Leonardo Da Vinci Notebook

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The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci
Volume 1
Translated by Jean Paul Richter
1888
PREFACE.
A singular fatality has ruled the destiny of nearly all the most
famous of Leonardo da Vinci's works. Two of the three most important
were never completed, obstacles having arisen during his life-time,
which obliged him to leave them unfinished; namely the Sforza
Monument and the Wall-painting of the Battle of Anghiari, while the
third--the picture of the Last Supper at Milan--has suffered
irremediable injury from decay and the repeated restorations to
which it was recklessly subjected during the XVIIth and XVIIIth
centuries. Nevertheless, no other picture of the Renaissance has
become so wellknown and popular through copies of every description.
Vasari says, and rightly, in his Life of Leonardo, "that he laboured

much more by his word than in fact or by deed", and the biographer
evidently had in his mind the numerous works in Manuscript which
have been preserved to this day. To us, now, it seems almost
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inexplicable that these valuable and interesting original texts

should have remained so long unpublished, and indeed forgotten. It
is certain that during the XVIth and XVIIth centuries their
exceptional value was highly appreciated. This is proved not merely
by the prices which they commanded, but also by the exceptional
interest which has been attached to the change of ownership of
merely a few pages of Manuscript.
That, notwithstanding this eagerness to possess the Manuscripts,

their contents remained a mystery, can only be accounted for by the
many and great difficulties attending the task of deciphering them.
The handwriting is so peculiar that it requires considerable
practice to read even a few detached phrases, much more to solve
with any certainty the numerous difficulties of alternative
readings, and to master the sense as a connected whole. Vasari
observes with reference to Leonardos writing: "he wrote backwards,
in rude characters, and with the left hand, so that any one who is
not practised in reading them, cannot understand them". The aid of a
mirror in reading reversed handwriting appears to me available only
for a first experimental reading. Speaking from my own experience,
the persistent use of it is too fatiguing and inconvenient to be
practically advisable, considering the enormous mass of Manuscripts
to be deciphered. And as, after all, Leonardo's handwriting runs
backwards just as all Oriental character runs backwards--that is
to say from right to left--the difficulty of reading direct from the
writing is not insuperable. This obvious peculiarity in the writing
is not, however, by any means the only obstacle in the way of
mastering the text. Leonardo made use of an orthography peculiar to
himself; he had a fashion of amalgamating several short words into
one long one, or, again, he would quite arbitrarily divide a long
word into two separate halves; added to this there is no punctuation
whatever to regulate the division and construction of the sentences,
nor are there any accents--and the reader may imagine that such
difficulties were almost sufficient to make the task seem a
desperate one to a beginner. It is therefore not surprising that the
good intentions of some of Leonardo s most reverent admirers should
have failed.
Leonardos literary labours in various departments both of Art and of

Science were those essentially of an enquirer, hence the analytical
method is that which he employs in arguing out his investigations
and dissertations. The vast structure of his scientific theories is
consequently built up of numerous separate researches, and it is

much to be lamented that he should never have collated and arranged

them. His love for detailed research--as it seems to me--was the
reason that in almost all the Manuscripts, the different paragraphs
appear to us to be in utter confusion; on one and the same page,
observations on the most dissimilar subjects follow each other
without any connection. A page, for instance, will begin with some
principles of astronomy, or the motion of the earth; then come the
laws of sound, and finally some precepts as to colour. Another page
will begin with his investigations on the structure of the
intestines, and end with philosophical remarks as to the relations
of poetry to painting; and so forth.
Leonardo himself lamented this confusion, and for that reason I do

not think that the publication of the texts in the order in which
they occur in the originals would at all fulfil his intentions. No
reader could find his way through such a labyrinth; Leonardo himself
could not have done it.
Added to this, more than half of the five thousand manuscript pages
which now remain to us, are written on loose leaves, and at present
arranged in a manner which has no justification beyond the fancy of
the collector who first brought them together to make volumes of
more or less extent. Nay, even in the volumes, the pages of which
were numbered by Leonardo himself, their order, so far as the
connection of the texts was concerned, was obviously a matter of
indifference to him. The only point he seems to have kept in view,
when first writing down his notes, was that each observation should
be complete to the end on the page on which it was begun. The
exceptions to this rule are extremely few, and it is certainly
noteworthy that we find in such cases, in bound volumes with his
numbered pages, the written observations: "turn over", "This is the
continuation of the previous page", and the like. Is not this
sufficient to prove that it was only in quite exceptional cases that
the writer intended the consecutive pages to remain connected, when
he should, at last, carry out the often planned arrangement of his
writings?
What this final arrangement was to be, Leonardo has in most cases
indicated with considerable completeness. In other cases this
authoritative clue is wanting, but the difficulties arising from
this are not insuperable; for, as the subject of the separate
paragraphs is always distinct and well defined in itself, it is
quite possible to construct a well-planned whole, out of the

scattered materials of his scientific system, and I may venture to

state that I have devoted especial care and thought to the due
execution of this responsible task.
The beginning of Leonardo's literary labours dates from about his

thirty-seventh year, and he seems to have carried them on without
any serious interruption till his death. Thus the Manuscripts that
remain represent a period of about thirty years. Within this space
of time his handwriting altered so little that it is impossible to
judge from it of the date of any particular text. The exact dates,
indeed, can only be assigned to certain note-books in which the year
is incidentally indicated, and in which the order of the leaves has
not been altered since Leonardo used them. The assistance these
afford for a chronological arrangement of the Manuscripts is
generally self evident. By this clue I have assigned to the original
Manuscripts now scattered through England, Italy and France, the
order of their production, as in many matters of detail it is highly
important to be able to verify the time and place at which certain
observations were made and registered. For this purpose the
Bibliography of the Manuscripts given at the end of Vol. II, may be
regarded as an Index, not far short of complete, of all Leonardo s
literary works now extant. The consecutive numbers (from 1 to 1566)
at the head of each passage in this work, indicate their logical
sequence with reference to the subjects; while the letters and
figures to the left of each paragraph refer to the original
Manuscript and number of the page, on which that particular passage
is to be found. Thus the reader, by referring to the List of
Manuscripts at the beginning of Volume I, and to the Bibliography at
the end of Volume II, can, in every instance, easily ascertain, not
merely the period to which the passage belongs, but also exactly
where it stood in the original document. Thus, too, by following the
sequence of the numbers in the Bibliographical index, the reader may
reconstruct the original order of the Manuscripts and recompose the
various texts to be found on the original sheets--so much of it,
that is to say, as by its subject-matter came within the scope of
this work. It may, however, be here observed that Leonardo s
Manuscripts contain, besides the passages here printed, a great
number of notes and dissertations on Mechanics, Physics, and some
other subjects, many of which could only be satisfactorily dealt
with by specialists. I have given as complete a review of these
writings as seemed necessary in the Bibliographical notes.
In 1651, Raphael Trichet Dufresne, of Paris, published a selection

from Leonardo's writings on painting, and this treatise became so

popular that it has since been reprinted about two-and-twenty times,
and in six different languages. But none of these editions were
derived from the original texts, which were supposed to have been
lost, but from early copies, in which Leonardo's text had been more
or less mutilated, and which were all fragmentary. The oldest and on
the whole the best copy of Leonardo's essays and precepts on
Painting is in the Vatican Library; this has been twice printed,
first by Manzi, in 1817, and secondly by Ludwig, in 1882. Still,
this ancient copy, and the published editions of it, contain much
for which it would be rash to hold Leonardo responsible, and some
portions--such as the very important rules for the proportions of
the human figure--are wholly wanting; on the other hand they contain
passages which, if they are genuine, cannot now be verified from any
original Manuscript extant. These copies, at any rate neither give
us the original order of the texts, as written by Leonardo, nor do
they afford any substitute, by connecting them on a rational scheme;
indeed, in their chaotic confusion they are anything rather than
satisfactory reading. The fault, no doubt, rests with the compiler
of the Vatican copy, which would seem to be the source whence all
the published and extensively known texts were derived; for, instead
of arranging the passages himself, he was satisfied with recording a
suggestion for a final arrangement of them into eight distinct
parts, without attempting to carry out his scheme. Under the
mistaken idea that this plan of distribution might be that, not of
the compiler, but of Leonardo himself, the various editors, down to
the present day, have very injudiciously continued to adopt this
order--or rather disorder.
I, like other enquirers, had given up the original Manuscript of the

Trattato della Pittura for lost, till, in the beginning of 1880, I
was enabled, by the liberality of Lord Ashburnham, to inspect his
Manuscripts, and was so happy as to discover among them the original
text of the best-known portion of the Trattato in his magnificent
library at Ashburnham Place. Though this discovery was of a fragment
only--but a considerable fragment--inciting me to further search,
it gave the key to the mystery which had so long enveloped the first
origin of all the known copies of the Trattato. The extensive
researches I was subsequently enabled to prosecute, and the results
of which are combined in this work, were only rendered possible by
the unrestricted permission granted me to investigate all the
Manuscripts by Leonardo dispersed throughout Europe, and to
reproduce the highly important original sketches they contain, by

the process of "photogravure". Her Majesty the Queen graciously

accorded me special permission to copy for publication the
Manuscripts at the Royal Library at Windsor. The Commission Centrale
Administrative de l'Institut de France, Paris, gave me, in the most
liberal manner, in answer to an application from Sir Frederic
Leighton, P. R. A., Corresponding member of the Institut, free
permission to work for several months in their private collection at
deciphering the Manuscripts preserved there. The same favour which
Lord Ashburnham had already granted me was extended to me by the
Earl of Leicester, the Marchese Trivulsi, and the Curators of the
Ambrosian Library at Milan, by the Conte Manzoni at Rome and by
other private owners of Manuscripts of Leonardo's; as also by the
Directors of the Louvre at Paris; the Accademia at Venice; the
Uffizi at Florence; the Royal Library at Turin; and the British
Museum, and the South Kensington Museum. I am also greatly indebted
to the Librarians of these various collections for much assistance
in my labours; and more particularly to Monsieur Louis Lalanne, of
the Institut de France, the Abbate Ceriani, of the Ambrosian
Library, Mr. Maude Thompson, Keeper of Manuscripts at the British
Museum, Mr. Holmes, the Queens Librarian at Windsor, the Revd Vere
Bayne, Librarian of Christ Church College at Oxford, and the Revd A.
Napier, Librarian to the Earl of Leicester at Holkham Hall.
In correcting the Italian text for the press, I have had the
advantage of valuable advice from the Commendatore Giov. Morelli,
Senatore del Regno, and from Signor Gustavo Frizzoni, of Milan. The
translation, under many difficulties, of the Italian text into
English, is mainly due to Mrs. R. C. Bell; while the rendering of
several of the most puzzling and important passages, particularly in
the second half of Vol. I, I owe to the indefatigable interest taken
in this work by Mr. E. J. Poynter R. A. Finally I must express my
thanks to Mr. Alfred Marks, of Long Ditton, who has most kindly
assisted me throughout in the revision of the proof sheets.
The notes and dissertations on the texts on Architecture in Vol. II

