerns"its"social"and" cultural"functions:"“the'general'emphasis'in'deliberative'democratic'theory,'however,'is'not' on'the'outcomes'of'deliberation'but'instead'on'the'deliberation'itself.'Rather'than'on'public' participation'to'improve'decisionWmaking,'deliberative'democratic'theory'functions'on'a'logic' that'understands'public'participation'as'an'opportunity'for'public'debate,'personal' reflection,'and'informed'public'opinion”"(Parkins"&"Mitchell,"2005,"p."532)." This"circumstance"reinforces"the"need"to"frame"this"‘participatory'turn’"in"the"context"of"the" deliberative"democracy"theory,"particularly"by"drawing"attention"to"existing"bodies"of"work" in"political"theory"and"philosophy"(Wynne,"2007)."Therein,"and"almost"inevitable,"we"have"to" mention"the"decisive"impetus"given"by"Habermas's""study"on"the"‘public'sphere’"(Habermas," 1991,"1998)"21,"highlighting"the"ways"in"which"his"ideas"have"been"influential"in"the"debates" about"the"crucial"functions"of"‘deliberative"spaces’"to"contemporary"explorations"of" participative,"deliberative"and"collaborative"processes."In"fact,"the"concept"of"‘public"sphere’" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 21 "This"reference"to"Habermas’s"work"in"the"context"of"current"‘participatory"turn’"in"issues"involving"science"and" technology,"rather"than"be"confined"to"his"works,"draws"attention"to"the"extremely"productive discussion"and insights"that"his"work"has"been"generating"for"the"past"fifty"years,"giving"rise"to"a"vast"body"of"literature"in"the" most"diverse"disciplinary"fields. Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 65" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' as"a"domain"of"rational"discourse,"deliberation"and"decision:making"beyond"the"formal" institutions"of"government,"still"provides"important"insights"to"problematize"and"address"the" complex"issues"of"PES"in"the"contemporary"digital"society,"particularly"by"considering"the" undergoing"profound"transformations"in"the"scientific"enterprise":"as"the"terms"‘eWScience’" and"‘cyberscience’"suggest":""(Atkins,"et"al.,"2003;"Jankowski,"2007;"Nentwich,"2003;"Olson," Zimmerman,"&"Bos,"2008;"Ravetz,"2012;"Wilhelm,"2000)""(Blok,"2007;"Olson,"et"al.,"2008;" Ravetz,"2012;"Wilhelm,"2000):"" “By'‘the'public'sphere’'we'mean'first'off'all'a'real'of'our'social'life'in'which' something'approaching'public'opinion'can'be'formed.'Access'is'guaranteed'to'all' citizens.'A'portion'of'the'public'sphere'comes'into'being'in'every'conversation'in' which'private'individual'assemble'to'form'a'public'body'(…)'Citizens'behave'as'a' public'body'when'they'confer'in'an'unrestricted'fashion'–'that'is,'whit'the'guarantee' of'freedom'of'assembly'and'association'and'the'freedom'to'express'and'publish'their' opinions'–about'matters'of'general'interest”"(Habermas,"1974,"p."49)." Notwithstanding,"in"broaching"a"discussion"about"contemporary"explorations"of" participative,"deliberative"and"collaborative"processes"in"the"context"of"deliberative" democracy"theory,"we"must"be"aware"of"some"fundamental""differences"regarding"the" concept"of"deliberative"democracy,"and"to"the"‘family'of'ideas’"that"the"theory"of" deliberation"comprise."As"Rosenberg"has"pointed,"“although'many'deliberative'democrats' are'quite'content'to'cite'both'AngloWAmerican'and'Habermasian'theorists'as'progenitors'of' the'perspective'they'adopt,'their'positions'differ'significantly.'Building'on'different' epistemological'assumptions,'these'two'theoretical'perspectives'suggest'different' understandings'of'individuality,'political'relationships'and'political'communication.'As'such' they'offer'different'direction'for'the'analysis'and'implementation'of'democratic'deliberation”" (Rosenberg,"2007,"p."4)." 4.2*Public*engagement*in*different*fields*of*science*and*technology* In"order"to"provide"an"overview"of"the"phenomenon"of"public"engagement"in"different"fields" of"science"and"technology,"we"will"present"in"this"section"some"initiatives"that"have"been" carried"out"to"bring"science"closer"to"the"general"public."The"context"in"which"these" initiatives"took"place"is"diverse"and"its"selection"was"related"with"the"possibility"of"illustrating" some"of"the"complex"issues"discussed"in"the"previous"section."The"examples"provided"here" do"not"intend"to"be"exhaustive"and"its"selection"did"not"obey"a"particular"geographical," temporal,"thematic,"institutional,"or"typological"criterion,"as"well"as"any"kind"of"judgement"in" terms"of"the"relevance,"adequacy"and"effectiveness"of"the"participatory"processes"and" engagement"mechanisms"applied.""Rather,"these"‘eclectic’"examples"intend"to"give"a"‘big" picture’"of"the"PES"phenomenon,"by"covering"initiatives"that"may"illustrate"a"vast"range"of" motivations,"goals,"methods,"approaches,"and"outputs"associated"with"this"‘new"gold" standard’"in"governing"science"and"technology"(Felt"&"Fochler,"2009)."It"is"expected"that"the" different"conceptions"of"PES"behind"these"examples"–"which"presupposed"different" conceptions"of"‘public’,"of"‘engagement’,"and"of"‘science’":"may"contribute"for"the" understanding"of"the"broad"challenges"that"public"engagement"on"contemporary"scientific" and"technological"issues"pose"in"shaping"the"relations"among"science,"technology"and" society." Public*engagement*in*Medical*Research*and*Healthcare*Sector* As"we"will"see"through"the"following"examples,"the"public"engagement"initiatives"in"the" medical"research"and"healthcare"sectors"tend"to"highlight"different"meanings"and" interpretations"of"‘engagement’"and"‘deliberation’"in"the"context"of"health"research,"practice" and"policy,"revealing"the"ambiguity"of"the"concepts"of"‘citizen"engagement’"and"‘public" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 66" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' deliberation’"in"a"diversified"set"of"situations"and"activities."As"one"moves"from"theory"to" practice,"the"ambivalent"nature"of"the"relationships"between"policy,"science"and"citizens" becomes"evident,"rendering"difficult"the"attainment"of"a"‘big"picture’"that"may"help"us"to" confront"the"diversity"of"assumptions"and"the"plurality"of"points"of"view"on"the"mobilization" and"involvement"of"the"public"in"medical""research,"health"policy"and"in"the"discussion"on" modern"‘technomedicine’(Erni,"1994)"issues."" The"processes"of"PES"in"the"health"sector"range"from"formal"institutional"initiatives,"highly" organized"and"structured,"to"hybrid"forums"in"which"both"experts"and"non"experts"can" actively"interact"in"the"definition"and"accreditation"of"scientific"knowledge"(Delli"Carpini," Cook,"&"Jacobs,"2004)."" Over"the"last"few"decades,"public"bioethics"bodies"have"become"as"an"institutional"forum"for" authoritative"judgments"about"a"plethora"of"emerging"bioethical"issues"(Kelly,"2003;"Moore," 2010)."According"to"UNESCO’s"recent"report"on"national"biotethics"committees"“The' debates,'opinions'and'recommendations'generated'within'such'committees'are'highly' sought'after'by'governments'that'seek'to'enact'policies'that'optimally'balance'the' tremendous'benefits'of'new'scientific'discoveries'and'their'potential'hazards.'Through'a' constructive,'informative'and'balanced'debate,'these'committees'open'space'for'free'and' open'expression'of'different,'often'opposing'viewpoints'existing'in'various'segments'of' society.'Such'debates'inevitably'spill'over'beyond'the'confines'of'committee'meeting'rooms,' and'enrich'the'understanding'of'a'given'issue'among'not'only'the'policymakers'and' concerned'professionals,'but'the'general'public'as'well”"(UNESCO,"2010,"p."9)."Yet,"despite" the"aims"and"rationale"provided"here,"several"authors"have"drawn"attention"for"the"lack"of" transparency"of"these"bodies"“Unfortunately'most'public'bioethics'committees'do'chose'to' meet'behind'closed'doors'and'forgo'transparency,'creating'suspicion'among'other' professional'bioethicists'and'the'rest'of'the'public,'even'when'in'fact'there'may'be'no' justifiable'grounds'for'believing'something'to'be'amiss”"(Schüklenk"&"Lott,"2005,"p."135)." In"response"to"the"growing"demands"of"the"citizens"for"transparent"and"accountable"decision" making"in"the"health"sector,"the"policy"makers"have"been"responding"with"diverse"types"of" public"engagement"mechanisms."These"initiatives"flows"from"traditional"one:way" approaches"(such"as"surveys)"to"assess"public"knowledge,"attitudes,"and"behaviours;"to"‘face: to:face’"initiatives,"such"as"small"focus"groups,"citizen’s"juries,"planning"cells,"consensus" conference"and"deliberative"pooling,"designed"to"elicit"information"from"the"public"(Abelson," Eyles,"et"al.,"2003;"Abelson,"Forest,"et"al.,"2003)."" In"order"to"involve"the"public"in"increasingly"complex"decisions"in"public"health,"a"growing" interest"on"participatory"research"approaches"has"been"designed"to"‘improve'health'and' eliminate'health'disparities'by'bridging'gaps'between'research'and'practice,'addressing' social'justice,'and'creating'conditions'that'facilitate'people’s'control'over'the'determinants' of'their'health’"(Cargo"&"Mercer,"2008)."The"basic"assumption"underlying"these"initiatives"is" the"recognition"of"the"value"of"engaging"in"the"early"stages"of"the"research"process"those" who"are"intended"to"be"the"beneficiaries,"users,"and"stakeholders"of"the"research":"rather" than"considering"them"as"merely"subjects"of"those"researches"(Idem)." "“Evidence:based"medicine”"and"“learning"health"care"system”"have"become"popular"in" discussions"about"health"care"quality"(Weisfeld,"English,"&"Claiborne,"2011)."The"significant" problems"in"clinical"trials"and"the"broad"range"of"actors"involved"(including"public"and" private"institutions,"academic"medical"centres,"hospitals,"community"practices," pharmaceutical"and"medical"device"industries,"voluntary"health"organizations,"and"contract" research"organizations)"are"leading"to"innovative"participatory"initiatives"in"the"area"of" biomedical"research,"which"represent"a"substantial"shift"towards"a"model"of"co:production" (Bucchi"&"Neresini,"2008)."" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 67" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' In"the"context"of"health"technology"assessment"(HTA),"there"is"a"growing"consensus"on"the" need"to"address"ethical"and"social"values"at"the"different"stages"of"the"process."Therefore" several"deliberative"methods"to"involve"the"public"into"the"HTA"process,"particularly"by" eliciting"ethical"and"social"values,"are"being"explored"‘to'ensure'that'decisions'are'legitimate,' and'reflect'the'broad'social'values'of'the'public’"(Bombard,"Abelson,"Simeonov,"&"Gauvin," 2011)." The*Cochrane*Collaboration":"Cochrane*Consumers*and*Communication*Review*Group*–"In" the"influential"book"Effectiveness'and'Efficiency:'Random'Reflections'on'Health'Services," published"in"1972,"Archie"Cochrane"referred"that"an"investigation"into"the"clinical"sector"of" the"National"Health"Service"(NHS)"suggested"that"this"sector"‘is'subject'to'a'severe'inflation' with'the'outputs'rising'much'less'that'would'be'expected'from'the'input’"(Cochrane,"1999,"p." 86)."To"counteract"this"situation,"Cochrane"suggested"that"‘the'inflation'could'be'controlled' by'science,'in'particular'by'the'wide'use'of'randomized'controlled'trial’"(Idem'ibidem)."" Cochrane’s"ideas""were"widely"recognized"as"seminally"important,"having"received" considerable"attention"and"support,"and"leading"to"the"establishment"of"the"first"UK' Cochrane'Centre'in"Oxford,"in"1992,"and"the"founding"of"The'Cochrane'Collaboration"in"1993" (Chalmers,"Sandercock,"&"Wennberg,"1993;"The"Cochrane"Collaboration,"2012)."" The"Cochrane"Collaboration"is"an"international"network,"registered"as"a"charity"in"the"UK," that"has"14"centres"across"the"world,"involving"around"28,000"contributors"(a"mix"of" volunteers"and"paid"staff)"from"more"than"100"countries"that"‘work'together'to'help'health' care'providers,'policyWmakers,'patients,'their'advocates'and'carers,'make'wellWinformed' decisions'about'health'care,'based'on'the'best'available'research'evidence,'by'preparing,' updating'and'promoting'the'accessibility'of'Cochrane'Reviews'–'over'4,600'so'far,'published' online'in'The'Cochrane'Library’"(The"Cochrane"Collaboration,"2012)."" By"advocating"the"practice"of"evidence:based"health"care,"the"53"Cochrane"Review"Groups" investigate,"in"a"systematic"way,"the"effectiveness"of"health"care"interventions"for" prevention,"treatment"and"rehabilitation,"as"well"as"the"accuracy"of"diagnostic"tests."These" activities"are"carried"out"in"accordance"with"a"rigorous"and"explicit"methodology,"described" in"The'Cochrane'Handbook'for'Systematic'Reviews'of'Interventions,"and"the"results"of" Cochrane'Reviews"are"published"in"full"online"in"the"Cochrane"Database"of"Systematic" Reviews"(CDSR),"which"is"a"core"component"of"the"Cochrane"Library"(Higgins"&"Green"S."ed.," 2011).""" Also"central"to"Cochrane"Reviews"are"the"concepts"of"‘evidenceWinformed'communication' and'participation’,"which"recognize"the"growing"importance"of"communication"and" participation"in"healthcare,"and"of"‘knowledgeable'patients’,"emphasising"the"role"of"lay" knowledge"in"the"production"of"health"(Hill,"2011).""Therefore,"since"1997"the"Cochrane" Consumers"and"Communication"Review"Group,"based"at"La"Trobe"University"in"Melbourne," have"been"involved"in"the"coordination"of"‘systematic'reviews'of'research'on'the'effects'of' interventions'(particularly'those'which'focus'on'information'and'communication)'which' affect'consumers''interactions'with'health'care'professionals,'health'care'services'and'health' care'researchers’"(Hill,"2010)." The*James*Lind*Alliance"–"In"spite"the"increased"recognition"that"patients"and"healthcare" professionals"may"have"in"identifying"priority"areas"of"research,"there"are"often"mismatches" between"the"research"agenda"established"by"the"scientific"community"and"by"the" pharmaceutical"and"medical"technology"industries,"and"the"unanswered"questions"asked"by" patients"and"clinics"(Eleftheriadou,"et"al.,"2011;"Elwyn,"et"al.,"2010;"Scadding,"2006).""In"order" to"address"this"problem,"in"December"2004,""the"James"Lind"Alliance"(JLA),"a"Department"of" the"Health"and"Medical"Research"Council"funded"initiative,"was"set"up"“to'bring'patients'and' practicing'clinicians'together'in'a'new'way'to'identify'and'address'the'most'important' Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 68" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' uncertainties'they'face'about'the'effects'of'care'and'treatments”"(Partridge"&"Scadding," 2004,"p."1923)."" As"stated"in"the"JLA’s"website"(The"James"Lind"Alliance,"2012),"at"the"heart"of"the"James"Lind" Alliance"is"the"establishment"of"‘Priority"Setting"Partnerships"(PSPs)’,"that"join"patients," carers,"and"clinicians"together"to"identify"patients’"and"clinicians’"shared"priorities"for" research"into"the"treatment"of"specific"health"problems."Up"till"now,"9"partnerships"were" concluded"(asthma;"ear,"nose"and"throat;"eczema;"prostate"cancer;"schizophrenia,"stroke," Type"1"diabetes,"urinary"incontinence;"and"vitiligo)"and"seven"are"under"way"(cleft"lip;" dementia;"head"and"neck"cancer;"lyme"disease,"pressure"ulcers;"pre:term"birth"and"tinnitus)" ." An"important"tool"of"the"JLA"is"an"online"resource"called"the"UK'Database'of'Uncertainties' about'the'Effects'of'Treatments"(UK"DUETs),"which"has"been"established"to"publish" uncertainties"about"the"effects"of"treatment."Therefore,"all"the"uncertainties"identified"by" the"PSPs"are"added"to"the"DUETs"in"order"to"provide"reference"for"funding"bodies"and" researchers"(Elwyn,"et"al.,"2010;"Petit:Zeman,"Firkins,"&"Scadding,"2010;"The"James"Lind" Alliance,"2012).** The*Human*Embryo*Research*Panel*(HERP)*–"In"1994"the"National"Institutes"of"Health" established"the"Human"Embryo"Research"Panel"to"assess"the"moral"and"ethical"issues"raised" by"human"embryo"research"and"to"develop"responsible"guidance"for"the"agency’s"review" and"conduct"of"human"embryo"research."The"panel"comprised"nineteen"members,"selected" on"the"basis"of"their"broad"expertise"in"relevant"areas,"such"as:"ethics,"law,"public"health"and" public"policy"issues."During"eight"months,"the"panel"held"six"public"meetings,"heard" testimony"from"forty:six"witnesses"and"received"thirty"thousand"pieces"of"mail"(HERP,"1994;" Kelly,"2003)."In"September"1994,"the"NIH"Panel"released"its"report"which"concluded"that" “sufficient'arguments'existed'to'support'the'permissibility'of'certain'areas'of'research' involving'the'preimplantation'human'embryo'within'a'framework'of'stringent'guidelines”." Reporting"in"detail"from"his"experience"as"a"member"of"the"NIH’s"HERP,"Green"provides"an" interesting"account"of"the"array"of"conceptual"problems,"social"forces"and"political" interferences"that"conditioned"the"functioning"of"this"influential"form"of"institutionalized" ethics:"“…"During'that'year,'the'panel'was'introduced'to'some'of'the'surprising'new' information'being'generated'by'researchers'in'human'embryology'and'genetics.'Among' other'things,'we'learned'that'a'broad'new'field'of'medicine'is'emerging'that'involves'a'union' of'reproductive'medicine'with'genetic'science.'One'writer'has'termed'this'field' ‘reprogenetics’.'Against'this'background,'the'members'of'the'Human'Embryo'Research'Panel' had'to'develop'new'ways'of'thinking'about'the'ethical'questions'these'possibilities'raise.' With'the'NIS’s'request'for'guidance'always'before'us,'we'had'to'fit'our'answers'into'a' framework'that'made'sense'for'public'policy.'Finally,'we'had'to'do'this'in'the'vortex'of' Washington’s'press'and'policy”(Green,"2001,"pp."xiv:xv).""Arguing"against"the"‘single"criteria" view’"that"dominated"the"embryo"research"debate,"Green"offers"a"‘pluralistic'and'pragmatic' approach’'‘'based"on'‘the'belief'that'not'one'but'a'variety'of'criteria'interact'and'work' together'to'lead'to'a'mounting'sense'of'concern'and'ultimately'to'judgments'of' protectability'about'entities’'(Green,"2001,"p."163).""" Public*engagement*in*Bioengineering*and*Biotechnology* The"major"scientific"discoveries"and"technological"innovations"that"have"been"occurring"in" the"fields"of"biology,"biotechnology,"agriculture"engineering,"genetic"engineering,"synthetic" biology,"and"biomedical"engineering"are"currently"challenging"our"conceptions"of"life," creating"biological"materials"that"do"not"already"exist"in"the"natural"world,"altering"the" genetic"code"by"artificial"means,"transforming"substantially"the"modes"of"food"production," Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 69" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' altering"the"practices"of"medicine,"and"feeding"the"perception"of"law"lags"behind"advances"in" science"and"technology"(Sheila"Jasanoff,"2008,"pp."768:769)." Therefore,"and"not"surprisingly,"the"initiatives"of"public"engagement"in"the"field"of" Bioengineering"and"Biotechnology"constitute"a"particular"type"of"response"over"the" controversies"that"surround"its"major"areas"of"application"(Hansen,"2010,"pp."7:27)."Also"not" surprisingly,"many"of"these"public"engagement"initiatives"were"object"of"profound"analysis" and,"some"of"them,"of"major"criticism,"revealing"the"‘incompatibilities'between'the'nature'of' public'concerns'about'biotechnology'and'the'implicit'purposes'of'dialogue’"(Goven,"2006,"p." 101)."In"order"to"address"the"objectives"of"this"chapter"we"will"briefly"mention,"in"a" necessarily"non:exhaustive"manner,"some"examples"of"these"initiatives." AnimalYtoYhuman*transplantation:*Should*Canada*proceed?*A*public*consultation*on* xenotransplantation"–"Because"of"the"complex"issues"raised"by""Xenotransplantation,"Health" Canada"decided"to"involve"the"Canadian"public"in"answering"the"overarching"question:" “Should'Canada'proceed'with'xenotransplantation,'and'if'so,'under'what'conditions?”.""To" that"end,"on"August"10,"2000,"The"Canadian"Public"Health"Association"(CPHA)"took"the" responsibilities"of"forming"a"Public"Advisory"Group"and"conducting"consultations"across" Canada"on"the"issue"of"xenotransplantation"(Canadian"Public"Health"Association,"N.d.)