Meat Technology and Processing

Meat Technology and Processing

Meat Technology and Processing

Anagh Deshpande

Meat Technology and Processing

Anagh Deshpande

ISBN - 9789361526503

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Preface

Meat is one of the most important feeding sources for humans because it has a high amount of valuable protein and important micronutrients essential to provide good health for people. For the meat industry, consumer preferences are one of the most important factors. The behavior of consumers and their beliefs on meat and meat products rely on the product itself and on the characteristics of the individual.

The present trends in meat products have their origin in the new needs of consumers that are related to nutrition, the concern for health, and well-being and natural products. Given this situation, the meat sector is forced to develop high-quality and safe meat products. With an increasing world population, an increase in affluence and a substantial growth in the demand for high-quality protein, the meat sector faces a fantastic but challenging century. New scientific knowledge, technology and creative minds are the main ingredients in order to reach out for this great opportunity. Efficiency, all the way from breeding and farming to processing and dispatch, is crucial for success. Technology has brought us far, and there is still a huge potential for increased efficiency by implementing best practices on a global scale.

Therefore, novel strategies for production systems, preparation, storage, and distribution or consumption processes can be implemented to induce qualitative and quantitative changes in meat product composition and to optimize beneficial properties for human health. The application of pulsed electric fields and meat stretching and shaping has the potential to improve the tenderness and quality of meat. Quality can also be improved with emerging non-thermal technologies, which can be used to obtain functional products from meat and meat byproducts. Encapsulation also allows the incorporation of bioactive compounds, as well as being used as a protective method to increase meat products’ shelf-life since it may lead to increased stability of bioactive compounds and better control of their releasing rate. Additionally, it is practically impossible to produce meat products without additives since they require antioxidants and antimicrobials that prevent their rapid deterioration and ensure the absence of pathogenic microorganisms. Natural extracts could be introduced in the packaging through active films that protect meat products from external agents and provide consumers with ease of use. Advances in meat processing technology merge the expertise of Meat Scientists and Food Engineers in a holistic approach toward the processing of meat. The meat industry strives to deliver consistently high-quality and safe meat products. This can benefit from the knowledge generated by meat science researchers by achieving a greater understanding of the nature of meat and the engineering technology required for meat processing. This book comprises seven chapters that provide up-to-date and fundamental information on current topics in meat processing.

