Indo-European Cognate Dictionary

Indo-European Cognate Dictionary

By Dr Fiona McPherson

www.mempowered.com

Published 2018 by Wayz Press, Wellington, New Zealand.

Copyright © 2018 by Fiona McPherson.

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of Wayz Press, a subsidiary of Capital Research Limited.

ISBN 978-1-927166-40-6

To report errors, please email errata@wayz.co.nz

For additional resources and up-to-date information about any errors, go to the Mempowered website at www.mempowered.com

Also by Fiona McPherson

Mnemonics for Study: Spanish edition

Mnemonics for Study: Italian edition

My Memory Journal

Successful Learning Simplified: A Visual Guide

How to Learn: The 10 principles of effective practice and revision

Effective Notetaking (2nd ed.)

Mnemonics for Study (2nd ed.)

How to Approach Learning: What teachers and students should know about succeeding in school

Planning to Remember: How to remember what you’re doing and what you plan to do

Perfect Memory Training

The Memory Key

About this dictionary

Introduction

Abbreviations

Dictionary

People

Kinship

Pronouns

Body

Head

Limbs & Joints

Torso & Organs

Internal components

Bodily functions

Cognitive function

Emotion

Social

Movement

Object motion

Construction & Production

Tools

Dwelling

Mineral products

Farming

Flora & Fauna

Trees

Plants

Mammals

Reptiles

Marine animals

Birds

Insects

Animal products

Environment

Sky

Weather

Terrain

Fire

Time

Numbers & Wholeness

Directions

Basic adjectives

Colours

Index of Proto-Indo-European Roots

Word Index

English

Old English

Frisian

Dutch

German

Norse

Norwegian

Swedish

Danish

Icelandic

Welsh

Irish

Latin

French

Italian

Spanish

Portuguese

Romanian

Ancient Greek

Greek

Russian

Polish

Czech

Slovak

Macedonian

Lithuanian

Latvian

Albanian

Sanskrit

Hindi

Pashto

Persian

Other books by Dr Fiona McPherson

About this dictionary

I conceived of this dictionary through my experiences at learning other languages. I’ve always had a fascination with other languages, and have dabbled to varying degrees in German, Spanish, French, Latin, ancient Greek, Italian, Russian, Japanese, and Mandarin. This gives me a head full of words that I can’t always tag to the language they belong to! Knowing that most of them derive from a single long-ago language that scholars call Proto-Indo-European, I started to wonder how a knowledge of that language would benefit the learning of its offspring languages. Then I started listening to a wonderful podcast on the History of English, which began right at that point, and told me fascinating things such as how infant, infantry, professor, and profane are all related (through *bʰeh2-, to speak, as it turns out). If you agree with me that this sort of thing is fascinating, you’ll enjoy this dictionary!

However, the primary purpose of this dictionary is to help people make connections between words, and thus remember them.

Vocabulary is a sticking point for many language learners. That’s because words have a certain arbitrary quality that makes them hard to memorize. There are two strategies which are very effective with this task: the keyword mnemonic, and retrieval practice. I have written about these extensively in my books Mnemonics for Study, and How to learn: The 10 principles of effective revision & practice. But you need thousands of words to have any degree of fluency, and you’ll be much quicker to reach that level if you don’t have to apply these strategies to all words. Which is where we come to the relative ease of learning different languages. One of the main factors determining the ease or difficulty of mastering another language is the degree to which it shares vocabulary with the language(s) you know.

By ‘share’, I don’t mean that they necessarily have the exact same words. Rather, it has to do with cognates — words that share the same linguistic root. Some of these are glaringly obvious: Spanish importante / English important; French authentique / English authentic; German Apfel / English apple; Dutch mixen / English mix; Iceland eyland / English island. But many, many others are not so obvious.

The aim of this dictionary is to collect many of these cognates, so that we can see what words are cognate, and (because it would be a huge job — and a mammoth dictionary — to gather all cognates in all Indo-European languages), to help you learn how to recognize cognates.

You may wonder how much this will help you remember the words, if the relationship between the words is not transparently obvious. But trust me, recognizing the relationship, ‘seeing’ it every time you come across the word, will help you immeasurably. And because there are rules (consistent patterns rather than laws) in the way words have changed over time, accumulating these examples will help you recognize such changes when they exist in words not covered here.

Introduction

This introduction explains how the dictionary is organised, what languages are covered, and any abbreviations that are used. It also describes some of the linguistic patterns to look out for.

What languages are covered in this dictionary?