."This" initiative"started"with"publicity"and"education"campaigns"designed"to"inform"the"public" about"how"to"become"involved"in"the"consultation."The"consultation"was"carried"out" between"March"and"July"2001"and"comprised"a"variety"of"methods,"organized"within"two" consultation"models:"a"representative"model"that"aimed"to"draw"opinions"from"specific" individual"who"could"be"said"to"represent"Canadian"citizens"–"107"panellists"that"participated" in"six"citizen"forums"and"1519"respondents"to"a"national"telephone"survey;"and"an"Open" Model,"designed"to"promote"input"from"all"Canadians"through"a"website"survey"("answered" by"367"members"of"the"public,"mainly"with"an"interest"in"xenotransplantation"issues),"a" ’strakeholder’"mail:in"survey"(responded"by"216"organizations"that"covered"a"broad"range"of" interests)"and"Letters,"emails"and"public"forums."At"the"end"of"the"process"the"citizen"forums" were"recognized"to"be"‘the'most'effective'model'for'consulting'the'public'on'this'complex' and'controversial'topic’'(Canadian"Public"Health"Association,"2001)."Most"of"the"participants" in"this"consultation"expressed"concern"about"ethical,"moral,"and"animal"welfare"issues"and," at"that"time,"did"not"support"the"xenotransplantation"involving"humans."Therefore,"the" Public"Advisory"Group"recommended"that"Canada"‘should"not"proceed"with" xenotransplantation"as"there"were"critical"issues"that"first"need"to"be"resolved’"(Idem)." Public*Perceptions*of*Agricultural*Biotechnologies*in*Europe*(PABE)"–"The"PABE"project"was" commissioned"by"the"European"Commission"and"conducted"during"1998:2000,"by"an" inter:disciplinary"research"team"from"five"countries:"the"United"Kingdom,"France,"Germany," Italy"and"Spain."It"aimed"to"provide"intelligence"about"social,"ethical"and"cultural"factors" shaping"public"responses"to"GM"foods"and"to"provide"policy"makers"with"insights"into"the" conditions"necessary"for"improving"levels"of"public"trust"in"agricultural"biotechnology" policies."A"total"of"55"focus"groups"were"organized"among"ordinary"citizens"of"the"five" participating"countries."Additionally,"perceptions"of"public"responses"to"GMOs"among" stakeholders"(actors"engaged"in"the"GMO"controversy)"were"studied"using"interviews," participant"observation"and"document"analysis."" The"main"key"findings"of"the"report"suggested"that"most"policy"makers'"conceptions"of"public" attitudes"and"perceptions"turned"out"to"be"mere"'myths',"revealing"entrenched" misrepresentations"of"the"public."There"was"no"evidence"for"the"claim"that"public"resistance" to"biotechnologies"can"be"explained"by"a"mixture"of"ignorance"and"a"desire"for"zero:risk." Rather,"people"felt"strongly"that"inherent"and"unavoidable"uncertainties"should"be" acknowledged"by"expert"institutions,"and"taken"into"account"in"decision"making."" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 70" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' In"fact,"the"comparison"of"perceptions"of"GMOs"among"ordinary"citizens"with"the" perceptions"of"public"responses"to"GMOs"among"stakeholders"provided"important"insights" about"mistaken"interpretations"of"public"perceptions,"which"have"major"implications"in" shaping"the"communication"strategies"and"policies"of"decision:makers"and,"therefore,"calling" for"a"new"urgent"imperative:"“Policy'makers'should'be'prepared'to'consider'that'the'source' of'the'problem'is'not'only'to'be'found'in'the'behaviour'of'the'public'but'also'in'the'behaviour' of'institutions'responsible'for'creating'and'managing'innovations'and'risk”"(Marris,"Wynne," Simmons,"&"Weldon,"2001,"p."7)" This"‘need'for'a'broad'based'cultural'change'in'policy'thinking'about'public'perceptions'of' science’"(Idem)"is"perceptible"by"confronting"the"key"findings"of"this"qualitative"study"with" those"revealed"by"the"European"Commission's"Eurobarometer"on"public"perception"of" biotechnology,"which"revealed"“an'overall'suspicion'of'GM'foods'amongst'the'European' public”"and"that"the"“Majority'of'Europeans'believes'GM'foods'are'not'good'for'them”"(EC," 2010,"pp."18:20),"reinforcing"the"relevance"of"studies"such"as"PABE"to"put"into"perspective" the"traditional"large"scale"surveys"conducted"by"policy"makers"(Louet,"2001)." GM*Nation?*Debate*–*On"June"2003"the"UK"Government"launched"‘The"GM"Nation?" Debate’,"an"unprecedented"experiment"in"large:scale"public"participation,"designed"to" promote"the"debate"about"the"future"of"genetically"modified"crops"and"food"in"the"UK."The" objective"of"this"deliberative"exercise"was"“to'promote'an'innovative,'effective'and' deliberative'programme'of'debate'on'GM'issues,'framed'by'the'public,'against'the' background'of'the'possible'commercial'production'of'GM'crops'in'the'UK'and'the'options'for' possibly'proceeding'with'this.'Through'the'debate,'provide'meaningful'information"to" Government"about"the"nature"and"spectrum"of"the"public’s"views,"particularly"at"grass"roots" level,"to"inform"decision:making"”"(Richard"Heller"of"Clarity"ed.,"2003,"p."11"and"p.55)."" The"public"debate"approach"involved"different"research"methods."It"began"with"nine" foundation"discussion"workshops"(8"workshops"involved"members"of"the"general"public"and" 1"workshop"comprised"participants"‘actively"involved’"in"GM)"that"aimed"to"set"the"agenda" for"the"subsequent"meetings."Based"on"the"issues"generated"by"the"Foundation"Discussion" Workshops,"the"deliberative"process"for"the"debate"was"set"out"and"a"range"of"materials"to" stimulate"the"discussion"was"prepared."These"workshops"also"resulted"in"the"formulation"of" 13"questions,"which"formed"the"basis"of"the"standard"questionnaire"used"subsequently"in" the"reconvened"discussion"groups"and"in"the"debate"feedback"forms."The"final"programme" for"the"debate"included"a"series"of"national"and"regional"public"events"organized"in"three" Tiers"(6"round:table"national"discussions"in"Tier"1;"40"regional"and"county:level"meetings"in" Tier"2;"and"629"local"Tier"3"meetings)."Afterwards,"the"so:called"“Narrow:But:Deep”"element" of"the"debate"was"conducted,"in"which"a"total"of"77"participants"took"part"in"two"further" group"discussion"exercises"Finally,"the"feedback"forms"with"the"questions"inspired"by"the" Foundation"Discussion"Workshops"were"made"available"(in"hard"copy"and"on"the"website)"to" members"of"the"public"and"interested"organisations."In"total,"36.557"feedback"forms"were" completed"(Idem)." According"to"the"final"report,"the"‘GM"Nation?’"debate"carried"seven"major"key"messages:"1)" People"were"generally"uneasy"about"GM;""2)The"more"people"engage"in"GM"issues,"the" harder"their"attitudes"and"more"intense"their"concerns;"3)There"was"little"support"for"early" commercialization;"4)There"was"widespread"mistrust"of"government"and"multi:national" companies;"5)"There"was"a"broad"desire"to"know"more"and"for"further"research"to"be"done;" 6)Developing"countries"have"special"interests;"7)The"debate"was"welcomed"and"valued." This"unprecedented"deliberative"initiative"on"GM"issues"deserved"considerable"attention" from"different"sectors"of"society."It"was"surrounded"by"considerable"suspicion"and" reservation"on"the"part"of"many"participants,"observers"and"experts,"who"questioned"about" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 71" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' the"real"intentions"behind"it"(partly"motivated"by"its"organizational"setting);"the" representativeness"of"the"debate"(questions"of"legitimacy);"and"the"effectiveness"of"the" process"(how"it"would"fit"into"the"formal"policy"making"on"GM"crops?)"(Gaskell,"2004;" Horlick:Jones,"2007;"Joss,"2005;"Pidgeon,"et"al.,"2005;"T.Horlick:Jones,"et"al.,"2004)." Public*Dialogue*on*Synthetic*Biology"–"This"study"was"carried"out"in"the"United"Kingdom"in" May"2009,"and"it"was"commissioned"by"The"Royal"Academy"of"Engineering"and"conducted"by" People"Science"and"Policy"Ltd"(PSP)."It"aimed"‘to'explore'uninformed'and'informed' perceptions'of'and'attitudes'to'synthetic'biology'in'the'UK’"(The"Royal"Academy"of" Engineering,"2009)."This"initiative"comprised"two"different"activities:"i)"a"dialogue"activity,"in" which"16"participants"recruited"from"the"Greater"London"area"attended"two"meetings"that" were"conceived"to"explore"people’s"perceptions,"aspirations"and"concerns"on"the" development"of"synthetic"biology;"ii)"a"quantitative"nationally"representative"survey,"carried" out"by"telephone"(of"1,000"adults"aged"18"and"over),"that"compromised"three"questions"and" three"attitude"statements."This"survey"was"designed"‘to"provide"a"representative"early" insight"of"awareness"and"attitudes"to"synthetic"biology,"at"a"national"level,"as"well"as"to" provide"context"to,"and"verify,"some"of"the"dialogue"findings’"(Idem)."Additionally,"an" Internet"forum"was"set"up"to"allow"participants"to"continue"the"dialogue"online." Because"this"was"a"small"scale"and"exploratory"exercise,"it"has"to"be"seen"as"a"first"step"in" understanding"public"reactions"to"synthetic"biology,"allowing"the"identification"of"different" attitudinal"groups"and"providing"a"focus"for"further"research"on"this"emerging"technology"at" an"early"stage"of"its"development." Synthetic*Biology*Dialogue":"In"2009,"The"Biotechnology"and"Biological"Sciences"Research" Council"(BBSRC)"and"the"Engineering"and"Physical"Sciences"Research"Council"(EPSRC),"with" funding"from"Sciencewise"Expert"Resource"Centre,"commissioned"the"British"Market" Research"Bureau"(BMRB)"to"conduct"a"public"dialogue"on"synthetic"biology."The"overall"aim" of"this"project"was"‘to'create'a'space'through'which'citizens,'scientists'and'stakeholders' engaged'in'an'informed'debate'on'the'public'value,'ethics'and'potential'applications'of' synthetic'biology’"(Bhattachary,"Calitz,"&"Hunter,"2010)."The"study"devised"three"different" workshops"convened"in"four"locations:"London,"Edinburg,"Newcastle"and"North"Wales."In" total,"160"members"of"the"public"were"recruited"to"take"part"in"these"sessions"(each" comprising"40"participants)."In"addition,"41"interviews"were"carried"out"with"stakeholders," including"consumers"groups,"industry"and"scientists."The"findings"of"the"study,""published"on" June"2010,"showed"that"‘there'was'conditional'support'for'synthetic'biology'W'while'there' was'great'enthusiasm'for'the'possibilities'of'the'science;'there'were'also'fears'about'control;' who'benefits;'health'or'environmental'impacts;'misuse;'and'how'to'govern'the'science'under' uncertainty’"(Idem,"p.7)"."The"six"major"conclusions"that"emerged"from"this"study"were:"i)" The"uniqueness"of"synthetic"biology;"ii)""The"leadership"and"funding"roles"of"the"Research" Councils;"iii)""Developing"the"capabilities"for"the"scientists"to"think"through"responsibilities;" iv)"""What"innovation"looks"like"under"these"circumstances;"v)"Controlling"the"science;"vi)" Future"dialogue."" SYNBIOSAFE*eYconference:"SYNBIOSAFE"was"a"scientific"project"financed"by"the"EC:FP6" programme"and"conducted,"between"January"2007"and"December"2008,"by"four"European" institutions:"Organisation"for"International"Dialogue"and"Conflict"Management"(IDC,"Austria);" Austrian"Academy"of"Sciences/"Institute"of"Technology"Assessment"(ITA,"Austria);"University" of"Zurich,"Ethics"Centre,"Chair"of"Biomedical"Ethics"(UNIZH,"Switzerland),"and"ISTHMUS"SARL" (France)."The"project"SYNBIOSAFE"focused"on"the"research"of"the"safety,"security"and"ethical" aspects"of"synthetic"biology,"aiming"to"stimulate"a"debate"on"these"issues""(Schhmidt,"et"al.," N.d:a,"N.d:b)."As"part"of"the"SYNBIOSAFE"project,"an"open"online"conference"(e:conference)" was"carried"out"between"May"5"and"June"9,"2008,"with"the"aim"to"stimulate,"in"a"relatively" early"stage,"a"proactive"open"debate"on"the"societal"issues"of"synthetic"biology"(Schmidt,"et" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 72" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' al.,"2008)."124"participants"from"23"different"countries"attended"this"event,"providing"182" contributions"in"six"different"categories:"(I)"Ethics;"(II)"Safety;"(III)"Security;"(IV)"IPR;"(V)" Governance"and"regulation;"(VI)"and"Public"perception"(Idem)."As"a"result"of"this"initiative," the"SYNBIOSAFFE"Team"concluded"that"‘there'is'a'need'for'genuine'discourse'that'does'not' exclude'more'fundamental'question'of'how'we'think,'and'think'differently,'about'the'moral' status'of'the'life'forms'SB'deals'with,'now'and'in'the'future"(…)"that'there'is'a'chance'for' such'a'discourse'happening"(…)"[and]"that'the'rules'to'govern'such'a'discourse'might'be'set' up'much'easier'and'be'respected'more'readily'than'many'would'suggest”"(Idem,"p.16)." The*DNAYDialogues":"In"order"to"understand"and"improve"the"relationship"between"society" and"genomics,"the"Centre"for"Society"and"Genomics"(CSG)22""initiated"in"the"autumn"of"2006," the"‘The'DNAWDialogues’,""a"‘pilot'project'to'invite'publics'to'interact'with'experts'on' genomicsWrelated'issues’"(Radstake,"Nelis,"van"den"Heuvel:Vromans,"&"Dortmans,"2009;" Radstake,"van"den"Heuvel:Vromans,"Jeucken,"Dortmans,"&"Nelis,"2009)."Under"this"project,"a" series"of"real"life"discussion"meetings"with"civil"society"groups"were"conducted,"as"well"as"a" number"of"online"discussions"that"took"place"on"discussion"boards"of"Dutch"popular" magazines."The"publics"involved"were"groups"and"individuals"who"were"potentially"affected" by"genomics:related"research"and"technology,"and"the"experts"were"identified"among"those" who"were"involved"in"the"development"or"professional"use"of"genomics"research"or" technology,"or"in"policymaking"for"their"development"and"use"(Idem)."The"organizers"and" mediators"of"those"events"experienced"several"tensions"that"contributed"to"identify"the" factors"likely"to"affect"the"dialogue"between"publics"and"experts"(mainly"related"with"the" misunderstanding"of"‘dialogue’"and"‘pubic"engagement’"notions,"and"the""non"self:evident" roles,"positions"and"responsibilities"of"the"public,"experts"and"organizers)."Therefore,"instead" of"seeing"‘dialogue'as'a'form'of'public'engagement’,"they"suggest"that"dialogue"should"be" looked"at"as"a"form"of'‘interventionist'social'science'research”"(Radstake,"Nelis,"et"al.,"2009)." Public*engagement*in*Nanosciences*and*Nanotechnology* After"a"long"period"of"rhetorical"impasse"around"the"perils"and"promises"of"nanoscience"and" nanotechnology"(often"collectively"referred"to"as"nanotechnology),"in"recent"years"the"field" has"become"a"prominent"area"of"research"and"development,"attracting"significant"industry" interest"and"financial"support"from"funding"agencies"and"private"corporations"(Milburn,"et" al.,"2011;"Rogers:Hayden"&"Pidgeon,"2007;"Sweeney,"Seal,"&"Vaidyanathan,"2003)." The"emergence"of"nanotechnology"is"giving"rise"to"interesting"reflections"about"the"scientific" enterprise"and"modern"project"of"science."Unclear"on"whether"nanotechnology"has"achieved" full"coherence"as"a"discipline,"Jones"suggests"that"a"better"way"of"looking"at"it"is"to"consider" the"emergence"of"technology"as"a"socio"political"project,"‘less'created'by'the'scientific' community'than'imposed'on'it'by'a'combination'of'political'and'cultural'forces’'(Jones,"2011," p."13)."In"his"attempt"to"identify"the"event"or"discovery"that"launched"the"field,"Jones"comes" across"a"number"of"candidates,"leading"him"to"conclude"that"a"varied"combinations"of" factors"came"together"to"prompt"the"idea"of"nanotechnology."These"factors"came"both"from" inside"and"outside"science,"calling"attention"for"practices"and"boundaries"sites"of" co:production"of"knowledge,"which"in"the"case"of"nanotechnology"were"profoundly" influenced"by"political"mistakes"and"ethical"lapses"that"earlier"technologies"(such"as"nuclear" and"genetic"technologies)"have"made,"in"particularly"those"that"stem"from"not"having" addressed"the"need"to"involve"the"public"as"soon"as"value"judgments"became"salient"(Burri," 2009;"Hauser,"Gazso,"&"Kaiser,"2011;"Milburn,"et"al.,"2011;"PytlikZillig"&"Tomkins,"2011).""" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 22 "The"Centre"for"Society"and"Genomics"(CSG)"is"based"at"the"Radboud"University"in"Nijmegen,"and"is"one"of"the" Genomics"Centres"of"the"Netherlands"Genomics"Initiative"(NGI)." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 73" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Therefore,"an"early"widespread"concern"to"“upstream”"public"engagement"in" nanotechnology"gave"rise"to"an"impressive"number"of"engagement"initiatives"across"the" globe,"covering"the"spectrum"of"public"engagement"mechanisms,"and"becoming"the"focus"of" an"abundant"and"growing"literature."" Deepening*Ethical*Engagement*and*Participation*with*Emerging*Nanotechnologies* (DEEPEN*Project)*Y**This"three"year"research"project"(2006:2009)"was"funded"by"the" European"Commission’s"Framework"Programme"6"and"involved"researchers"from"ethics," philosophy"and"the"social"and"political"sciences"from"four"European"institutions:"the"Institute" for"Hazard"and"Risk"Research"at"Durham"University"(UK),"the"Darmstadt"University"of" Technology"(Germany),"the"Centre"for"Social"Studies"at"the"University"of"Coimbra"(Portugal)," and"the"University"of"Twente"(Netherlands)."The"overall"aim"of"the"project"was"‘To'deepen' ethical'understanding'of'issues'related'to'emerging'nanotechnologies'through'an' interdisciplinary'approach'utilising'insights'from'philosophy,'ethics,'and'the'social'sciences’' (Davies,"Macnaghten,"&"Kearnes,"2009)."The"project"focused"specifically"on"two"areas"of" nanotechnology"development:"‘the"development"of"nano:sensors,'and'their'potential'to' become'integrated'within'electronic'consumer'goods,'cars,'medical'devices,'security'and' surveillance'systems,'pollution'monitoring'devices'and'so'on;'and'the'field'of' nanobiotechnology,'and'its'promise'of'investigating'the'machinery'of'life’"(Johnson,"N.d.)." One"of"the"activities"contemplated"in"the"project"approach"was"the"organization"of"a" number"of"new"deliberative"processes"aimed"at"deepening"the"understanding"of"ethical" issues"in"nanotechnology"and"across"a"diverse"range"of"public"and"political"contexts."The" project"has"found"that"‘current'efforts'in'‘responsible'development’–'whether'in'ethical' analysis,'public'engagement,'or'new'forms'of'governance'–while'impressive,'are'still' dominated'by'limited'and'limiting'modes'of'thought.'They'will'require'reconfiguration'in' order'to'fulfil'the'promise'of'socially'responsible'nanotechnology’"(Davies,"et"al.,"2009,"p."3)." Globalisation*and*the*diffusion*of*nanotechnologies*to*help*the*poor*Y*NanoYDialogues* held*in*Harare,*Zimbabwe*Y***During"last"years"nanotechnology"has"been"recognized"as"a" promising"technology"for"solving"some"of"the"problems"related"with"water"purification"and" quality"(Cloete,"Kwaadsteniet,"Botes,"&"Lopez:Romero,"2010;"Pradeep"&"Anshup,"2009;" Zhang,"et"al.,"2009)."In"2007"the"global"investment"in"nanotechnology"applications"for"clean" water"processing"was"estimated"at"about"$1.5"billion"(Savage,"Diallo,"Duncan,"Street,"&" Sustich,"2009)."However,"despite"the"benefits"that"nanotechnology"may"provide"in"water" treatment"processes,"significant"concerns"have"also"been"raised"regarding"their"potential" human"and"environmental"toxicity"(Cloete,"et"al.,"2010)."For"that"reason"the"role"that"these" technologies"can"play"in"the"provision"of"potable"water"has"been"the"subject"of"a"continuous" debate." In"2006,"researchers"from"Practical"Action"(a"UK"development"charity"that"works"with"poor" communities"to"develop"appropriate"technologies"to"improve"their"lives),"in"collaboration" with"the"think:tank"Demos"and"the"University"of"Lancaster,"collaborated"on"a"process" designed"to"engage"Zimbabwean"community"groups"and"scientists"in"debates"about"whether" nanotechnologies"can"contribute"to"social"and"economic"development."The"full"report"on" the"Nano:Dialogues"was"issued"in"October"2006"(Evers"&"D'Silva,"2009;"Majoni,"2006).""" Nanotechnologies*for*Tomorrow’s*Society*(NanoSoc)*–"NanoSoc"was"a"four:year"(2006: 2010)"research"project,"funded"by"the"Flemish"Government"and"coordinated"by"the" University"of"Antwerp,"that"aimed"‘to'develop'a'methodology'to'integrate'societal' considerations'in'the'development'and'implementation'of'research'agendas’"(Evers"&" D'Silva,"2009,"p."128)."Adopting"an"interdisciplinary"approach"and"a"method"of"reflective" action"research,"the"project"brought"together"‘nanotechnologists,'natural'and'social' scientists,'stakeholders,'and'citizens'in'the'region'of'Flanders,'Belgium'to'discuss'and'reflect' on'the'opportunities'and'challenges'involved'in'the'constructive'social'shaping'of' Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 74" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' nanotechnologies'in'three'particular'fields'of'application:'smart'environment,'bio'on'chip," and"new"materials’"(Goorden,"Oudheusden,"M.,"&"Deblonde,"2008;"NanoSoc,"N.d)." Public*engagement*in*Climate*Change*and*Climate*Engineering* Since"the"late"1970s"climate"science"has"become"a"scientific"field"of"major"concern,"with" great"efforts"devoted"to"the"understanding"of"the"scientific"basis"of"global"climate"change,"as" well"as"its"likely"consequences"on"society."In"the"early"1980s"climate"change"entered"into"the" political"arena"and,"more"recently,"the"issue"captured"public's"attention"and"was"brought" into"the"mainstream"debate."" To"understand"the"challenges"of"public"engagement"with"climate"science,"one"must"be" aware"of"its"complex"and"singular"nature:"“Climate'change'presents'the'most'profound' challenge'ever'to'have'confronted'human,'social,'political,'and'economical'systems.'The' stakes'are'massive,'the'risks'and'uncertainties'severe,'the'economics,'controversial,'the' science'besieged''the'politics'bitter'and'complicated,'the'psychology'puzzling,'the'impacts' devastating,'the'interactions'with'other'environmental'and'nonWenvironmental'issues' running'in'many'directions.'The'social'problemWsolving'mechanisms'we'currently'possess' were'not'designed,'and'have'not'evolved,'to'cope'with'anything'like'an'interlinked'ser'of' problems'of'this'severity,'scale,'and'complexity.'There'are'no'precedents”"(Dryzek,"Norgaard," &"Schlosberg,"2011,"p."3)" Under"this"post:normal"context,"‘where'facts'are'uncertain,'values'in'dispute,'stakes'high' and'decisions'urgent’'(Funtowicz"&"Ravetz,"1994,"p."1882),""many"authors"have"been"arguing" that"climate"change"needs"to"be"made"culturally"meaningful"and"more"personally"relevant"in" order"to"promote"action"(Bord,"O'Connor,"&"Fisher,"2000;"Doyle,"2011;"Rogers"&"Marres," 2000)."Because"the"meaning"and"relevance"of"climate"change"need"to"be"grounded"on"the" present"understanding"of"what"is"known"and"unknown,"in"recent"years"many"efforts"have" been"conducted"to"clarify"the"climate:change"debate."For"the"purpose"of"the"present" chapter,"we"highlight"three"kinds"of"effort:"i)"those"that"seek"to"explain"the"wide"range"of" arguments"made"on"climate"change"(Betz,"2012;"Bodenmann,"2008;"Clift,"2007;"Hoffmann," 2011;"Malone,"2009)"ii)"those"that"aim"to"analyse"public"perceptions"and"opinions"on"climate" change,"as"well"as"the"role"of"the"media"and"public"communication"in"those"processes" (Bostrom,"Morgan,"Fischhoff,"&"Read,"1994;"Doyle,"2011;"Fiddaman,"2002;"Kempton,"1997;" Lorenzoni"&"Pidgeon,"2006;"Mercer,"Keith,"&"Sharp,"2011;"Nisbet"&"Scheufele,"2009;" Poumadere,"Bertoldo,"&"Samadi,"2011;"Sterman"&"Sweeney,"2007)"and"finally,"iii)"those"that" seek"to"understand"how"scientific"argument"and"political"controversy"interact"and,"in" particular,"“why'seemingly'scientific'arguments'play'such'a'conspicuous'role'in'climate' changeWpolicy'debate,'and'in'particular'how'such'disagreement'can'arise'on'points'that' would'appear'to'be'matters'of'scientific'knowledge”"(Bhaskar,"Frank,"Høyer,"Næss,"&"Parker," 2010;"Dessler"&"Parson,"2006,"p."6;"Schneider,"Rosencranz,"Mastrandrea,"&"Kuntz:Duriseti," 2010;"Schneider,"Rosencranz,"&"Niles,"2002)."" In"recent"years,"the"role"of"climate"geoengineering"technologies"within"the"‘portfolio'of' response'options'to'anthropogenic'climate'change’"(IPCC,"2010)"has"been"the"subject"of" increased"discussion."This"interest"in"the"deliberate"large:scale"manipulation"of"the"planetary" environment"is"largely"due"to"the"‘grossly'unsuccessful’"attempts"to"lower"the"emissions"of" greenhouse"gases"(Crutzen,"2006)"and,"therefore,"to"the"urgency"appeal"to"consider" alternative"strategies"to"current"climate"change"mitigation"efforts." However,"this"so"called"‘plan"B’"is"inevitably"conditioned"by"the"limited"understanding"of"the" scientific"basis"of"the"climate"science"and"by"major"uncertainties"regarding"the"impacts"of" these"technologies"on"human"and"natural"systems."Therefore,"and"in"spite"the"conflicting" arguments"that"prevail"in"geoengineering"debates,"there"is"widespread"agreement"on"the" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 75" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' need"to"consider"the"far:reaching"ethical,"political"and"social"questions"that"intentional" climate"change"proposals"entail."" Because"the"debates"that"are"taking"place"at"the"interface"between"science"and"society"tend" to"reveal"the"deeply"held"value"assumptions"that"sustain"geoengineering'visions,"as"well"as" the"underlying"principles"that"shape"geoengineering'problematization,"many"authors"have" been"arguing"about"the"importance"of"considering"public"perceptions"of"geoengineering," thus"helping"to"further"unveil"the"perceived"moral"orders"underlying"these"proposals"(Boyd," 2008;"Bracmort,"Lattanzio,"&"Barbour,"2010;"Cicerone,"2006;"Miller,"2010b;"The"Royal" Society,"2009)." The"need"for"deliberative"governance"and"public"engagement"within"climate"geoengineering" has"been"suggested"for"a"while"now"(Jamieson,"1996),"however"only"recently"the"challenges" and"practical"implications"of"such"demands"began"to"be"addressed"(Bracmort,"et"al.,"2010;" CSPO,"2010;"Debatepedia,"2009;"ETC"Group,"2010;"Macnaghten"&"Owen,"2011;"Miller," 2010a,"2010b;"Morton,"2007;"NERC,"2010;"Orr,"Twigger:Ross,"Kashefi,"Rathouse,"&"Haigh," 2011;"Parkhill"&"Pidgeon,"2011;"Powell,"et"al.,"2010)." World*Wide*Views*(WWViews)"on*Global*Warming**–""The"WWView"on"Global"Warming" was"designed"and"organized"by"the"Danish"Board"of"Technology"(DBT)":"an"independent" body"established"in"1986"with"a"view"to"‘furthering'technology'debate,'assess'technological' impacts'and'options'and'advise'the'Danish'Parliament'and'the'Government’"(The"Danish" Board"of"Technology,"2012)."The"DBT"has"a"along"tradition"of"involving"ordinary"citizens"in" political"decision:making,"being"one"of"the"pioneers"in"developing"consensus:oriented," deliberative"public"engagement"(Phillips,"2011,"p."89)." As"a"response"to"the"emerging"democratic"gap"between"global"policy"makers"and"citizens,"on" 26"September"2009"the"WWViews"organized"‘the'firstWever,'globeWencompassing'democratic' deliberation'in'world'history’"(The"Danish"Board"of"Technology,"2009),"enabling"citizens"from" across"the"globe"to"define"and"communicate"their"positions"on"core"issues"at"stake"in"the"UN" Climate"Change"negotiations"(COP15),"that"was"held"in"Copenhagen"on"December"2009."" This"global"citizen"consultation"took"place"in"38"countries,"and"comprised"deliberations"at"44" sites."Each"of"these"44"citizen"meetings"involved"around"100"citizens,"selected"with"the"aim" of"representing"the"demographic"distribution"in"the"country"or"region"with"regards"to"age," gender,"occupation,"education"and"other"criteria"(The"Danish"Board"of"Technology,"2012)."" Inspired"in"a"variety"of"methods"(‘deliberative'pool’,"‘citizen'summit’,"‘voting'conference’"and" ‘consensus'conference’)"this"initiative"created"a"hybrid"deliberation"process,"where"scientific" experts,"political"decision:makers,"stakeholders"and"citizens"had"the"opportunity"to"express" their"opinions,"which"were"summarized"in"the"following"nine"policy"recommendations" (Idem):" • Make"a"deal"at"COP15;" • Keep"the"temperature"increase"below"2"degrees;" • Annex"1"countries"should"reduce"emissions"with"25:40"or"more"by"2020;" • Fast:growing"economies"should"also"reduce"emissions"by"2020;" • Low:income"in"developing"countries"should"limit"emissions;" • Give"high"priority"to"an"international"financial"mechanism;" • Punish"non:complying"countries;" • Make"technology"available"to"everyone;" • Strengthen"or"supplement"international"institutions." Experiment*Earth?’*–""Experiment"Earth?’"was"a"public"dialogue"on"geoengineering" commissioned"by"the"UK"Natural"Environment"Research""Council"(NERC),"in"association"with" the"Sciencewise"Expert"Resource"Centre,"the"Royal"Society"and"the"multi:agency"Living"With" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 76" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Environmental"Change"programme."This"debate"took"place"in"early"2010"and"sought"to" identify'“public’s'preferences'around'the'future'of'research'into'geoengineering,'in'particular' the'moral,'ethical'and'societal'implications'of'funding'decisions,'in'order'to'influence'NERC’s' strategic'decision'making,'and'the'decision'making'of'other'funders'and'policyWmakers.'To' contribute'to'knowledge'and'insight'on'public'views'of'climate'science'and'principles'and' priorities'relating'to'Geoengineering”'(NERC,"2010,"p."11)." In"order"to"decide"the"terms"of"reference"of"the"dialogue"and"the"production"of"stimulus" materials,"in"the"beginning"of"this"initiative"the"steering"committee"and"a"group"of"NGO" representatives"participated"in"separate"meetings."The"public"workshops"were"held"in" Cardiff,"Birmingham"and"St"Austell,"Cornell,"involving"a"total"of"eighty:five"people."Each" group"(of"around"30"citizens)"attended"two"workshops:"the"first"one,"with"scientists," designed"to"learn"about"geoengineering"proposals,"the"second"one"(held"one"week"later"and" with"the"presence"of"ethicists)"to"discuss"values,"principles"and"ethics."Targeted"discussion" groups"were"held"in"Cardiff"(involving"residents"of"an"area"considered"to"be"at"risk"of" flooding)"and"Birmingham,"with"the"purpose"of"testing"different"attitudes"towards" Geoengineering"in"the"face"of"greater"exposure"to"the"impacts"of"climate"change." Additionally,"a"qualitative"online"survey"was"also"conducted,"with"responses"received"from" 65"people"and"organisations."Lastly,"three"open"access"events"were"organized:"i)"in"Cardiff" (in"a"school"children);"ii)"in"Birmingham"(in"the"City’s"science"museum);"and"iii)"in"Oxford"(at" Science"Oxford)." The"results"of"the"qualitative"analysis"conducted,"provided"insights"into"public’s"priorities" and"how"their"opinions"were"formed,"as"well"as"giving"recommendations"for"research" funders"and"decision"makers." 3.3*Conclusion* The"variety"of"examples"here"provided"reflect"different"conceptions"of"‘public’,"of" ‘engagement’"and,"ultimately,"of"‘science’"and"‘technology’."" Starting"from"a"field"of"scientific"inquiry"in"which"the"idea"of"‘public’"tends"to"overlap"that"of" ‘patients’,"‘end'users’,"‘practitioners’"or"‘bioethics'committees’,"we"then"moved"to"techno: scientific"fields"where"the"collective"public"has"been"referred"to"as"‘laity’,"‘consumer’," ‘stakeholder’"or"‘civil'society’."" The"recognition"of"this"heterogeneous"nature"of"the"public"in"different"engagement" exercises"is"not"only"fundamental"to"understand"the"implications"and"relevance"of"framing" the"public"in"different""ways"–"whether"by"providing"an"explanatory"account"to"the"often" ambivalent"responses"of"the"public"with"regard"to"a"controversial"technoscientific"issue,"or" by"convening"different"public"attitudes"on"a"specific"technoscientific"matter""(Wickson," Delgado,"&"Kjølberg,"2010)"":""but""also"to"raise"awareness"to"the"processes"through"which" science"proceeds"to"redefine"the"interests"and"identities"of"the"public,"providing"the" discourses"and"practices"for"the"‘making’"and"‘self'making’"of"the"‘technoscientific'citizen’' (Michael,"2006),'thus"revealing"its"own"culture"and"the"democratic"and"epistemological" assumptions"that"underlie"current"practices"of"scientific"governance." As"some"of"the"previous"examples"suggest,"in"the"area"of"medical"research"and"in"the" healthcare"sector"many"efforts"to"engage"the"public"(not"only"by"incorporating"their"inputs" in"resource"allocation,"in"priority"setting"decisions"and"in"shaping"the"research"agenda,"but" also"by"actively"involving"end:users"in"research"activities"and"knowledge"production)"tend"to" represent"a"major"challenge"to"the"persistent"demarcations"between"'expert'"and"'lay'" conceptualisations"of"scientific"knowledge,""giving"rise"to"new"forms"of"co:production"of" knowledge"in"which"the"role"of"nonexperts"has"been"determinant"for"the"revision"and" definition"of"scientific"investigation"practices"and"standards."" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 77" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Nevertheless,"in"many"other"scientific"and"technological"fields"the"relations"between"science" and"the"public"continue"to"be"problematized"in"ways"that"sustain"the"model"of" homogeneous"social"structure"and"that"reinforce"the"boundaries"between"experts"and"the" lay"public"and"between"scientific"and"non:expert"knowledge"(A."Irwin"&"Michael,"2003)."" Even"if"this"demarcation"is"not"being"reduced"to"the"mere"information"gap"between"experts" and"general"public,"as"envisaged"by"the"deficit"model,"the"dominant"approaches"of" government"institutions"to"engage"the"public"with"science"(largely"informed"by"qualitative" research)"still"fail"to"recognize"the"broader"implications"of"the"dynamic"and"fluid"character"of" the"interactions"between"experts"and"laypeople"i.e."of"seeing"expert"and"lay"knowledge"as" not"being"produced"independently"and"in"separate"contexts,"but"resulting"from"common" processes"and"from"reciprocal"influences"(Bucchi"&"Neresini,"2008)." Still,"by"taking"into"consideration"the"social"construction"of"the"‘scientific"citizen’"and"of"the" nonlinear"relationships"between"public"talk"and"the"broader"culture"of"governance""(A."Irwin," 2006;"A."Irwin"&"Michael,"2003),""some"of"the"engagement"initiatives"described"in"the" previous"section"reveal"a"more"reflexive"and"critical"understanding"of"current"issues"of" scientific"governance"and"scientific"citizenship,"thus"representing"a"reorientation"towards" engagement"with"the"public"that"draws"attention"to"particular"ways"in"which"the"deficit" model"has"been"challenged."" One"of"these"ways"relates"with"what"Irwin"and"Michael"called"the"‘ethnographic'turn’,"which" traces"the"‘movement'from'an'emphasis'upon'cognition'to'a'concern'with'the'cultural' context'in'which'‘understanding’'is'embedded’'(A."Irwin"&"Michael,"2003,"p."65).""In"fact,"this" ‘contextual’"perspective"of"the"ethnographic"tradition"in"the"public"understanding"of"science" and"technology"has"not"only"been"able"to"capture"the"wider"dynamics"of"science–public" interaction,"but"also"to"broaden"our"definition"of"what"counts"as"‘legitimate"knowledge’" (Idem,"p."38)."" Therefore,"on"considering"some"of"the"previous"examples"it"appears"that"a"more"reflectively" reasoned"model"of"upstream"public"engagement"with"science"and"technology"is"emerging," one"that"demands"for"scientific"accountability"and"transparency"and"that"attempts"to" accommodate"the"policy"implications"from"the"‘ethnographic'turn’,"i.e."(Idem,"p."42):"" • the"multiplicity"and"diversity"of"the"publics;" • the"knowledgeability"and"‘local"expertise’"of"lay"groups;" • the"limitations"of"technical"knowledge"when"applied"to"new"settings;" • the"legitimacy"of"public"concerns"and"questions;" • the"importance"of"values,"ethics"and"prior"experience;" • the" requirement" for" more" open" and" two:way" communication," including" the" communication"of"scientific"uncertainty;" • the"fundamental"importance"of"self:critical"and"reflexive"institutional"processes." In"fact,"and"in"spite"the"diversity"of"points"of"view"and"motives"of"interest"for"the" engagement"of"the"public"with"science"and"technology,"many"of"the"initiatives"previously" presented"are"being"bound"up"with"issues"of"citizenship,"legitimacy"and"trust,"reflecting"the" profound"desire"to"change"the"terms"and"conditions"under"which"scientific"knowledge"is" produced,"discussed"and"legitimated,"and"revealing"major"concerns"about"the"status"and" authority"of"science"in"our"modern"world,"about"the"shifting"locus"of"social"power"and" control"and,"above"all,"about"ongoing"struggles"over"meaning"and"morality"(Bucchi"&" Neresini,"2008;"Nelkin,"1995;"Shapin,"2008;"Stehr,"2005)."" As"pointed"out"by"Bucchi"and"Neresini,"“public'participation'warrants'attention'not'only' because'it'may'be'a'solution'to'a'decision'impasse'on'technoscience'issues'or'to'a'crisis'of' representativeness,'but'also'because'it'exposes'the'inevitably'political'nature'of'current' dilemmas”"(Bucchi"&"Neresini,"2008,"p."466)." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 78" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Indeed,"it"is"here,"in"the"realm"of"controversies"over"science"and"technology"(Nelkin,"1995)," that"new"assemblages"are"being"created"and"new"alliances"are"being"forged,"taking"into" account"emerging"possibilities"for"democratic"regeneration"and"revival"(A."Irwin"&"Michael," 2003)."" " References* Abelson,"J.,"Eyles,"J.,"McLeod,"C."B.,"Collins,"P.,"McMullan,"C.,"&"Forest,"P."G."(2003)."Does" deliberation"make"a"difference?"Results"from"a"citizens"panel"study"of"health"goals"priority" setting."Health'Policy,'66(1),"95:106." 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Wilhelm,"A."G."(2000)."Democracy'in'the'Digital'Age:'Challenges'to'Political'Life'in' Cyberspace."New"York:"Routledge." Wilsdon,"J.,"&"Willis,"R."(2004)."See:throught"Science:"Why"public"engagement"needs"to" mode"upstream."London:"Demos." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 86" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Wynne,"B."(2007)."Public"Participation"in"Science"and"Technology:"Performing"and"Obscuring" a"Political–Conceptual"Category"Mistake."East'Asian'Science,'Technology'and'Society:'An' International'Journal,'1(1),"99:110." Zhang,"T."C.,"Surampali,"R."T.,"Lai,"K.,"Hu,"Z.,"Tyagi,"R.,"&"Lo,"I."(Eds.)."(2009)."Nanotechnologies' for'water'environment'applications."Reston,"Virginia:"American"Society"of"Civil"Engineers." " * " " Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 87" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Chapter"5" Deeper"forms"of"Public"Engagement"–"extended" peer"review" Peer'review'and'scientific'publishing'in'times'of'web'2.0'' " Lucia'Vesnic['Alujevic' European'Commission'–'Joint'Research'Centre' " 5.1*Introduction* The" appearance" of" the" Internet" brought" novelties" in" the" way" and" speed" messages" and" information" are" spread" to" others." The" Internet" can" be" both" a" mass" and" specialized" medium23," with" the" disappearing" borders" between" mass" and" interpersonal" communication" as"well"as"public"and"private"spaces24."Therefore"it"could"contribute"to"the"enforcement"of" the"information,"participatory"and"deliberative"elements"of"democracy25." The"Internet"and"especially"web"2.0"applications"(such"as"blogs,"social"network"sites,"wikis," etc.)" are" transforming" the" mediascape 26 ." As" the" web" 2.0" allows" a" direct" reciprocal" communication"between"an"indefinite"number"of"users,"we"can"say"that"it"represents"a"new" discursive"space."In"this"space,"there"are"possibilities"for"better"inclusion"and"participation"of" citizens"in"the"public"debate"(under"the"condition"that"they"use" Internet"of"course)"than"in" the"traditional"public"sphere27."This"has"been"leading"to"the"democratization"of"knowledge," which"is"in"focus"of"Science"and"Technology"Studies28." Many" scholars" compare" the" Gutenberg’s" invention" of" the" press" with" the" invention" of" Internet,"in"relation"to"changes"it"brought"to"the"production"of"knowledge"and"the"science" itself." The" facilitation" of" knowledge" distribution" that" we" are" witnessing" by" the" transformation" of" communication" means" by" digital" media" can" be" compared" with" the" development" of" science" in" the" Renaissance." Likewise" after" Gutenberg" we" had" Luther’s" reformation"and"the"creation"of"modern"state"with"faster"and"easier"access"to"books,"after" the" appearance" of" Internet" the" availability" of" information" online" has" become" abundant." Today," scientists" cannot" imagine" searching" for" information" only" “offline”," all" scientific" journals" have" their" online" versions," the" literature" is" (almost)" always" searched" first" online." The" Internet" is" used" for" consultation," knowledge" and" exchange" of" opinions," which" brings" new"challenges"and"new"perspectives"in"scientists’"points"of"view."" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 23 Michael"Margolis"and"David"Resnick,"Politics'as'Usual:'The'“Cyberspace'Revolution”"(Thousand"Oaks,"CA:"Sage" Publications,"2000)." 24 "Denis"McQuail,"Media"Performance:"Mass"Communication"and"the"Public"Interest."(London:"Sage,"1992)." 25 "Sara" Bentivegna," “Rethinking" Politics" in" the" World" of" ICTs.”" European" Journal" of" Communication," 21," no.3" (2006):"331:343." 26 "Jennifer" Stromer:Galley," “Will" Internet" Voting" Increase" Turnout?”" In" Society" Online:" The" Internet" in" Context" edited"by"Philip"Howard"and"Steve"Jones"(Thousand"Oakes:"Sage"Publications,"2004),"87:101." 