More Light on the Expanding Universe

CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Introduction

Brief Review

General Conclusion

Chapter 2 The Lightless Universe

The Frequency of Light

Speed of Light in Transparent Media

Effect of Frequency on the Speed of Light

Refraction of Light

Absorption

Reflection

Conclusions

Chapter 3 Making Peace with Planck

Chapter 4 Rotation of Electrons and Protons

Revising the Kernel

Chapter 5 How Far Back Can We See in Time?

The Shape of the Local Universe

Shortcomings of the Linear Model

The First Approximation

The Exponential Spiral Model

How Far Back?

The Red Shift

Viewing Objects in a Smaller Universe

The Impact on Hubble’s Constant

Conclusion

Chapter 6 The Source of Background Radiation

Chapter 7 Nuclear Energy

Hydrogen Fusion

Chapter 8 A Closer Look at the Speed of Light

Early Measurements

Michelson’s Experiments

The Need for Ether

The Airplane Analogy

Timing a Round Trip by a Light Wave

Appendix—Michelson’s 1887 Experimental Results

Chapter 9 The Question of Wave Interference

Chapter 10 Michelson and Morley and the Pigeon Experiment

Chapter 11 The Implication of Radiation into the Future

Chapter 12 How Did Nuclei Form?

Chapter 13 The Need for Dark Matter

Did Einstein Need Dark Matter?

The Velocity of the Spiral Arms

Chapter 14 Transformation of Coordinates

Chapter 15 The Fine Structure Constant

Eliminating h

More on Bohr’s Model

Chapter 16 The Myth of the Aging Twin

Chapter 17 The Only Chapter without Equations

Feedback

Summary of Findings

Where Do I Go from Here?

Acknowledgments

About the Author

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

My first book, A New Light on the Expanding Universe, was an attempt to explain a different concept of how the universe we live in is put together and functions. It was based on the assumption that light really does not travel at 300,000 kilometers per second but instead goes from one place to another in no time at all; that is, the emission of radiant energy from one atom and the reception of that energy by another atom are simultaneous events. They happen at the same time, judging from the standpoint of the local time at the observer’s location. This is equally true for two observers moving with respect to each other in our three-dimensional world.

To make this happen requires five dimensions: the three we observe when we look around us; a fourth, which is the direction the entire universe is moving as it expands at the apparent speed of light;¹ and a fifth dimension around which our entire four-dimensional super universe is wound like a vast number of strings representing our lines of sight.

I tried in the first book to keep the subject matter somewhat limited, which is pretty difficult if you are trying to describe the entire universe, from electrons to galaxies, using a single, relatively simple set of rules. So I left out a lot of things. Some because they were not important to the overall scheme of things, some because they would have made the book too long if they were included, and some—I have to admit—because I hadn’t thought of them yet.

BRIEF REVIEW

For those of you who may not have read the previous book, A New Light on the Expanding Universe, or fail to remember all the confusing points raised in the book, a brief review is in order. Without it, I would have to introduce each of the subjects in this book by reviewing the background throughout the book.

This review is intended to provide enough introduction to the material that you can pick up where I left off without having read the previous book. And you can, of course, skip over the review if you remember it all or if you know what I was saying in the first book and disagree with it.

My whole concept of the physical sciences is based on the belief that light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation are transferred from one point to another instantaneously without having to pass through the empty space between the emitting atom and the receiving atom, and without any change in time taking place, at least from the standpoint of the observer witnessing the transfer. Nothing else, neither physical bodies nor other kinds of waves, can do this.

The mechanism for the transfer depends on a fourth dimension, similar in properties to the three dimensions we experience but stretching out in a direction from the here and now in a fourth direction we do not perceive that is perpendicular to the three we do. This is the direction of expansion of the universe, and it is also the direction in which time changes.

In addition, there must be a fifth dimension that is not similar to the three we live in. It seems to have no properties that are important to us, except that the four-dimensional universe I described is wound around a tiny spherical kernel so that points in our four-dimensional space-time continuum actually come into physical contact, although they are separated by significant distances in three-dimensional space and time. This is like two points on a piece of string being wound around a large ball of twine and lying essentially in the same place, although they are a significant distance apart along the length of the string. They can be spaced at any distance along the length of the string, as long as they are an even number of multiples of the circumference of the ball apart.

The observations of radiant energy transfer show that light moves through a vacuum at a speed that seems to be the same to any two observers, whether they are moving relative to one another or not. This leads to the conclusion, reached first by Einstein in his special theory of relativity, that time is measured differently by observers moving relative to one another. This seems to me to be true and necessary to account for the observations.