I owe to my friend Baron Henri de Geymuller, of Paris.
I may further mention with regard to the illustrations, that the

negatives for the production of the "photo-gravures" by Monsieur
Dujardin of Paris were all taken direct from the originals.
It is scarcely necessary to add that most of the drawings here

reproduced in facsimile have never been published before. As I am

now, on the termination of a work of several years' duration, in a

position to review the general tenour of Leonardos writings, I may
perhaps be permitted to add a word as to my own estimate of the
value of their contents. I have already shown that it is due to
nothing but a fortuitous succession of unfortunate circumstances,
that we should not, long since, have known Leonardo, not merely as a
Painter, but as an Author, a Philosopher, and a Naturalist. There
can be no doubt that in more than one department his principles and
discoveries were infinitely more in accord with the teachings of
modern science, than with the views of his contemporaries. For this
reason his extraordinary gifts and merits are far more likely to be
appreciated in our own time than they could have been during the
preceding centuries. He has been unjustly accused of having
squandered his powers, by beginning a variety of studies and then,
having hardly begun, throwing them aside. The truth is that the
labours of three centuries have hardly sufficed for the elucidation
of some of the problems which occupied his mighty mind.
Alexander von Humboldt has borne witness that "he was the first to
start on the road towards the point where all the impressions of our
senses converge in the idea of the Unity of Nature" Nay, yet more
may be said. The very words which are inscribed on the monument of
Alexander von Humboldt himself, at Berlin, are perhaps the most
appropriate in which we can sum up our estimate of Leonardo's
genius:
"Majestati naturae par ingenium."
LONDON, April 1883.
F. P. R.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME I.

PROLEGOMENA AND GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK ON PAINTING
Clavis Sigillorum and Index of Manuscripts.--The author's intention

to publish his MSS. (1).--The preparation of the MSS. for
publication (2).--Admonition to readers (3).--The disorder in the
MSS. (4).--Suggestions for the arrangement of MSS. treating of
particular subjects (5--8).--General introductions to the book on
painting (9--13).--The plan of the book on painting (14--17).--The
use of the book on painting (18).--Necessity of theoretical
knowledge (19, 20).--The function of the eye (21--23).--Variability
of the eye (24).--Focus of sight (25).--Differences of perception by
one eye and by both eyes (26--29).--The comparative size of the
image depends on the amount of light (30--39).
II.
LINEAR PERSPECTIVE
General remarks on perspective (40--41).--The elements of

perspective:--of the point (42--46).--Of the line (47--48).--The
nature of the outline (49).--Definition of perspective (50).--The
perception of the object depends on the direction of the eye
(51).--Experimental proof of the existence of the pyramid of sight
(52--55).--The relations of the distance point to the vanishing
point (55--56).--How to measure the pyramid of vision (57).--The
production of the pyramid of vision (58--64).--Proof by experiment
(65--66).--General conclusions (67).--That the contrary is
impossible (68).--A parallel case (69).--The function of the eye, as
explained by the camera obscura (70--71).--The practice of
perspective (72--73).--Refraction of the rays falling upon the eye
(74--75).--The inversion of the images (76).--The intersection of
the rays (77--82).--Demonstration of perspective by means of a
vertical glass plane (83--85.)--The angle of sight varies with the
distance (86--88).--Opposite pyramids in juxtaposition (89).--On
simple and complex perspective (90).--The proper distance of objects
from the eye (91--92).--The relative size of objects with regard to
their distance from the eye (93--98).--The apparent size of objects
denned by calculation (99--106).--On natural perspective (107--109).
III.
SIX BOOKS ON LIGHT AND SHADE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.--Prolegomena (110).--Scheme of the books on

light and shade (111).--Different principles and plans of treatment
(112--116).--Different sorts of light (117--118).--Definition of
the nature of shadows (119--122).--Of the various kinds of shadows
(123--125).--Of the various kinds of light (126--127).--General
remarks (128--129).--FIRST BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.--On the nature
of light (130--131).--The difference between light and lustre
(132--135).--The relations of luminous to illuminated bodies (136).
--Experiments on the relation of light and shadow within a room
(137--140).--Light and shadow with regard to the position of the
eye (141--145).--The law of the incidence of light
(146--147).--SECOND BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.--Gradations of strength
in the shadows (148--149).--On the intensity of shadows as dependent
on the distance from the light (150--152).--On the proportion of
light and shadow (153--157).--THIRD BOOK ON LIGHT AND
SHADE.--Definition of derived shadow (158--159).--Different sorts of
derived shadows (160--162).--On the relation of derived and primary
shadow (163--165).--On the shape of derived shadows (166--174).--On
the relative intensity of derived shadows (175--179).--Shadow as
produced by two lights of different size (180--181).--The effect of
light at different distances (182).--Further complications in the
derived shadows (183--187).--FOURTH BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.--On the
shape of cast shadows (188--191).--On the outlines of cast shadows
(192--195).--On the relative size of cast shadows (196.
197).--Effects on cast shadows by the tone of the back ground
(198).--A disputed proposition (199).--On the relative depth of
cast shadows (200--202).--FIFTH BOOK ON LIGHT AND
SHADE.--Principles of reflection (203. 204).--On reverberation
(205).--Reflection on water (206. 207).--Experiments with the mirror
(208--210).--Appendix:--On shadows in movement (211--212).--SIXTH
BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.--The effect of rays passing through holes
(213. 214).--On gradation of shadows (215. 216).--On relative
proportion of light and shadows (216--221).
IV.
PERSPECTIVE OF DISAPPEARANCE
Definition (222. 223).--An illustration by experiment (224).--A

guiding rule (225).---An experiment (226).--On indistinctness at
short distances (227--231).--On indistinctness at great distances
(232--234).--The importance of light and shade in the Prospettiva

de' perdimenti (235--239).--The effect of light or dark backgrounds

on the apparent size of objects (240--250).--Propositions on
Prospettiva de' perdimenti from MS. C. (250--262).
V.
THEORY OF COLOURS
The reciprocal effects of colours on objects placed opposite each

other (263--271).--Combination of different colours in cast shadows
(272).--The effect of colours in the camera obscura (273. 274).--On
the colours of derived shadows (275. 276).--On the nature of colours
(277. 278).--On gradations in the depth of colours (279. 280).--On
the reflection of colours (281--283).--On the use of dark and light
colours in painting (284--286).--On the colours of the rainbow
(287--288).
VI.
PERSPECTIVE OF COLOUR AND AERIAL PERSPECTIVE
General rules (289--291).--An exceptional case (292).--An experiment

(293).--The practice of the Prospettiva de' colori (294).--The rules
of aerial perspective (295--297).--On the relative density of the
atmosphere (298--299).--On the colour of the atmosphere (300--307).
VII.
ON THE PROPORTIONS AND ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE HUMAN FIGURE
Preliminary observations (308. 309).--Proportions of the head and

face (310--318).--Proportions of the head seen in front
(319--321).--Proportions of the foot (322--323).--Relative
proportions of the hand and foot (324).--Relative proportions of
the foot and of the face (325--327).--Proportions of the leg
(328--331).--On the central point of the whole body (332).--The
relative proportions of the torso and of the whole figure
(333).--The relative proportions of the head and of the torso
(334).--The relative proportions of the torso and of the leg (335.
336).--The relative proportions of the torso and of the foot
(337).--The proportions of the whole figure (338--341).--The torso
from the front and back (342).--Vitruvius' scheme of proportions
(343).--The arm and head (344).--Proportions of the arm

(345--349).--The movement of the arm (350--354).--The movement of

the torso (355--361).--The proportions vary at different ages
(362--367).--The movement of the human figure (368--375).--Of
walking up and down (375--379).--On the human body in action
(380--388).--On hair falling down in curls (389).--On draperies
(390--392).
VIII.
BOTANY FOR PAINTERS, AND ELEMENTS OF LANDSCAPE PAINTING
Classification of trees (393).--The relative thickness of the

branches to the trunk (394--396).--The law of proportion in the
growth of the branches (397--402).--The direction of growth
(403--407).--The forms of trees (408--411).--The insertion of the
leaves (412--419).--Light on branches and leaves (420--422).--The
proportions of light and shade in a leaf (423--426).--Of the
transparency of leaves (427--429).--The gradations of shade and
colour in leaves (430--434).--A classification of trees according to
their colours (435).--The proportions of light and shade in trees
(436--440).--The distribution of light and shade with reference to
the position of the spectator (441--443).--The effects of morning
light (444--448).--The effects of midday light (449).--The
appearance of trees in the distance (450--451).--The cast shadow of
trees (452. 453).--Light and shade on groups of trees
(454--457).--On the treatment of light for landscapes
(458--464).--On the treatment of light for views of towns
(465--469).--The effect of wind on trees (470--473).--Light and
shade on clouds (474--477).--On images reflected in water (478).--Of
rainbows and rain (479. 480).--Of flower seeds (481).
IX.
THE PRACTICE OF PAINTING
I. MORAL PRECEPTS FOR THE STUDENT OF PAINTING.--How to ascertain the

dispositions for an artistic career (482).--The course of
instruction for an artist (483--485).--The study of the antique
(486. 487).--The necessity of anatomical knowledge (488. 489).--How
to acquire practice (490).--Industry and thoroughness the first
conditions (491--493.)--The artist's private life and choice of
company (493. 494).--The distribution of time for studying (495--

497).--On the productive power of minor artists (498--501).--A

caution against one-sided study (502).--How to acquire universality
(503--506).--Useful games and exercises (507. 508).--II. THE
ARTIST'S STUDIO.--INSTRUMENTS AND HELPS FOR THE APPLICATION OF
PERSPECTIVE.--ON JUDGING OF A PICTURE.--On the size of the studio
(509).--On the construction of windows (510--512).--On the best
light for painting (513--520).--On various helps in preparing a
picture (521--530).--On the management of works (531. 532).--On the
limitations of painting (533--535).--On the choice of a position
(536. 537).--The apparent size of figures in a picture (538.
539).--The right position of the artist, when painting and of the
spectator (540--547).--III. THE PRACTICAL METHODS OF LIGHT AND SHADE
AND AERIAL PERSPECTIVE.--Gradations of light and shade (548).--On
the choice of light for a picture (549--554).--The distribution of
light and shade (555--559).--The juxtaposition of light and shade
(560. 561).--On the lighting of the background (562--565).--On the
lighting of white objects (566).--The methods of aerial perspective
(567--570).--IV. OF PORTRAIT AND FIGURE PAINTING.--Of sketching
figures and portraits (571. 572).--The position of the head
(573).--Of the light on the face (574--576).--General suggestions
for historical pictures (577--581).--How to represent the
differences of age and sex (582. 583).--Of representing the emotions
(584).--Of representing imaginary animals (585).--The selection of
forms (586--591).--How to pose figures (592).--Of appropriate
gestures (593--600).--V. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS.--Of painting
battle-pieces (601--603).--Of depicting night-scenes (604).--Of
depicting a tempest (605. 606).--Of representing the deluge
(607--609).--Of depicting natural phenomena (610. 611).--VI. THE
ARTIST'S MATERIALS.--Of chalk and paper (612--617).--On the
preparation and use of colours (618--627).--Of preparing the panel
(628).--The preparation of oils (629--634).--On varnishes (635--
637).--On chemical _materials (638--650).--VII. PHILOSOPHY AND
HISTORY OF THE ART OF PAINTING.--The relation of art and nature
(651. 652).--Painting is superior to poetry (653. 654).--Painting is
superior to sculpture (655. 656).--Aphorisms (657--659).--On the
history of painting (660. 661).--The painter's scope (662).
X.
STUDIES AND SKETCHES FOR PICTURES AND DECORATIONS
On pictures of the Madonna (663).--Bernardo di Bandino's portrait