27 "Bart" Cammaerts" and" Nico" Carpentier" Introduction" to" Reclaming" the" Media:" Communication" Rights" and" Democratic"Media"Roles,"edited"by"Bart"Cammaerts"and"Nico"Carpentier"(Bristol:"Intellect"books,"2007),"XI:XVIII." 28 "Silvio" Funtowicz," Peer" Review" and" Quality" Control." In" Encyclopedia" of" the" Social" and" Behavioral" Sciences," (Amsterdam:"Elsevier,"2001),"11179:11183. Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 88" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Besides"its"use"by"scientists,"when"something"is"posted"online,"it"can"be"accessed"by"every" person"who"has"Internet"access,"which"is"currently"1/3"of"world"population."This"can"bring" more" transparency" to" citizens," having" more" insight" in" different" societal" processes" and" especially"in"regard"to"the"information"of"public"interest."" The"new"information"technologies"are"challenging"the"definitions"of"humankind,"culture"and" nature." In" the" contemporary" times," science" does" not" have" monopoly" over" knowledge" production" any" more." With" web" 2.0" we" have" obtained" the" interactive" ways" of" knowledge" production." Besides" the" scientific" knowledge," we" have" other" types" of" knowledge" emerging" online,"with"the"active"participation"of"a"larger"(non:scientific)"community."In"this"sense,"we" can" talk" of" knowledge" coproduction." This" leads" to" blurring" the" boundaries" between" academic"and"non:academic"knowledge"and"changes"in"conceiving"knowledge." Because" of" its" openness" many" scientists" nowadays" often" turn" to" the" Internet." Blogs" and" social" media" can" be" new" media" used" to" disseminate" research," criticize" already" existing" research," get" comments" on" our" own" results" or" spread" the" knowledge" to" larger" (not" only" scientific)" community." However" there" should" be" something" else" besides" the" abundance" of" information" to" ensure" the" quality" of" knowledge" produced" online." The" quality" assurance" is" one"of"the"core"commitments"of"postnormal"science29." Peer" review" process" has" been" a" paradigm" for" quality" control" in" scientific" publishing" for" decades" and" more." However," there" have" been" many" critics" of" the" existing" peer" review" tradition." Some" scholars" think" it" should" be" reformed:" suggestions" are" diverse," especially" after"the"introduction"of"web"2.0"in"the"World"Wide" Web"and"the"further"development"of" the" Internet," which" facilitates" the" process" of" writing," reviewing" and" publishing" research" results." In" this" paper," we" are" discussing" the" possibilities" for" an" alternative" peer" review" process," leading"towards"changes"in"the"scientific"publishing"and"consequently"in"the"distribution"of" knowledge" in" the" society" in" general." " Consequently," we" are" exploring" if" the" Internet" can" sustain" the" development" of" science" through" facilitating" publishing" and" opening" to" non: scientific"community." 5.2*Historical*evolution*of*scientific*publications:*from*1960s*onwards** The"idea"of"scientific"publications"is"relatively"new" and"with"it,"a"well:known"phrase"in"the" scientific"world"“Publish"or"perish”,"which"means"that"those"scholars"who"do"not"publish,"are" “useless”" for" scientific" world," however" significant" their" research" might" be." Without" a" publication,"the"results"remain"restricted"for"a"small"number"of"people." The"first"scientific"journal"appeared"in"1665."It"was"published"by"the"Royal"Society"of"London" with"the"aim"of"disseminating"research"results"of"their"members."In"order"to"screen"the"work" that" was" going" to" be" published" and" to" improve" its" quality," the" articles" have" started" to" be" reviewed"by"their"peers."Simultaneously,"previous"work"in"the"same"filed"has"started"to"be" used"as"a"basis"for"a"new"one"through"citations"and"scientific"societies"that"were"publishing" research"results"started"to"create"database"of"abstracts"and"to"index"published"work30." Since"that"time,"the"number"of"scientific"journals"has"been"growing"with"the"appearance"of" new" disciplines" and" more" people" involved" in" research." Before" the" XXnd" world" war," the" scientific"community"was"much"smaller"than"today"and"more"homogenized."" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 29 "Jerry" Ravetz" and" Silvio" Funtowicz," “New" forms" of" Science”." In" International' Encyclopedia' of' Social' and' Behavioral'Sciences"(Amsterdam:"Elsevier'(in"press))' 30 "Thomas"Walker,"“The"future"of"scientific"journals:"free"access"or"pay"per"view?”"American"Entomologist"44" (1998):"135:138." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 89" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' The"post:war"economic"expansion"in"the"USA"leaded"to"the"founding"of"new"universities"and" departments"and"bigger"number"of"PhDs,"which"broadened"the"scientific"community."With" the"co:evolution"of"science"and"changing"political"structures"and"other"reforms"in"the"society" in" the" XXth" century," publications" have" become" reality." De" Solla" Price" and" Kuhn" first" wrote" about"big"changes"in"the"structure"of"science"in"the"postwar"period."De"Solla"Prices’s"book" “Little" Science," Big" Science”" published" in" 1963" designates" the" expansion" of" resources" that" provoked"the"development"of"science"in"the"USA." Walker31"argues"the"1960s"represent"a"turning"point"in"publishing"but"also"broader"research." Because"of"competition"with"the"USSR"in"their"respective"space"programs,"the"USA"started" to"invest"more"into"research"globally"and"raised"the"number"of"PhDs"exponentially.""That"is" the"period"when"the"publications"started"to"matter:"it"was"easier"to"get"or"maintain"a"job"if" the" number" of" publications" was" higher." As" a" consequence," much" more" submissions" and" articles" to" be" published" emerged" in" science." This" created" a" need" for" more" journals," also" commercial"ones."They"all"wanted"distinguished"scientists"in"their"editorial"boards."Because" of"all"these"changes,"the"price"of"publication"costs"started"to"grow." In"his"farewell"address"in"1961,"Eisenhower"mentioned"the"transition"from"science"guided"by" curiosity,"as"it"had"been"previously"to"goal:oriented"techno:science"and"the"introduction"of" computers," as" well" as" the" consequences" that" this" change" will" bring" in" the" research" sphere" and"universities"as"primary"research"institutions." The"introduction"of"computers"brought"further"changes"in"the"domain"of"scientific"research." Science"has"been"changing"and"opening"to"a"much"larger"audiences."The"computers"brought" opportunities"for"creating"simulation"models"of"experiments"that"could"not"be"feasible"in"a" laboratory,"having"access"to"more"knowledge"and"research"and"sharing"knowledge"fast." 5.3*Traditional*publishing*and*problems** Scientific"journals"are"over"340"years"old32."The"peer"review"process,"introduced"shortly"after" the" appearance" of" the" first" scientific" journals" had" been" the" unquestioned" norm" in" science" until" late" XXth" century." However," many" scientists" " have" noticed" the" need" for" certain" modifications"in"this"process,"that"is,"in"assuring"the"quality"of"knowledge"produced"which"is" one"of"the"main"focuses"of"post:normal"science."Funtowicz33"suggests"collegial"peer"review" to"be"modified"by"the"extended"peer"community"review,"which"would"include"broader"(and" not"only"scientific)"community." The" last" decades" of" XXth" century" brought" many" troubles" to" the" domain" of" science" and" scientific"research."There"has"been"decline"of"public"trust"in"scientific"institutions,"together" with" budget" cuts" and" lower" quality" of" teaching," including" the" resurgent" Creationism 34 ." Because" of" the" rather" closed" scientific" community," there" was" a" barrier" in" access" and" participation" in" the" production" of" knowledge" in" the" past." Lately" this" obstacle" has" been" fading."" The"academics"in"the"XXth"century"have"been"put"under"lots"of"pressure"to"publish."That"is" illustrated"in"a"famous"idiom"in"the"scientific"community,"“Publish"or"Perish”."It"is"considered" that"approximately"2.5"million"articles"are"published"yearly"in"roughly"24.000"peer"reviewed" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 31 "Idem." "David"Solomon,"“The"Role"of"Peer"Review"for"Scholarly"Journals"in"the"Information"Age.”"The"Journal"of" Electronic"Publishing"10,"no.1"(2007)."Accessed"July"18,"2013."http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text: idx?c=jep;view=text;rgn=main;idno=3336451.0010.107" 33 "Silvio"Funtowicz,"Peer"Review"and"Quality"Control."In"Encyclopedia"of"the"Social"and"Behavioral"Sciences," (Amsterdam:"Elsevier,"2001),"11179:11183." 34 "Idem." 32 Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 90" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' journals35."Since"their"existence,"peer"reviewed"journals"have"also"served"as"a"data:base"of" research"that"has"been"done"in"a"certain"area"and"there"has"been"only"a"few"people"with"the" achievements" so" significant" that" there" was" no" need" for" them" to" be" documented" in" a" journal36." Several" decades" ago," the" traditional" publishing" started" to" encounter" many" problems." The" increasing"price"of"journals"made"them"less"affordable"for"research"libraries"throughout"the" world."Today"a"much"cheaper"option"is"seen"in"the"publication"of"electronic"journals"that"do" not"have"printing"and"mailing"costs"and"are"easier"to"handle."The"majority"of"journals,"even" those"that"kept"the"paper"version"exist"equally"in"the"electronic"form." In" parallel" with" the" peer" review" process," Garfield" who" worked" in" the" area" of" bibliometrics" created"the"concept"of"citation"index,"the"so:called"“impact"factor”"that"implies"the"degree" of" a" journal’s" impact" in" a" respective" scientific" area" by" the" number" its" articles" are" cited37." However,"Pickard38"suggests"that"traditional"impact"factor"measures"more"citations"than"the" readership."This"can"be"changed"today,"under"the"influence"of"online"publishing,"which"will" be"discussed"in"the"following"subchapter." The"traditional"model"of"peer"review"has"been"criticized"too"many"times"so"far."It"has"many" flaws,"starting"from"small"number"of"gatekeepers"appearing"under"usually"three"figures:"the" editor"and"two"anonymous"reviewers."These"three"persons"need"to"decide"which"research" will" be" published" and" which" not." In" that" way," they" can" prevent" research" they" do" not" find" suitable"to"appear"public"if"it"is"e.g."“radical”,"“groundbreaking”,"even"if"it"is"a"good"research" and" consequently," the" published" research" remains" in" the" mainstream.' Quis' custodiet' ipsos' custodes' ' (who" guards" the" guardians?)" can" be" well" used" in" this" context." Along" with" that," sometimes" papers" are" not" read" well" and" not" so" good" research" becomes" published 39 ." Therefore"we"are"wondering"if"the"classic"peer"review"process"has"become"too"conservative" and" little" transparent." How" fair" can" criticizing" and" rejecting" a" paper" be," while" been" anonymous?" Many" scientists" agree" that" the" classical" peer" review" model" needs" to" be" reframes"and"improved."" Nevertheless," taking" into" consideration" everything" previously" said" and" although" traditional" publishing"remains"important"for"a"scientific"career,"scholars"of"today"are"not"so"desperate"if" their"work"is"not"published,"because"there"are"alternative"modes"for"their"work"to"be"read." The"rejected"research"by"scientific"journals"can"today"be"published"on"blogs"and"advertised" on"social"media." We" agree" that," although" peer" reviewed" articles" have" traditionally" been" referred" to" as" “primary"literature”,"this"is"slightly"changing"with"the"possibility"of"searching"for"information" online"or"listening"to"it"on"a"conference40." " !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 35 "Thomas"K."Pickard,"“The"Impact"of"Open"Access"and"Social"Media"on"Scientific"Research.”"Journal"of" Participatory"Medicine,"4"(2012)." 36 "William"Arms,"“What"Are"The"Alternatives"To"Peer"Review?"Quality"Control"In"Scholarly"Publishing"on"the" Web.”"The"Journal"of"Electronic"Publishing"8,"no."1"(2002)."Accessed"July"2,"2013." http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text:idx?c=jep;view=text;rgn=main;idno=3336451.0008.103" 37 "Thomas"K."Pickard,"“The"Impact"of"Open"Access"and"Social"Media"on"Scientific"Research.”"Journal"of" Participatory"Medicine,"4"(2012)." 38 "Idem." 39 "William"Arms,"“What"Are"The"Alternatives"To"Peer"Review?"Quality"Control"In"Scholarly"Publishing"on"the" Web.”"The"Journal"of"Electronic"Publishing"8,"no."1"(2002)."Accessed"July"2,"2013." http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text:idx?c=jep;view=text;rgn=main;idno=3336451.0008.103" 40 "Idem. Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 91" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' 5.4*New*ways*of*publishing*and*problems*it*encounters* The"changing"nature"of"publications"changes"institutions"and"science"completely."Extended" peer" review," suggested" by" science" and" technology" studies" and" post:normal" science" can" be" easily" operationalized" through" Internet" communities." Although" there" are" many" changes" in" the"peer"review"process"and"scientific"publishing,"there"are"still"many"problems"and"issues"to" be" solved," ups" and" downs," crises" and" the" way" is" long" to" make" the" process" smooth." The" context"has"changed,"as"well"as"technology."Researchers"today"are"also"business"players"and" entrepreneurs,"especially"in"the"fields"such"as"bio:medicine,"pharmacy,"chemistry,"etc." Through" the" Internet," scholars" can" distribute" the" research" without" borders" and" make" it" accessible" to" larger" community" that" can" criticize" and" comment" on" it." Online" publishing" brings"more"transparency"as"well"as"more"accountability,"for"the"author,"editor,"reviewers"as" well"as"for"the"process"itself."Some"scholars"propose"blog"review"as"a"replacement"for"peer" review."Besides,"blogs"and"social"media"can"nowadays"be"used"to"disseminate"research"and" knowledge"to"larger"(and"not"only"scientific)"communities."The"old"forms"of"peer"review"are" today"supplemented"through"conferences,"not"only"“ordinary”"ones,"but"also"video"and"web" conferences." As" it" is" often" assumed" that" scholars" enjoy" writing" about" their" research," blogging" can" be" seen" as" a" talent" they" naturally" possess." This" “public" note:taking”" can" help" them" to" inform" and" be" informed" about" the" relevant" and" new" literature." Consequently" the" research"is"spread"outside"and"beyond"scientific"institutions"and"can"reach"various"audiences" with"the"shared"interest"globally41." The" open" access" policies" and" social" media" bring" a" change" to" the" peer" review" process42." As" the" journals" gradually" switch" to" digital" formats," not" only" them" but" the" whole" process" becomes" digital:" from" submitting" the" manuscript" online," through" receiving" proofs" and" corrections."" Lately," scientific" journals" have" been" trying" to" improve" the" peer" review" system." One" of" the" possibilities"offered"is"open'peer'review,"where"the"names"of"reviewers"are"not"blinded,"that" should"contribute"to"the"accountability"and"fairness"of"reviewers"and"more"transparency"in" the"whole"process43."Although"we"are"in"favor"of"this"process,"which"would"mean"reviewers" putting"more"effort"in"writing"and"producing"better"reviews,"after"conducting"a"study,"Van" Rooyen" et" al.44"have" concluded" that" there" is" no" significant" difference" between" blind" and" open"peer"review." The" speed," efficiency" and" flexibility" of" communicating" through" Internet" have" facilitated" contacts" between" scholars" and" larger" audience45." For" example" the" Nature" has" organized" a" Debate 46 "on" peer" review" process" where" they" included" not" only" academics," but" also" publishers" and" other" stakeholders." The" peer" review" process" has" been" also" criticized" in" lay" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 41 "Jessie"Daniels"and"Joe"Feagin,"“The"(Coming)"Social"Media"Revolution"in"the"Academy.”"Fast"Capitalism"8,"no."2" (2011)."Accessed"July"2,"2013."" "http://www.uta.edu/huma/agger/fastcapitalism/8_2/Daniels8_2.html" 42 "Thomas"K."Pickard,"“The"Impact"of"Open"Access"and"Social"Media"on"Scientific"Research.”"Journal"of" Participatory"Medicine,"4"(2012)." 43 "Susan"Van"Rooyen,"Fiona"Godlee,"Stephen"Evans,"Nick"Black"and"Richard"Smith,"“Effect"of"open"peer"review"on" quality"of"reviews"and"on"reviewers’"recommendations:"a"randomised"trial.”"BMJ"318,"no."7175(1999):"23–27." 44 "Idem." 45 "David"Solomon"(2007)."“The"Role"of"Peer"Review"for"Scholarly"Journals"in"the"Information"Age.”"The"Journal"of" Electronic"Publishing"10,"no.1"(2007)."Accessed"July"18,"2013."http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text: idx?c=jep;view=text;rgn=main;idno=3336451.0010.107" 46 "Debate."Peer"Review,"Nature,"December"2006,"http://www.nature.com/nature/peerreview/debate/index.html" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 92" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' press."For"instance"Chang47""pleads"for"another"type"of"the"open'peer'review,"which"started" to"be"applied"by"several"scientific"journals"back"in"2006."" Solomon48"argues"that"the"involvement"of"public"into"the"peer"review"process"that"happens" in" this" “new”" open" peer" review" can" bring" only" an" additional" value," such" as" being" ethically" superior" and" more" civil" in" the" review" practice" but" has" no" influence" on" the" quality" of" work" published." Elsevier" also" started" to" experiment" with" open" peer" review" system" on" some" of" their" journals." There" are" journals" that" open" a" paper" to" public" critics" and" discussion" online" before"the"decision"on"acceptance/rejection"has"been"made."Other"journals"(e.g."Journal"of" Electronic" Transactions" on" Artificial" Intelligence," Journal" of" Atmospheric" Chemistry" and" Physics)"post"first"manuscripts"online"for"public"comments,"where"authors"can"interact"with" the" audience," after" which" the" traditional" peer" review" process" takes" place." We" agree" with" Solomon49"that"this"combination"of"public"commenting"and"traditional"peer"review"process" can"be"very"stimulating"and"show"which"papers"really"merit"to"get"published."If"the"quality"is" a" crucial" value" and" it" should" be" for" scientists," the" 2:tiered" review," in" which" one" tier" represents"a"traditional"and"the"other"new"coming"from"the"readers"and"audience,"it"could" be"the"solution"for"scientific"publications." Daniels" and" Feagin 50 "suggest" that" social" media" impact" the" research" community" and" transform" it" through" connecting" scholars" with" other" scholars" and" wider" audience." Today" besides" ordinary" social" network" sites" there" are" also" SNSs" created" specifically" in" order" to" connect" scientists" into" larger" communities." In" one" of" these" sites," scholars" upload" and" exchange" their" papers," discuss" each" other’s" work" and" connect" through" key" words" of" their" research,"i.e."find"other"scientists"involved"in"a"similar"research."Through"these"connections," networks" of" scientists" are" created." They" can" be" useful" for" collaborative" work" and" getting" feedback"on"our"own"ideas."Blogs"and"social"media"can"also"be"useful"to"maintain"contacts" with" other" scholars" across" geographic" and" other" boundaries" with" the" same" interest51." The" dissemination"of"knowledge"is"expended"through"virtual"conferences"and"connections"with" colleagues"maintained"though"Internet"and"social"network"sites"(such"as"academia.edu,"but" also"Facebook,"LinkedIn,"Twitter,"blogs"and"other)."Through"social"media,"scholars"can"find" their"intellectual"companionship"online52."" The" process" of" “informal”" reviewing" where" everyone" can" post" a" review" or" vote" is" slowly" emerging"in"the"domain"of"online"publishing"and"it"embraces"scientific"publications"as"well." The" well:known" online" shopping" website" Amazon.com" was" one" of" the" first" with" the" possibility"to"publically"post"a"review"of"a"book"on"the"website53."The"epinions.com"was"the" first"website"where"it"was"possible"to"vote"for"reviewers."The"readers"had"the"opportunity"to" review" the" reviewers 54 "which" can" be" a" good" practice," taking" into" consideration" that" reviewers" are" persons" who" decide" upon" publishing" something." Despite" the" openness" to" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 47 "Alicia"Chang,"Online"journals"challenge"scientific"peer"review,"Mercury"News,"October"2,"2006," http://www.mercurynews.com/mld/mercurynews/news/breaking_news/15655422.htm." 48 "David"Solomon,"“The"Role"of"Peer"Review"for"Scholarly"Journals"in"the"Information"Age.”"The"Journal"of" Electronic"Publishing"10,"no.1"(2007)."Accessed"July"18,"2013."http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text: idx?c=jep;view=text;rgn=main;idno=3336451.0010.107" 49 "Idem." 50 "Jessie"Daniels"and"Joe"Feagin,"“The"(Coming)"Social"Media"Revolution"in"the"Academy.”"Fast"Capitalism"8,"no."2" (2011)."Accessed"July"2,"2013." 