The Indo-European language ‘tree’ has nine living branches, and this dictionary records words from 32 languages, covering eight of these branches (the ninth branch is Armenian, consisting solely of the Armenian language; its paucity in my sources led me to exclude this). Four of these languages are technically not ‘living’, but because of their importance in the development of living languages, as well as (in the case of three of them) their continued use in the reading of ancient texts, they have been included. These are: Latin, Ancient Greek, Sanskrit, and Norse. Note that, while the vast majority of Latin words are from Classical Latin, some are from Medieval Latin, Vulgar Latin and Late Latin. I have not distinguished these.

Because the dictionary is in English, and is aimed especially at English native speakers (although others will find it useful too — indeed, those learning English may find it the most useful), Germanic and Romance languages are covered far more completely than other fruitful branches. English comes from the Germanic branch, but because of the Norman invasion and the centuries under Norman French rule, has been greatly influenced by French and Latin. So in the case of the Germanic and Italic branches, descending words have been covered in much more depth. The Celtic, Slavic, Baltic, Albanian, and Indo-Iranian languages are covered much more sparsely, the main intention being to display the breadth of the cluster, as well, of course, as providing a basis and a springboard for those wanting to learn any of those languages. The Hellenic branch is a special case. Because Ancient Greek greatly influenced Latin, and influenced English both directly and indirectly (many of our scientific and technical terms come directly from Greek), that language is covered in more depth; however, its daughter language modern Greek is only covered lightly.

The Indo-Iranian branch is the most poorly covered, more because its languages are written in scripts I don’t know, than because of any lack of words. Perhaps in a later edition of this dictionary I’ll be able to do better.

Here is a list of the living branches of the Indo-European language tree, with the selected languages given in bold print:

Celtic: Breton, Welsh, Irish, Scottish Gaelic (in order of number of speakers)

Germanic:

West Germanic: English, Old English, Frisian, Dutch, German

North Germanic: Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Norse (in order of number of speakers)

Italic: Latin and its descendants: French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian

Greek (Ancient, Modern)

Albanian

Baltic: Lithuanian, Latvian

Slavic:

Western: Polish, Czech, Slovak, Sorbian / Lusatian

Southern: Serbo-Croatian, Macedonian, Slovene, Bulgarian

Eastern: Russian, Ukrainian, Byelorussian

Armenian

Indo-Iranian:

Iranian: Persian, Tajik, Pashto, Baluchi, Kurdish, Ossete

Indic / Indo-Aryan: Sanskrit, Hindi, Punjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, Bengali, Nepali, Sinhala, Urdu, Romani

The Proto-Indo-European language

The Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) is the ultimate ancestor of all these languages, but it was spoken thousands of years in the past and we have no direct record of it. What we do have is the clear evidence in these languages, from the consistent patterns in the way their words vary,  that there was such an ancestor. Following these patterns, scholars have deduced a quite extensive vocabulary — but they are still reconstructed, not ‘real’ words. We can never know exactly how these words were pronounced, or precisely how they were used. Conventionally, therefore, such words are written with a preceding asterisk.

Moreover, because of this uncertainty in pronunciation, the precise way in these words are written does vary. I have followed that used in my main source, which is Wiktionary. So, for those few who have some knowledge of the language, your rendering may differ slightly from that given here; for the rest of us, I imagine, the way in which these PIE words are written will look strange and rather unintelligible. If you have an interest in learning this reconstructed language, I direct you to other sources to find out how these are pronounced. For the rest of us, the words are simply tags, a way of organising the material.

Having said that, it is rather exciting to see the occasional PIE word that has been retained almost unchanged to the present day! Daughter (*dʰugh2tḗr) is an excellent example of this.

Linguistic laws

Without going into too much technical detail, it will help you spot patterns if you have some awareness of the patterns that are known to exist. This has become complicated over the years as linguists explain variations, but the initial discovery was very simple and easy to describe. So, bearing in mind that these ‘rules’ don’t apply all the time, and there are a number of principles that describe variations to these rules, and other patterns, here are the main linguistic patterns relating to Germanic languages. These were first realised by Jacob Grimm (yes, one of the Grimm brothers, of fairy tale fame) in 1822. Grimm spotted that a p at the beginning of a word in Sanskrit, Latin, or Greek, consistently becomes f in Germanic languages. He went on to observe nine such patterns, which collectively are known as Grimm’s law:

p → f

d → t

k → h

t → th

b → p

g → k

bh → b

dh → d

gh → g

Here are examples of these in action:

Latin pater is English father  (p → f; t → th)

French pied is English foot (p → f; d → t)