(664).--Notes on the Last Supper (665--668).--On the battle of

Anghiari (669).--Allegorical representations referring to the duke

of Milan (670--673).--Allegorical representations
(674--678).--Arrangement of a picture (679).--List of drawings
(680).--Mottoes and Emblems (681--702).
The author's intention to publish his MSS.
1.
How by a certain machine many may stay some time under water. And
how and wherefore I do not describe my method of remaining under
water and how long I can remain without eating. And I do not publish
nor divulge these, by reason of the evil nature of men, who would
use them for assassinations at the bottom of the sea by destroying
ships, and sinking them, together with the men in them. Nevertheless
I will impart others, which are not dangerous because the mouth of
the tube through which you breathe is above the water, supported on
air sacks or cork.
[Footnote: The leaf on which this passage is written, is headed with

the words _Casi_ 39, and most of these cases begin with the word
'_Come_', like the two here given, which are the 26th and 27th. 7.
_Sughero_. In the Codex Antlanticus 377a; 1170a there is a sketch,
drawn with the pen, representing a man with a tube in his mouth, and
at the farther end of the tube a disk. By the tube the word
'_Channa_' is written, and by the disk the word '_sughero_'.]
The preparation of the MSS. for publication.
2.
When you put together the science of the motions of water, remember
to include under each proposition its application and use, in order
that this science may not be useless.--
[Footnote: A comparatively small portion of Leonardo's notes on

water-power was published at Bologna in 1828, under the title: "_Del
moto e misura dell'Acqua, di L. da Vinci_".]

Admonition to readers.
3.
Let no man who is not a Mathematician read the elements of my work.
The disorder in the MSS.
4.
Begun at Florence, in the house of Piero di Braccio Martelli, on the

22nd day of March 1508. And this is to be a collection without
order, taken from many papers which I have copied here, hoping to
arrange them later each in its place, according to the subjects of
which they may treat. But I believe that before I am at the end of
this [task] I shall have to repeat the same things several times;
for which, O reader! do not blame me, for the subjects are many and
memory cannot retain them [all] and say: 'I will not write this
because I wrote it before.' And if I wished to avoid falling into
this fault, it would be necessary in every case when I wanted to
copy [a passage] that, not to repeat myself, I should read over all
that had gone before; and all the more since the intervals are long
between one time of writing and the next.
[Footnote: 1. In the history of Florence in the early part of the

XVIth century _Piero di Braccio Martelli_ is frequently mentioned as
_Commissario della Signoria_. He was famous for his learning and at
his death left four books on Mathematics ready for the press; comp.
LITTA, _Famiglie celebri Italiane_, _Famiglia Martelli di
Firenze_.--In the Official Catalogue of MSS. in the Brit. Mus., New
Series Vol. I., where this passage is printed, _Barto_ has been
wrongly given for Braccio.
2. _addi 22 di marzo 1508_. The Christian era was computed in

Florence at that time from the Incarnation (Lady day, March 25th).
Hence this should be 1509 by our reckoning.
3. _racolto tratto di molte carte le quali io ho qui copiate_. We

must suppose that Leonardo means that he has copied out his own MSS.
and not those of others. The first thirteen leaves of the MS. in the
Brit. Mus. are a fair copy of some notes on physics.]

Suggestions for the arrangement of MSS treating of particular

subjects.(5-8).
5.
Of digging a canal. Put this in the Book of useful inventions and in

proving them bring forward the propositions already proved. And this
is the proper order; since if you wished to show the usefulness of
any plan you would be obliged again to devise new machines to prove
its utility and thus would confuse the order of the forty Books and
also the order of the diagrams; that is to say you would have to mix
up practice with theory, which would produce a confused and
incoherent work.
6.
I am not to blame for putting forward, in the course of my work on

science, any general rule derived from a previous conclusion.
7.
The Book of the science of Mechanics must precede the Book of useful
inventions.--Have your books on anatomy bound! [Footnote: 4. The
numerous notes on anatomy written on loose leaves and now in the
Royal collection at Windsor can best be classified in four Books,
corresponding to the different character and size of the paper. When
Leonardo speaks of '_li tua libri di notomia_', he probably means
the MSS. which still exist; if this hypothesis is correct the
present condition of these leaves might seem to prove that he only
carried out his purpose with one of the Books on anatomy. A borrowed
book on Anatomy is mentioned in F.O.]
8.
The order of your book must proceed on this plan: first simple
beams, then (those) supported from below, then suspended in part,
then wholly [suspended]. Then beams as supporting other weights
[Footnote: 4. Leonardo's notes on Mechanics are extraordinarily
numerous; but, for the reasons assigned in my introduction, they
have not been included in the present work.].
General introductions to the book on Painting (9-13).

9.
INTRODUCTION.
Seeing that I can find no subject specially useful or

pleasing--since the men who have come before me have taken for their
own every useful or necessary theme--I must do like one who, being
poor, comes last to the fair, and can find no other way of providing
himself than by taking all the things already seen by other buyers,
and not taken but refused by reason of their lesser value. I, then,
will load my humble pack with this despised and rejected
merchandise, the refuse of so many buyers; and will go about to
distribute it, not indeed in great cities, but in the poorer towns,
taking such a price as the wares I offer may be worth. [Footnote: It
need hardly be pointed out that there is in this 'Proemio' a covert
irony. In the second and third prefaces, Leonardo characterises his
rivals and opponents more closely. His protest is directed against
Neo-latinism as professed by most of the humanists of his time; its
futility is now no longer questioned.]
10.
INTRODUCTION.
I know that many will call this useless work [Footnote: 3. questa
essere opera inutile. By opera we must here understand libro di
pittura and particularly the treatise on Perspective.]; and they
will be those of whom Demetrius [Footnote: 4. Demetrio. "With regard
to the passage attributed to Demetrius", Dr. H. MÜLLER STRÜBING
writes, "I know not what to make of it. It is certainly not
Demetrius Phalereus that is meant and it can hardly be Demetrius
Poliorcetes. Who then can it be--for the name is a very common one?
It may be a clerical error for Demades and the maxim is quite in the
spirit of his writings I have not however been able to find any
corresponding passage either in the 'Fragments' (C. MULLER, _Orat.
Att._, II. 441) nor in the Supplements collected by DIETZ (_Rhein.
Mus._, vol. 29, p. 108)."
The same passage occurs as a simple Memorandum in the MS. Tr. 57,
apparently as a note for this '_Proemio_' thus affording some data
as to the time where these introductions were written.] declared
that he took no more account of the wind that came out their mouth
in words, than of that they expelled from their lower parts: men who

desire nothing but material riches and are absolutely devoid of that
of wisdom, which is the food and the only true riches of the mind.
For so much more worthy as the soul is than the body, so much more
noble are the possessions of the soul than those of the body. And
often, when I see one of these men take this work in his hand, I
wonder that he does not put it to his nose, like a monkey, or ask me
if it is something good to eat.
[Footnote: In the original, the Proemio dì prospettiva cioè

dell'uffitio dell'occhio (see No. 21) stands between this and the
preceding one, No. 9.]
INTRODUCTION.
I am fully concious that, not being a literary man, certain

presumptuous persons will think that they may reasonably blame me;
alleging that I am not a man of letters. Foolish folks! do they not
know that I might retort as Marius did to the Roman Patricians
[Footnote 21: _Come Mario disse ai patriti Romani_. "I am unable to
find the words here attributed by Leonardo to Marius, either in
Plutarch's Life of Marius or in the Apophthegmata (_Moralia_,
p.202). Nor do they occur in the writings of Valerius Maximus (who
frequently mentions Marius) nor in Velleius Paterculus (II, 11 to
43), Dio Cassius, Aulus Gellius, or Macrobius. Professor E.
MENDELSON of Dorpat, the editor of Herodian, assures me that no such
passage is the found in that author" (communication from Dr. MULLER
STRUBING). Leonardo evidently meant to allude to some well known
incident in Roman history and the mention of Marius is the result
probably of some confusion. We may perhaps read, for Marius,
Menenius Agrippa, though in that case it is true we must alter
Patriti to Plebei. The change is a serious one. but it would render
the passage perfectly clear.] by saying: That they, who deck
themselves out in the labours of others will not allow me my own.
They will say that I, having no literary skill, cannot properly
express that which I desire to treat of [Footnote 26: _le mie cose
.... che d'altra parola_. This can hardly be reconciled with Mons.
RAVAISSON'S estimate of L. da Vinci's learning. "_Leonard de Vinci
etait un admirateur et un disciple des anciens, aussi bien dans
l'art que dans la science et il tenait a passer pour tel meme aux
yeux de la posterite._" _Gaz. des Beaux arts. Oct. 1877.]; but they
do not know that my subjects are to be dealt with by experience
rather than by words [Footnote 28: See Footnote 26]; and
[experience] has been the mistress of those who wrote well. And so,

as mistress, I will cite her in all cases.
11.
Though I may not, like them, be able to quote other authors, I shall
rely on that which is much greater and more worthy:--on experience,
the mistress of their Masters. They go about puffed up and pompous,
dressed and decorated with [the fruits], not of their own labours,
but of those of others. And they will not allow me my own. They will
scorn me as an inventor; but how much more might they--who are not
inventors but vaunters and declaimers of the works of others--be
blamed.
INTRODUCTION.
And those men who are inventors and interpreters between Nature and
Man, as compared with boasters and declaimers of the works of
others, must be regarded and not otherwise esteemed than as the
object in front of a mirror, when compared with its image seen in
the mirror. For the first is something in itself, and the other
nothingness.--Folks little indebted to Nature, since it is only by
chance that they wear the human form and without it I might class
them with the herds of beasts.
12.
Many will think they may reasonably blame me by alleging that my