51 "Idem." 52 "Idem." 53 "William"Arms,"“What"Are"The"Alternatives"To"Peer"Review?"Quality"Control"In"Scholarly"Publishing"on"the" Web.”"The"Journal"of"Electronic"Publishing"8,"no."1"(2002)."Accessed"July"2,"2013." http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text:idx?c=jep;view=text;rgn=main;idno=3336451.0008.103" 54 "Idem." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 93" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' everyone," Arms55"states" that" the" level" of" reviews" remains" considerably" high," with" quality" reports"and"technical"analysis." According" to" Hermida56"social" media" are" essentially" a" system" of" peer" evaluation," because" everything" that" is" posted" is" and" can" be" commented" and" consequently" evaluated" by" our" peers" (whether" they" are" called" “friends”," “connections”," “followers”," etc.)." For" him," they" definitely" change" the" way" research" results" are" distributed" in" the" scientific" community" and" broader." The" scientific" community" also" benefits" from" the" participatory" and" networked" possibilities" offered" by" social" media." The" online" presence" is" important" for" researchers" in" many"ways." "Brumfiel57"suggests"that"on"social"media"we"are"constructing"our"identity,"we"talk,"we"share," we" build" relationships" and" our" reputation." The" conversation" on" social" media" implies" the" exchanges" with" friends," unknown" people," students," scholars" and" other" members" of" the" public."Sharing"is"an"important"function,"meaning"that"we"can"share"our"research"with"other" scientists"or"interested"persons."In"this"way,"we"publish"our"research"online"and"promote"it" through"websites"such"as"Twitter,"Facebook,"YouTube"etc."At"the"same"time"we"can"receive" the"research"from"others."We"support"Brumfiel’s58"conclusion"that"through"social"media"it"is" possible" to" reach" wider" and" multiple" audiences" than" through" traditional" publishing" in" the" academic" world." Establishing" the" relationships" with" other" scientists" is" one" of" the" most" important"tools"of"social"media"and"it"is"especially"significant"for"building"scientific"networks" and"allowing"scientists"to"stay"in"contact"online."Social"media"can"also"contribute"to"building" reputation"on"the"Internet,"although"there"is"not"standard"measure"of"it." The" impact" of" someone’s" social" media" activities" can" also" evaluated" nowadays." Twitter" can" measure"how"a"message"is"spreading"on"the"network,"because"the"exchanges"on"the"same" topic"occur"on"a"digital"network,"where"we"can"easily"access"and"retrieve"the"data"needed." Similar"tools"exist"on"socialmention.com"that"qualifies"the"influence"through"exchanges59."" There" are" over" 5.000" open" access" journals" today60." They" are" mostly" payable" but" some" of" them"have"a"free"access."" Next" to" the" services" such" as" Thomson" Reuters" that" provide" traditional" indexing" and" abstracting"of"scientific"journal"articles,"we"now"have"ResearchGate"and"Google"Scholar,"for" instance,"that"can"be"useful"for"indexing"and"self:archiving"of"research"papers."They"can"also" give" us" a" number" of" times" our" paper" has" been" cited" in" other" articles" that" were" published" online."The"author’s"scholar"factor"is"therefore"measured"by"h:index."However,"in"this"mix"of" open" access" and" social" media," the" individual" researcher" has" become" more" important" than" the" journal" in" which" the" article" was" published." The" social" media" influence" is" calculated" through"the"number"of"time"an"article"was"discussed"on"social"media."As"Singer61"suggests:" “the"more"links,"the"more"hits,"the"more"references"from"others"and"so"on,"the"higher"the" ranking"in"the"search"results”"(p.601)." !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 55 "Idem." "Alfred"Hermida,"Social"media"is"inherently"a"system"of"peer"evaluation"and"is"changing"the"way"scholars" disseminate"their"research,"raising"questions"about"the"way"we"evaluate"academic"authority,"LSE"Blogs,"June"27," 2011,"http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2011/06/27/social:media:is:inherently:a:system:of:peer: evaluation:and:is:changing:the:way:scholars:disseminate:their:research:raising:questions:about:the:way:we: evaluate:academic:authority/ 57 "Geoff"Brumfiel,"Peer"review"reviewed,"Nature"News"Blog,"September"8,"2009," http://blogs.nature.com/news/2009/09/peer_review_reviewed.html" 58 "Idem." 59 "Idem." 60 "Thomas"K."Pickard,"“The"Impact"of"Open"Access"and"Social"Media"on"Scientific"Research.”"Journal"of" Participatory"Medicine,"4"(2012)." 61 "Jane"Singer,"“New"media,"new"scholarship"debate."Publish"(and"be"popular)"or"perish.”"Journalism"studies"9," no."4"(2008):"599:604. 56 Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 94" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Another" method" that" is" becoming" appealing" to" many" scholars" is" crowd:sourcing." It" is" considered" to" have" potentially" interesting" effects." It" is" similar" to" outsourcing" but" it" means" including"as"many"people"as"possible"in"one"research"project." Although" the" Internet" is" used" as" a" major" source" of" information" among" scholars," we" are" concerned" there" are" many" potential" problems" and" treats" with" it." As" publishing" on" the" Internet" is" free" for" everyone," research" of" both" the" highest" and" the" lowest" quality" is" mixed" and" often" difficult" to" distinguish." " It" is" difficult" to" control" the" quality" of" published" research" and"avoid"inaccurate,"wrong"or"biased"work62."Therefore,"we"should"be"cautious"when"doing" research"online." 5.5*Conclusion:*reshaping*science*and*reshaping*the*world* The" appearance" of" new" communication" technologies" in" the" 1990s," during" the" so:called" “crises”" of" democracy," represents" a" new" chapter" and" a" challenge" in" the" development" of" society"and"in"the"notion"of"democracy,"as"well"as"in"the"totality"of"human"communication" praxis." Bentivegna63"argues" that" there" has" been" a" change" in" the" relation" between" politics" and"the"information"and"communication"technologies:"" Rethinking' ICTs' in' relation' to' politics' therefore' means' first' rethinking' politics,' and' recognizing'that'a'form'of'deterritorialization'is'taking'place,'eliminating'the'old'boundaries' and'enabling'the'emergence'of'new'actors'and'new'forms'of'politics'(p.333).' The" changes" in" the" institutional" and" political" context" of" science" are" also" changing" the" methods"of"science"and"how"the"science"is"conceived."On"the"contrary"from"the"past,"where" science" was" about" the" discovery" (how" reality" works)," today’s" technoscience" is" more" about" creating"things"(patents)."The"knowledge"and"actions"that"are"created"are"coproduced"and" engaged" by" different" stakeholders," such" as" social" movements," new" experiments" are" emerging," new" methods" such" as" crowdsourcing" have" been" introduced," involving" people" to" participate" in" the" knowledge" production." For" the" moment," it" seems" like" they" are" all" unstoppably"reshaping"the"world"as"we"know"it"and"that"the"inclusion"of"broader"community" in" knowledge" production" has" a" positive" influence" on" the" process" of" democratization" of" knowledge"is"unavoidable."The"democratization"of"knowledge"production"will"have"political," methodological"and"epistemological"consequences"that"we"will"have"to"deal"with." Despite" the" initial" optimism," besides" democratizing" knowledge," we" saw" that" the" Internet" also" brings" new" problems" seen" in" difficult" quality" control," data" smog" seen" in" fake" information,"hidden"propaganda"material"or"simply"misinformation,"superficial"analysis"and" bad"research64."" Also"we"are"concerned"with"the"difficulties"scientific"institutions,"used"to"evaluate"scientists" only" by" the" peer:reviewed" publications," have" to" start" evaluating" the" scientific" activities" on" social"media"and"to"completely"accept"new"ways"for"engaging"with"wider"publics." Because" of" the" participatory" and" networking" potentials" of" the" Internet," Ravetz" and" Funtowicz 65"write" about" political" activism" in" science." Its" best" example" is" the" boycott" of" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 62 "William"Arms,"“What"Are"The"Alternatives"To"Peer"Review?"Quality"Control"In"Scholarly"Publishing"on"the" Web.”"The"Journal"of"Electronic"Publishing"8,"no."1"(2002)."Accessed"July"2,"2013." http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text:idx?c=jep;view=text;rgn=main;idno=3336451.0008.103" 63 "Sara"Bentivegna,"“Rethinking"Politics"in"the"World"of"ICTs.”"European"Journal"of"Communication,"21,"no.3" (2006):"331:343." 64 "Jessie"Daniels"and"Joe"Feagin,"“The"(Coming)"Social"Media"Revolution"in"the"Academy.”"Fast"Capitalism"8,"no."2" (2011)."Accessed"July"2,"2013."" "http://www.uta.edu/huma/agger/fastcapitalism/8_2/Daniels8_2.html" 65 "Jerry"Ravetz"and"Silvio"Funtowicz,"“New"forms"of"Science”."In"International"Encyclopedia"of"Social"and" Behavioral"Sciences."Amsterdam:"Elsevier"(in"press)" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 95" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Elsevier," with" which" the" scientists" showed" their" disappointment" with" Elsevier" policies" of" publishing"academic"papers."Are"we"exaggerating"if"we"say"that"this"could"be"referred"to"as" “Academic"Spring”?!" " References** Arms,"William."“What"Are"The"Alternatives"To"Peer"Review?"Quality"Control"In"Scholarly" Publishing"on"the"Web.”"The'Journal'of'Electronic'Publishing"8,"no."1"(2002)."Accessed"July"2," 2013."http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text: idx?c=jep;view=text;rgn=main;idno=3336451.0008.103"" Bentivegna,"Sara."“Rethinking"Politics"in"the"World"of"ICTs.”"European'Journal'of' Communication,"21,"no.3"(2006):"331:343." Brumfiel,"Geoff."Peer"review"reviewed,"Nature'News'Blog,"September"8,"2009," http://blogs.nature.com/news/2009/09/peer_review_reviewed.html" Cammaerts,"Bart"and"Carpentier"Nico."Introduction"to'Reclaming'the'Media:'Communication' Rights'and'Democratic'Media'Roles,"edited"by"Bart"Cammaerts"and"Nico"Carpentier,"XI:XVIII." Bristol:"Intellect"books,"2007." Chang," Alicia." Online" journals" challenge" scientific" peer" review," Mercury' News," October" 2," 2006," http://www.mercurynews.com/mld/mercurynews/news/breaking_news/15655422.htm." Daniels,"Jessie"and"Feagin,"Joe."“The"(Coming)"Social"Media"Revolution"in"the"Academy.”"Fast' Capitalism"8,"no."2"(2011)."Accessed"July"2,"2013."" "http://www.uta.edu/huma/agger/fastcapitalism/8_2/Daniels8_2.html"" Debate."Peer"Review,"Nature,"December"2006," http://www.nature.com/nature/peerreview/debate/index.html"" Elsevier."Peer"review"matters"to"the"public."ScienceDaily,"February"8,"2013." http://www.sciencedaily.com" Funtowicz," Silvio." Peer" Review" and" Quality" Control." In" Encyclopedia' of' the' Social' and' Behavioral'Sciences,"11179:11183."Amsterdam:"Elsevier,"2001." Hermida,"Alfred."Social"media"is"inherently"a"system"of"peer"evaluation"and"is"changing"the" way" scholars" disseminate" their" research," raising" questions" about" the" way" we" evaluate" academic" authority," LSE' Blogs," June" 27," 2011," http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2011/06/27/social:media:is:inherently:a: system:of:peer:evaluation:and:is:changing:the:way:scholars:disseminate:their:research: raising:questions:about:the:way:we:evaluate:academic:authority/"" Margolis," Michael" and" Resnick," David." Politics' as' Usual:' The' “Cyberspace' Revolution”." Thousand"Oaks,"CA:"Sage"Publications,"2000." McQuail,"Denis."Media'Performance:'Mass'Communication'and'the'Public'Interest."London:" Sage,"1992." Pickard," K.Thomas." “The" Impact" of" Open" Access" and" Social" Media" on" Scientific" Research.”" Journal'of'Participatory'Medicine,"4"(2012)." Ravetz,"Jerry"and"Funtowicz,"Silvio."“New"forms"of"Science”."In"International"Encyclopedia"of" Social"and"Behavioral"Sciences."Amsterdam:"Elsevier"(in"press)." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 96" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Rommetveit," Kjetil," Strand," Roger," Fjelland," Ragnar" &" Funtowicz," Silvio." “What" can" history" teach" us" about" the" prospects" of" a" European" Research" Area.”" Report" procured" by" the" European" Commission:" Joint" Research" Centre," Institute" for" the" Protection" and" the" Security" of"the"Citizens,"2013." Singer," Jane." “New" media," new" scholarship" debate." Publish" (and" be" popular)" or" perish.”" Journalism'studies"9,"no."4"(2008):"599:604." Solomon," David" (2007)." “The" Role" of" Peer" Review" for" Scholarly" Journals" in" the" Information" Age.”" The' Journal' of' Electronic' Publishing" 10," no.1" (2007)." Accessed" July" 18," 2013." http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text: idx?c=jep;view=text;rgn=main;idno=3336451.0010.107"" Stromer:Galley," Jennifer." “Will" Internet" Voting" Increase" Turnout?”" In" Society' Online:' The' Internet'in'Context"edited"by"Philip"Howard"and"Steve"Jones,"87:101,"Thousand"Oakes:"Sage" Publications,"2004." Van"Rooyen,"Susan,"Godlee,"Fiona,"Evans,"Stephen,"Black,"Nick"and"Smith,"Richard."“Effect"of" open"peer"review"on"quality"of"reviews"and"on"reviewers’"recommendations:"a"randomised" trial.”"BMJ"318,"no."7175(1999):"23–27." Vesnic:Alujevic," Lucia." The" Role" of" Internet" in" Political" Communication." Gent:" University" Press,"2011." Walker,"Thomas."“The"future"of"scientific"journals:"free"access"or"pay"per"view?”"American' Entomologist'44"(1998):"135:138." Wile," Anthony." Defining" the" Moment:" The" Internet" Reformation." The' Daily' Bell." July" 28," 2011,"http://www.thedailybell.com/2195/Internet:Reformation.html"" " " ! " " " Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 97" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' CHAPTER"6"" Planning"and"evaluating"public"participation:" Emotion,"sites,"and"objects"" ' Sarah'Davies' Business'School'of'Copenhagen' " I"want"to"start"with"an"anecdote,"a"moment"from"a"public"engagement"event"I"attended" some"years"ago."The"topic"was"the"use"of"drugs"to"treat"mental"illness,"and"the"event"had" followed"a"typical"pattern:"expert"speakers"had"spoken,"factual"questions"had"been"asked." The"smooth"progression"of"the"event"was"broken,"however,"as"a"woman"stood"up," introduced"herself"by"name,"and"hesitatingly"told"a"story"–"her"story"–"of"debilitating" depression,"job"loss,"and"everyday"reliance"on"medication."The"character"of"the"room" changed,"becoming"marked"–"suddenly,"awkwardly"–"by"a"new,"intense"seriousness:"those"in" the"audience"watched"her"or"watched"their"feet,"speakers"dropped"their"rather"combative" demeanour,"the"space"became"still."It"was"with"almost"palpable"relief"that"the"discussion" was"moved"back,"by"the"next"speaker,"towards"more"technical"details."The"confessional" moment"had"been"–"not"wrong,"exactly"–"but"awkward,"odd,"out"of"place."The"woman"sat" down"and"did"not"speak"again." This"moment"has"stayed"with"me"as"an"example"of"the"untoward"and"unexpected"breaking" through"into"the"‘normality’"of"dialogue"on"science"–"and"as"the"revelation"that"the" normality"that"was"disrupted"by"this"emotional"and"personal"account"was"one"of"carefully" controlled"and"intellectual"discussion."As"such,"it"reveals"an"absence"at"the"heart"of"dialogue" (at"least"in"that"time"and"place):"these"are"not"emotional"spaces."And,"as"such,"it"got"me" thinking"about"other"absences."What"else"is"missing?"What"other"aspects"of"humdrum"daily" life"are"excluded,"through"a"process"that"is"itself"so"invisible"that"we"do"not"notice"they"are" gone?" It"is"this"process"of"exclusion"that"I"want"to"reflect"on"in"this"chapter."Specifically,"I"want"to" suggest"that"our"thinking"about"public"participation"can"be"too"focused"on"rational"argument" and"debate,"running"the"risk"of"ignoring"other"important"aspects"of"how"we"relate"to"science" and"technology."While"it"is"vital"to"provide"space"for"open"discussion"and"the"exchange"of" reasoned"arguments"within"participatory"activities,"it"is"also"important"to"allow"the" articulation"of"experiences"and"knowledges,"which"will"not"fit"well"into"formats"that" emphasise"structured"argumentation."Emotions,"experiential"knowledges,"and"values"should" be"allowed"to"play"their"part"in"public"discussion"of"science."In"what"follows"I’ll"offer"some" reflections"on"how"we"might"structure"public"participation"so"as"to"enable"this." I’ll"start"by"sketching"out"some"of"the"background"to"the"development"of"participatory" methods,"showing"how"notions"of"‘reasoned"argument’"have"become"dominant"in"how"we" discuss"and"evaluate"public"engagement."While"these"are,"of"course,"important,"the"result" can"be"events"such"as"the"one"I"described"above,"in"which"emotions,"personal"histories,"and" creative"modes"of"expression"appear"starkly"out"of"place."All"of"these,"I"would"suggest,"are"in" fact"important"in"our"everyday"negotiations"of"science"and"should"therefore"be"important"in" public"engagement."I’ll"discuss"this"further"in"the"second"section,"which"explores"some" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 98" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' examples"(including"a"number"drawn"from"other"chapters"in"this"volume)"of"how" participatory"processes"can"incorporate"attention"to"these"modes"of"expression."I"focus"on" four"different"formats"–"the"use"of"personal"testimony;"art,"drama"and"dance;"the"opening" up"of"normally"secluded"scientific"spaces;"and"object:oriented"engagement"–"which"may" offer"some"inspiration"for"those"wishing"to"incorporate"interactions"which"go"beyond" reasoned"argument"in"public"participation."And,"to"finish,"I’ll"consider"some"implications"of" these"arguments"for"how"we"think"about,"plan,"and"evaluate"public"participation"and" dialogue."" 6.1*Public*Participation** Where"does"public"participation"come"from?"There"are"a"number"of"ways"we"could"answer" this"question."In"the"context"of"the"UK,"for"instance,"Jane"Gregory"and"Simon"Lock"have" traced"the"rise"of"‘public"engagement’"out"of"a"previous"emphasis"on"‘public"understanding" of"science’"(PUS),"suggesting"that"social"science"critiques"of"one:way"scientific" communication"became"mingled"with"New"Labour’s"interest"in"participation"to"result,"by"the" early"2000s,"in"an"understanding"of"the"science:society"relationship"as"“a"collective"exercise" of"citizenship"in"a"participatory"democracy”"(2008,"1257)."Daniel"Fiorino,"writing"from"the" US,"saw"public"participation"as"a"necessary"antidote"to"technocratic"decision:making;"one" which"was"based"on"three"key"arguments:"the"substantive,"that"“lay"judgments"about"risk" are"as"sound"or"more"so"than"those"of"experts”;"the"normative,"that"“a"technocratic" orientation"is"incompatible"with"democratic"ideals”;"and"the"instrumental,"where"“effective" lay"participation"in"risk"decisions"makes"them"more"legitimate"and"leads"to"better"results”" (1990,"227:8)."Others"see"the"move"towards"public"engagement"as"straightforwardly" commonsensical."Webler"and"Tuler"write"simply"that"in"“decisions"that"broadly"affect"the" public"interest"…"it"is"now"widely"accepted"that"members"of"the"public"should"be"involved”" (2002,"179)." One"important"context"for"the"development,"and"increasing"prominence,"of"these" technologies"of"participation"is"scholarly"thinking"on"deliberative"democracy.66"Ultimately," much"of"the"thinking"behind"contemporary"public"engagement"can"trace"its"origins"to"the" notion"of"deliberation"–"a"notion"which,"in"its"purest"form,"“implies"a"systematic"process" wherein"actors"tell"the"truth,"justify"their"positions"extensively,"and"are"willing"to"yield"to"the" force"of"the"better"argument”"(Bächtiger"et"al"2009,"33)."Deliberative"democracy"might"be" summarised"as"a"model"of"democratic"engagement"that"emphasises"accountability"and"the" importance"of"reason:giving."It"begins,"Simone"Chambers"writes,"“with"a"turning"away"from" liberal"individualist"or"economic"understandings"of"democracy"and"toward"a"view"anchored" in"conceptions"of"accountability"and"discussion"…"deliberative"democracy"focuses"on"the" communicative"processes"of"opinion"and"will:formation"that"precede"voting”"(2003,"308)." As"such,"much"discussion"of"deliberative"democracy"has"focused"on"the"kind"of" communication"process"it"should"be."How"to"achieve"the"ideal"interaction"in"which" participants"systematically"discuss"a"decision,"exchanging"their"reasons"for"different"options" and"being"prepared"to"cede"to"whichever"is"shown"to"be"the"strongest?"Joshua"Cohen"has" argued"that"there"are"four"necessary"features"for"bringing"this"about."Ideal"deliberation" should"be:" 1. Free."Participants"should"“regard"themselves"as"bound"only"by"the"results"of"their" deliberation”." 