Table of CONTENT

Chapter 1. Introduction to Meat and Meat Products 1

1.2 Meat and Their Nutritional Benefits 3

1.3 Which Type of Meat is Healthiest? 29

1.4 Product Groups 30

1.5 Processing Categories of Meat Products 31

1.6 Exercise 61

Chapter 2. Processing Of Meat and Meat Products 62

2.1 Meat Processing 62

2.2 What are the Different Cuts of Meat? 67

2.3 Meat Processing Equipment’s 68

2.4 The Meat-Processing Industry 71

2.5 Chemistry and Biochemistry of Meat 75

2.6 The Effects of Processing and Preservation

2.7 Exercise 90

Chapter 3. Quality Characteristics of Meat and Meat Products 91

3.1 Meat Quality 92

3.2 Some Factors that Affect Ruminant Meat

3.3 Selection and Grading of Raw Materials for

3.4 Meat Quality: Components & Preservation 125

3.5 Exercise 142

Chapter 4. Sausage: Formulation, Processing and Safety 143

4.1 Sausage Making 144

4.2 Changing Pattern of Sausage Technology 158

4.3 Sausage Making Equipment 160

4.4 Important Considerations in Sausage Making 167

4.5 Pathogens of Concern in Sausage Making 174

4.6 Raw-Fermented Sausages 176

4.7 Exercise 183

Chapter 5. By-Product Utilization: Meat Process Industry 184

5.1 By-products in the Meat Industry: An Overview 185

5.2 Nutritive value of meat by-products 186

5.3 Meat Byproducts and its Utilization in Food

5.4 Meat industry 190

5.5 Utilization of Poultry By-Products 199

5.6 Fish waste/by-products Utilization 203

5.7 Utilization of waste as biofuel 206

5.8 Exercise 208

Chapter 6. Packaging Aspects of Meat, Fish and Poultry 209

6.1 What is Packaging? 209

6.2 Packaging Concepts for Fresh Meat 217

6.3 Advanced and Emerging Systems of Packaging

6.4 Packaging Processes and Requirements 222

6.5 Innovative Solutions for Meat Products 237

6.6 Exercise 239

Chapter 7. Meat Microbiology, Safety and Storage 240

7.1 Microbiology of Meat, Poultry and Sea Foods 241

7.2 Meat Borne Diseases 247

7.3 Control of Meat Borne Pathogens 252

7.4 Preservation and storage 253

7.5 Exercise 261

Glossary 262

References 264

Index 274

Chapter 1. Introduction to Meat and Meat Products

Meat is a form of food to us from animal flesh. In general, meat is considered a protein source, but it is also composed of water and fats. During prehistoric times, meat is consumed raw, but today it is usually eaten after it is cooked with delicate culinary techniques and skills (Learn some meat cooking tips here). The consumption of meat has been increasing rapidly since the early 1900s that lead to the commercialization of meat with aid from the slaughterhouse. Meat and meat products are rich and concentrated sources of nutrients, including fats, proteins, vitamin B12, zinc and iron. Meat from any source is of similar nutritional value, whether it is white or red. The intensity of color in meat depends on the amount of myoglobin it contains. It is incorrect to assume that white meat from birds is superior to red meat, or vice versa. Offal meat (i.e. internal organs such as liver and kidney), however, tends to have a higher nutritional value, and red meat is known to contain a rich source of iron. The distinguishing element among the various sources of meat appears to be the fat content. Some scientists consider red meat (e.g., beef, lamb and goat) to be less healthy because it has a relatively higher fat content compared to white meat. Saturated fat in meat may predispose people to cardiovascular disease. There are many reasons for people to eliminate meat and meat products from their diet. Some of these reasons may include health concerns, religion, cultural background, income and accessibility of meat.

1.1 Different types of Meats

Meat is consumption greatly depends on the local culture, religion as well as economic conditions.

Meat is categorized into three different categories;

●White meat

●Red meat

●Game meat

Meat from any source is of similar nutritional value, whether it is white or red. The intensity of color in meat depends on the amount of myoglobin it contains. It is incorrect to assume that white meat from birds is superior to red meat, or vice versa. Offal meat (i.e., internal organs such as liver and kidney), however, tends to have a higher nutritional value, and red meat is known to contain a rich source of iron. The distinguishing element among the various sources of meat appears to be the fat content. Some scientists consider red meat (e.g., beef, pork and lamb) to be less healthy because it has a relatively higher fat content compared to white meat. Saturated fat in meat may predispose people to cardiovascular disease. There are many reasons for people to eliminate meat and meat products from their diet. Some of these reasons may include health concerns, religion, cultural background, income and accessibility of meat.

1.1.1 Red meat

Red or dark meat is mainly made up of muscles with slow fibers. These muscles are used for extended periods of activity, such as standing or walking and need a steady energy source. Red meat refers to the muscle meat from cattle, sheep, goat and kangaroo and essentially provides considerable amounts of zinc and vitamin B12.

The pigment that is primarily responsible for the red color of meat is myoglobin, a protein that can bind and store oxygen in cells. The amount of myoglobin in meat varies according to species, age of the animal, amount of exercise, stress, condition of storage, exposure to oxygen, heat and processing.

Tissues and organs that require more oxygen for their functions have more myoglobin, and therefore are redder in color. Beef is shown to contain more myoglobin in its tissue than lamb and pork.

Myoglobin levels also vary depending on muscle use. More active parts of an animal require more oxygen and will therefore have more myoglobin and, consequently, be redder or darker in color. For example, chicken legs are darker than chicken breasts because their legs are more active.

1.1.2 White meat

White meat is made up of muscles with fast fibers. Fast fiber muscles are used for quick bursts of activity, such as fleeing from danger. These muscles source their energy from glycogen, which is also stored in the muscles. White meat is a valuable source of iron and zinc. However, the mineral content per unit weight of white meat is about half the mineral content of red meat per unit weight. Similarly, vitamin B12 content is less in white meat.

Myoglobin content is low in white meat. This explains why the chicken breast, pork and veal are slightly pink or white. The color of fish meat is white because it lives in water and does not need to support its own body weight, and therefore has no myoglobin in its muscles.

1.1.3 Game Meat

Is referred to any type of meat that is hunted for food. The type of game meat greatly varies in different regions of the world. Besides climate, culture, local taste, and animal diversity, a local legal hunting license is also required for the hunting of game meat as these animals are greatly endangered. Cooking game meat will require a better understanding of the culinary technique as the meat is usually much tougher and the meat scent are much denser compare to commercial meat. However, learning to cook game meat from the local cook will definitely enhance the culinary experience that you could never learn anywhere from a book.

1.2 Meat and Their Nutritional Benefits

There are many different types of meat, and all have been part of the human diet for thousands of years. Generally speaking, meat offers excellent nutritional value and provides a good range of essential nutrients.