proofs are opposed to the authority of certain men held in the
highest reverence by their inexperienced judgments; not considering
that my works are the issue of pure and simple experience, who is
the one true mistress. These rules are sufficient to enable you to
know the true from the false--and this aids men to look only for
things that are possible and with due moderation--and not to wrap
yourself in ignorance, a thing which can have no good result, so
that in despair you would give yourself up to melancholy.
13.
Among all the studies of natural causes and reasons Light chiefly
delights the beholder; and among the great features of Mathematics
the certainty of its demonstrations is what preeminently (tends to)
elevate the mind of the investigator. Perspective, therefore, must
be preferred to all the discourses and systems of human learning. In

this branch [of science] the beam of light is explained on those

methods of demonstration which form the glory not so much of
Mathematics as of Physics and are graced with the flowers of both
[Footnote: 5. Such of Leonardo's notes on Optics or on Perspective
as bear exclusively on Mathematics or Physics could not be included
in the arrangement of the _libro di pittura_ which is here presented
to the reader. They are however but few.]. But its axioms being laid
down at great length, I shall abridge them to a conclusive brevity,
arranging them on the method both of their natural order and of
mathematical demonstration; sometimes by deduction of the effects
from the causes, and sometimes arguing the causes from the effects;
adding also to my own conclusions some which, though not included in
them, may nevertheless be inferred from them. Thus, if the Lord--who
is the light of all things--vouchsafe to enlighten me, I will treat
of Light; wherefore I will divide the present work into 3 Parts
[Footnote: 10. In the middle ages--for instance, by ROGER BACON, by
VITELLONE, with whose works Leonardo was certainly familiar, and by
all the writers of the Renaissance Perspective and Optics were not
regarded as distinct sciences. Perspective, indeed, is in its widest
application the science of seeing. Although to Leonardo the two
sciences were clearly separate, it is not so as to their names; thus
we find axioms in Optics under the heading Perspective. According to
this arrangement of the materials for the theoretical portion of the
_libro di pittura_ propositions in Perspective and in Optics stand
side by side or occur alternately. Although this particular chapter
deals only with Optics, it is not improbable that the words _partirò
la presente opera in 3 parti_ may refer to the same division into
three sections which is spoken of in chapters 14 to 17.].
The plan of the book on Painting (14--17).
14.
ON THE THREE BRANCHES OF PERSPECTIVE.
There are three branches of perspective; the first deals with the
reasons of the (apparent) diminution of objects as they recede from
the eye, and is known as Diminishing Perspective.--The second
contains the way in which colours vary as they recede from the eye.
The third and last is concerned with the explanation of how the
objects [in a picture] ought to be less finished in proportion as
they are remote (and the names are as follows):

Linear Perspective. The Perspective of Colour. The Perspective of

Disappearance.
[Footnote: 13. From the character of the handwriting I infer that

this passage was written before the year 1490.].
15.
ON PAINTING AND PERSPECTIVE.
The divisions of Perspective are 3, as used in drawing; of these,

the first includes the diminution in size of opaque objects; the
second treats of the diminution and loss of outline in such opaque
objects; the third, of the diminution and loss of colour at long
distances.
[Footnote: The division is here the same as in the previous chapter

No. 14, and this is worthy of note when we connect it with the fact
that a space of about 20 years must have intervened between the
writing of the two passages.]
16.
THE DISCOURSE ON PAINTING.
Perspective, as bearing on drawing, is divided into three principal

sections; of which the first treats of the diminution in the size of
bodies at different distances. The second part is that which treats
of the diminution in colour in these objects. The third [deals with]
the diminished distinctness of the forms and outlines displayed by
the objects at various distances.
17.
ON THE SECTIONS OF [THE BOOK ON] PAINTING.
The first thing in painting is that the objects it represents should

appear in relief, and that the grounds surrounding them at different
distances shall appear within the vertical plane of the foreground
of the picture by means of the 3 branches of Perspective, which are:
the diminution in the distinctness of the forms of the objects, the
diminution in their magnitude; and the diminution in their colour.
And of these 3 classes of Perspective the first results from [the

structure of] the eye, while the other two are caused by the
atmosphere which intervenes between the eye and the objects seen by
it. The second essential in painting is appropriate action and a due
variety in the figures, so that the men may not all look like
brothers, &c.
[Footnote: This and the two foregoing chapters must have been
written in 1513 to 1516. They undoubtedly indicate the scheme which
Leonardo wished to carry out in arranging his researches on
Perspective as applied to Painting. This is important because it is
an evidence against the supposition of H. LUDWIG and others, that
Leonardo had collected his principles of Perspective in one book so
early as before 1500; a Book which, according to the hypothesis,
must have been lost at a very early period, or destroyed possibly,
by the French (!) in 1500 (see H. LUDWIG. L. da Vinci: _Das Buch van
der Malerei_. Vienna 1882 III, 7 and 8).]
The use of the book on Painting.
18.
These rules are of use only in correcting the figures; since every
man makes some mistakes in his first compositions and he who knows
them not, cannot amend them. But you, knowing your errors, will
correct your works and where you find mistakes amend them, and
remember never to fall into them again. But if you try to apply
these rules in composition you will never make an end, and will
produce confusion in your works.
These rules will enable you to have a free and sound judgment; since
good judgment is born of clear understanding, and a clear
understanding comes of reasons derived from sound rules, and sound
rules are the issue of sound experience--the common mother of all
the sciences and arts. Hence, bearing in mind the precepts of my
rules, you will be able, merely by your amended judgment, to
criticise and recognise every thing that is out of proportion in a
work, whether in the perspective or in the figures or any thing
else.
Necessity of theoretical knowledge (19. 20).
19.

OF THE MISTAKES MADE BY THOSE WHO PRACTISE WITHOUT KNOWLEDGE.
Those who are in love with practice without knowledge are like the
sailor who gets into a ship without rudder or compass and who never
can be certain whether he is going. Practice must always be founded
on sound theory, and to this Perspective is the guide and the
gateway; and without this nothing can be done well in the matter of
drawing.
20.
The painter who draws merely by practice and by eye, without any
reason, is like a mirror which copies every thing placed in front of
it without being conscious of their existence.
The function of the eye (21-23).
21.
INTRODUCTION TO PERSPECTIVE:--THAT IS OF THE FUNCTION OF THE EYE.
Behold here O reader! a thing concerning which we cannot trust our

forefathers, the ancients, who tried to define what the Soul and
Life are--which are beyond proof, whereas those things, which can at
any time be clearly known and proved by experience, remained for
many ages unknown or falsely understood. The eye, whose function we
so certainly know by experience, has, down to my own time, been
defined by an infinite number of authors as one thing; but I find,
by experience, that it is quite another. [Footnote 13: Compare the
note to No. 70.]
[Footnote: In section 13 we already find it indicated that the study

of Perspective and of Optics is to be based on that of the functions
of the eye. Leonardo also refers to the science of the eye, in his
astronomical researches, for instance in MS. F 25b '_Ordine del
provare la terra essere una stella: Imprima difinisce l'occhio'_,
&c. Compare also MS. E 15b and F 60b. The principles of astronomical
perspective.]
22.
Here [in the eye] forms, here colours, here the character of every
part of the universe are concentrated to a point; and that point is

so marvellous a thing ... Oh! marvellous, O stupendous Necessity--by

thy laws thou dost compel every effect to be the direct result of
its cause, by the shortest path. These [indeed] are miracles;...
In so small a space it can be reproduced and rearranged in its whole

expanse. Describe in your anatomy what proportion there is between
the diameters of all the images in the eye and the distance from
them of the crystalline lens.
23.
OF THE 10 ATTRIBUTES OF THE EYE, ALL CONCERNED IN PAINTING.
Painting is concerned with all the 10 attributes of sight; which

are:--Darkness, Light, Solidity and Colour, Form and Position,
Distance and Propinquity, Motion and Rest. This little work of mine
will be a tissue [of the studies] of these attributes, reminding the
painter of the rules and methods by which he should use his art to
imitate all the works of Nature which adorn the world.
24.
ON PAINTING.
Variability of the eye.
1st. The pupil of the eye contracts, in proportion to the increase

of light which is reflected in it. 2nd. The pupil of the eye expands
in proportion to the diminution in the day light, or any other
light, that is reflected in it. 3rd. [Footnote: 8. The subject of
this third proposition we find fully discussed in MS. G. 44a.]. The
eye perceives and recognises the objects of its vision with greater
intensity in proportion as the pupil is more widely dilated; and
this can be proved by the case of nocturnal animals, such as cats,
and certain birds--as the owl and others--in which the pupil varies
in a high degree from large to small, &c., when in the dark or in
the light. 4th. The eye [out of doors] in an illuminated atmosphere
sees darkness behind the windows of houses which [nevertheless] are
light. 5th. All colours when placed in the shade appear of an equal
degree of darkness, among themselves. 6th. But all colours when
placed in a full light, never vary from their true and essential
hue.

25.
OF THE EYE.
Focus of sight.
If the eye is required to look at an object placed too near to it,

it cannot judge of it well--as happens to a man who tries to see the
tip of his nose. Hence, as a general rule, Nature teaches us that an
object can never be seen perfectly unless the space between it and
the eye is equal, at least, to the length of the face.
Differences of perception by one eye and by both eyes (26-29).
26.
OF THE EYE.
When both eyes direct the pyramid of sight to an object, that object
becomes clearly seen and comprehended by the eyes.
27.
Objects seen by one and the same eye appear sometimes large, and
sometimes small.
28.
The motion of a spectator who sees an object at rest often makes it

seem as though the object at rest had acquired the motion of the
moving body, while the moving person appears to be at rest.
ON PAINTING.
Objects in relief, when seen from a short distance with one eye,
look like a perfect picture. If you look with the eye _a_, _b_ at
the spot _c_, this point _c_ will appear to be at _d_, _f_, and if
you look at it with the eye _g_, _h_ will appear to be at _m_. A
picture can never contain in itself both aspects.
29.
Let the object in relief _t_ be seen by both eyes; if you will look

at the object with the right eye _m_, keeping the left eye _n_ shut,
the object will appear, or fill up the space, at _a_; and if you
shut the right eye and open the left, the object (will occupy the)
space _b_; and if you open both eyes, the object will no longer
appear at _a_ or _b_, but at _e_, _r_, _f_. Why will not a picture
seen by both eyes produce the effect of relief, as [real] relief
does when seen by both eyes; and why should a picture seen with one
eye give the same effect of relief as real relief would under the
same conditions of light and shade?
[Footnote: In the sketch, _m_ is the left eye and _n_ the right,
while the text reverses this lettering. We must therefore suppose
that the face in which the eyes _m_ and _n_ are placed is opposite
to the spectator.]
30.
The comparative size of the image depends on the amount of light

