2024_The Scarabs from Byblos

This is a free offprint – as with all our publications the entire book is freely accessible on our website, and is available in print or as PDF e-book. www.sidestone.com BYBLOS A Legacy Unearthed NATIONAL MUSEUM OF ANTIQUITIES (THE NETHERLANDS) & MINISTRY OF CULTURE/DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF ANTIQUITIES (LEBANON) © 2024 National Museum of Antiquities (the Netherlands), Ministry of Culture/Tania Zaven/Directorate General of Antiquities (Lebanon), and individual authors Published by Sidestone Press, Leiden www.sidestone.com Lay-out & cover design: Sidestone Press Photography: Photo of Byblos in 2023 as viewed from the north; back: Photo of the Mediterranean Sea west of Byblos (both photos by Rami Yassine). ISBN 978-94-6426-220-9 (softcover) ISBN 978-94-6426-221-6 (hardcover) ISBN 978-94-6426-222-3 (PDF e-book) DOI 10.59641/z8124cl Contents Preface 9 Sarkis El-Khoury and Wim Weijland Foreword 11 Tania Zaven PART I: EXPLORING BYBLOS 1. Byblos Excavations, Yesterday and Today 17 Julien Chanteau and Tania Zaven 2. The Archive of Maurice Dunand: An Itinerary from Geneva to Byblos 27 Patrick M. Michel 3. Quarrying the Sea 31 Jeanine Abdul Massih 4. Byblos World Heritage Site: A Refuge for Floral Diversity 37 Moustapha Itani, Nivine Nasralla, Maryam Sedaghatpour, Michele Citton, Tania Zaven, Salma Talhouk 5. Rescue Excavations and Their Contributions to the History of Byblos 41 Tania Zaven and Georges Doumet PART II: THE ORIGINS OF A HARBOUR CITY 6. The Neolithic of Byblos 49 Corine Yazbeck 7. Byblos during the Chalcolithic Period 53 Kamal Badreshany 8. The Chalcolithic Jar Burials from Byblos 59 Gassia Artin 9. Byblos during the Early Bronze Age 67 Michel de Vreeze 10. The First Defensive Systems at Byblos Ziad Jalbout 75 11. Tell Fadous-Kfarabida: A Regional Perspective on Byblos 81 Hermann Genz 12. Byblos and the Early Egyptian State 89 Karin Sowada 13. The Connections between Byblos and Mesopotamia during the Early Bronze Age as Seen from the Ebla Archives 97 Maria Giovanna Biga PART III: THE FOCAL POINT OF THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA 14. Byblos during the Middle Bronze Age 103 Yasmine Makaroun 15. The Bronze Age Harbour of Byblos 113 Martine Francis-Allouche 16. The Relations between Byblos and Egypt during the Middle Bronze Age 123 Hanan Charaf 17. Byblos: Egypt’s Gateway to the Levant and beyond during the Bronze Age 129 Alexander Ahrens 18. The Tale of Sinuhe: A Glimpse of Byblos from Middle Kingdom Egypt 135 Richard Bruce Parkinson 19. Byblos and the Mediterranean in the Middle Bronze Age I as Seen from the Mari Archives 139 Nele Ziegler 20. A New Middle Bronze Age Necropolis on the Byblos Acropolis 145 Julien Chanteau and Tania Zaven 21. The Early and Middle Bronze Age Deposits at Byblos 153 Michel de Vreeze 22. The Metal Figurines from Byblos 159 Camilla Saler and Gianluca Miniaci 23. Weapons, Metals and Identities in Middle Bronze Age I Byblos 163 Ziad el Morr 24. Faience Animals from the Obelisk Temple 169 Layla Abi Zeid 25. Byblos and the Seals of the Green Jasper Workshop 173 Vanessa Boschloos 26. The Scarabs from Byblos 177 Vanessa Boschloos 27. The Byblos Script Ben Haring 181 28. The History of Byblos during the Late Bronze Age 185 Marwan Kilani 29. Byblos and its Architecture during the Late Bronze Age 189 Marwan Kilani 30. Relations between Sidon and Byblos during the Bronze Ages 195 Claude Doumet-Serhal PART IV: PROSPERING IN THE SHADOWS 31. Byblos: The Transition between the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age 207 Marc Abou-Abdallah 32. Byblos during the Iron Age 213 Eric Gubel 33. The History of the Phoenician Inscriptions in Byblos 217 Hélène Sader 34. Byblos during the Persian Period 221 Josette