2. Reasoned."Deliberators"“are"required"to"state"their"reasons"for"advancing"proposals," supporting"them"or"criticizing"them”." !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 66 "I"say"‘scholarly’"deliberately:"much"of"this"work"is"located"in"political"theory"and"has"a"patchy"relationship"to" the"practice"of"participation"(Davies"et"al"2006)." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 99" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' 3. Equitable."Not"only"should"all"have"“an"equal"voice"in"the"decision”,"their" backgrounds"or"degree"of"existing"power"should"not"affect"their"role"in"the" deliberative"process." 4. ConsensusWoriented."Ideal"deliberation"aims"to"close"down"debate"through"arrival"“at" a"rationally"motivated"consensus”." (Adapted"from"Cohen"1989)" These"criteria"will"be"familiar,"at"least"on"the"level"of"the"intuitive,"to"those"who"have" organised"or"evaluated"participatory"processes"on"scientific,"risk,"or"environmental"issues." Factors"such"as"fairness"or"of"equal"participation"are"seen"as"intrinsic"to"science"dialogue." (The"Dana"Centre"–"a"purpose:built"public"engagement"space"in"London"–"has"a"‘how:to’" guide,"for"instance,"which"includes"advice"that"organisers"ensure"“all"participants"feel"they" have"something"to"contribute,"that"their"opinion"is"of"value,"and"that"they"have"learnt" something”67)."More"concretely,"there"are"similarities"with"Rowe"and"Frewer’s"influential" framework"for"the"evaluation"of"public"participation"(2000),"which"has"been"cited,"at"the"last" count,"some"680"times,"and"which"has"had"an"important"role"in"shaping"contemporary" practice."Rowe"and"Frewer"discuss"a"set"of"evaluation"criteria"for"assessing"participatory" processes,"split"into"‘acceptance’"criteria"–"“related"to"the"effective"construction"and" implementation"of"a"procedure”"–"and"‘process’"criteria,"which"are"related"to"“potential" public"acceptance”"(2000,"11)."Taken"together,"these"include"representativeness," independence"(that"a"process"“should"be"conducted"in"an"independent,"unbiased"way”," p.13),"transparency,"and"–"perhaps"most"closely"related"to"the"deliberative"emphasis"on" reason:giving"–"that"a"“participation"exercise"should"use/provide"appropriate"mechanisms" for"structuring"and"displaying"the"decision:making"process”;"this"means,"in"practice,"that" “the"underlying"reasons"behind"a"decision"[could]"be"examined,"as"well"as"the"extent"to" which"a"conclusion"was"well"supported”"(p.16)." There"are,"then,"some"key"similarities"between"classical"notions"of"deliberative"democracy"–" as"expressed"in"the"work"of"Joshua"Cohen"–"and"the"way"in"which"public"participation"in" science"and"technology"is"discussed"and"evaluated."This"would,"perhaps,"be"of"limited" interest"if"it"were"not"for"the"fact"that"there"have"been"key"critiques"of"deliberation"which" remain"largely"invisible"in"the"analysis"and"practice"of"public"participation"with"science;"we" might"point,"in"particular,"to"assessments"of"deliberation"that"suggest"that,"paradoxically,"it" may"work"to"limit,"rather"than"build,"democratic"engagement."It"does"this"by"constraining" the"ways"in"which"participation"can"be"ordered"–"through"its"very"emphasis,"in"other"words," on"universalistic"notions"such"as"reasoned"argument"and"the"possibility"of"truly"equitable" spaces."Lynn"Sanders"writes"–"in"an"essay"titled"Against'Deliberation"–"that"claims"about"the" value"of"deliberative"engagement:" have'often'been'fraught'with'connotations'of'rationality,'reserve,'cautiousness,'quietude,' community,'selflessness,'and'universalism,'connotations'which'in'fact'probably'undermine' deliberation’s'democratic'claims.'…'Some'citizens'are'better'than'others'at'articulating'their' arguments'in'rational,'reasonable'terms.'Some'citizens,'then,'appear'already'to'be' deliberating,'and,'given'the'tight'link'between'deliberation'and'democracy,'appear'already' to'be'acting'democratically."(Sanders"1997,"348:9)" Sanders"and"others"have"pointed"out"that"construing"deliberation"as"a"type"of"interaction," which"relies"on"argument,"reason,"and"dispassionate"analysis"privileges"those"who"are"adept" in"these"skills"(and"who"are,"often,"the"already:powerful)."Specifically,"in"the"context"of" science,"it"privileges"scientific"and"technical"expertise"and"those"who"can"wield"it."This" suggests,"then,"that"deliberation"should"instead"be"understood"in"rather"more"generous" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 67 "See"http://www.danacentre.org.uk/aboutus/eventdiy/effectiveevent" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 100" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' terms,"in"which"“argument,"rhetoric,"humour,"emotion,"testimony"or"storytelling,"and" gossip”"(Dryzek"2000,"48)"all"have"a"role"to"play;"here"deliberation"moves"away"from"a"sole" focus"on"the"discursive"exchange"of"reasoned"arguments"to"become"a"more"diverse,"messy" encounter."In"this"model,"deliberation"might"include"the"expression"of"emotions"through,"for" instance,"poetry,"storytelling,"drama,"art"or"music"(Young"2001)"–"and,"in"so"doing,"subvert" the"well:established"power"structures"which"surround"the"democratic"process."Opening"up" deliberation"to"these"wider"forms"of"engagement"may,"it"is"argued,"enable"it"to"become"a" space"in"which"those"who"have"traditionally"been"silenced"–"women,"minority"groups,"the" poor"–"can"have"their"voices"heard." 6.2*NonYtraditional*forms*of*interaction* This"move"–"towards"an"opening"up"of"the"deliberative"process"to"incorporate"non: traditional"forms"of"interaction"–"has"so"far"not"been"extensively"discussed"in"the"literature" of"public"participation"in"science"and"technology."Elam"and"Bertilsson"discuss"‘radical’" scientific"citizenship"which"is"“warranted"in"indulging"in"public"displays"of"outrage"…" permitted"to"be"disruptive"and"disrespectful”"(2002,"24);"somewhat"similarly,"Matthew" Harvey"has"focused"on"the"evaluation"of"participatory"processes"to"argue"that"it"is"important" to"explore"dramaturgical"and"experiential"features"of"public"engagement"(noting"that" frameworks"such"as"that"developed"by"Rowe"and"Frewer"provide"“little"analysis"of"the" experience"of"being"a"participant,"or"the"moment:to:moment"actions"and"procedures"that" come"to"constitute"the"occasioned"event”"and"thus"ignore"“the"extent"to"which"participation" events"are"dramatic"and"emotional”,"2009,"145)."What"I’d"like"to"suggest"in"this"section"is" that"the"practice"of"science"communication,"participation,"and"public"engagement"is" significantly"ahead"of"the"academic"literature"in"this"respect"–"that,"in"other"words,"there"are" many"practitioners"making"use"of"non:discursive"modes"of"interaction"in"creative"ways"as" they"design"and"carry"out"public"engagement."" In"the"rest"of"this"section,"then,"I"want"to"mention"a"number"of"different"forms"that"these" innovative"methods"are"taking."I’ll"briefly"discuss"some"different"types"of"engagement"and" participation"that"are"being"put"into"practice"around"contemporary"science,"technology"and" environmental"issues,"each"of"which"speaks"to"the"critiques"of"deliberation"discussed"above." While"these"formats"are"not"comprehensive"–"there"are"doubtless"many"other"ways"in"which" deliberation"can"be"taken"beyond"the"exchange"of"reasoned"arguments"–"they"do"offer"some" inspiration"for"practitioners"who"wish"to"experiment"with"the"different"kinds"of"forms"that" public"participation"may"take."" Testimonies*and*personal*experience* Perhaps"the"most"obvious"way"of"responding"to"critics"of"deliberative"democracy"is"to"open" up"participation"to"other"modes"of"discourse"–"“argument,"rhetoric,"humour,"emotion," testimony"or"storytelling,"and"gossip”"(Dryzek"2000,"48),"for"instance"–"so"as"to"move" deliberation"away"from"its"emphasis"on"reasoned"argument."At"its"simplest,"this"might" involve"ensuring"that"a"participatory"process"is"‘bottom:up’"rather"than"‘top:down’"–" organised"around"the"needs"and"interests"of"lay"participants"rather"than"a"scientific"elite." The"‘community"x:change’"project"organised"by"the"British"Science"Association"(see"chapter" x),"for"instance,"was"oriented"around"the"interests"of"the"participants,"enabling"them"to" discuss"“issues"close"to"their"hearts”"and"to"select"a"number"of"‘information"providers’"who" would"be"useful"to"them"in"doing"this"(Taylor:Gee"and"Bansal"2010,"14)."While"the"project" had"a"number"of"top:down,"scientific"issues"which"were"also"a"focus"for"conversation,"these" never"dominated"the"agenda."This"orientation,"by"starting"with"the"hopes,"needs,"concerns," passions,"experiences,"and"frustrations"of"participants,"can"normalise"more"informal"modes" of"discussion,"making"it"usual"–"rather"than"out"of"place"–"for"speakers"to"talk"of"their" personal"histories,"emotions"about"a"particular"issue,"or"mundane"experiences." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 101" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' A"second"example"of"the"ways"in"which"everyday,"creative"or"disruptive"forms"of"interaction" can"infiltrate"engagement"processes"is"when"activism"invades"–"or,"more"positively,"is" allowed"into"–"scientific"and"participatory"processes."In"the"case"of"research"into"the" treatment"of"HIV:AIDS,"for"instance,"activists"were"able"to"insert"themselves"into"the" scientific"process,"subverting"research"agendas"and"priorities"and"developing"a"widely" acknowledged"expertise"around"the"science"of"–"as"well"as"the"experience"of"having"–"AIDS" (Epstein"1995)."Such"activism"continues"today"around"issues"–"such"as"access"to"particular" medical"treatments,"the"siting"of"new"power"plants,"or"climate"change"–"which"are"of"deep" personal"relevance"to"people’s"everyday"lives."The"presence"of"impassioned"narratives"and" creative"modes"of"expression"means"that"activism"around"scientific"or"technical"issues" should"be"seen"as"an"opportunity"for"–"rather"than"a"hindrance"to"–"participatory"processes." Art,*drama*and*dance* Activism"often"draws"on"modes"of"expression"which"are"overtly"creative"and"experiential:" Epstein"(1995)"talks"of"the"‘street"theater’"used"by"groups"such"as"ACT"UP"(Aids"Coalition"to" Unleash"Power),"while"Iris"Marion"Young,"in"a"discussion"of"activist"rejections"of"deliberative" processes,"commends"“expressions"of"mockery"and"longing"performed"in"rowdy"and"even" playful"ways”"(2001,"687)."Such"artistic"and"creative"techniques"have"a"long"history"of"use"in" science"communication"and"engagement"–"perhaps"most"overtly"in"‘art:science’"projects," but"also,"increasingly,"through"the"use"of"drama"and"even"dance"within"participatory" processes."Stephen"Webster"(2005)"has"reviewed"UK"art"and"science"collaborations," discussing"a"number"of"prominent"examples"–"such"as"Marc"Quinn’s"portrait"of"the"geneticist" John"Sulston"–"as"well"as"the"context"in"which"such"collaborations"occur."Significantly," Webster"argues"that"these"collaborations"are"not"merely"about"illustrating"scientific" principles"such"that"they"are"accessible"to"broader"audiences;"instead,"they"are"genuinely" two:way"interactions"in"which"“the"contribution"of"an"artist,"or"of"an"artistic"training,"can"be" to"help"a"scientist"to"balance"a"reductionist"approach"with"a"wider,"more"inclusive"gaze”" (p.969)."He"gives"an"extended"description"of"a"single"exhibition"in"which"scientific" developments"and"techniques"were"merged"with"artistic"practice:" Such'detailed'artistic'attention'to'the'techniques'of'science'was'again'on'display'in'2005,'at'White'Cube' (London),'where'Marc'Quinn'held'an'exhibition'titled'Chemical'Life'Support.'In'a'large'and'nearly'empty' room,'a'few'naked'figures,'apparently'made'of'marble'or'alabaster,'relaxed'contentedly'on'the'floor.' The'surprise'lay'in'discovering'that'each'sculpture'depicted'a'real'person'whose'life'depends'on'the' insights'of'immunology.'More'specifically,'the'wax'polymer'that'was'used'to'make'these'sculptures' contained'the'drugs'that'keep'each'individual'alive.'So,'Silvia'Petretti'is'a'model'of'an'HIVWpositive' person'and'was'cast'with'a'mix'of'wax'and'antiretroviral'drugs.'Another'of'the'sculptures'provided'a' clue'to'the'artist’s'interest'in'science.'For,'in'the'middle'of'the'room,'lay'Innoscience,'a'sculpture'of' Quinn’s'baby'son'Lucas,'apparently'the'embodiment'of'health'and'happiness.'Yet'the'wax'matrix' included'the'dozen'or'so'amino'acids'that'formed'the'artificial'feed'at'one'time'given'to'him'to' overcome'his'lactose'intolerance'and'ensure'his'wellWbeing.'(Webster'2005,'965)' The"work"displayed"in"the"Chemical"Life"Support"exhibition"is"not,"then,"merely"concerned" with"the"workings"of"science."Instead,"Quinn"uses"contemporary"medical"technology"as"a" means"to"point"to"much"deeper"questions"about"human"life:"its"fragility,"our"relationship" with"the"‘natural’,"the"invisible"technologies"our"existence"may"rely"on.68"In"doing"so"he" invites"responses"which"are"not"simply"oriented"around"a"renewed"understanding"of"the" power"of"modern"medicine,"but"which"recognise"the"delicacy"of"our"lives"and"our" interconnections"with"each"other"and"with"technology"in"powerfully"emotive"ways."While" not"designed"as"a"participatory"exercise"in"any"traditional"way,"such"projects"can"certainly"be" viewed"as"a"means"of"enabling"the"exploration"of"the"effects"of"science"in"a"register"that"is" emotional"rather"than"strictly"reasoned." !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 68 "Images"from"the"exhibition,"and"a"précis"of"it,"can"be"found"online"here:" http://www.whitecube.com/exhibitions/chemicallifesupport/" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 102" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Dramatic"performances"have"a"similar"ability"to"depict"the"emotion:laden"ways"in"which"we" may"experience"contemporary"scientific"developments,"and"thus"to"stimulate"consideration" of"the"effects"of"such"developments."In"the"US,"the"Nanoscale"Informal"Science"Education" Network"–NISENet,"an"NSF:funded"consortium"of"science"museums"and"centres"–"have" developed"a"series"of"‘forums’"around"nanotechnology,"two"of"which"include"short"plays" specially"written"for"the"network."Forum"events"aim"to"stimulate"discussion"around" nanotechnology’s"societal"implications:"topics"include"privacy,"the"future"of"energy"supply," and"how"risks"and"benefits"should"be"weighed"up."In"the"play"Let’s"Talk"About"It,"two"siblings" discuss"the"possibilities"of"an"experimental"cancer"treatment"in"the"context"of"their"mother’s" terminal"illness."The"ten"minute"play,"which"is"available"on"DVD,"comes"with"a"short" discussion"guide"around"the"issues"raised:"Why"do"the"characters"act"as"they"do"(one" desperate"to"find"out"about"the"treatment,"the"other"focused"on"making"the"most"of"the" time"they"have)?"What"would"you"do"in"the"same"situation?"A"forum"event"can"therefore" use"the"play"–"on"DVD"or"in"a"live"performance"–"as"a"means"to"stimulate"discussion"of"the" challenging"questions"nanotechnology"raises"around,"for"instance,"the"opportunities"of"new" medical"technologies"and"the"risks"they"may"entail."By"presenting"the"intimate"and"familiar" story"of"a"loved"one’s"illness"in"the"context"of"a"new"technological"development,"the" affective"dimensions"of"a"particular"emerging"technology"can"be"opened"up"to"debate." Opening*up*scientific*spaces* The"‘open"day’"–"in"which"universities,"labs,"institutions,"or"particular"research"projects"are" opened"up"to"lay"visitors"–"can"often"seem"a"rather"staid"and"old:fashioned"form"of" engagement."Though"these"kinds"of"events"are"often"planned"with"straightforwardly"‘deficit" model’"aims"in"mind,"I"would"suggest"that"they"have"something"to"offer"for"the"way"we"think" about"participation"in"that"their"emphasis"on"the"spaces"of"science"–"the"laboratory,"lecture" theatre"or"campus"–"can"make"participation"a"qualitatively"different"experience"to"when"it"is" carried"out"in"an"apparently"‘neutral’"space"such"as"an"off:campus"café"or"town"hall."This" may"not"always"be"a"positive"thing"(there"are"obvious"implications"for"the"empowerment"of" lay"voices"if"events"are"held"in"spaces"heavily"freighted"with"historical"expertise:"a"‘dialogue" event’"held"in"the"Royal"Institution’s"world"famous"lecture"hall"comes"to"mind),"but,"done" well,"opening"up"spaces"which"are"traditionally"reserved"for"scientists"can"offer"insight"into" science"as"a"material"practice"as"well"as"a"body"of"abstract"knowledge." Open"days"are"common"within"universities,"and"many"of"us"will"have"attended"or"organised" one."Though"they"may"be"aimed"at"different"groups,"including"prospective"students"and" their"families,"a"local"community,"or"a"particular"user"group"such"as"patients"with"a"specific" disease,"schoolchildren"are"often"a"key"audience."The"Wellcome"Trust"Centre"for"Cell:Matrix" Research"at"the"University"of"Manchester,"for"instance,"runs"a"yearly"event"called"‘Wellcome" to"the"Matrix’"for"local"teenagers,"during"which"students"explore"the"Centre’s"laboratories" and"carry"out"hands:on"activities"with"staff;"at"least"part"of"the"aim"here"is"to"encourage"the" students"to"think"about"science"as"a"potential"career.69"The"Faculty"of"Medicine"and"Health" at"the"University"of"Leeds"took"a"somewhat"similar"approach"in"a"series"of"events"spanning" 2006:7,"running"open"sessions"in"which"a"“series"of"short"talks"was"interspersed"with" opportunities"for"the"audience"to"see"a"wide"range"of"interactive"exhibits"and"speak"to" experts"in"an"informal"context”"(Ward"et"al"2008,"181)."Here,"however,"there"was"no"remit"to" focus"on"young"people,"with"the"project"aiming"“to"demystify"medicine"and"to"make"science" fun"and"engaging"for"an"audience"of"adults”"(p.180)."Some"events"may"also"take"the"form"of" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 69 "See"http://www.wellcome: matrix.org/2011_public_main/public_march/wttm_main/wttm_up2011.html"and" http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Education:resources/Communicating:your:research/Case: studies/WTDV026893.htm"for"some"of"the"background"and"history"of"this"project." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 103" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' outdoor"events"or"fairs,"‘field"days’,"or"informal"open"houses."In"the"US,"for"instance," agricultural"field"days"are"a"common"activity"in"the"farming:dominated"Midwest,"bringing" together"farmers,"scientists,"and"industry"representatives"(Carolan"2008),"while"the" European"Commission’s"Joint"Research"Council"in"Ispra,"Italy,"recently"held"an"open"day"for" the"local"community"which"not"only"opened"up"many"of"its"laboratories"but"also"involved"an" outdoor"‘fair’"of"demonstrations"and"information"tables." Many"of"these"activities"are"not"–"and"would"not"claim"to"be"–"participatory"or"deliberative" in"the"strictest"sense."They"can,"however,"offer"us"some"inspiration"in"terms"of"the"degree"to" which"particular"sites"and"spaces"can"be"mobilised"so"as"to"avoid"participation"that"is"overly" focused"on"the"exchange"of"reasoned"arguments."Laboratories,"in"particular,"contain"traces" of"the"messy,"personalised"practice"of"science:"photographs"above"desks,"news"clippings," comic"Eppendorff"holders"(see"photo),"names"scribbled"on"beakers."Allowing"public"access" to"these"spaces"shifts"discourse"away"from"the"abstract"and"ideal"and"towards"discussion"of" the"mundane,"everyday"practice"of"science"–"and"thus"allows"space"for"other"more"informal" modes"and"topics"of"debate." Figure*1:"A"recent" laboratory"tour"revealed" not"only"the"material" baggage"of"the"scientific" process"but"a"sense"of"the" playfulness,"informality" and,"in"places,"messiness" indicative"of"those"who" worked"in"the"lab." " ObjectYoriented*engagement* If"particular"sites"can"change"the"tone"of"participatory"encounters,"then"so"too"will"the"use"of" particular"objects."Museum"studies,"to"name"one"area"of"study,"has"taught"us"the"value"of" the"encounters"museum"visitors"have"with"‘authentic’"objects"and"collections"and"the"kind" of"effects"that"objects"may"induce"(for"instance:"nostalgia,"sadness,"excitement,"wonder;" Dudley"2009)."After"a"long"period"in"which"science"museums"and"centres"tended"to"move" away"from"the"use"of"objects"(McManus"1992),"science:oriented"debates"and"events"are" once"again"starting"to"make"use"of"objects"as"a"stimulus"for"discussion." One"example"is"of"events"at"the"Dana"Centre"–"which"is"partly"funded"by"the"Science" Museum,"London"–"which"focus"on"giving"participants"access"to"objects"from"the"museum" collections"that"are"normally"kept"in"storage."Such"‘object:handling"sessions’"may"be" integrated"into"dialogue"events"on"a"related"topic,"or"are"the"specific"focus"of"an"entire" event:"one"recent"evening,"for"instance,"titled"‘Casino"IQ’,"gave"participants"the"opportunity" to"‘play’"with"intelligence"tests"from"throughout"the"20th"century."The"introduction"to"the" event"noted"that:" The"Science"Museum’s"psychology"collections"include"fascinating"intelligence"tests"dating" from"throughout"the"20th"century."We’re"dusting"them"off"and"bringing"them"out"for"you"to" try!"…"The"point"is"to"bring"IQ"down"to"earth,"by"drawing"attention"to"the"instruments" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 104" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' psychologists"have"used"to"measure"it,"and"the"stakes"of"those"tests."In"addition"to"the" gambling"tables,"we’ll"have"demonstrators"showing"how"specific"tests"evolved,"computer" consoles"where"you"can"try"the"newest"generation"of"tests"and"find"out"what"IQ"testing" 70 means"and"where"it’s"going. " Such"events"are"clearly"highly"interactive,"giving"participants"an"opportunity"to"experience" for"themselves"the"means"by"which"people"have"been"tested"and"measured"over"the"last" century"and"bringing"an"often"abstracted"topic"“down"to"earth”."Such"experiences,"we"might" speculate,"will"change"the"tone"of"the"resulting"discussions"by"providing"insight"into"what"it" means,"in"practice,"to"take"such"tests."What"kind"of"dexterity"do"they"require?"As"the"subject" of"them,"do"they"seem"fair"or"unfair?"What"does"it"feel"like"to"be"told"that"one"is"‘average’"or" not?"The"answers"to"these"kinds"of"questions"can"only"be"accessed"through"embodied" engagement"with"museum"collections,"rather"than"through"a"solely"discursive"account"of" them." The"Wellcome"Collection"recently"ran"a"project"–"simply"entitled"Things"–"with"a"similar" emphasis,"though"with"a"rather"broader"scope."Using"the"eclectic"collecting"habits"of"the" Wellcome"Trust’s"founder,"Henry"Wellcome,"as"an"inspiration"(over"his"lifetime,"he"collected" 1.5"million"different"objects"from"all"over"the"world),"the"project"invited"the"public"to"donate" or"lend"a"‘thing’"for"a"special"exhibition."Though"the"exhibition"ran"for"just"ten"days,"it"has"an" enduring"online"presence"–"and"has,"of"course,"added"to"the"Trust’s"collections"(many"of"the" ‘things’"had"a"biomedical"connection,"in"their"stories"if"not"in"their"overt"purpose).71" Participants,"the"project’s"web"manager"Danny"Birchall"writes,"understood"the"process"in"a" number"of"different"ways:" The'public'response'was'enough'to'fill'the'display'cases'with'objects'for'every'day'of'the'year' 2011.'People'brought'‘things’'of'sentimental'value,'‘things’'with'personal'significance,'and' ‘things’'that'they'never'wanted'to'see'again.'For'some,'a'loaned'artwork'was'their'way'of' being'included'in'an'art'exhibition.'For'others,'a'donation'was'a'way'of'finally'dealing'with' an'object'that'represented'a'difficult'aspect'of'personal'history,'such'as'a'failed'relationship.' (Birchall'2011,'27)' Navigating"the"online"record"of"the"exhibition"is"a"curiously"compelling"experience."The" ‘things’"are"arranged"in"the"form"of"a"calendar,"with"one"for"each"day"of"2011,"and"range" from"a"plaster"cast"of"someone’s"face"to"an"empty"cardboard"coffee"cup"and"a"set"of"ankle" braces."Each"also"has"a"short"explanation"from"the"donor"attached."Much"of"the"collection"is" simply"the"detritus"of"everyday"life:"train"tickets,"pens,"photos,"a"floppy"disc,"a"pair"of" sunglasses."Its"presentation"in"the"exhibition"form"works"to"memorialise"these"objects," however,"granting"them"status"as"poignant"exemplars"of"the"way"we"live"now." Again,"the"kinds"of"encounters"that"occur"within"these"projects"are"not,"at"first"glance," deliberative."In"the"context"of"Cohen’s"conditions"for"deliberation"(1989;"see"above),"for" instance,"they"will"inevitably"fall"short:"they"have"none"of"the"structure"that"these"conditions" require,"and"are"not"oriented"around"reaching"consensus"or"making"decisions."My"point"is" rather"that"the"type"of"interactions"they"incorporate"are"valuable"ones,"which"those"of"us" who"organise"and"run"participatory"processes"can"learn"from."The"use"of"objects"–"as"with" the"use"of"sensitive"siting,"or"drama"or"dance"–"can"assist"in"the"articulation"of"different"kinds" of"knowledge,"values"and"opinions"about"science."They"offer"one"way"for"practitioners"to" broaden"the"practice"of"public"participation,"opening"it"up"so"that"it"can"become"more" generous,"and"more"accessible,"in"scope." !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 70 "Text"taken"from:"http://www.danacentre.org.uk/events/2011/05/24/622." "See"website"at:"http://www.wellcomecollection.org/whats:on/exhibitions/things.aspx." 71 Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 105" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' 6.3**Evaluation*of*Participation** Perhaps"another"way"of"saying"this"is"that"participation"has"much"to"learn"from"science" communication."Many"of"these"tools"and"techniques"–"open"days,"hands:on"engagement" with"objects,"art:science"projects"–"have"long"histories"within"more"traditional"forms"of" science"communication,"such"as"museums"and"‘PUS’"(public"understanding"of"science)" activities."These"formats"have"tended"to"be"overlooked"in"the"rush"to"carry"out"public" engagement"rather"than"education"(Gregory"and"Lock"2008)"–"at"times"resulting,"as"I" suggested"in"Section"I,"in"somewhat"bloodless"forms"of"debate."The"move"to"include"lay" publics"and"stakeholders"in"scientific"and"environmental"decision"making"is"an"important" one,"and"I"certainly"don’t"want"to"negate"this."But"these"decision"making"processes"are" themselves"important"enough"to"deserve"to"be"open"to"multiple"ways"of"knowing,"and"to" enable"discussions"which"consider"every"aspect"of"a"technology’s"implications,"not"just"the" cognitive."Whether"the"focus"is"nanotechnology"(see"chapter"x),"a"city’s"water"supply" (chapter"x),"or"pro:poor"GMOs"(chapter"x),"participatory"processes"can"benefit"from"allowing" space"for"consideration"of"what"such"developments"will"mean"at"the"level"of"the"personal" and"emotional." I"want"to"close"by"offering"some"brief"reflections"on"what"all"this"might"mean"for"how"we" plan"and"evaluate"participation.72"The"formats"I"have"discussed"offer"something"of"a"toolkit" for"practitioners"–"a"set"of"suggestions"which"might"be"applied"to"a"range"of"different" contexts"for"a"range"of"different"purposes."Implementing"them"will"not"necessarily"be"easy," not"least"because,"at"their"heart,"they"involve"disrupting"established"power"relationships"in" which"scientific"modes"of"interaction"are"automatically"deemed"superior"to"those"which"are" emotional,"personal,"and"creative."But"I"think"they"help"open"up"deliberative"and" participatory"processes"to"different"perspectives"in"interesting"and"challenging"ways." Experimenting"with"them"is"a"step"towards"ensuring"participation"is"a"process"in"which" different"people,"groups"and"communities"can"have"a"voice"–"one"where"there"is"scope"for" reflection"upon"all"(or,"at"least,"many)"perspectives"on"a"technological"development,"rather" than"only"the"drily"‘reasonable’.73" By"way"of"consolidating"the"discussion"so"far,"then,"I"have"two"sets"of"questions,"which" practitioners"and"evaluators"of"public"engagement"might"like"to"consider." First,"with"regard"to"the"planning"of"public"participation,"how"can"we"open"up"our" engagement"processes"to"more"diverse"forms"of"interaction?"Or"–"to"return"to"the"anecdote" with"which"I"began"–"how"might"we"ensure"that"experiential"and"informal"knowledges"are" not"out"of"place"within"dialogue"and"participation,"but"that"all"contributions"are"welcomed?" At"one"level"the"answer"is"simple."The"examples"I"have"described"in"Section"II,"as"well"as" many"of"the"other"chapters"in"this"volume,"offer"models"and"inspiration"for"formats"which"go" beyond"the"discursive"to"incorporate"bottom:up"concerns,"art"and"drama,"particular"sites" and"spaces,"and"evocative"objects."Many"of"these"are"flexible"enough"to"be"used"in"different" ways"within"different"processes."We"might"imagine,"for"instance,"a"consensus"conference" (Andersen"and"Jaeger"1999)"–"a"relatively"dry"deliberative"form"–"that"incorporates," alongside"participant"discussion,"an"art"project"which"seeks"to"engage"with"the"issue"under" debate"and"to"represent"meanings"and"feelings"that"are"not"readily"articulated."Or"a" laboratory"open"day"which,"as"well"as"allowing"a"local"community"access"to"everyday" science,"involves"the"collation"of"feedback"on"the"research"the"lab"is"doing"and"how" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 72 "The"emphasis"here"is"on"‘brief’."This"is"not"a"programmatic"statement"of"all"that"is"and"is"not"important"for"how" we"think"about"public"participation:"I"am"not"trying"to"replicate"Fiorino’s"(1990)"discussion"of"the"rationale"for" participation"or"Rowe"and"Frewer’s"criteria"for"evaluation"(2000;"2004)." 73 "None"of"this"is"to"suggest,"of"course,"that"rational"argument"should"be"excluded"from"participation."Instead"my" argument"is"for"participatory"processes"in"which"a"range"of"types"of"interaction"and"knowledge"can"articulated." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 106" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' participants"felt"it"should"be"prioritised."Or"a"research"council"town"hall"meeting"which"is" emphatically"‘bottom:up’"in"exploring"how"lay"attendees"think"research"funds"should"be" allocated"(cf"Jones"2008),"and"which"provides"space"for"the"voicing"of"personal"histories"and" motivations"of"different"participants"(scientists,"policy"makers,"laypeople)."Or"a"discussion"of" synthetic"biology"or"nanotechnology"which"not"only"describes"their"potential"applications" but"makes"use"of"prototypes,"images"and"video"to"allow"people"to"physically"engage"with"a" possible"future"artefact."The"possibilities"are"endless,"even"when"based"only"on"the"four" formats"described"in"Section"II:"doubtless"there"are"additional"forms"and"formats"which"can" also"help"open"up"participation."The"key,"I"would"suggest,"is"that"there"is"great"scope"for" creativity"in"devising"participatory"formats."In"an"area"that"can"have"a"tendency"towards" proceduralism"(Goven"2006),"practitioners"should"feel"free"to"mix,"match"and"play"with" different"kinds"of"processes."This"remains"a"new"field"and"an"exploratory"form."Experiment"is" good!" Second:"what"will"thinking"about"participation"in"these"terms"mean"for"the"evaluation"of" public"engagement"processes?"Again,"this"is"not"the"place"for"an"exhaustive"set"of"criteria"or" comprehensive"framework."Indeed,"if"experimentation"is"so"important"to"the"practice"of" public"participation,"evaluation"cannot"be"too"inflexible:"it"must"be"generous"enough"to"cope" with"engagement"from"art"shows"to"citizen"juries,"and"every"permutation"in"between."So," while"commending"to"evaluators"the"range"of"resources"already"available"(including"not"only" Rowe"and"Frewer’s"criteria"for"evaluation"[2000]"but"Matthew"Harvey’s"three"frameworks" for"the"evaluation"process"[2009]"and"the"Dana"Centre’s"more"hands:on"guide74),"I"would"like" only"to"suggest"that"it"may"be"useful"for"those"evaluating"public"participation"to"deliberately" broaden"their"focus."While"it"will"remain"important,"for"instance,"for"evaluators"to"have"clear" aims"against"which"to"measure"the"outcomes"of"a"process,"to"investigate"the"fairness"of" participation,"and"to"explore"participant"experiences"(cf"Harvey"2009;"Rowe"and"Frewer" 2000),"the"arguments"presented"in"this"chapter"suggest"that"it"may"also"be"useful"to"think" about"the"types"of"interaction"that"any"engagement"process"involves,"how"and"if"different" kinds"of"knowledges"are"articulated,"and"the"degree"to"which"the"dominance"of"traditional" elites"is"challenged."Based"on"the"preceding"discussion,"there"are"obvious"questions"we" might"ask"of"any"process."Whose"voices"dominate,"and"who"is"able"to"set"the"agenda?"What" modes"of"interaction"are"seen"as"normal"throughout?"What"role,"if"any,"do"objects,"creative" engagements,"particular"sites,"and"emotions"play,"and"what"effects"do"these"have?"Beyond" these"questions,"however,"it"will"also"be"important"for"evaluators"–"and"those"who"organise" or"think"about"public"participation"more"generally"–"to"acknowledge"and"make"use"of"the" considerable"tacit"knowledge"that"practitioners"develop."There"is"an"expertise"around"being" able"to"take"the"temperature"of"an"engagement"process,"to"sense"what"is"working"and"what" is"not,"to"know"when"a"participant"is"dominating"to"an"unhelpful"extent"and"when"someone" needs"to"be"further"drawn"out."To"return"again"to"my"initial"anecdote,"we"develop"a" sensitivity"to"the"accidental"and"the"out"of"place."Using"this"sensitivity,"alongside"an"overt" interest"in"the"design"of"participatory"forms"which"go"beyond"reasoned"argument"to"enable" contributions"that"are"situated,"emotive"or"otherwise"‘inexpert’,"will"allow"us"–"I"believe"–"to" develop"participation"and"engagement"with"science"in"new"and"exciting"ways." " !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 74 "See"http://www.danacentre.org.uk/aboutus/event_evaluation." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 107" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Questions*to*ask*as*we*plan*and*evaluate*public*participation* • • • • Who"is"setting*the*agenda"of"the"participatory"process"(you,"your"funders," researchers,"policy"makers,"public"groups?),"and"what"means"are"they"using"are"they" doing"so"(a"directive,"a"research"question,"a"discussion,"a"personal"interest)?" What"modes*of*interaction"are"being"prioritised?"(For"instance:"discussion"and" debate,"personal"history"and"anecdote,"creative"expressions"such"as"art"or"drama," interactions"with"objects"or"particular"spaces,"humour"and"playfulness…)" Given"the"aims"of"the"process,"what"is"the"range"of"interactions"and"knowledges"that" might"be"useful"to"it?"How"could"its"format*be*broadened"through"the"use"of,"for" instance,"theatre,"anecdote,"the"presentation"of"scientific"information"in"different" formats,"the"use"of"a"different"space"or"site,"objects"or"prototypes,"artwork,"or" music?"What"effects"do"such"interventions"have?" What"scope"is"there"for"creative*experimentation"within"a"particular"process?"How" could"things"be"done"differently?" * References* Andersen,"Ida"Elisabeth,"and"Birgit"Jaeger."1999."“Danish"participatory"models."Scenario" workshops"and"consensus"conferences:"towards"more"democratic"decision:making.”"Science' and'Public'Policy"26"(5):"331:340." Bächtiger,"André,"Simon"Niemeyer,"Michael"Neblo,"Marco"R"Steenbergen,"and"Jürg"Steiner." 2010."“Disentangling"Diversity"in"Deliberative"Democracy:"Competing"Theories,"Their"Blind" Spots"and"Complementarities.”"Journal'of'Political'Philosophy"18"(1)"(March"1):"32:63." doi:10.1111/j.1467:9760.2009.00342.x." Birchall,"Danny."2011."“Things”:"a"case"study"in"getting"from"accession"to"online"display"in"60" minutes."At"Electronic"Visualisation"and"the"Arts"(EVA"2011)"London,"July"6."" Carolan,"Michael"S."2008."“Democratizing"Knowledge.”"Science,'Technology'&'Human'Values" 33"(4)"(July"1):"508":528."" Chambers,"Simone."2003."“Deliberative"Democratic"Theory.”"Annual'Review'of'Political' Science"6"(1)"(June"1):"307:326." Cohen,"Joshua."1989."Deliberation"and"Democratic"Legitimacy."In"The'Good'Polity,"ed."Alan" Hamlin"and"Phillip"Petit."London:"Blackwell." Dudley,"Sandra"H."(Ed.)"2009."Museum'materialities:'objects,'engagements,'interpretations." Taylor"and"Francis,"September"15." Elam,"Mark,"and"Margareta"Bertilsson."2002."Consuming,"Engaging"and"Confronting"Science:" The"Emerging"Dimensions"of"Scientific"Citizenship."STAGE"(Science,"Technology"and" Governance"in"Europe)." Epstein,"Steven."1995."“The"Construction"of"Lay"Expertise:"AIDS"Activism"and"the"Forging"of" Credibility"in"the"Reform"of"Clinical"Trials.”"Science,'Technology'&'Human'Values"20"(4):"408: 437." Fiorino,"Daniel"J."1990."“Citizen"Participation"and"Environmental"Risk:"A"Survey"of" Institutional"Mechanisms.”"Science,'Technology'&'Human'Values"15"(2)"(April"1):"226:243."" Goven,"Joanna."2006."“Processes"of"Inclusion,"Cultures"of"Calculation,"Structures"of"Power:" Scientific"Citizenship"and"the"Royal"Commission"on"Genetic"Modification.”"Science,' Technology'&'Human'Values'31"(5):"565:598." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 108" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Gregory,"Jane,"and"Simon"Jay"Lock."2008."“The"Evolution"of"‘Public"Understanding"of" Science’:"Public"Engagement"as"a"Tool"of"Science"Policy"in"the"UK.”"Sociology'Compass"2"(4):" 1252:1265." Harvey,"Matthew."2009."“Drama,"Talk,"and"Emotion:"Omitted"Aspects"of"Public" Participation.”"Science,'Technology'&'Human'Values"34"(2)"(March"1):"139:161." Jones,"Richard."2008."“When"it"pays"to"ask"the"public.”"Nat'Nano"3"(10)"(October):"578:579."" McManus,"Paulette"M."1992."“Topics"in"Museums"and"Science"Education.”"Studies'in'Science' Education"20:"157:182." Rowe,"Gene,"and"Lynn"J."Frewer."2000."“Public"Participation"Methods:"A"Framework"for" Evaluation.”"Science,'Technology'&'Human'Values"25"(1):"3:29." ———."2004."“Evaluating"Public:Participation"Exercises:"A"Research"Agenda.”"Science,' Technology'&'Human'Values"29"(4):"512:556." Sanders,"L."M."1997."“Against"Deliberation.”"Political'Theory"25"(3)"(June):"347:376."" Taylor:Gee,"Alice,"and"Juspal"Bansal."2010."Community"x:change:"A"voice"for"local" communities."British"Science"Association."" Ward,"Vicky,"Peter"Howdle,"and"Susan"Hamer."2008."“You"&"Your"Body.”"Science' Communication"30"(2):"177." Webster,"Stephen."2005."“Art"and"science"collaborations"in"the"United"Kingdom.”"Nat'Rev' Immunol"5"(12)"(December):"965:969."" Young,"Iris"Marion."2001."