Latin caput is Old English hafud (k → h; p → f), meaning head

Latin tres is English three (t → th)

Lithuanian dubus (from PIE *dʰewb-) is English deep (b → p)

Latin genus (race) and English kin are cognate (g → k), as is Latin ager (field) and English acre

PIE *bʰeh2go- becomes beech in English, but that same bh sound becomes f in Latin and Greek, hence fāgus and  φηγός ‎(phēgós)

similarly, PIE *bʰréh2tēr is brother in English, but frater in Latin and φράτηρ ‎(phrátēr) in Greek

PIE *dʰugh2tḗr becomes daughter; PIE *dʰwer- becomes door

PIE *ǵʰer- becomes garden and garth in English, but hortus and χόρτος ‎(khórtos) in Latin and Greek

So these are the sort of patterns you should be looking out for if you want to use this dictionary as an aid to language learning.

It’s also worth noting that there’s a fundamental distinction between the ‘Western’ and ‘Eastern’ branches of the Indo-European tree, that’s expressed as the kentum-satem divide. This reflects the fact that most of the Western languages have a word for hundred that begins with a hard k sound, like Latin centum (in the Germanic languages, as Grimm’s law describes, this k becomes h, hence our hundred). In the Eastern languages, the word for hundred begins with a soft s sound, as in the Sanskrit word satem. This distinction between a hard k and a soft s sound is thought to reflect a very early split in the Proto-Indo-European tribes, as some headed west and others east. Note how that Western-Eastern divide plays out in the branches:

Western (kentum): Celtic, Germanic, Italic, Greek, Anatolian

Eastern (satem): Balto-Slavic, Armenian, Albanian, Indo-Iranian

Bearing in mind this fundamental difference, and which branches belong to which group, will also help you spot patterns. But don’t fret, if you’re starting to feel intimidated! You don’t need to get bogged down in the linguistic laws — the human mind is wonderfully designed for spotting patterns; it does it without any help from us. And we act all the time on patterns we subconsciously perceive, without being able to articulate them or even being aware of them. If you study the clusters with this sort of awareness, you will build up an understanding of how sounds/letters shift in different languages.

One final word about the relationships between other Indo-European language branches: I have spoken of the well-known influence of Latin, French, and Greek on English, but it is also worth noting, for those who have no knowledge of these languages, that Romanian has borrowed extensively from the Slavic languages, while Modern Greek has been influenced by Turkish and Italian. Albanian has borrowed extensively from Slavic, Greek, Latin, Italian, and Turkish. The Slavic languages are all largely mutually intelligible.

How to use this dictionary

The dictionary consists of two parts. The first contains the pages for each Proto-Indo-European (PIE) word, showing cognates in the chosen languages plus various descendants and derivatives. These pages are arranged thematically:

People

Kinship

Pronouns

Body

Bodily functions

Cognitive function

Emotion

Social

Movement

Object motion

Construction & Production

Tools

Dwelling

Mineral products

Farming

Flora & Fauna

Plants

Trees

Mammals

Reptiles

Marine animals

Birds

Insects

Animal products

Environment

Sky

Weather

Terrain

Fire

Time

Numbers & Wholeness

Directions

Basic adjectives

Colours

That seemed to me the most useful arrangement for browsing or studying. But of course for searching, you need an alphabetic index of all words, and that is also provided. There is a separate index for each language. Each word is cross-referenced to its Proto-Indo-European ancestor. The PIE word index links each word to its appropriate page (digital editions), or shows the appropriate page number (print edition).

The indexes are vital if you’re searching, because the Indo-European word clusters are not simply organised thematically. Because of the greater importance of having related words next to other, you will find entries that, from the thematic perspective, don’t appear to belong there. So, for example, the word meaning to separate, to divide, is found under Kinship, because the PIE word for widow derives from that word (interestingly, some of the descendants mean orphan). Similarly, the PIE word meaning stiff, surprised, is found under Mammals, because the word derives from the PIE word for hedgehog. However, I have included a brief reference to these out-of-place words in their appropriate category, to assist browsers.

Occasional instances occur of the same descendant words appearing in more than one place. This can happen because the word has multiple meanings from different roots, or because the word is a compound from two sources, or has been influenced from two or more sources. Very rarely, it may be because there is argument about the source and I have accepted both.

Because this work is not intended as an academic resource describing exactly how different words came to be, but rather a readable and accessible reference, I have glossed over some issues. So, for example, I haven’t distinguished between descent and borrowing — whether a language has borrowed a word from a sister language, or had it directly from its PIE ancestor appears immaterial to me, from the point of view of the person wanting to learn the word. For the same reason (trying to simplify what is a complex enough cluster), I haven’t muddied the waters by distinguishing between, say, English words that derive more directly from their PIE ancestor, and those that come via Norse, or French, when the French word is itself from Norse, or German, or Dutch. You will find what I call derivatives in various places, most usually after the Italic and Hellenic groups, but sometimes after others. These indicate derived words that come from a different branch. Thus, an English word that derives from Latin will be listed under Derivatives under the Italic branch, but an English word that derives from, say, Norse, will simply be listed among other English words in the Germanic branch. That is because Norse is itself a German language. If, as I mentioned, an English word derives from, say, a French word that itself derives from a Germanic language, the English word will still be listed simply among other English words in its place in the Germanic branch. This is to keep things as clean as possible, and in most cases it is obvious enough if you look at the other words that such may well have been the case. But, while interesting, it is not particularly germane to the aim, which is to show you which words are, in general, connected to each other.

Suffixes & inflections

The reason why words within a cognate cluster can vary so much from each other comes down to three main effects:

the consistent way in which languages change over time, as evidenced by the linguistic laws already discussed

the way in which PIE was inflected, that is, put endings on words to show how the word was being used (e.g., as the subject, or the object) — so, for example, ekwos, meaning horse, could be expressed as ekwos, ekwe, ekwom, ekwosyo, ekwoy, ekwod, or ekwo

the way in which daughter languages such as Latin used small words in a regular way, as suffixes. So, for example, Latin dāre spawned: addere, additiō, datum, dēdāre, ēdāre, ēditiō, ēditor, mandāre (manus +), commendāre, dēmandāre, perdāre, perditiō, perditus, praedor, praedātiō, praedātor, reddāre, trādāre, trāditiō, trāditor, vēndāre, vēnditiō, vēndōr, and more. All these regular changes, at the front and end of the word, provide potentially fruitful new paths for words to evolve. (By the way, the (manus +) signifies another convention used in this dictionary — it points to the use of another source being used in combination. Thus mandāre comes from the combination of dāre and manus.)

Common Latin suffixes include:

ab-, meaning from, away from, by, with

ad-, meaning to, used to indicate motion (advance), change (adulterate), and addition (adjunct)

ante-, meaning before, in front of

bi-, meaning twice, double

circum-, meaning around (another thing)

co-, com-, cor-, meaning with, together

de, meaning from, down, or away from

di-, dif-, dis-, meaning apart, separate

ex-, meaning out of, away from

infra-, meaning below

inter-, meaning between, among

per-, meaning through

prae-, meaning before, in front of

re-, meaning again, back

sub, meaning beneath, under

super, supra, meaning in excess, above, superior

trans, meaning across, through

ultra, meaning beyond, excessive

Additionally, PIE words varied not only in inflections, but also more meaningfully, in terms of related words spawned by the original word. Sometimes I have separated out these words, to stand on their own (but they’ll be placed next to each other), but other times they will all appear in a single cluster. The variations and descendants are listed below the root word and its meaning, before the listing of the daughter languages’ descendant words. They are there simply to help you understand why some words may seem at variance with the root.

Sources

As mentioned, my principal source for these words has been Wiktionary, which has an extensive section on PIE words and their descendants. I have also used Pokorny’s classic work as a check, to help me with any ambiguities and confusions. Google Translate has been useful as a check and occasional source (with due care), as well as my own collection of language dictionaries. Other sources on the Web have helped (though not enough!) with those languages written in scripts unfamiliar to me. Wiktionary also has a section on Greek and Latin roots, and their English children, which was useful; for this, I also used the Oxford English Dictionary, which, to my great pleasure, is digitally available in its full version through my public library. The creation of this dictionary, limited as it may be, would never have been possible without all of these sources available from my keyboard.

Caveat

As should be evident from my words so far, this work is not intended to be a scholarly work! I have done my best to assure a certain amount of academic rigour, rejecting items which I can’t verify (and which for one reason or another warrant investigation — I haven’t checked every word!). However, my intent is to provide a useful and, I hope, an interesting resource, rather than an academic one. Certainly, even apart from its potential usefulness to language learners, I found sufficient interest in the connections revealed to keep me going through what was, indeed, a great deal of tedious work! I look forward to now having it as a resource for myself, and I hope others will find it equally useful and interesting.

Abbreviations Used

The abbreviations used in the dictionary are of two types: those for the various languages, that you’ll see constantly, and those occasionally marking words.

Language abbreviations:

Eng: English

OE: Old English

Fris: West Frisian

Dut: Dutch

Ger: German

Nor: Norwegian Bokmål

Swe: Swedish

Dan: Danish

Ice: Icelandic

Wel: Welsh

Iri: Irish

Lat: Latin

Fr: French

Ital: Italian

Sp: Spanish

Port: Portuguese

Rom: Romanian

AnGk: Ancient Greek

Gk: Modern Greek

Rus: Russian

Pol: Polish

Cz: Czech

Slo: Slovak

Mace: Macedonian

Sans: Sanskrit

Hin: Hindi

Pash: Pashto

Pers: Persian

Word tags:

arch.: archaic

dial.: dialect

lit.: literary

obs.: obsolete

poet.: poetic

poss.: possibly

prob.: probably

reg.: regional

uncert.: uncertain

The terms possibly, probably, and uncertain, all indicate levels of uncertainty about the suggested etymology. While for the most part, I have omitted uncertain words, in some cases, where I think they form a useful part of the cluster, and/or I think the plausibility is sufficiently high, I have included them.

Similarly, I have tended to omit obsolete, regional, and literary terms, but sometimes, when I think it helpful or interesting, I have included them.

The Dictionary

People

*h1nómņ

name

Germanic: name (Eng), nama (OE), namme (Fris); naam (Dut); Name (Ger); nafn (Norse); navn (Nor); namn (Swe); navn (Dan); nafn (Ice)

Celtic: enw (Wel), ainm (Iri)

Italic: nōmen, agnōmen, cōgnōmen, ignōminia, ignōminiōsus, nōmenclātor, nōmenclātūra, nōminālis, nōmināre, nōminātiō, nōminātīvus, nōminātor (Lat);

nom, cognomen, ignominie, ignominieux, nominal, nominer, nommer, nomination (Fr);

nome, cognome, ignominia, ignominioso, nomenclatura, nominale, nominare, nominazione (Ital);

nombre, agnombre, cognome, ignominia, nomenclatura, nominal, nombrar, nominar, nominación (Sp);

nome, agnome, cognome, ignominia, nomenclatura, nominal, nomear, nominar, nominação (Port);

nume, cognomen, nominal, număra, nomina, nominație (Rom)

Derivatives: agnomen, cognomen, ignominy, ignominious, nomenclator, nomenclature, nominal, nominate, nomination, nominative, nominator, noun (Eng); nominal (Ger); номинация (nominacija) (Rus)

Hellenic: ὄνομᾰ ‎(ónoma), ὀνομᾰτοποιῐ́ᾱ (onomatopoiíā), ἀνώνῠμος (anṓnumos), ἐπώνυμος (epṓnumos), σῠνώνῠμος (sunṓnumos) (AnGk); όνομα (ónoma), ονοματοποιία (onomatopoiía), ανώνυμος (anónymos), επώνυμος (epónymos), συνώνυμος (synónymos), σῠνώνῠμον (sunṓnumon) (Gk)

Derivatives: onomatopoeia, anonymous, anonym, eponymous, eponym, synonymous, synonym (Eng); anoniem (Dut); anonym, Synonymum, Synonym (Ger); anonym (Nor); anonym (Swe); anonym (Dan);

onomatopoeia, anōnymus, synōnymum (Lat); onomatopée, anonyme (Fr); anonimo (Ital); anónimo, sinónimo (Sp); anónimo, anônimo, sinónimo (Port); anonym (Rom);

анони́мный (anonímnyj) (Rus); anonimowy (Pol); anonymni, anonym (Cz); анонимен (anonimen) (Mace)

Slavic: имя (imja) (Rus), imię, miano (Pol); jméno (Cz); meno (Slo); имe ‎(ime) (Mace)

Albanian: emër/êmën (Alb)

Indo-Iranian: नामन् (nā́man), नाम (nā́ma) (Sans); नाम (nām) (Hin); نوم (nūm) (Pash); نام (nâm) (Pers)

*ǵʰmṓ

person

more precisely, earthling (someone who works the earth) — from *dʰéǵʰōm

Germanic: goom, groom, bridegroom, gomeral (Eng); guma (OE); bruidegom (Dut); Bräutigam (Ger); gumi (Norse); gume (Nor); brudgum (Swe); brudgom (Dan); gumi (Ice) (groom meaning male servant not derived from this; its etymology is uncertain)

Celtic: dyn (Wel); duine (Iri)

Italic: homo, hūmānus, inhūmānus, hūmānitās, homunculus (Lat); homme, on, humain, humanité (Fr); hombre, humano, inhumano (Sp); homem, humano (Port); uomo, umano (Ital); om, uman (Rom)

Derivatives: human, humane, inhuman, inhumane, homunculus (Eng); inhuman (Ger)

Baltic: žmogùs (Lith)

*gwḗn

woman

*gʷén-eH2-

Germanic: quean, queen (Eng); cwene, cwēn (OE); kween (Dut); Queen, Quän (Ger); kona, kvenna, kvinna, kvæn, kván (Norse); kone, kona, kvinna (Nor); kåna, kona, kvinna (Swe); kone, kvinde (Dan); kona, kvenna, kvinna, kvon (Ice)

Celtic: benyw, menyw (Wel); bean (Iri)

Hellenic: γυνή ‎(gunḗ) (AnGk); γυναίκα ‎(gynaíka) (Gk)

Derivatives: gynecology, androgynous, heterogynous, misogynist (Eng)

Slavic: жена (žená) (Rus); żona (Pol); žena (Cz); žena (Slo); жени (ženi) (Mace)

Indo-Iranian: ग्ना (gnā), जनि (jani) (Sans); جنۍ (jinëy) / نجلۍ (njëlëy) (Pash); زن (zan), زنانه‏ (zanâne) (Pers)

Derivatives: zenana (Eng)

*mánus

person

Germanic: man, manikin, mannequin, mannish, mensk, mense (Eng); mann, mennisc (OE); man, minske (Fris); man, men, manneken, mannequin, mens (Dut); Mann, man, Mensch (Ger); maðr, mennskr (Norse); mann, menneske (Nor); man, människa (Swe); mand, menneske (Dan); maður, manneskja, mennskur (Ice)

Derivatives: mannequin (Fr)

Slavic: муж (muž) (Rus); mąż (Pol); muž (Cz); muž (Slo); мaж ‎(maž) (Mace)

Indo-Iranian: मनु (manu), मनुष्य (manuṣya), मानव (mānava) (Sans); मानस (mānas), मनुष्य (manuṣya), मानव (mānav) (Hin)

*h2nḗr

man, power, force

Celtic: nerth, nêr (Wel); neart (Iri)

Italic: neriōsus (Lat)

Hellenic: ἀνήρ ‎(anḗr), δυσ-ᾱ́νωρ (dus-ā́nōr), ἀνδρός ‎(andrós), ἀνδρόγυνος (andrógunos), Ἀλέξανδρος (Aléxandros), Ἀνδρέας (Andréas) (AnGk); άνδρας (ándras), ανδρόγυνος (andrógynos) (Gk)

Derivatives: androcentric, androgen, androgynous, android, andrology, androphobia, androspore, diandry, misandry, philander, polyandry, protandry, synandrous, Alexander (Eng); androgyne (Fr)

Slavic: нрав ‎(nrav), норов ‎(norov) (Rus); narów (Pol); mrav (Cz); mrav (Slo); нарав (narav) (Mace)

Baltic: nóras ‎(Lith)

Albanian: njeri (Alb)

Indo-Iranian: नृ (nṛ́), नर (nára) (Sans); नर (nar) (Hin); نر‏ (nër), نارينه (nâriná) (Pash); نر (nar), نری (nari) (Pers)

*wiHrós

man

Germanic: wer, wergild, werewolf, world (Eng); wer, werwulf, weorold, worold (OE); wrâld (Fris); weergeld, weerwold, wereld (Dut); Werwolf, Welt (Ger); verr, verǫld (Norse); verd, verden, varulv (Nor); värld, varulv (Swe); verden, varulv (Dan); ver, veröld, varúlfur (Ice)

Derivatives: loup-garou (Fr); guidrigildo (Ital)

Celtic: gŵr (Wel); fear (Iri)

Italic: vir, virīlis, virāgo, virtūs, triumvir (Lat); viril, virago, vertu (Fr); virile, virtù, vertù (Ital); viril, virtud (Sp); viril, virilha, virtude (Port); viril, vârtute, virtute (Rom)

Derivatives: virile, virago, virtue, triumvirate (Eng); viriel (Dut); vërtyt, virtyt (Alb)

Baltic: výras (Lith); vīrs (Latv)

Indo-Iranian: वीर (vīrá) (Sans)

*pótis

master, ruler, husband

see Movement

Kinship

*méh2tēr

mother

Germanic: mother (Eng); mōdor (OE); moer (Fris); moeder (Dut); Mutter (Ger); móðir (Norse); mor, moder (Nor); mor, moder (Swe); mor, moder (Dan); móðir (Ice)

Celtic: modryb (Wel); máthair (Iri)

Italic: māter, māternus, māternālis, māternitās, mātricīda, mātrimōnium, matrix, mātrīcālis, mātrīcula, mātrōna, materia (Lat);

mére, maternel, maternité, matricide, matrice, matricule, matrone, matière (Fr);

madre, materno, maternità, matrimonio, matrice, madrigale, matricola, matrona, materia (Ital);

madre, materno, maternal, matricida, motrimonio, matriz, matrícula, madrilla, matrona, madera, materia (Sp);

mãe, madre, materno, matricida, matrimónio, matriz, matrícula, matrona, madeira, matéria (Port);

metern, matrimoniu, mătrice, matrice, materie (Rom)

Derivatives: mater, maternal, maternity, matricide, matrimony, matron, matrix, matriculate, madrigal, matter, material (Eng); matrix, matrijs (Dut); Materie (Ger); ма́трица ‎(mátrica), матрона ‎(matrona), материя ‎(materija) (Rus)

Hellenic: μήτηρ ‎(mḗtēr) (AnGk); μητέρα ‎(mitéra) (Gk)

Derivatives: haplometrosis, metrocyte, metropolis, metropolitan, Metro, pleometrosis (Eng)

Slavic: мать (mat’) (Rus); matka (Pol); matka (Cz); mat’ (Slo); мајка ‎(majka) (Mace)

Baltic: mótė, moteris (Lith); māte (Latv)

Albanian: ëmë, motër (Alb)

Indo-Iranian: मातृ (mā́tṛ) (Sans); मां (mā̃), माता (mātā), मातृ (mātṛ) (lit.), मातृभाषा (mātŕbhāṣā) (Hin); مور (mor) (Pash); مادر (mâdar) (Pers)

*méh2-méh2

mama

Italic: mamma, mammalis (Lat); maman (Fr); mamma (Ital); mama (Sp); mama, mamã (Port); mamă (Rom)

Derivatives: mamma, mammal, mammary (Eng)

Hellenic: μάμμη ‎(mámmē) (AnGk)

*ph2tḗr

father

Germanic: father (Eng); fæder (OE); faar (Fris); vader, va (Dut); Vater (Ger); faðir (Norse); far, fader (Nor); far, fader (Swe); far, fader (Dan); faðir (Ice)

Celtic: athair (Iri)

Italic: pater, patrare, paternus, paternālis, paternitās, patraster, patricīda, pātricius, pātrimōnium, patrōnus, perpetrare (Lat);

pére, paternel, paternité, parâtre, patrice, patrimoine, patron (Fr); padre, patrimonio, padrone, patrono (Ital);

padre, paterno, paternidad, padrastro, patrimonio, patrón, padrón, patrono (Sp);

pai, padre, paterno, paternidade, padrasto, património, patrimônio, patrão, patrono (Port); pater, patron (Rom)

Derivatives: pater, paternity, paternal, patricide, patrician, patrimony, patron, patronize, patriarch, perpetrate (Eng); pater, patrimonium (Dut); Patrimonium (Ger); патриций ‎(patricij) (Rus)

Hellenic: πατήρ (patḗr), πατριώτης (patriṓtēs) (AnGk); πατέρας (patéras), πατήρ ‎(patír), πατριώτης (patriótis) (Gk)

Derivatives: allopatric, allopatry, eupatrides, patriarch, patriarchy, patriot, patriotism, patrology, patronym, sympatry (Eng); patriot (Dut); Patriot (Ger); patriōta (Lat); patriote (Fr); patriota (Ital); patriota (Sp); patriota (Port)

Slavic: татко ‎(tatko) (Mace)

Baltic: patinas (Lith)

Albanian: atë (Alb)

Indo-Iranian: पितृ (pitṛ́), पिता (pitā́) (Sans); पिता (pitā), पितृ (pitṛ) (Hin); پلار (plār) (Pash); پدر (pedar) (Pers)

*átta

father

Germanic: dad (uncert.) (Eng); heit (Fris); ette (Dut); atti (Norse)

Celtic: oide (Iri)

Italic: atta (Lat)

Hellenic: ἄττα ‎(átta) (AnGk)

Slavic: оте́ц ‎(otéc) (Rus); ojciec (Pol); otec (Cz); otec (Slo); о́тец ‎(ótec) (Mace)

*bʰréh2tēr

brother

Germanic: brother (Eng); brōþor (OE); broer (Fris); broer, broeder (Dut); Bruder (Ger); bróðir (Norse); bror, broder (Nor); bror, broder (Swe); bror, broder (Dan); bróðir (Ice)

Celtic: brawd (Wel); bráthair (Iri)

Italic: frāter, confrāter, frāternus, frāternālis, frāternitās (Lat); frére, fraternel, fraternité (Fr); fratello, frate, fraternità (Ital); fraile, fray, fraterno, fraternidad (Sp); frade, freire, frei, freira, fraternidade (Port); frate, fraternitate (Rom)

Derivatives: fraternal, fraternity, friar, confrere (Eng)

Hellenic: φράτηρ ‎(phrátēr) (AnGk)

Slavic: брат (brat) (Rus); brat (Pol); bratr (Cz); brat (Slo); брат (brat) (Mace)

Baltic: brolis, broterėlis (Lith); brālis, brātarītis (Latv)

Albanian: vëlla (Alb)

Indo-Iranian: भ्रातृ (bhrā́tṛ), भ्राता (bhrātā) (Sans); भ्रातृ (bhrātṛ) (Hin); ورور (wrōr) (Pash); برادر (birādar) (Pers)

*swésōr

sister

Germanic: sister (Eng); sweostor (OE); sus (Fris); zuster, zus (Dut); Schwester (Ger); systir (Norse); syster (Nor); syster (Swe); søster (Dan); systir (Ice)

Celtic: chwaer (Wel); siur (Iri)

Italic: soror, sorōritās, sōbrīnus, consōbrīnus (Lat); sœur, sororité, cousin (Fr); sorella, suora, consobrino, cugino (Ital); sor, sobrino (Sp); soror, sobrinho, consobrinho (Port); soră (Rom)

Derivatives: sororal, sororate, sororicide, sorority, cousin (Eng); kusin (Swe)

Hellenic: ἔορ ‎(éor) (AnGk)

Slavic: сестра (sestrá) (Rus); siostra (Pol); sestra (Cz); sestra (Slo); сестра (sestrá) (Mace)

Baltic: sesuõ (Lith)

Albanian: vajzë (Alb)

Indo-Iranian: स्वसृ (svasṛ) (Sans); خور (xowr) (Pash); خواهر‎ (xâhar), خوهر‎ (xvahar) (Pers)

*dʰugh2tḗr

daughter

Germanic: daughter (Eng); dohtor (OE); dochter (Fris); dochter (Dut); Tochter (Ger); dóttir (Norse); datter, dotter (Nor); dotter (Swe); datter (Dan); dóttir (Ice)

Hellenic: θυγάτηρ ‎(thugátēr) (AnGk); θυγατέρα ‎(thygatéra) (Gk)

Slavic: дочь (doč’), до́чери (dóčeri), до́чка (dóčka), доче́рний (dočérnij) (Rus); córka (Pol); dcera, dcerka (Cz); dcéra, dcérka (Slo); ќерка (ḱerka) (Mace)

Baltic: duktė̃ (Lith)

Indo-Iranian: दुहितृ (duhitṛ) (Sans); धिया (dhiyā) (Hin); لور (lur) (Pash); دخت (doxt), دختر (doxtar) (Pers)

*snusós

daughter-in-law

Germanic: snaar, snoer (Dut); Schnur (Ger); snør, snor (Norse); snör (Ice)

Italic: nurus (Lat); nuora (Ital); nuera (Sp); nora (Port); noră (Rom)

Hellenic: νυός (nuós) (AnGk)

Slavic: сноха́ (snoxá) (Rus); snecha (Pol); snacha (Cz); снаа (snaa) (Mace)

Indo-Iranian: स्नुषा (snuṣā́) (Sans)

*suh1nús

son

Germanic: sunu (Eng); sunu (OE); soan (Fris); zoon, -zoon, -sen (Dut); Sohn, -sen (Ger); sonr, sunr (Norse); sønn, son, -son (Nor); son, -son (Swe); søn, -sen (Dan); sonur, -son (Ice)

Hellenic: υἱύς ‎(huiús), υἱός ‎(huiós) (AnGk); υιός (yiós) (Gk)

Slavic: сын (syn) (Rus); syn (Pol); syn (Cz); syn (Slo); син ‎(sin) (Mace)

Baltic: sūnus (Lith)

Indo-Iranian: सूनु (sūnú) (Sans); زوی (zoy) (Pash)

*h2éwh2os

grandfather, mother’s brother

Germanic: ēam (OE); iem, omke (Fris); oom (Dut); Ohm, Oheim (Ger)

Celtic: ewythr (Wel); ó, ua (Iri)