Elayi 35. Byblos during the Hellenistic period 229 Jean-Baptiste Yon 36. The Colonnaded Street of Byblos: A Roman Symbol of Monumentality 235 Rola A. Saadi 37. Haghia Byblos: Gods and Heroes between Rain, Waves and Waterfalls 243 Zeina Fani Alpi 38. Byblos and the Tree of the Gods, the Cedar 249 Anne-Sophie Dalix 39. The Myth of Adonis and Astarte in Byblos and its Hinterland during the Roman Period 251 Wissam Khalil 40. A Roman and Byzantine Necropolis in Byblos (BYB 418) 255 Tania Zaven and Georges Doumet, with contributions by Mahmoud Mardini, Abdallah Alaeddine, Karl Azzam, Zeina Fani, and Georges Abou Diwan 41. Byblos during the Byzantine Period 263 Frédéric Alpi 42. Ğbayl in Medieval Times 267 Hassan el-Akra 43. The Fortifications of Medieval Ğbayl/Byblos 271 Anis Chaaya† Bibliography 277 26. THE SCARABS FROM BYBLOS Vanessa Boschloos Scarabs are eye‑catching archaeological small finds and they are abundantly present at Byblos. This type of object, usually made in stone or faience, originated in ancient Egypt, where the dung beetle embodied the sun god Khepri and symbolized regeneration, rebirth and self‑creation. Signs, symbols, figurative representations or decorative motifs can decorate the underside. It was the most popular amulet shape in ancient Egypt, worn for protection or used as a seal by the living, but also commonly deposited in burials because of its symbolism. From the Middle Bronze Age II (c. 1750/1700‑1550/1500 BC) onwards, they were also manufactured outside of Egypt. They provide insights into ancient religious systems and beliefs, administration, economy, socio-cultural contexts and art historical developments (cf. Boschloos 2017). The number of scarabs discovered in Byblos is unparalleled in the Northern Levant, with over 600 exemplars reported thus far. The majority are Egyptian imports, whereas a mere 14% can be positively identified as having been manufactured in the Levant or Syria. The imports bear witness to the city’s close commercial relations with Pharaonic Egypt. Moreover, it is also the site with the earliest attestations of Egyptian scarabs in the Levant, dating to the late 3rd millennium BC (cf. below). Maurice Dunand’s altimetric excavation method complicates stratigraphical approaches to the study of scarabs at Byblos, but general trends can be observed from the scarabs’ spatial distribution across the site and from those from datable contexts such as deposits and burials (Boschloos 2011, 159‑268). An impressive amount of scarabs date to the first half of the 2nd millennium BC (Middle and Late Bronze Age), approximatively 63% of the total number of scarabs found. The majority are Egyptian Middle Kingdom scarabs (late 11th‑13th Dynasty, c. 2030‑1650 BC), commonly interpreted in the context of Byblos’ early and privileged role in the commercial relations between Egypt and the Levant. Ironically, the most discussed scarabs from this period did not surface in Byblos, but circulated on the antiquities market. They are inscribed with the names of rulers of Byblos and are mainly cited in discussions on synchronisms with Egypt and Mesopotamia and on the local monarchy’s socio‑political view on relations with the Egyptian king, and vice versa (e.g., Martin 1996; Ryholt 1997, 86‑89; Flammini 2010; Ben‑Tor 2007b; Kopetzky 2016). The rulers’ names are West Semitic, written in Egyptian hieroglyphs (Jntn, Jn, Jb‑Šmw, Rjjntj, Rjjn, Jjj/Jnjj), but the scarabs’ features indicate that these seals were manufactured in Egypt in the course of the 13th Dynasty (c. 1802‑1650 BC). The rulers’ Egyptian title ḥ3tj‑c n Kbn(j), meaning ‘governor of Byblos’, suggests that the Egyptian royal administration granted them the use of a title reserved for Egyptian officials and of scarab seals made in Egypt, although the Byblite rulers may not necessarily have considered themselves subordinates of the pharaoh (Ben‑Tor 2007b; Flammini 2010). in: National Museum of Antiquities (the Netherlands) & Ministry of Culture/Directorate General of Antiquities (Lebanon) 2023. ‘Byblos: A legacy unearthed’. Leiden: Sidestone Press, pp. 177-180 177 Figure 26.1: Golden ring with amethyst scarab set in a gold bezel (l. 2.5 cm). Found in the tomb of Byblite ruler AbiShemu (Tomb I). The inscription on the gold cap that covers the underside of the scarab was erased and mentions its original owner, the Egyptian princess Nubemiunet (13th Dynasty). DGA 16249 © Ministry of Culture, Lebanon/ Directorate General of Antiquities. Figure 26.2: Amethyst scarab set in a gold ring bezel that was later mounted on a gold bracelet (diam. 6.4 cm). Found in the tomb of local ruler Ib-Shemu-Abi (Tomb II). DGA 16240 © Ministry of Culture, Lebanon/Directorate General of Antiquities. Other scarabs directly associated with the Byblite elite are scarabs carved in amethyst, found in Royal Tombs I-III (Montet 1928a, 143‑238 [nos. 636, 640‑43]). They were produced in Egypt, and mounted on golden rings and on a golden bracelet (Figs. 26.1‑2). Their late Middle Kingdom date is unquestionable, but evidence hints at small alterations made to their mounting, to adapt them to local tastes and purposes (Kopetzky 2018, 310-13). It has been argued that the dates of these burials fall within a period contemporary with the early Second Intermediate Period in Egypt (c. 1650‑1550 BC) (Kopetzky 2018), which raises the question of the time of dispatch of these scarabs and, by extension, of other Middle Kingdom objects in Byblos. They could have arrived in Byblos during the Middle Kingdom through trade networks or, 178 BYBLOS: A LEGACY UNEARTHED in the case of objects in precious materials, as Egyptian diplomatic gifts that were sent to sustain long-term relations with the Byblite ruling class (Flammini 2010, 158, 161). Alternatively, the scarabs may have been robbed from Egyptian elite burials in the MemphiteFayum region when the Middle Kingdom collapsed and subsequently dispatched to the Levant during the late 13th Dynasty and the Second Intermediate Period (Ahrens and Kopetzky 2021). In that case, however, the Middle Kingdom scarabs were not accompanied by contemporary ones, because the excavations have not yet yielded Egyptian Second Intermediate Period scarabs. Their absence and the fact that only a few dozen Canaanite Middle Bronze Age II scarabs were found (c. 1700‑1550/1500 BC) reflect changing Egyptian interests and networks in the region at the end of the Middle Bronze Age (Ben‑Tor 2021, 245), but cannot account for the extraordinary amount of Middle Kingdom scarabs and their identification as looted objects. It is thus highly likely that both scenarios are valid, with significant amounts of Middle Kingdom scarabs reaching Byblos during the Middle Kingdom. When considering the function and use of scarabs at Byblos, their find spots suggest that they were appreciated principally for their amuletic powers and not so much used as seals. This is indicated by the scarcity of impressions in pieces of clay (cretulae) made by scarab-shaped seals (Dunand 1937‑39, no. 2850; Dunand 1950‑58, nos. 9417, 11676). The long periods of contact and trade with Egypt led to the gradual integration of Egyptian beliefs and to the use of Egyptian and Egyptian-style amulets and objects in the sphere of personal religion (cf. Miniaci 2018, 399‑400). Secondly, although the scarabs are spread all over the city, in religious and funerary contexts, at the city’s fortifications, as well as in industrial or domestic sectors, nearly half of them have been discovered in association with sacred areas. Concentrations of hundreds of scarabs dated to the 2nd millennium BC occur in or near the two main sanctuaries, the Obelisk Temple and the Baalat Gubal Temple, where they were kept for safekeeping or as gifts to the gods together with other objects, sometimes in deposits or favissae buried underneath the temple floors (Boschloos 2011, 252‑68; Kilani 2019, 28‑32). Undoubtedly the most famous deposit is a Middle Bronze Age jar discovered in the Baalat Gubal Temple and named after its excavator. The Montet Jar yielded 118 seals, of which 98 are Egyptian scarabs dating to the First Intermediate Period and early Middle Kingdom (11th‑early 12th Dynasty, c. 2120‑1850 BC) (Montet 1928a, 111‑25; Tufnell and Ward 1966; Ward 1978; Ben‑Tor 1998). The Egyptian objects in these deposits have been interpreted as items brought by Egyptian merchants, or even deposited by them or by immigrants as offerings to obtain protection and good favours from the city’s main deities (Tufnell and Ward 1966, 225; cf. Hollis 2009, 2‑3; Miniaci 2018). The situation during the 1st millennium is less clear, with scarabs spread out across the entire site and one third reported as surface finds. The share of Egyptian imports declines dramatically and consists mainly of scarabs dated to the 25th and 26th Dynasties (c. 747‑525 BC), including examples that can be assigned to the faience workshops of Naukratis (Boschloos 2011, 265‑68). Perhaps this decrease is to be interpreted as a reflection of Byblos’ evolution from a bustling Bronze Age harbour to a cité sacrée in the Iron Age, to the advantage of the harbour cities in the Sidon‑Tyre region (Elayi 2009, 196‑97). The most representative types of Levantine scarab types are present at Byblos, but in most cases it cannot be determined whether they were buried during or shortly after their production period, or whether they continued to circulate and were only discarded at a much later time, during the Persian, Hellenistic or Roman periods. Examples of early Iron Age scarabs are those belonging to the so-called PostRamesside production (e.g., Dunand 1950‑58, nos. 6903, 6908, 7254, 7656, 8474, 8681, 9978, 11635), but the Iron Age II and III periods are somewhat better represented, by Phoenician types (e.g., Boschloos 2014, no. 4.2; Dunand 1937‑39, no. 2423; Dunand 1950‑1958, nos. 7482, 10493, 16930, 16983, 19200, 19235) and Syro‑ Palestinian scarabs and scarboids with stylized figures and quadrupeds (e.g., Dunand 1950, pl. CXCVIII). Another notable fact is the presence of dozens of scarabs described by Maurice Dunand as made of pâte bleue and of which a minority dates to the 2nd millennium BC. Such considerable numbers of Egyptian Blue scarabs do not exclude that Byblos was one of the Iron Age production or redistribution centres of scarabs made in this material (Boschloos 2012, 177, 181; 2020). To conclude, for both the Bronze and Iron Age it is evident that Byblos is a city with a stamp seal tradition, with scant evidence for cylinder seals (e.g., Dunand 1937, pls. CXXIV‑CXXVII; Dunand 1950, pl. CXCVII). The discovery of semi‑finished scarabs in stone (see Chapter 25) and of moulds used for manufacturing scarabs in faience (Dunand 1937‑1939, no. 1522; 1950‑1958, nos. 7517, 17522; Boschloos 2020) bears witness to the presence of local scarab workshops, active in the production of scarabs in a range of materials. THE SCARABS fROm BYBLOS 179 BIBLIOGRAPHY Abdul Massih, Jeanine. 2015. ‘The Coastal Quarries of Lebanon, The Case Study of Enfeh, Batroun and Byblos’. In SOMA 18th Symposium on Mediterranean Archaeology, Wroclaw 24‑26 April 2014, edited by Blazej Stanislawski and Hakan Öniz. Oxford: Archaeopress. –––. 2017. ‘L’exploitation de la pierre sur la façade maritime de Byblos’. 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