(30-39).
The eye will hold and retain in itself the image of a luminous body
better than that of a shaded object. The reason is that the eye is
in itself perfectly dark and since two things that are alike cannot
be distinguished, therefore the night, and other dark objects cannot
be seen or recognised by the eye. Light is totally contrary and
gives more distinctness, and counteracts and differs from the usual
darkness of the eye, hence it leaves the impression of its image.
31.
Every object we see will appear larger at midnight than at midday,

and larger in the morning than at midday.
This happens because the pupil of the eye is much smaller at midday
than at any other time.
32.
The pupil which is largest will see objects the largest. This is
evident when we look at luminous bodies, and particularly at those
in the sky. When the eye comes out of darkness and suddenly looks up
at these bodies, they at first appear larger and then diminish; and
if you were to look at those bodies through a small opening, you

would see them smaller still, because a smaller part of the pupil
would exercise its function.
[Footnote: 9. _buso_ in the Lomb. dialect is the same as _buco_.]
33.
When the eye, coming out of darkness suddenly sees a luminous body,
it will appear much larger at first sight than after long looking at
it. The illuminated object will look larger and more brilliant, when
seen with two eyes than with only one. A luminous object will appear
smaller in size, when the eye sees it through a smaller opening. A
luminous body of an oval form will appear rounder in proportion as
it is farther from the eye.
34.
Why when the eye has just seen the light, does the half light look
dark to it, and in the same way if it turns from the darkness the
half light look very bright?
35.
ON PAINTING.
If the eye, when [out of doors] in the luminous atmosphere, sees a

place in shadow, this will look very much darker than it really is.
This happens only because the eye when out in the air contracts the
pupil in proportion as the atmosphere reflected in it is more
luminous. And the more the pupil contracts, the less luminous do the
objects appear that it sees. But as soon as the eye enters into a
shady place the darkness of the shadow suddenly seems to diminish.
This occurs because the greater the darkness into which the pupil
goes the more its size increases, and this increase makes the
darkness seem less.
[Footnote 14: _La luce entrerà_. _Luce_ occurs here in the sense of
pupil of the eye as in no 51: C. A. 84b; 245a; I--5; and in many
other places.]
36.
ON PERSPECTIVE.

The eye which turns from a white object in the light of the sun and
goes into a less fully lighted place will see everything as dark.
And this happens either because the pupils of the eyes which have
rested on this brilliantly lighted white object have contracted so
much that, given at first a certain extent of surface, they will
have lost more than 3/4 of their size; and, lacking in size, they
are also deficient in [seeing] power. Though you might say to me: A
little bird (then) coming down would see comparatively little, and
from the smallness of his pupils the white might seem black! To this
I should reply that here we must have regard to the proportion of
the mass of that portion of the brain which is given up to the sense
of sight and to nothing else. Or--to return--this pupil in Man
dilates and contracts according to the brightness or darkness of
(surrounding) objects; and since it takes some time to dilate and
contract, it cannot see immediately on going out of the light and
into the shade, nor, in the same way, out of the shade into the
light, and this very thing has already deceived me in painting an
eye, and from that I learnt it.
37.
Experiment [showing] the dilatation and contraction of the pupil,

from the motion of the sun and other luminaries. In proportion as
the sky is darker the stars appear of larger size, and if you were
to light up the medium these stars would look smaller; and this
difference arises solely from the pupil which dilates and contracts
with the amount of light in the medium which is interposed between
the eye and the luminous body. Let the experiment be made, by
placing a candle above your head at the same time that you look at a
star; then gradually lower the candle till it is on a level with the
ray that comes from the star to the eye, and then you will see the
star diminish so much that you will almost lose sight of it.
[Footnote: No reference is made in the text to the letters on the

accompanying diagram.]
38.
The pupil of the eye, in the open air, changes in size with every
degree of motion from the sun; and at every degree of its changes
one and the same object seen by it will appear of a different size;
although most frequently the relative scale of surrounding objects

does not allow us to detect these variations in any single object we

may look at.
39.
The eye--which sees all objects reversed--retains the images for

some time. This conclusion is proved by the results; because, the
eye having gazed at light retains some impression of it. After
looking (at it) there remain in the eye images of intense
brightness, that make any less brilliant spot seem dark until the
eye has lost the last trace of the impression of the stronger light.
_II.
Linear Perspective.
We see clearly from the concluding sentence of section 49, where the
author directly addresses the painter, that he must certainly have
intended to include the elements of mathematics in his Book on the
art of Painting. They are therefore here placed at the beginning. In
section 50 the theory of the "Pyramid of Sight" is distinctly and
expressly put forward as the fundamental principle of linear
perspective, and sections 52 to 57 treat of it fully. This theory of
sight can scarcely be traced to any author of antiquity. Such
passages as occur in Euclid for instance, may, it is true, have
proved suggestive to the painters of the Renaissance, but it would
be rash to say any thing decisive on this point.
Leon Battista Alberti treats of the "Pyramid of Sight" at some

length in his first Book of Painting; but his explanation differs
widely from Leonardo's in the details. Leonardo, like Alberti, may
have borrowed the broad lines of his theory from some views commonly
accepted among painters at the time; but he certainly worked out its
application in a perfectly original manner.
The axioms as to the perception of the pyramid of rays are followed

by explanations of its origin, and proofs of its universal
application (58--69). The author recurs to the subject with endless
variations; it is evidently of fundamental importance in his
artistic theory and practice. It is unnecessary to discuss how far
this theory has any scientific value at the present day; so much as
this, at any rate, seems certain: that from the artist's point of
view it may still claim to be of immense practical utility.

According to Leonardo, on one hand, the laws of perspective are an

inalienable condition of the existence of objects in space; on the
other hand, by a natural law, the eye, whatever it sees and wherever
it turns, is subjected to the perception of the pyramid of rays in
the form of a minute target. Thus it sees objects in perspective
independently of the will of the spectator, since the eye receives
the images by means of the pyramid of rays "just as a magnet
attracts iron".
In connection with this we have the function of the eye explained by

the Camera obscura, and this is all the more interesting and
important because no writer previous to Leonardo had treated of this
subject_ (70--73). _Subsequent passages, of no less special interest,
betray his knowledge of refraction and of the inversion of the image
in the camera and in the eye_ (74--82).
_From the principle of the transmission of the image to the eye and
to the camera obscura he deduces the means of producing an
artificial construction of the pyramid of rays or--which is the same
thing--of the image. The fundamental axioms as to the angle of sight
and the vanishing point are thus presented in a manner which is as
complete as it is simple and intelligible_ (86--89).
_Leonardo distinguishes between simple and complex perspective_ (90,

91). _The last sections treat of the apparent size of objects at
various distances and of the way to estimate it_ (92--109).
General remarks on perspective (40-41).
40.
ON PAINTING.
Perspective is the best guide to the art of Painting.
[Footnote: 40. Compare 53, 2.]
41.
The art of perspective is of such a nature as to make what is flat

appear in relief and what is in relief flat.

The elements of perspective--Of the Point (42-46).
42.
All the problems of perspective are made clear by the five terms of
mathematicians, which are:--the point, the line, the angle, the
superficies and the solid. The point is unique of its kind. And the
point has neither height, breadth, length, nor depth, whence it is
to be regarded as indivisible and as having no dimensions in space.
The line is of three kinds, straight, curved and sinuous and it has
neither breadth, height, nor depth. Hence it is indivisible,
excepting in its length, and its ends are two points. The angle is
the junction of two lines in a point.
43.
A point is not part of a line.
44.
OF THE NATURAL POINT.
The smallest natural point is larger than all mathematical points,

and this is proved because the natural point has continuity, and any
thing that is continuous is infinitely divisible; but the
mathematical point is indivisible because it has no size.
[Footnote: This definition was inserted by Leonardo on a MS. copy on

parchment of the well-known _"Trattato d'Architettura civile e
militare"_ &c. by FRANCESCO DI GIORGIO; opposite a passage where the
author says: _'In prima he da sapere che punto è quella parie della
quale he nulla--Linia he luncheza senza àpieza; &c.]
45.
1, The superficies is a limitation of the body. 2, and the

limitation of a body is no part of that body. 4, and the limitation
of one body is that which begins another. 3, that which is not part
of any body is nothing. Nothing is that which fills no space.
If one single point placed in a circle may be the starting point of

an infinite number of lines, and the termination of an infinite
number of lines, there must be an infinite number of points

separable from this point, and these when reunited become one again;
whence it follows that the part may be equal to the whole.
46.
The point, being indivisible, occupies no space. That which occupies

no space is nothing. The limiting surface of one thing is the
beginning of another. 2. That which is no part of any body is called
nothing. 1. That which has no limitations, has no form. The
limitations of two conterminous bodies are interchangeably the
surface of each. All the surfaces of a body are not parts of that
body.
Of the line (47-48).
47.
DEFINITION OF THE NATURE OF THE LINE.
The line has in itself neither matter nor substance and may rather
be called an imaginary idea than a real object; and this being its
nature it occupies no space. Therefore an infinite number of lines
may be conceived of as intersecting each other at a point, which has
no dimensions and is only of the thickness (if thickness it may be
called) of one single line.
HOW WE MAY CONCLUDE THAT A SUPERFICIES TERMINATES IN A POINT?
An angular surface is reduced to a point where it terminates in an

angle. Or, if the sides of that angle are produced in a straight
line, then--beyond that angle--another surface is generated,
smaller, or equal to, or larger than the first.
48.
OF DRAWING OUTLINE.
Consider with the greatest care the form of the outlines of every
object, and the character of their undulations. And these
undulations must be separately studied, as to whether the curves are
composed of arched convexities or angular concavities.
49.

The nature of the outline.
The boundaries of bodies are the least of all things. The

proposition is proved to be true, because the boundary of a thing is
a surface, which is not part of the body contained within that
surface; nor is it part of the air surrounding that body, but is the
medium interposted between the air and the body, as is proved in its
place. But the lateral boundaries of these bodies is the line
forming the boundary of the surface, which line is of invisible
thickness. Wherefore O painter! do not surround your bodies with
lines, and above all when representing objects smaller than nature;
for not only will their external outlines become indistinct, but
their parts will be invisible from distance.
50.
Definition of Perspective.
[Drawing is based upon perspective, which is nothing else than a

thorough knowledge of the function of the eye. And this function
simply consists in receiving in a pyramid the forms and colours of
all the objects placed before it. I say in a pyramid, because there
is no object so small that it will not be larger than the spot where
these pyramids are received into the eye. Therefore, if you extend
the lines from the edges of each body as they converge you will
bring them to a single point, and necessarily the said lines must
form a pyramid.]
[Perspective is nothing more than a rational demonstration applied

to the consideration of how objects in front of the eye transmit
their image to it, by means of a pyramid of lines. The _Pyramid_ is
the name I apply to the lines which, starting from the surface and
edges of each object, converge from a distance and meet in a single
point.]
[Perspective is a rational demonstration, by which we may

practically and clearly understand how objects transmit their own
image, by lines forming a Pyramid (centred) in the eye.]
Perspective is a rational demonstration by which experience confirms

that every object sends its image to the eye by a pyramid of lines;
and bodies of equal size will result in a pyramid of larger or

smaller size, according to the difference in their distance, one

from the other. By a pyramid of lines I mean those which start from
the surface and edges of bodies, and, converging from a distance
meet in a single point. A point is said to be that which [having no
dimensions] cannot be divided, and this point placed in the eye
receives all the points of the cone.
[Footnote: 50. 1-5. Compare with this the Proem. No. 21. The
paragraphs placed in brackets: lines 1-9, 10-14, and 17--20, are
evidently mere sketches and, as such, were cancelled by the writer;
but they serve as a commentary on the final paragraph, lines 22-29.]
51.
IN WHAT WAY THE EYE SEES OBJECTS PLACED IN FRONT OF IT.
The perception of the object depends on the direction of the eye.
Supposing that the ball figured above is the ball of the eye and let
the small portion of the ball which is cut off by the line _s t_ be
the pupil and all the objects mirrored on the centre of the face of
the eye, by means of the pupil, pass on at once and enter the pupil,
passing through the crystalline humour, which does not interfere in
the pupil with the things seen by means of the light. And the pupil
having received the objects, by means of the light, immediately
refers them and transmits them to the intellect by the line _a b_.
And you must know that the pupil transmits nothing perfectly to the
intellect or common sense excepting when the objects presented to it
by means of light, reach it by the line _a b;_ as, for instance, by
the line _b c_. For although the lines _m n_ and _f g_ may be seen
by the pupil they are not perfectly taken in, because they do not
coincide with the line _a b_. And the proof is this: If the eye,
shown above, wants to count the letters placed in front, the eye
will be obliged to turn from letter to letter, because it cannot
discern them unless they lie in the line _a b;_ as, for instance, in
the line _a c_. All visible objects reach the eye by the lines of a
pyramid, and the point of the pyramid is the apex and centre of it,
in the centre of the pupil, as figured above.
[Footnote: 51. In this problem the eye is conceived of as fixed and

immovable; this is plain from line 11.]
Experimental proof of the existence of the pyramid of sight (52-55).

52.
Perspective is a rational demonstration, confirmed by experience,

that all objects transmit their image to the eye by a pyramid of
lines.
By a pyramid of lines I understand those lines which start from the

edges of the surface of bodies, and converging from a distance, meet
in a single point; and this point, in the present instance, I will
show to be situated in the eye which is the universal judge of all
objects. By a point I mean that which cannot be divided into parts;
therefore this point, which is situated in the eye, being
indivisible, no body is seen by the eye, that is not larger than
this point. This being the case it is inevitable that the lines
which come from the object to the point must form a pyramid. And if
any man seeks to prove that the sense of sight does not reside in
this point, but rather in the black spot which is visible in the
middle of the pupil, I might reply to him that a small object could
never diminish at any distance, as it might be a grain of millet or
of oats or of some similar thing, and that object, if it were larger
than the said [black] spot would never be seen as a whole; as may be
seen in the diagram below. Let _a_. be the seat of sight, _b e_ the
lines which reach the eye. Let _e d_ be the grains of millet within
these lines. You plainly see that these will never diminish by
distance, and that the body _m n_ could not be entirely covered by
it. Therefore you must confess that the eye contains within itself
one single indivisible point _a_, to which all the points converge
of the pyramid of lines starting from an object, as is shown below.
Let _a_. _b_. be the eye; in the centre of it is the point above
mentioned. If the line _e f_ is to enter as an image into so small
an opening in the eye, you must confess that the smaller object
cannot enter into what is smaller than itself unless it is
diminished, and by diminishing it must take the form of a pyramid.
53.
PERSPECTIVE.
Perspective comes in where judgment fails [as to the distance] in

objects which diminish. The eye can never be a true judge for
determining with exactitude how near one object is to another which
is equal to it [in size], if the top of that other is on the level

of the eye which sees them on that side, excepting by means of the
vertical plane which is the standard and guide of perspective. Let
_n_ be the eye, _e f_ the vertical plane above mentioned. Let _a b c
d_ be the three divisions, one below the other; if the lines _a n_
and _c n_ are of a given length and the eye _n_ is in the centre,
then _a b_ will look as large as _b c. c d_ is lower and farther off
from _n_, therefore it will look smaller. And the same effect will
appear in the three divisions of a face when the eye of the painter
who is drawing it is on a level with the eye of the person he is
painting.
54.
TO PROVE HOW OBJECTS REACH THE EYE.
If you look at the sun or some other luminous body and then shut
your eyes you will see it again inside your eye for a long time.
This is evidence that images enter into the eye.
The relations of the distance points to the vanishing point (55-56).
55.
ELEMENTS OF PERSPECTIVE.
All objects transmit their image to the eye in pyramids, and the
nearer to the eye these pyramids are intersected the smaller will
the image appear of the objects which cause them. Therefore, you may
intersect the pyramid with a vertical plane [Footnote 4: _Pariete_.
Compare the definitions in 85, 2-5, 6-27. These lines refer
exclusively to the third diagram. For the better understanding of
this it should be observed that _c s_ must be regarded as
representing the section or profile of a square plane, placed
horizontally (comp. lines 11, 14, 17) for which the word _pianura_
is subsequently employed (20, 22). Lines 6-13 contain certain
preliminary observations to guide the reader in understanding the
diagram; the last three seem to have been added as a supplement.
Leonardo's mistake in writing _t denota_ (line 6) for _f denota_ has
been rectified.] which reaches the base of the pyramid as is shown
in the plane _a n_.
The eye _f_ and the eye _t_ are one and the same thing; but the eye
_f_ marks the distance, that is to say how far you are standing from

the object; and the eye _t_ shows you the direction of it; that is
whether you are opposite, or on one side, or at an angle to the
object you are looking at. And remember that the eye _f_ and the eye
_t_ must always be kept on the same level. For example if you raise
or lower the eye from the distance point _f_ you must do the same
with the direction point _t_. And if the point _f_ shows how far the
eye is distant from the square plane but does not show on which side
it is placed--and, if in the same way, the point _t_ show _s_ the
direction and not the distance, in order to ascertain both you must
use both points and they will be one and the same thing. If the eye
_f_ could see a perfect square of which all the sides were equal to
the distance between _s_ and _c_, and if at the nearest end of the
side towards the eye a pole were placed, or some other straight
object, set up by a perpendicular line as shown at _r s_--then, I
say, that if you were to look at the side of the square that is
nearest to you it will appear at the bottom of the vertical plane _r
s_, and then look at the farther side and it would appear to you at
the height of the point _n_ on the vertical plane. Thus, by this
example, you can understand that if the eye is above a number of
objects all placed on the same level, one beyond another, the more
remote they are the higher they will seem, up to the level of the
eye, but no higher; because objects placed upon the level on which
your feet stand, so long as it is flat--even if it be extended into
infinity--would never be seen above the eye; since the eye has in
itself the point towards which all the cones tend and converge which
convey the images of the objects to the eye. And this point always
coincides with the point of diminution which is the extreme of all
we can see. And from the base line of the first pyramid as far as
the diminishing point
[Footnote: The two diagrams above the chapter are explained by the
first five lines. They have, however, more letters than are referred
to in the text, a circumstance we frequently find occasion to
remark.]
56.
there are only bases without pyramids which constantly diminish up

to this point. And from the first base where the vertical plane is
placed towards the point in the eye there will be only pyramids
without bases; as shown in the example given above. Now, let _a b_
be the said vertical plane and _r_ the point of the pyramid
terminating in the eye, and _n_ the point of diminution which is

always in a straight line opposite the eye and always moves as the
eye moves--just as when a rod is moved its shadow moves, and moves
with it, precisely as the shadow moves with a body. And each point
is the apex of a pyramid, all having a common base with the
intervening vertical plane. But although their bases are equal their
angles are not equal, because the diminishing point is the
termination of a smaller angle than that of the eye. If you ask me:
"By what practical experience can you show me these points?" I
reply--so far as concerns the diminishing point which moves with you
--when you walk by a ploughed field look at the straight furrows
which come down with their ends to the path where you are walking,
and you will see that each pair of furrows will look as though they
tried to get nearer and meet at the [farther] end.
[Footnote: For the easier understanding of the diagram and of its

connection with the preceding I may here remark that the square
plane shown above in profile by the line _c s_ is here indicated by
_e d o p_. According to lines 1, 3 _a b_ must be imagined as a plane
of glass placed perpendicularly at _o p_.]
57.
How to measure the pyramid of vision.
As regards the point in the eye; it is made more intelligible by

this: If you look into the eye of another person you will see your
own image. Now imagine 2 lines starting from your ears and going to
the ears of that image which you see in the other man's eye; you
will understand that these lines converge in such a way that they
would meet in a point a little way beyond your own image mirrored in
the eye. And if you want to measure the diminution of the pyramid in
the air which occupies the space between the object seen and the
eye, you must do it according to the diagram figured below. Let _m
n_ be a tower, and _e f_ a, rod, which you must move backwards and
forwards till its ends correspond with those of the tower [Footnote
9: _I sua stremi .. della storre_ (its ends ... of the tower) this
is the case at _e f_.]; then bring it nearer to the eye, at _c d_
and you will see that the image of the tower seems smaller, as at _r
o_. Then [again] bring it closer to the eye and you will see the rod
project far beyond the image of the tower from _a_ to _b_ and from
_t_ to _b_, and so you will discern that, a little farther within,
the lines must converge in a point.

The Production of pyramid of Vision (58-60).
58.
PERSPECTIVE.
The instant the atmosphere is illuminated it will be filled with an

infinite number of images which are produced by the various bodies
and colours assembled in it. And the eye is the target, a loadstone,
of these images.
59.
The whole surface of opaque bodies displays its whole image in all
the illuminated atmosphere which surrounds them on all sides.
60.
That the atmosphere attracts to itself, like a loadstone, all the

images of the objects that exist in it, and not their forms merely
but their nature may be clearly seen by the sun, which is a hot and
luminous body. All the atmosphere, which is the all-pervading
matter, absorbs light and heat, and reflects in itself the image of
the source of that heat and splendour and, in each minutest portion,
does the same. The Northpole does the same as the loadstone shows;
and the moon and the other planets, without suffering any
diminution, do the same. Among terrestrial things musk does the same
and other perfumes.
61.
All bodies together, and each by itself, give off to the surrounding
air an infinite number of images which are all-pervading and each
complete, each conveying the nature, colour and form of the body
which produces it.
It can clearly be shown that all bodies are, by their images,

all-pervading in the surrounding atmosphere, and each complete in
itself as to substance form and colour; this is seen by the images
of the various bodies which are reproduced in one single perforation
through which they transmit the objects by lines which intersect and
cause reversed pyramids, from the objects, so that they are upside
down on the dark plane where they are first reflected. The reason of

this is--
[Footnote: The diagram intended to illustrate the statement (Pl. II

No. i) occurs in the original between lines 3 and 4. The three
circles must be understood to represent three luminous bodies which
transmit their images through perforations in a wall into a dark
chamber, according to a law which is more fully explained in 75?81.
So far as concerns the present passage the diagram is only intended
to explain that the images of the three bodies may be made to
coalesce at any given spot. In the circles are written,
giallo--yellow, biàcho--white, rosso--red.
The text breaks off at line 8. The paragraph No.40 follows here in
the original MS.]
62.
Every point is the termination of an infinite number of lines, which

diverge to form a base, and immediately, from the base the same
lines converge to a pyramid [imaging] both the colour and form. No
sooner is a form created or compounded than suddenly infinite lines
and angles are produced from it; and these lines, distributing
themselves and intersecting each other in the air, give rise to an
infinite number of angles opposite to each other. Given a base, each
opposite angle, will form a triangle having a form and proportion
equal to the larger angle; and if the base goes twice into each of
the 2 lines of the pyramid the smaller triangle will do the same.
63.
Every body in light and shade fills the surrounding air with
infinite images of itself; and these, by infinite pyramids diffused
in the air, represent this body throughout space and on every side.
Each pyramid that is composed of a long assemblage of rays includes
within itself an infinite number of pyramids and each has the same
power as all, and all as each. A circle of equidistant pyramids of
vision will give to their object angles of equal size; and an eye at
each point will see the object of the same size. The body of the
atmosphere is full of infinite pyramids composed of radiating
straight lines, which are produced from the surface of the bodies in
light and shade, existing in the air; and the farther they are from
the object which produces them the more acute they become and
although in their distribution they intersect and cross they never

mingle together, but pass through all the surrounding air,

independently converging, spreading, and diffused. And they are all
of equal power [and value]; all equal to each, and each equal to
all. By these the images of objects are transmitted through all
space and in every direction, and each pyramid, in itself, includes,
in each minutest part, the whole form of the body causing it.
64.
The body of the atmosphere is full of infinite radiating pyramids

produced by the objects existing in it. These intersect and cross
each other with independent convergence without interfering with
each other and pass through all the surrounding atmosphere; and are
of equal force and value--all being equal to each, each to all. And
by means of these, images of the body are transmitted everywhere and
on all sides, and each receives in itself every minutest portion of
the object that produces it.
Proof by experiment (65-66).
65.
PERSPECTIVE.
The air is filled with endless images of the objects distributed in

it; and all are represented in all, and all in one, and all in each,
whence it happens that if two mirrors are placed in such a manner as
to face each other exactly, the first will be reflected in the
second and the second in the first. The first being reflected in the
second takes to it the image of itself with all the images
represented in it, among which is the image of the second mirror,
and so, image within image, they go on to infinity in such a manner
as that each mirror has within it a mirror, each smaller than the
last and one inside the other. Thus, by this example, it is clearly
proved that every object sends its image to every spot whence the
object itself can be seen; and the converse: That the same object
may receive in itself all the images of the objects that are in
front of it. Hence the eye transmits through the atmosphere its own
image to all the objects that are in front of it and receives them
into itself, that is to say on its surface, whence they are taken in
by the common sense, which considers them and if they are pleasing
commits them to the memory. Whence I am of opinion: That the
invisible images in the eyes are produced towards the object, as the

image of the object to the eye. That the images of the objects must
be disseminated through the air. An instance may be seen in several
mirrors placed in a circle, which will reflect each other endlessly.
When one has reached the other it is returned to the object that
produced it, and thence--being diminished--it is returned again to
the object and then comes back once more, and this happens
endlessly. If you put a light between two flat mirrors with a
distance of 1 braccio between them you will see in each of them an
infinite number of lights, one smaller than another, to the last. If
at night you put a light between the walls of a room, all the parts
of that wall will be tinted with the image of that light. And they
will receive the light and the light will fall on them, mutually,
that is to say, when there is no obstacle to interrupt the
transmission of the images. This same example is seen in a greater
degree in the distribution of the solar rays which all together, and
each by itself, convey to the object the image of the body which
causes it. That each body by itself alone fills with its images the
atmosphere around it, and that the same air is able, at the same
time, to receive the images of the endless other objects which are
in it, this is clearly proved by these examples. And every object is
everywhere visible in the whole of the atmosphere, and the whole in
every smallest part of it; and all the objects in the whole, and all
in each smallest part; each in all and all in every part.
66.
The images of objects are all diffused through the atmosphere which
receives them; and all on every side in it. To prove this, let _a c
e_ be objects of which the images are admitted to a dark chamber by
the small holes _n p_ and thrown upon the plane _f i_ opposite to
these holes. As many images will be produced in the chamber on the
plane as the number of the said holes.
67.
General conclusions.
All objects project their whole image and likeness, diffused and
mingled in the whole of the atmosphere, opposite to themselves. The
image of every point of the bodily surface, exists in every part of
the atmosphere. All the images of the objects are in every part of
the atmosphere. The whole, and each part of the image of the
atmosphere is [reflected] in each point of the surface of the bodies

presented to it. Therefore both the part and the whole of the images
of the objects exist, both in the whole and in the parts of the
surface of these visible bodies. Whence we may evidently say that
the image of each object exists, as a whole and in every part, in
each part and in the whole interchangeably in every existing body.
As is seen in two mirrors placed opposite to each other.
68.
That the contrary is impossible.
It is impossible that the eye should project from itself, by visual

rays, the visual virtue, since, as soon as it opens, that front
portion [of the eye] which would give rise to this emanation would
have to go forth to the object and this it could not do without
time. And this being so, it could not travel so high as the sun in a
month's time when the eye wanted to see it. And if it could reach
the sun it would necessarily follow that it should perpetually
remain in a continuous line from the eye to the sun and should
always diverge in such a way as to form between the sun and the eye
the base and the apex of a pyramid. This being the case, if the eye
consisted of a million worlds, it would not prevent its being
consumed in the projection of its virtue; and if this virtue would
have to travel through the air as perfumes do, the winds would bent
it and carry it into another place. But we do [in fact] see the mass
of the sun with the same rapidity as [an object] at the distance of
a braccio, and the power of sight is not disturbed by the blowing of
the winds nor by any other accident.
[Footnote: The view here refuted by Leonardo was maintained among

others by Bramantino, Leonardo's Milanese contemporary. LOMAZZO
writes as follows in his Trattato dell' Arte della pittura &c.
(Milano 1584. Libr. V cp. XXI): Sovviemmi di aver già letto in certi
scritti alcune cose di Bramantino milanese, celebratissimo pittore,
attenente alla prospettiva, le quali ho voluto riferire, e quasi
intessere in questo luogo, affinchè sappiamo qual fosse l'opinione
di cosi chiaro e famoso pittore intorno alla prospettiva . . Scrive
Bramantino che la prospettiva è una cosa che contrafà il naturale, e
che ciò si fa in tre modi
Circa il primo modo che si fa con ragione, per essere la cosa in

poche parole conclusa da Bramantino in maniera che giudico non
potersi dir meglio, contenendovi si tutta Parte del principio al

fine, io riferirò per appunto le proprie parole sue (cp. XXII, Prima
prospettiva di Bramantino). La prima prospettiva fa le cose di
punto, e l'altra non mai, e la terza più appresso. Adunque la prima
si dimanda prospettiva, cioè ragione, la quale fa l'effetto dell'
occhio, facendo crescere e calare secondo gli effetti degli occhi.
Questo crescere e calare non procede della cosa propria, che in se
per esser lontana, ovvero vicina, per quello effetto non può
crescere e sminuire, ma procede dagli effetti degli occhi, i quali
sono piccioli, e perciò volendo vedere tanto gran cosa_, bisogna che
mandino fuora la virtù visiva, _la quale si dilata in tanta
larghezza, che piglia tutto quello che vuoi vedere, ed_ arrivando a
quella cosa la vede dove è: _e da lei agli occhi per quello circuito
fino all' occhio, e tutto quello termine è pieno di quella cosa_.
It is worthy of note that Leonardo had made his memorandum refuting

this view, at Milan in 1492]
69.
A parallel case.
Just as a stone flung into the water becomes the centre and cause of
many circles, and as sound diffuses itself in circles in the air: so
any object, placed in the luminous atmosphere, diffuses itself in
circles, and fills the surrounding air with infinite images of
itself. And is repeated, the whole every-where, and the whole in
every smallest part. This can be proved by experiment, since if you
shut a window that faces west and make a hole [Footnote: 6. Here the
text breaks off.] . .
[Footnote: Compare LIBRI, _Histoire des sciences mathématiques en

Italie_. Tome III, p. 43.]
The function of the eye as explained by the camera obscura (70. 71).
70.
If the object in front of the eye sends its image to the eye, the
eye, on the other hand, sends its image to the object, and no
portion whatever of the object is lost in the images it throws off,
for any reason either in the eye or the object. Therefore we may
rather believe it to be the nature and potency of our luminous
atmosphere which absorbs the images of the objects existing in it,

than the nature of the objects, to send their images through the
air. If the object opposite to the eye were to send its image to the
eye, the eye would have to do the same to the object, whence it
might seem that these images were an emanation. But, if so, it would
be necessary [to admit] that every object became rapidly smaller;
because each object appears by its images in the surrounding
atmosphere. That is: the whole object in the whole atmosphere, and
in each part; and all the objects in the whole atmosphere and all of
them in each part; speaking of that atmosphere which is able to
contain in itself the straight and radiating lines of the images
projected by the objects. From this it seems necessary to admit that
it is in the nature of the atmosphere, which subsists between the
objects, and which attracts the images of things to itself like a
loadstone, being placed between them.
PROVE HOW ALL OBJECTS, PLACED IN ONE POSITION, ARE ALL EVERYWHERE
AND ALL IN EACH PART.
I say that if the front of a building--or any open piazza or

field--which is illuminated by the sun has a dwelling opposite to
it, and if, in the front which does not face the sun, you make a
small round hole, all the illuminated objects will project their
images through that hole and be visible inside the dwelling on the
opposite wall which may be made white; and there, in fact, they will
be upside down, and if you make similar openings in several places
in the same wall you will have the same result from each. Hence the
images of the illuminated objects are all everywhere on this wall
and all in each minutest part of it. The reason, as we clearly know,
is that this hole must admit some light to the said dwelling, and
the light admitted by it is derived from one or many luminous
bodies. If these bodies are of various colours and shapes the rays
forming the images are of various colours and shapes, and so will
the representations be on the wall.
[Footnote: 70. 15--23. This section has already been published in the
"_Saggio delle Opere di Leonardo da Vinci_" Milan 1872, pp. 13, 14.
G. Govi observes upon it, that Leonardo is not to be regarded as the
inventor of the Camera obscura, but that he was the first to explain
by it the structure of the eye. An account of the Camera obscura
first occurs in CESARE CESARINI's Italian version of Vitruvius, pub.
1523, four years after Leonardo's death. Cesarini expressly names
Benedettino Don Papnutio as the inventor of the Camera obscura. In
his explanation of the function of the eye by a comparison with the