Here, we review the nutritional profile, potential benefits, and concerns of twelve common varieties of meat.

1.2.1 Pork

Pork is one of the most popular forms of meat in the world.

Despite some confusion on the issue, pork is classed as red meat. This is because it contains a large amount of myoglobin, a protein responsible for the red color of meat.

In fact, there are so many different cuts of pork, and a variety of meat products use it such as;

●Bacon

●Ham

●Hot dogs

●Jamon

●Prosciutto

●Salami

●Sausages

Nutrition Facts

Based on data provided by the USDA FoodCentral Database, here is the typical nutritional profile for ground pork meat per 100g (1).

(Note: Different cuts of meat will vary in their nutrient content, but this provides a general idea of each meat, and the cuts are as close to a match as possible.)

Benefits

●Pork is a particularly significant source of thiamin (vitamin B1). The content of this important vitamin is much higher than in other meat and plays an essential role in glucose metabolism and protecting cardiac health (2, 3).

●Much cheaper than most other meats.

●Pork contains decent amounts of selenium and zinc, which are responsible for boosting the immune system, defending against oxidative stress, and optimal hormone production (4, 5).

Concerns

●Pork is more susceptible to bacterial contamination and food-borne illnesses than other meat; ensuring the pork is thoroughly cooked is essential (6, 7).

1.2.2 Beef

When most people think of red meat, they probably imagine beef.

There are many different beef products and cuts of beef, ranging from hamburgers to ribeye steaks.

Nutrition Facts

Here are the nutrient values for ground beef per 100 grams (8).

It is also important to note that the nutritional properties of beef can vary considerably depending on the fat content.

For example, a ribeye steak will be much higher in fat (and calories) than a lean cut of meat.

To gain a better idea of how different cuts of beef compare, see this guide to steak varieties and their nutrient profiles.

Benefits

●Beef contributes large amounts of iron, zinc, and vitamin B12 to the average person’s diet (9).

●Interestingly, the main fatty acid in beef is none other than oleic acid. If you haven’t heard of it before, then it’s also the main fat in olive oil (and known as heart-healthy) (10, 11).

●Beef contains a wide variety of potentially beneficial compounds that include creatine, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), and glutathione (12, 13, 14).

Concerns

●Excessive beef consumption can increase circulating iron to unhealthy levels in some individuals. These high levels can increase the risk of various cancers and cardiovascular disease. This risk is especially the case in those with a genetic mutation called hemochromatosis, which causes over-absorption of heme iron (١٥, ١٦).

●Overcooking beef (burning) can lead to the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heterocyclic amines (HCAs). Both of these compounds are carcinogens, but we can minimize their risks by sensibly cooking meat (17, 18).

1.2.3 Lamb and Mutton

Both lamb and mutton are very similar types of meat, with one fundamental difference;

●Lamb is from a sheep less than one-year-old

●Mutton is the meat of an adult sheep

Just like beef and pork, there are a variety of popular lamb cuts — perhaps lamb chops are the most popular.

Nutrition Facts

Per 100g, the nutritional profile of ground lamb meat looks something like this (19);

Benefits

Generally speaking, both lamb and mutton are nutritious meat options.

●Because sheep graze on pasture all day, the omega 6 to 3 ratio is very low—and perhaps optimal—compared to other meats (20).

●Lamb contains a broad range of health-protective nutrients, especially zinc, selenium and B vitamins.

Concerns

Lamb is very expensive in comparison to other kinds of meat.

1.2.4 Chicken

Alongside beef and pork, chicken is one of the ‘big three’ popularity-wise.

However, chicken is a different classification of meat and comes under the poultry category.

People commonly refer to poultry as ‘white meat’.

As one of the most popular foods in the world, there are all sorts of chicken-based foods. These range from fried and roasted chicken to chicken soup and even chicken popcorn.

Nutrition Facts

Ground chicken meat provides the following nutrients per 100g (21);

Benefits

●Chicken is very cheap and affordable.

●For those who are trying to consume less fat/calories, chicken offers a smaller amount than other meats but with the same protein content. In other words, chicken is protein-dense.

●Chicken stock/broth offers a significant source of gelatin. As chicken bones have a lower density than other meats, collagen and gelatin are far easier to extract.

●Chicken provides a decent source of necessary vitamins and minerals, particularly selenium, potassium, phosphorus and B vitamins.

Concerns

●Unfortunately, bacterial contamination with strains such as E. coli and salmonella isn’t rare with chicken. As a result, strict hygiene procedures are necessary when handling raw meat (22, 23).

1.2.5 Turkey

Turkey is another type of white meat, probably best known for its appearance at the Christmas table.

It has both a deeper yet drier taste than chicken and is a less prevalent form of poultry.

As mentioned above, the most popular kind is probably roast turkey, but you can find a variety of processed and unprocessed turkey products.

Nutrition Facts

Turkey’s nutritional composition is very similar to chicken and looks like this (24);

Benefits

●Turkey is among the most protein-dense of all meats, offering 17.5 grams of protein for only 149 calories.

●Similar to chicken, turkey also provides a significant amount of B vitamins, potassium, selenium and phosphorus.

●Turkey provides an inexpensive source of high-quality protein.

Concerns

●Similar to other forms of poultry, turkey is more likely to harbor foodborne bacteria than red meat (25).

1.2.6 Venison

Venison refers to the flesh of a deer, and it is a traditionally rarer type of meat.

In recent years, sales of venison have been soaring as a result of its perceived healthy reputation among consumers.

But is that reputation justified?

Nutrition Facts

●Despite being red meat, venison is very lean. In terms of nutrition, it looks more like white meat.

●Here are the nutritional details per 100g of ground venison (26);

Benefits

●As deer mostly live and feed in the wild, venison has a much lower fat (and omega-6 to omega-3 ratio) than other meat. The excellent omega 6 to 3 ratio stands at approximately 2:1.

●Venison has more vitamins and minerals than beef despite having significantly fewer calories. In short, venison is possibly the most nutrient-dense meat out there.

Concerns

●One obstacle could be the price; venison costs a lot. Expect to pay around $30 for one pound of venison steak.

●The source is extremely important. In some areas, deer can be infected with the chronic wasting disease (CWD).

1.2.7 Duck

Duck is one of the less popular types of meat.

However, it has immense popularity in Chinese populations, where ‘Peking duck’ is a showpiece dish.

Like chicken and turkey, we can consider duck as a kind of white meat.

Nutrition Facts

Typical duck meat provides the following nutrients (27);

Benefits

●Duck provides a significant amount of selenium, phosphorus, and B vitamins. These vitamins are all important for optimal energy production and a well-functioning immune system (28, 29).

Concerns

●Making duck at home—or having a roast duck—is perfectly healthy. However, be aware that in Chinese cuisine, duck often comes in sauces made from a variety of additives, including sugars and oils.

1.2.8 Wild Boar

Wild boar is a non-domesticated pig that lives in the wild.

The meat of this animal is also known as ‘wild boar.’

Generally speaking, wild boar contains a higher proportion of protein and a smaller amount of fat than regular pork.

Nutrition Facts

Wild boar has very different nutritional values from domestic pork, and per 100 g, it looks like this (30);

Benefits

●As it lives and feeds in its natural environment, wild boar contains a higher proportion of omega-3 fatty acids than purely grain-fed pigs.

●Wild boar contains an array of health-protective nutrients, particularly B vitamins, selenium, and zinc.

Concerns

●Trichinella spiralis, a parasite sometimes found in pigs, occasionally contaminate wild boar meat. There have been several outbreaks of this in recent years, but it is quite rare (31, 32, 33).

1.2.9 Bison

Bison is a type of red meat that is nutritious and very lean.

For this reason, it is an excellent choice of meat for anyone looking to keep their fat or calorie intake a little lower.

Nutrition Facts

Bison is quite nutrient-dense and offers the following nutrition profile per 100 grams (34);

Benefits

●Although the above data is for conventionally raised animals, grass-fed bison can be very high in omega-3.

●Bison offers a wide range of nutrients for very few calories.

●See this full nutrition review of bison meat for further information.

Concerns

●Bison is very expensive compared to other types of red meat, making it unaffordable for some people.

1.2.10 Goose

Goose is a type of poultry that comes under the ‘white meat’ banner, and it is particularly popular throughout China, Europe, and the Middle East.

Nutrition Facts

Goose meat offers good nutritional value, and it provides the following nutrients per 100 grams (35);

Benefits

●Goose meat is a rich source of many nutrients, and it is particularly high in vitamin B6, phosphorus, and selenium.

●Similar to other poultry options, goose meat (without skin) is very protein-dense.

Concerns

●Depending on location, it can be difficult to find goose meat for sale.

●Sometimes wild geese can be susceptible to infections which can be transmittable to humans (by touch). However, this should not be an issue with goose meat bought from a store. Also, like with other poultry, cooking will kill any bacteria present (36).

See this full guide to goose meat for an in-depth look at its nutrition properties.

1.2.11 Rabbit

Although the idea of a rabbit as food can seem strange, it is a common type of meat in some parts of Europe and