On the other hand, the measurements of the apparent speed of light seem to me to be misinterpretations of the data. I think the physicists actually measured the speed of expansion of the universe long before Hubble introduced the concept that it is expanding. However, their experiments were set up to measure the speed of light, and they believed that is what they measured. If one grants that the universe is expanding at the apparent speed of light, then it is necessary that radiant energy moves instantaneously from place to place, or at essentially infinite speed.

The question is, how could it look like it was taking a finite amount of time for the light to move from one place to another when it is actually moving instantaneously? The answer is that the observers did not actually see the light moving from point A to point B in a finite amount of time. You can only see a light coming from a distant source toward you, and when you see it, it appears that it was emitted at the moment you see it. Yet if you shine a light away from you (which you cannot see) and then it is reflected back to your eyes, it appears that the reflected light was emitted at the moment you saw it. If you had a superprecise stopwatch, the watch would show an elapsed time.

This led me to conclude that there are two ways of looking at time. Galactic time is time that is exactly the same everywhere throughout the physical universe as it exists right now. All points in the universe are at the same exact galactic time. However, no one can see anything that exists at the same moment in galactic time he is experiencing.

Each individual—or one might suppose, each atom in the universe—experiences his own local time. His local time encompasses all the universe that he can see, in all directions at the moment. Everything he can see is in the galactic past, according to galactic time, and all the galactic present, except his location, is in the local future.

FIGURE 1

THE LOCAL UNIVERSE WITHIN THE GALACTIC UNIVERSE

The sphere pictured in figure 1 represents the universe as a two-dimensional x–y world with no z direction—the surface of a sphere. The observer at the origin cannot see any of that sphere; he sees instead the two-dimensional surface of a cone stretching out in in the x and y directions around him and into the galactic past. The x–y sections of the cone are circles growing in diameter with increasing distance.

They also represent distances stretching farther back into the galactic past. In the real world, distances from the origin would be spheres of growing diameter with increasing distance and would look like the real world as we see it. It is not the surface of the sphere that we see, although at close range it is hard to tell them apart.

This picture of how we see the world around us is a little strange, but it helps account for the properties of light and leads to a theory of gravity and electromagnetism that is consistent with the observations of physicists. It also provides answers to all sorts of questions that have bothered physicists since Einstein, Planck, Bohr, Schrödinger, Heisenberg, and many others established the foundation for the Standard Model of the Universe, which is accepted by most physicists as being the best available description of the world we live in. This leads to the question of what time it is at locations other than our own. Are distant objects really in our past, or are they in our present as they appear to be?

In addition to the different picture of the way time is viewed, I listed a number of other conclusions I have drawn about the way the laws of physics should be interpreted that are different from the commonly accepted interpretations. I also have listed them here because they may be helpful in understanding some of the further ideas put forward in the following chapters.

GENERAL CONCLUSION

1) The velocity of light is essentially infinite. It doesn’t take any time to get from one place to another. It is not really a velocity, like the rate of change of position of a fish swimming through water, as it does not traverse the distance between the source and the receptor.

2) The universe is the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional hypersphere. It is expanding in the fourth-dimensional direction at a rate equal to the apparent speed of light, c.

3) The expansion rate is essentially unchanged from the time of the big bang, at which time the universe occupied a small volume. Hubble’s constant is a measure of the rate of expansion of the universe. It is numerically equal to the reciprocal of the age of the universe, and the constant is decreasing linearly with the passage of time.

4) The three-dimensional universe is many times larger than the part that is observable because there is a horizon between the present moment and the time of the big bang that prevents us from seeing or learning about parts of the universe beyond the horizon.

5) All matter in the universe has a substantially constant, uniform velocity, c, equal to the apparent speed of light, or about 300,000 km/sec in the direction of the fourth dimension. This is basically what makes E = mc².

6) The fourth dimension is a real, physical dimension. It is not time. In this four-dimensional space, the passage of time has a direction and may be thought of as a vector.

7) Gravity is the result of slight differences in the distance matter has traveled from the time and place of the big bang to the present; the more massive an object, the shorter the distance. The differences between the lightest and most massive objects is very small compared with the diameter of the universe, but they are large enough to account for the phenomenon of gravity. Bodies with mass tend to accelerate toward each other due to the tipping of the three-dimensional space toward them in the fourth-dimensional direction. This distortion of space may actually be what constitutes mass.

8) The relative accelerations of the massive bodies in three-dimensional space obey Newton’s laws when referenced to the local universe in which they are measured. Most of the deductions made by Albert Einstein in his special theory of relativity apply only to the theoretical calculations of position and velocity, were they measurable in the spherical galactic universe.

9) Electrostatic and electromagnetic attraction are similar but more complex deformations of the three-dimensional universe in the direction of the fourth dimension. However, they probably involve a twisting of the space around the direction of the time vectors in the four-dimensional universe.

10) Light, along with electromagnetic radiation in general, is comprised neither of waves nor particles (photons) but is actually the effect of direct transfer of kinetic energy over spatial distance and time differences by physical contact of the source and receptor atoms.

11) The science of quantum mechanics was developed to account for the discrete levels of energy transmitted by presumed electromagnetic waves. The unit of energy was called the photon.

        do not believe radiation consists of either waves or particles, nor do I believe that photons exist. This leads me to be suspicious of many of the particles named and studied by physicists. These include gluons (transfer particles that are supposed to hold nuclei together), gravitons (which are supposed to be the particles that conduct gravity, much as photons are supposed to conduct light), and ultimately the Higgs boson, which is theorized to be the transfer particle responsible for the mass of the elementary particles.

12) Nils Bohr’s concept of the atom does not paint an adequate picture of the hydrogen atom and does not seem to apply to heavier atoms. I proposed a different picture in which electrons can orbit nuclei below the synchronous velocity without falling into the nucleus. This model is applicable to all atoms, not just to hydrogen and helium.

13) Planck’s constant is a measure of the radius of a five-dimensional, hyperspherical kernel around which the four-dimensional universe is wrapped. It does not adequately represent the energy transmitted as radiant energy, although it seems to be consistent with the perception of light by the eye and with optical properties of light in general. All these processes depend on the frequency of rotation of the electrons in the source atoms, rather than the amount of energy transferred in each radiation event.

14) Schrödinger’s wave equation is simply a statistical probability function that applies to the likelihood that an atom will be in the proper time and place to exchange energy with another atom. It does not have to do with waves at all.

I have not, in the book you are about to read, said anything significantly different from the ideas put forward in the previous one, but have instead expanded upon them and in some cases tried to answer questions posed by readers of the earlier book.

CHAPTER 2

THE LIGHTLESS UNIVERSE

This section deals with some of the properties of light that arise by implication if the velocity of light is taken as infinite and the perceived velocity of light is assigned to the velocity at which the three-dimensional universe is moving through a four-dimensional space.

In particular, it covers the properties of light associated with transmission, refraction, reflection, and visual perception. The importance of these is that they all make sense when viewed in the framework of the expanding universe in which light is an instantaneous transfer of energy and involves neither waves nor particles. All the properties of light help support the overall picture I have proposed for the way space and time are related.

THE FREQUENCY OF LIGHT

The phenomena of transmission, refraction, and reflection were described in detail by Sir Isaac Newton in his book on optics published in 1704.² He had no knowledge of atomic structure, but he was well aware of the rules that seemed to govern the transmission of light from a source to a receptor. Like everyone else, he presumed that light traveled through space like sound waves, or golf balls, or anything else perceived to move from one place at a given time to another place at a later time. The evidence all seemed to support this assumption.

The perception of light by the human eye is a truly marvelous process, but much of it depends on the same optical properties of the lens of the eye as telescopes, microscopes, and cameras.

It will be demonstrated that the optical properties of light, although wholly defined by the amount of energy transferred in a single emission/absorption episode, are related not to the energy content of the transmission, but rather to a frequency that is related to the energy by Planck’s constant, according to

41311.png ,                                                        EQUATION 1

where

E = Energy associated with the transfer event

h = Planck’s constant

f = Perceived frequency of light.

If there are really no light waves moving between the emission source and the receptor—nothing at all passing through the intervening space if there is no material present in the space—the concept of the frequency of light does not seem to fit into the picture at all.

However, many of the properties of light, like the colors we observe in the spectrum by a prism, are proportional to the frequency of rotation of the electrons rather than to the energy involved in the emission. This is because perceived light is ordinarily the result of thousands or millions of such transmissions of energy, so the energy of a single transmission is not sensed. The total energy received by the receptors is perceived as the brightness of the light, while the energy of each individual transmission is perceived as the color. This is quite analogous to the perception of the total energy of sound as loudness, while the frequency of the sound waves is perceived as tone or pitch.

Both sight and hearing are responses to the square root of the energy of the source, and this is proportional to frequency. So, in most of the following work, frequency is used when talking about the optical properties of light. It is simply a measure of the change in orbital frequency of the inner electrons of the emitting atom and receiving atom, rather than the frequency of light waves traversing the space between them.

Light can be emitted from atoms that have either one or two electrons orbiting the nucleus, in the case of hydrogen and helium atoms, and in the innermost orbit for all heavier atoms. These electrons have all the properties required to account for the observed properties of radiant energy