“Activist"Challenges"to"Deliberative"Democracy.”"Political'Theory" 29"(5):"670:690." " ' " " " " * * Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 109" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' Chapter"7" In"the"field:"Projects"of"public"engagement"in" science"and"technology"" ' Inês'Crespo 1 'and'Ângela'Guimarães'Pereira 2 ' " 1 2 Univ.'of'München,'DE' European'Commission'–'Joint'Research'Centre' 7.1*Introduction* This" chapter" describes" different" cases" of" public" engagement" with" science" and" technology" with" relevance" for" the" objectives" of" this" report." The" authors" of" the" chapter"carried"out"in:depth"interviews"with"a"number"of"practitioners"in"the"field"of" public" engagement" to" gather" contextual" and" practical" elements" that" could" inspire" the"readers"of"this"book"in"their"own"endeavour."Our"interviewees"all"describe"how" they"were"involved"in"the"projects."" Criteria"for"selecting"projects"included:"science"or"technology"research"developments" that" had" a" strong" policy" component," a" deliberation" process," use" of" specific" engagement" and" communication" techniques" and" the" widest" possible" geography." They"are,"of"course,"illustrations"of"what"we"consider"to"be"a"whole"field"of"practice." The" aim" of" these" interviews" was" to" take" stock" of" these" practitioners’" experiences" from"a"very"disparate"set"of"projects."" The"projects"included"a"variety"of"policy"relevant"science"themes,"which"directly"or" indirectly" affected" specific" communities:" students" in" Sarroch" in" Sardinia;" citizens" in" Arizona,"Copenhagen,"Tasmania"and"Vancouver;"museum"visitors"in"Cambridge"and" Minnesota;"stakeholders"in"Oregon,"Arizona"and"Portugal;"marginalised"communities" in" Norwich;" farmers" in" India," Mali," Iran," Bolivia," Peru" and" Equator;" minorities" in" Liverpool;"young"people"from"different"European"rural" areas."Below"we"summarise" the"aims"of"the"projects,"describe"the"communities"involved,"the"processes"and"tools" of" engagement" employed" and" learnings." The" chapter" includes" the" text" of" all" interviews"and"some"concluding""remarks." Projects*aims*and*initiatives* The"initiators"of"the"projects"discussed"in"our"interviews"were"different"in"each"case." Some" projects" were" initiated" by" policy" institutions," others" by" research" centres," museums" or" even" non:governmental" organisations." The" aims" of" the" projects" were" different," yet" all" processes" of" public" engagement" described" by" the" interviewees" aimed" to" empower" citizens" to" engage" with" governance" of" science" and" technology," sometimes" by" reaching" out" to" groups" not" normally" involved" in" these" types" of" processes" (e.g." marginalised" communities" and" minorities" in" the" ‘Community" X: change’" project)." Many" of" the" projects" also" attempted" to" inform" the" policy" cycles" with" which" they" were" associated," developing" purposeful" outcomes" based" on" the" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 110" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' opinions" and" expertise" of" the" communities" involved" (e.g." ‘Assessing" Consumer" Product"Labelling’"project)."In"their"effort"to"engage"citizens"in"debates"about"science" and" technology," the" practitioners" of" the" projects" ‘Stem" Cell" Network’" and" ‘Finding" Futures’" developed" projects" of" communication" of" science" and" technology" in" which" the" participants" played" an" active" role" by" being" immersed" in" ‘sensorial’" science" experience." All" projects" emphasised" aspects" of" engagement" of" the" public" with" the" scientific" arguments" to" be" dealt" with," either" by" developing" purposeful" tools" (e.g." ‘Greenest"City"Conversations’)"or"by"engaging"the"relevant"scientific"community"itself" in" the" participatory" activities" (e.g." ‘Community" X:change’" and" ‘Manguinhos’)." The" latter" was" dual" purpose:" this" engagement" made" it" possible" for" that" particular" scientific" community" to" experience" how" others" (citizens" or" others)" respond" to" science"and"technology"development"and"governance." A" number" of" projects" also" contributed" to" the" design" of" new" participatory" methodologies," taking" stock" of" opinions" from" participants" in" the" engagement" processes." This" was," for" instance," the" case" for" the" projects" ‘WaterSim’" and" ‘ADVISOR’." Processes*of*engagement* The" questions" posed" included" the" processes" of" engagement" used" and" how" these" were"framed"and"put"into"practice."For"instance,"the"interviewees"were"asked"about" the" communities" involved," what" particular" processes" were" used" to" generate" interaction"among"participants,"as"well"as"the"processes"used"for"people"to"engage" with"the"relevant"scientific"input." The"communities"involved"were"different"from"project"to"project;"for"instance,"in"the" project" ‘Assessing" Consumer" Product" Labelling’" in" Cambridge," UK" and" the" project" ‘Science" Live" Theatre’" in" Minnesota" the" participants" were" museum" visitors." The" project" ‘The" Stem" Cell" NetWork’" in" Copenhagen" engaged" different" communities" at" different"times"and"places:"researchers,"students"and"journalists"were"invited"to"visit" the" first" stem:cell" research" design" installation" at" the" university" and" the" so:called" ‘general"public’"who"experienced"an"installation"at"a"shopping"centre"in"the"city."In" the" projects" ‘The" Community" X:Change’" and" ‘Manguinhos’," marginalised" communities"in"different"UK"regions"and"in"Brazil"were"involved"through"the"help"of" electoral"rolls,"leaflets"and"the"help"of"local"people"working"with"the"project"team."In" the" project" ‘La" Bioteca" di" Sarroch’" Sardinia," project" leaders" organised" information" meetings"and"went"to"schools"to"recruit"students"to"participate."Projects"in"Oregon" and" Portugal" analysed," identified" and" gathered" various" stakeholders" to" help" build" water" basin" models." As" for" the" projects" ‘Democratising" Food" and" Agricultural" Research’" and" ‘Community:Based" Auditing’," the" project" leaders" had" previously" worked" in" the" area," knew" established" networks" and" this" helped" them" to" gather" farmers" in" India," Mali," Iran," Bolivia," Peru" and" Equator," as" well" as" communities" in" Tasmania"who"at"times"took"the"initiative"to"contact"well:known"activist"groups"from" these" projects." Other" projects," such" as" ‘Greenest" City" Conversations’," had" younger" participants" who" were" recruited" through" social" network" events" or" through" mobile" applications." So" participants" in" each" project" were" recruited" in" different" ways," depending"on"the"projects’"aims." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 111" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' What" did" the" project" leaders" learn" from" their" experience" in" these" recruitment" processes?"For"instance,"given"that"it"might"be"difficult"to"persuade"people"to"attend" workshops," the" interviewees" of" the" projects" ‘Community" X:change’" in" East" Anglia" and"Liverpool"and"of"the"project"‘Community:Based"Auditing’"in"Tasmania"seemed"to" agree" on" the" importance" of" employing" someone" local" and/or" establishing" local" networks" for" outreach" in" community" groups." Someone" who" belongs" to" the" community" can" more" easily" contact" other" community" members" and" explain" the" structure"and"aims"of"a"certain"project."Interviewees"of"the"projects"‘ADVISOR’"and" ‘Community" X:change’" seemed" also" to" agree" on" the" need" to" cover" participants’" expenses." They" were" using" their" time" (free" or" even" work" time)" to" attend" project" meetings,"often"spending"money"on"travelling"to"the"project"location,"so"it"seemed" reasonable"to"plan"project"funds"to"cover"their"time"and"expenses." From" answers" to" the" question" ‘how" did" the" people" involved" interact" with" each" other?’"we"see"that"a"variety"of"social"research"methods"were"employed."The"most" commonly" used" were" focus" groups," workshops" and" citizen" juries." In" some" projects" groups" were" heterogeneous" as" far" as" affiliation" and" role" on" the" project" was" concerned;" in" other" projects," participants" were" split" into" homogeneous" groups" i.e." people"belonged"to"the"same"organisation"or"community."Interviewees"told"us"about" the"challenges"that"these"types"of"structures"imply"and"what"they"learned"from"their" experiences."" Tools*of*engagement* The"projects"described"here"are"concerned"with"a"myriad"of"policy"relevant"science" and"technology"issues."In"our"conversations"with"the"practitioners,"we"asked"about" the"tools"they"had"used"to"engage"people"with"the"relevant"arguments"(scientific"and" others)." The" most" conventional" included" presentations/lectures" with" the" participation"of"‘experts’"who"explained"to"the"participants"the"scientific"background" of"the"matters"to"be"discussed"and"answered"participants’"questions."In"many"cases," these"presentations"were"part"of"workshops"where"the"participants"interacted"with" the" ‘experts’" to" clarify" doubts" and" also" to" give" feedback" from" their" own" expertise" and/or" concerns." In" other" cases," participants" were" shown" a" theatre" play," as" for" example" in" the" case" of" the" project" ‘The" Community" X:Change" —" Liverpool" X: Changes’"about"the"use"of"animals"in"research"where"participants"could"interact"with" the"characters."In"the"project"‘The"Stem"Cell"NetWork’"in"Copenhagen,"people"were" invited"to"enter"an"installation"with"different"thematic"rooms"that"invoked"different" feelings"and"experiences"with"regard"to"stem"cell"research."In"Arizona,"for"the"project" on"water"basin"modelling,"participants"were"shown"rather"specialised"material"such" as"model"outputs"including"figures"and"graphs,"and"were"asked"for"feedback."Some" projects" tried" to" explore" alternative" ways" to" engage" people" with" science." For" example,"in"the"project"‘Finding"Futures’"from"Arizona"State"University,"participants" in"a"walking"tour"in"Phoenix"went"out"with"a"camera"with"which"they"tried"to"capture" their"experience"of"the"town,"focusing"on"emerging"technologies."In"other"projects," for" instance" ‘Manguinhos’," participants" contributed" to" the" making" of" a" film" or" a" game"on"the"issues"addressed"to"raise"awareness"among"other"publics."The"aim"of" these"projects"was"to"make"science"as"much"fun"and"as"interactive"as"possible."They" represent"initiatives"moving"on"to"processes"where"citizens"play"more"active"roles"in" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 112" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' deliberation"on"science"and"technology,"inquiring"into"the"methods"and"approaches" employed"by"developers"and"planners." 7.2*Conclusion* In" this" section," we" outline" what" seem" to" us" to" be" inspiring" learnings" from" these" projects,"in"line"with"the"objectives"of"this"book,"i.e."to"inspire"practitioners"working" on" public" dialogues" about" science" and" technology" with" ideas" for" carrying" out" their" work."Below"are"some"of"the"conclusions"we"extracted"from"the"interviews:" (1)" Agenda" setting" and" contract" with" participants:" as" part" of" good" practice," project" initiators" ought" to" be" explicit" about" project" goals," agendas" and" what" they" expect" from"participants."However,"regardless"of"the"methodologies"employed,"by"bringing" in" their" own" knowledge," experience" and" questions," participants" will" move" the" conversations" in" unexpected" directions," so" agendas" and" contracts," as" well" as" goals" themselves"become"co:created"by"both"practitioners"and"project"initiators/leaders." This" was" noted," for" instance," in" the" project" ‘Finding" Futures’" and" ‘Stem" Cell" Network’." This" should" be" accepted" as" a" ‘normal’" process" within" engagement" initiatives" and" it" is" what" makes" the" engagement" process" worthwhile:" not" only" because"compromise"solutions"to"a"certain"problem"may"be"achieved,"but"above"all" because" engagement" processes" enable" a" more" comprehensive" level" of" collective" consciousness"about"problems,"solutions"and"structural"changes"to"be"reached."The" projects" described" in" the" interviews" illustrate" that" citizens," ‘experts’" and" policy: makers"can"hold"a"dialogue"on"a"set"of"issues"and"learn"with"each"other." (2)"Projects"impacts."All"of"these"projects"made"a"difference"for"the"communities"and" for"the"project"initiators."As"others"have"argued"elsewhere,"(see"e.g."chapter"3"in"this" report)"a"public"engagement"process"does"not"remain"an"isolated"activity."It"usually" triggers"other"social"processes."The"projects"described"here"stimulated"participants’" interest"in"diverse"scientific"issues,"as"many"communities"involved"became"active"in" looking" for" further" information" on" the" issues" addressed" (e.g." ‘Bioteca" di" Sarroch’," ‘Assessing" Consumer" Product" Labelling’)." These" projects" were" also" fundamental" in" empowering"citizens"so"that"they"could"take"action"themselves" once"the"processes" were"over"(e.g."‘Community:Based"Auditing’)."In"many"projects,"participants"concluded" that" they" could" have" a" stake" in" decision:making" processes" (e.g." ‘Future" of" Rural" Space’," ‘Democratising" Food" and" Agricultural" Research’)." In" fact," a" number" of" policy: makers" showed" greater" interest" in" these" types" of" project" and" were" willing" to" continue" collaborating" in" new" policy:science" projects," as" " was" the" case" for" the" projects" ‘Bioteca" di" Sarroch’," ‘WaterSim’" and" ‘Assessing" Consumer" Product" Labelling’." (3)" Continuous" engagement." Interviewees" from" the" projects" ‘Greenest" City" Conversations’,"‘Community"X:change’"and"others"seemed"to"agree"that"these"types" of" processes" would" benefit" from" long" lasting" engagement." Whereas" generally" this" type" of" participation" only" occurs" for" the" duration" of" a" specific" project," embedding" these"processes"in"the"community"or"institutions"in"a"continuous"fashion"would"have" better" results." Implementing" engagement" processes" in" this" way" would" of" course" demand"further"efforts,"time"and"funding,"but"it"would"enhance"the"role"of"citizens" in"public"policy"and"generate"confidence"among"actors." Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 113" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' (4)" Role" of" the" media." The" role" of" the" media" in" promoting" the" processes" of" engagement" of" the" projects" ‘Community:Based" Auditing’" and" ‘Democratising" Food" and" Agricultural" Research’" positively" surprised" the" interviewees." When" the" media" were" involved" at" an" early" stage," discussing" aims" and" procedures," as" opposed" to" merely"reporting"the"final"results,"a"greater"number"of"citizens"showed"interest"and" attended" the" engagement" processes." So," the" media" play" an" important" role" on" engaging" participants" in" projects" and" involving" them" early" on" and" throughout" the" whole"process"is"recommended.""" (5)" Communication" of" science." In" these" projects," efforts" were" made" to" move" from" scenarios" in" which" participants" listen" to" specialists," to" dialogues" through" which" actual" exchange" takes" place:" embedding" scientific" arguments" in" communities," empowering" such" communities" and" vice:versa," providing" better" interfaces" to" connect"the"scientific"endeavour"and"society."This"transition"encompasses"activities" that"enable"science"to"be"seen"as"interactive"and"inclusive,"attracting"diverse"publics." For"instance,"games,"video,"audio"or"other"interactive"ways"of"playing"liberate"people" from"the"‘formal’"in"science"and"create"trusted"spaces"where"participants"feel"free"to" express"themselves"with"confidence."These"types"of"tools"were"used"for"instance"in" the"project"‘Greenest"City"Conversations’,"‘The"Community"X:Change’,"‘Manguinhos’," ‘Science"Live"Theatre’"and"others.""Projects"such"as"‘The"Community"X:Change’"and" ‘Manguinhos’" that" invited" scientists" to" be" part" of" the" group" not" in" their" role" as" experts," but" as" citizens," helped" to" improve" the" process" of" science" communication" because"they"were"more"able"to"understand"the"concerns,"ideas"and"experiences"of" the"so:called"general"public"and"consequently"improve"their"communication." (6)" Partnering" with" policy" making." The" interviewees" from" the" projects" ‘Assessing" Consumer" Product" Labelling’," ‘Community" X:change’" and" others" share" the" opinion" that" partnering" with" a" formal" policymaking" entity" is" an" asset." Given" that" many" participants" coming" to" these" processes" were" interested" in" knowing" how" their" contribution"was"going"to"be"used,"it"is"very"important"to"discuss"with"policy:makers" at" an" early" phase" of" the" projects" what" the" range" of" possible" changes" to" the" issues/projects/etc." could" be" in" response" to" the" outcomes" of" the" engagement" process." In" this" introduction," we" have" tried" to" capture" salient" issues" emerging" from" the" interviews."However,"we"recommend"that"readers"go"deeper"into"the"issues"through" the" rich" source" material." The" remainder" of" this" chapter" reports" the" conversations" held" with" 14" professionals" involved" in" processes" of" science" communication" and" public"engagement"in"policy"relevant"scientific"issues." 7.3*Interviews* Box"1"lists"the"questions"used"in"the"semi:structured"interviews"we"held"with"the"14" professionals,"and"table"1"summarises"the"projects"and"researchers"interviewed."All" interviews" were" revised" by" the" interviewees" and" are" authored" and" will" be" made" available"elsewhere." " " Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 114" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' " Box*1.*Questions*used*in*the*semiYstructured*interviews* 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Please"tell"us"the"story"of"your"project"in"your"own"words." What"were"the"stated"aims"of"the"different"people"and"institutions"involved"in" undertaking"this"process"of"engagement?" Who"was"in"control"of"the"process?" Who"became"involved"in"the"process"and"how?" What"particular"processes"were"used"for"people"to"interact"with"each"other?" What"particular"processes"were"used"for"people"to"engage"with"the"scientific"input?" What"difference,"if"any,"did"the"process"make?"To"whom?"How?" Looking"back,"what"do"you"think"different"people"involved"learnt"from"the" experience?" " Table*1.*Names*of*interviewees*and*projects* Angela"Liberatore" Democratising"expertise"and"establishing"scientific"reference"systems" Bruna"de"Marchi" Bioteca"di"Sarroch,"IT" Cynthia"Selin" Finding"Futures,"USA" David"Sittenfeld" Assessing" Consumer" Product" Labelling:" Collaborations" with" the" Cambridge"Public"Health"Department,"UK" Jasber"Singh" The"Community"X:Change"—"East"Anglia"x:changes,"UK" John"Robinson" Greenest"City"Conversations,"CAN" John"Robinson" University"of"British"Columbia"(UBC)"Initiative,"CAN" Maja"Horst" The"Stem"Cell"NetWork,"DK" Marcelo"Firpo" Manguinhos,"BR" Michel"Pimbert" Democratising"Food"and"Agricultural"Research:"Citizens"Rethinking"Food" and"Agricultural"Research"for"Public"Good,"UK" Nigel"Eady" The"Community"X:Change"—"Liverpool"x:changes,"UK" Nuno"Videira" ADVISOR" —" Integrated" Evaluation" for" Sustainable" River" Basin" Governance,"PT" Peter"Bryant" Future"of"Rural"Space"(Community"X:Change),"IND" Philip"Tattersall" Community:Based"Auditing,"AUS" Stephanie"Long" Science"Live"Theatre,"USA" Tim"Lant" WaterSim,"USA" Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 115" Public'Engagement'in'Science'and'Technology'–'Setting'the'Scene' " Fkuvtkdwvkqp"nkokvgf"vq"FI"TVF."LTE"JS"cpf"KRUE"jkgtctej{ 116" ! European Commission Joint Research Centre – Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen Title: Public Engagement in Science and Technology: Setting the Scene Authors: Ângela Guimarães Pereira, Tom Wakeford, Bruna De Marchi, Paula Curvelo, Sarah Davies, Inês Crespo
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DN Abstract This% report% constitutes% the% basis% for% a% book% on% public% engagement% in% science% and% technology.% We% have% collected% here% “departing% points”:% history,% past% experience% and% practice,% reflections% on% appreciated% effects% of% past% public% engagement% exercises% in% order% to% later% make% sense% of% the% impacts% of% public% engagement% on% techno?science% developments% and% propose% a% framework% for% the% evaluation% of% such% an% important% citizenship% function% in% our% democracies.%In%doing%so,%we%also%actively%suggest%that%public%engagement%is%a%way%of%knowing%on%its%own%right%and% that%is,%we%would%argue,%the%ultimate%reason%why%we%need%public%engagement%on%the%processes%that%are%changing% radically%humane%ways%of%producing%knowledge%and%the%way%people%live%their%lives.%% z! ! ! +3$ ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! As the Commission's in-house science service, the Joint Research Centre's mission is to provide EU policies with independent, evidence-based scientific and technical support throughout the whole policy cycle. Working in close cooperation with policy Directorates-General, the JRC addresses key societal challenges while stimulating innovation through developing new methods, tools and standards, and sharing its know-how with the Member States, the scientific community and international partners. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !