A Guide for the Study of Animals

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Worrallo Whitney and Frederic Lucas and Harold Shinn and Mabel Smallwood

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Title: A Guide for the Study of Animals

Author: Worrallo Whitney

Frederic Lucas

Harold Shinn

Mabel Smallwood

Release Date: January 16, 2011 [EBook #34984]

Language: English

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Table of Contents

A Guide

for the

Study of Animals

By a Committee from the

Biology Round Table of the Chicago

High Schools

Worrallo Whitney, Chairman

Bowen High School

Frederic C. Lucas

Englewood High School

Harold B. Shinn

Schurz High School

Mabel E. Smallwood

Lane Technical High School

D. C. Heath & Co., Publishers

Boston — New York — Chicago

Copyright, 1911,

By D. C. Heath & Co.

1 E 3

PREFACE

The following guide to the study of animals is intended for pupils in secondary schools. It was prepared by the authors at the request of the Biology Round Table, an association composed of the teachers of Biology in the Chicago High Schools, to whom the authors wish to take this opportunity of expressing their appreciation of the many helpful suggestions and criticisms of the manuscript.

The time has passed when a high school course in zoölogy consists simply of a somewhat simplified edition of a similar course in college. All teachers now recognize that the motivization of any course should be its adaptability to the needs of the student, and that zoölogy must be taught from the standpoint of the student rather than that of the subject. In preparing this guide, the authors have tried to keep these points in mind.

The matter of presentation, the order of topics, and the choice of material has been much discussed, but the trend of opinion has finally set in toward an ecological rather than a type study of animals; that there should be in the case of young students a brief study of rather a large number of animals to bring out some general biological law, rather than an exhaustive study of a very few types. It is further recognized that the use of a reference library is absolutely essential in connection with and to supplement the laboratory work, as there are some topics beyond the ability of the young student for original investigation as well as impossible in the amount of time usually allotted to the subject in our crowded curricula. Of great importance is the economic side of zoölogy, especially its bearing upon the applied sciences of medicine, sanitation, household science, and agriculture, and this phase has received special attention in this guide.

The desirability of field work has always been recognized, but the special conditions under which schools must work are so variable as to make any set directions for field work of little value, and so they have in most cases been omitted in this work. Each teacher can easily give such special direction for collecting material and study in the field as the locality of the school and the time available for it shall determine.

Since zoölogy will probably be the pupil's first laboratory science, the authors have preceded the more formal portion of the manual with a series of short exercises on familiar and easily obtained animals in order to introduce the pupil to the laboratory method and to stimulate his interest, training him at the outset to be constantly on the outlook for specimens and to show him how much may be learned from common things right around him, if he will only use his eyes. We have also begun the more formal portion of the guide with insects, since in the fall they are easily collected and may be studied alive. They illustrate, moreover, the principles of classification and method of using keys and other means of finding out the names of animals. This would seem to be pedagogically sound, for some recent experiments with pupils show that the first question that comes into a child's mind upon seeing a new or strange specimen is What is it?

A larger portion of the guide is given to the chordates than is usually the case. The authors also believe that this is correct and in accord with the natural interest of the pupil. It will serve to connect his zoölogy more closely with his daily experiences.

There is material enough provided to allow the teacher a chance to select that best adapted to his purposes or conditions as well as to provide for those schools that give more than one year to zoölogy.

CONTENTS

Page

CHAPTER I

Introductory Studies of Living Animals 1

Fly, 1; Maggot, 3; Cockroach, 4; Spider, 5; Cricket, 6; Grasshopper, 7; Butterfly or Moth, 9; Caterpillar, 10; Tussock Moth, 11; Beetle, 13; Damsel Fly Larva, 14; Plant Lice and Scale Bugs, 15; Water Bugs and Beetles, 17; Getting Acquainted with the Library, 18.

CHAPTER II

Studies of Insects 20

Field Studies, 20; Grasshoppers or Locusts, 23; Comparative Study of Orthoptera, 28; Key to Orthoptera, 29; Dragon Fly, 30; Honeybee, 31; General Study of Insects, 33; Review of Insects, 35; Key to Principal Orders, 36; Some Common Butterflies, 38; Summary of Insects, 37; General Review and Library Exercise, 40.

CHAPTER III

The Connection between Structure and Function 44

Protozoa: A Study of the Cell, 44; Comparative Study, 48; Review and Library Exercise, 49; Sponges, 51; Review and Library Exercise, 53. Cœlenterates: Hydra, 54; Comparative Study, 58; Review and Library Exercise, 59. Worms: Living Earthworm, 61; External Morphology, 64; Internal Morphology, 64; Microscopic Anatomy, 66; Summary, 68; Review and Library Exercise, 70; Connection between Structure and Function, 72.

CHAPTER IV

Adaptation to Surroundings 73

Crayfishes: Living Crayfish, 73; Morphology, 75; Summary, 79; Review and Library Exercise, 81.

CHAPTER V

Adaptation for Protection from Enemies 83

Mollusca: Clam, 83; Snail, 87; Squid, 89; Comparative Study, 91; Review and Library Exercise, 92. Comparative Study of Exoskeletons, 93; Protective Coloration, 94; Animal Associations, 96; Protective Habits and Powers, 98; Defensive Structures, 99; Thesis: Adaptation for Protection, 99.

CHAPTER VI

Vertebrates 101

Fishes: Living Fish, 101; External Structure, 103; Mouth and Gills, 105; Alimentary Canal and Circulatory System, 107; Review and Library Exercise, 110. Primitive Chordates, 112. Amphibia: Living Frog or Toad, 114; Mouth, 116; Organs of Digestion, Absorption, and Excretion, 117; Organs of Circulation and Respiration, 120; Nervous System, 123; Endoskeleton, 125; Comparative Study, 129; General Review and Library Exercise, 129. Reptiles: Living Snake, Lizard, and Turtle, 130; Review and Library Exercise, 132. Birds: Living Pigeon, 133; Plumage, 136; Birds and Migration, 139; Laboratory Exercise, 139; Field Work, 141; Review and Library Exercise, 142; Migration in General, 145. Mammals: Rodents: Domestic Rabbit, 146; Wild Rabbit, 148; Guinea Pig or White Rat, 149; Squirrel, 150; Library Exercise, 152. Carnivora: Laboratory Exercise, 153; Library Exercise, 155. Ungulates: Laboratory Exercise, 157; Library Exercise, 160. The Horse, 162. Homology of the Vertebrate Skeleton, 168.

CHAPTER VII

Adaptations for the Preservation of the Species 170

Methods of Reproduction: Simple or Asexual Method, 170; Complex or Sexual Method, 171. Development: Structure of an Egg, 172; Development of an Egg, 173; Metamorphosis of a Mosquito, 174; Metamorphosis of a Butterfly, 176; Development of the Chick, 177. Protection and Care of Young: Library Exercise, 179. Adaptation for the Preservation of the Species: Review and Library Exercise, 180.

CHAPTER VIII

Poultry

182

Glossary

189

A Guide for the Study of Animals

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY STUDIES OF LIVING ANIMALS

In the following brief exercises the primary purpose is to arouse an active, attentive interest on the part of the pupil in various forms of animal life which may be at hand, reminding him of what and how various creatures eat, how they breathe, how they get ideas of the world, how they get about, and perhaps how they succeed where others fail. Of secondary importance is the introduction of laboratory methods by easy stages. The pupil should feel that his natural curiosity is only being directed to definite ends and that he is free to investigate in his own way.

The types here given are only a few of the many to be found in the early fall, and these exercises in several cases may be used for other forms than those definitely mentioned. There should be a great deal of promiscuous collecting by the class, and in the mass of material gathered the following types will probably be fairly abundant.

THE LIVING FLY

Materials.

Living flies in cages and individual specimens in small wide-mouth vials with cotton stoppers for the admission of air. Sugar crystals may be used for feeding. Simple lenses.

Observations.

Notice the division of the body into three regions: head, thorax, and abdomen. The six legs, the large wings, and the small feelers may be easily found, as are the large eyes, the extensible mouth, and beneath the larger wings the small undeveloped ones looking like tiny knobs.

State the general color of your specimen and give any special markings on its body.

Is the body smooth or has it a covering of any kind? Do you regard the fly as a cleanly animal? Why?

Under what conditions does the fly use its legs? its wings? What enables it to walk upside down? What use can you assign to the small wings?

Judging by the relative size of the feelers and the eyes, do you think the fly relies more upon its sight or its feeling? Since the eyes can probably see you any place where you see them, determine through how much of a circle the fly can see.

How does the fly eat? Does it eat solid or liquid food?

Where is the extensible mouth (proboscis) kept when not in use? What is the fly doing when washing its face?

From your own observation in the barn and the alley what do you know about the fly's cleanliness in choosing its food? How would it affect articles in the pantry?

From the foregoing statements show how flies may be a serious factor in dealing with disease.

What means may be employed as protection against adult flies? against their breeding places and maggots?

Suggested drawing.

The entire fly, seen from above, × 4.

THE LIVING MAGGOT

Materials.

Living specimens in pans or cotton-stoppered bottles, with some food material and moist cloth or paper; lenses.

Observations.

Notice the general worm-like form of the maggot, or grub, the plain and uniform color, and the absence of all elaborate structures, as wings and feelers.

Since this creature is destined to become a flying or walking insect, what organs will have to appear? Is there any indication of these structures at present?

Give the color of the specimen, and explain how the presence or absence of strong light seems to have affected the color. Is this effect usual in animals or plants that you know?

Tell how the animal gets from place to place, describing any special structures you find which aid in this work.

How can you tell the head end? Tell how the amount of work that the mouth and mouth parts do affects their size and indirectly that of the region where they are.

What senses and sense organs has the maggot? Test any of these senses or organs gently, by any means at your disposal, or recall any experience you have had along this line. Which senses or organs seem to be best developed?

Explain briefly how the active or sluggish habits either determine or are determined by the condition of the senses or sense organs.

Since Mother Nature seems to want maggots to develop rapidly, tell how she economizes in energy and material when forming them.

Show how the development of maggots in refuse matter is actually beneficial.

From the standpoint of flies and human welfare, show why maggots should not be allowed to live,—stating how they may be prevented.

Look up the story of the pupa of the house fly; the development and work of the botfly; of the ox-warble; of the tsetse fly.

Suggested drawing.

The maggot or grub, side view, × 4.

THE LIVING COCKROACH

Materials.

Individual specimens in cages, jars, or wide-mouth vials with cotton stoppers to admit air. Several roaches in large cages with material for food and concealment.

Observations.

What is the general color and the average size of cockroaches?

During what time of the day are roaches most active? Where do they hide at other times? How do their shape and color aid concealment? Note any odd or striking colors or marks which might make them distinguishable to their mates.

Is the roach a quick or a slow moving animal? How does it get about,—by running, jumping, walking, crawling, swimming, or flying? Turn your specimen on its back and see how it recovers its proper position. Notice the relative size and development of the wings and their use in flying.

If uninjured, your specimen has six legs. Why don't they step on each other? Notice the stiff hairs on the legs and the white pads under the feet. How would these structures be useful to the animal?

The large, black, shiny eyes are on the front and sides of the head; the long horns, or feelers, are attached just below the eyes. Upon which sense, sight or feeling, do you think the roach depends more? Explain your statement.

Beside the mouth are a long and a short pair of feelers; perhaps these are for tasting or smelling. What do roaches like to eat? Do they choose their food? What damage do they do?

How can a house be rid of cockroaches?

Suggested drawing.

a. A cockroach, seen from above.

THE LIVING SPIDER

Materials.

Living spiders, preferably large ones, in cages; individual specimens in battery jars or wide-mouth bottles. Cocoons. Simple lenses.

Observations.

Each pupil may feel sure that if treated fairly any of the common spiders may be handled without fear of bite or injury.

Note that the spider's body is of two regions, the head-thorax and the abdomen, and that it is supported by eight legs. To what part of the body are the legs attached?

Find the feelers; if they are club-shaped, your specimen is a male. State their number and tell where they are attached. What is the sex of your spider?

Usually there are eight tiny near-sighted eyes on the front of the head. State the color of the eyes and by a diagram indicate their arrangement.

With what kind of material is the body covered (use the lens)?

What is the color of your specimen? What special markings has it?

Holding the spider aloft in your fingers, allow