Camera obscura Leonardo was the precursor of G. CARDANO, Professor

of Medicine at Bologna (died 1576) and it appears highly probable
that this is, in fact, the very discovery which Leonardo ascribes to
himself in section 21 without giving any further details.]
71.
HOW THE IMAGES OF OBJECTS RECEIVED BY THE EYE INTERSECT WITHIN THE
CRYSTALLINE HUMOUR OF THE EYE.
An experiment, showing how objects transmit their images or

pictures, intersecting within the eye in the crystalline humour, is
seen when by some small round hole penetrate the images of
illuminated objects into a very dark chamber. Then, receive these
images on a white paper placed within this dark room and rather near
to the hole and you will see all the objects on the paper in their
proper forms and colours, but much smaller; and they will be upside
down by reason of that very intersection. These images being
transmitted from a place illuminated by the sun will seem actually
painted on this paper which must be extremely thin and looked at
from behind. And let the little perforation be made in a very thin
plate of iron. Let _a b e d e_ be the object illuminated by the sun
and _o r_ the front of the dark chamber in which is the said hole at
_n m_. Let _s t_ be the sheet of paper intercepting the rays of the
images of these objects upside down, because the rays being
straight, _a_ on the right hand becomes _k_ on the left, and _e_ on
the left becomes _f_ on the right; and the same takes place inside
the pupil.
[Footnote: This chapter is already known through a translation into

French by VENTURI. Compare his '_Essai sur les ouvrages
physico-mathématiques de L. da Vinci avec des fragments tirés de ses
Manuscrits, apportés de l'Italie. Lu a la premiere classe de
l'Institut national des Sciences et Arts.' Paris, An V_ (1797).]
The practice of perspective (72. 73).
72.
In the practice of perspective the same rules apply to light and to

the eye.
73.

The object which is opposite to the pupil of the eye is seen by that
pupil and that which is opposite to the eye is seen by the pupil.
Refraction of the rays falling upon the eye (74. 75)
74.
The lines sent forth by the image of an object to the eye do not
reach the point within the eye in straight lines.
75.
If the judgment of the eye is situated within it, the straight lines
of the images are refracted on its surface because they pass through
the rarer to the denser medium. If, when you are under water, you
look at objects in the air you will see them out of their true
place; and the same with objects under water seen from the air.
The intersection of the rays (76-82).
76.
The inversion of the images.
All the images of objects which pass through a window [glass pane]
from the free outer air to the air confined within walls, are seen
on the opposite side; and an object which moves in the outer air
from east to west will seem in its shadow, on the wall which is
lighted by this confined air, to have an opposite motion.
77.
THE PRINCIPLE ON WHICH THE IMAGES OF BODIES PASS IN BETWEEN THE

MARGINS OF THE OPENINGS BY WHICH THEY ENTER.
What difference is there in the way in which images pass through

narrow openings and through large openings, or in those which pass
by the sides of shaded bodies? By moving the edges of the opening
through which the images are admitted, the images of immovable
objects are made to move. And this happens, as is shown in the 9th
which demonstrates: [Footnote 11: _per la 9a che dicie_. When
Leonardo refers thus to a number it serves to indicate marginal

diagrams; this can in some instances be distinctly proved. The ninth

sketch on the page W. L. 145 b corresponds to the middle sketch of
the three reproduced.] the images of any object are all everywhere,
and all in each part of the surrounding air. It follows that if one
of the edges of the hole by which the images are admitted to a dark
chamber is moved it cuts off those rays of the image that were in
contact with it and gets nearer to other rays which previously were
remote from it &c.
OF THE MOVEMENT OF THE EDGE AT THE RIGHT OR LEFT, OR THE UPPER, OR

LOWER EDGE.
If you move the right side of the opening the image on the left will
move [being that] of the object which entered on the right side of
the opening; and the same result will happen with all the other
sides of the opening. This can be proved by the 2nd of this which
shows: all the rays which convey the images of objects through the
air are straight lines. Hence, if the images of very large bodies
have to pass through very small holes, and beyond these holes
recover their large size, the lines must necessarily intersect.
[Footnote: 77. 2. In the first of the three diagrams Leonardo had

drawn only one of the two margins, et _m_.]
78.
Necessity has provided that all the images of objects in front of

the eye shall intersect in two places. One of these intersections is
in the pupil, the other in the crystalline lens; and if this were
not the case the eye could not see so great a number of objects as
it does. This can be proved, since all the lines which intersect do
so in a point. Because nothing is seen of objects excepting their
surface; and their edges are lines, in contradistinction to the
definition of a surface. And each minute part of a line is equal to
a point; for _smallest_ is said of that than which nothing can be
smaller, and this definition is equivalent to the definition of the
point. Hence it is possible for the whole circumference of a circle
to transmit its image to the point of intersection, as is shown in
the 4th of this which shows: all the smallest parts of the images
cross each other without interfering with each other. These
demonstrations are to illustrate the eye. No image, even of the
smallest object, enters the eye without being turned upside down;
but as it penetrates into the crystalline lens it is once more

reversed and thus the image is restored to the same position within
the eye as that of the object outside the eye.
79.
OF THE CENTRAL LINE OF THE EYE.
Only one line of the image, of all those that reach the visual
virtue, has no intersection; and this has no sensible dimensions
because it is a mathematical line which originates from a
mathematical point, which has no dimensions.
According to my adversary, necessity requires that the central line

of every image that enters by small and narrow openings into a dark
chamber shall be turned upside down, together with the images of the
bodies that surround it.
80.
AS TO WHETHER THE CENTRAL LINE OF THE IMAGE CAN BE INTERSECTED, OR

NOT, WITHIN THE OPENING.
It is impossible that the line should intersect itself; that is,

that its right should cross over to its left side, and so, its left
side become its right side. Because such an intersection demands two
lines, one from each side; for there can be no motion from right to
left or from left to right in itself without such extension and
thickness as admit of such motion. And if there is extension it is
no longer a line but a surface, and we are investigating the
properties of a line, and not of a surface. And as the line, having
no centre of thickness cannot be divided, we must conclude that the
line can have no sides to intersect each other. This is proved by
the movement of the line _a f_ to _a b_ and of the line _e b_ to _e
f_, which are the sides of the surface _a f e b_. But if you move
the line _a b_ and the line _e f_, with the frontends _a e_, to the
spot _c_, you will have moved the opposite ends _f b_ towards each
other at the point _d_. And from the two lines you will have drawn
the straight line _c d_ which cuts the middle of the intersection of
these two lines at the point _n_ without any intersection. For, you
imagine these two lines as having breadth, it is evident that by
this motion the first will entirely cover the other--being equal
with it--without any intersection, in the position _c d_. And this
is sufficient to prove our proposition.

81.
HOW THE INNUMERABLE RAYS FROM INNUMERABLE IMAGES CAN CONVERGE TO A

POINT.
Just as all lines can meet at a point without interfering with each
other--being without breadth or thickness--in the same way all the
images of surfaces can meet there; and as each given point faces the
object opposite to it and each object faces an opposite point, the
converging rays of the image can pass through the point and diverge
again beyond it to reproduce and re-magnify the real size of that
image. But their impressions will appear reversed--as is shown in
the first, above; where it is said that every image intersects as it
enters the narrow openings made in a very thin substance.
Read the marginal text on the other side.
In proportion as the opening is smaller than the shaded body, so

much less will the images transmitted through this opening intersect
each other. The sides of images which pass through openings into a
dark room intersect at a point which is nearer to the opening in
proportion as the opening is narrower. To prove this let _a b_ be an
object in light and shade which sends not its shadow but the image
of its darkened form through the opening _d e_ which is as wide as
this shaded body; and its sides _a b_, being straight lines (as has
been proved) must intersect between the shaded object and the
opening; but nearer to the opening in proportion as it is smaller
than the object in shade. As is shown, on your right hand and your
left hand, in the two diagrams _a_ _b_ _c_ _n_ _m_ _o_ where, the
right opening _d_ _e_, being equal in width to the shaded object _a_
_b_, the intersection of the sides of the said shaded object occurs
half way between the opening and the shaded object at the point _c_.
But this cannot happen in the left hand figure, the opening _o_
being much smaller than the shaded object _n_ _m_.
It is impossible that the images of objects should be seen between

the objects and the openings through which the images of these
bodies are admitted; and this is plain, because where the atmosphere
is illuminated these images are not formed visibly.
When the images are made double by mutually crossing each other they
are invariably doubly as dark in tone. To prove this let _d_ _e_ _h_

be such a doubling which although it is only seen within the space

between the bodies in _b_ and _i_ this will not hinder its being
seen from _f_ _g_ or from _f_ _m_; being composed of the images _a_
_b_ _i_ _k_ which run together in _d_ _e_ _h_.
[Footnote: 81. On the original diagram at the beginning of this

chapter Leonardo has written "_azurro_" (blue) where in the
facsimile I have marked _A_, and "_giallo_" (yellow) where _B_
stands.]
[Footnote: 15--23. These lines stand between the diagrams I and III.]
[Footnote: 24--53. These lines stand between the diagrams I and II.]
[Footnote: 54--97 are written along the left side of diagram I.]
82.
An experiment showing that though the pupil may not be moved from
its position the objects seen by it may appear to move from their
places.
If you look at an object at some distance from you and which is

below the eye, and fix both your eyes upon it and with one hand
firmly hold the upper lid open while with the other you push up the
under lid--still keeping your eyes fixed on the object gazed at--you
will see that object double; one [image] remaining steady, and the
other moving in a contrary direction to the pressure of your finger
on the lower eyelid. How false the opinion is of those who say that
this happens because the pupil of the eye is displaced from its
position.
How the above mentioned facts prove that the pupil acts upside down
in seeing.
[Footnote: 82. 14--17. The subject indicated by these two headings is

fully discussed in the two chapters that follow them in the
original; but it did not seem to me appropriate to include them
here.]
Demostration of perspective by means of a vertical glass plane

(83-85).

83.
OF THE PLANE OF GLASS.
Perspective is nothing else than seeing place [or objects] behind a

plane of glass, quite transparent, on the surface of which the
objects behind that glass are to be drawn. These can be traced in
pyramids to the point in the eye, and these pyramids are intersected
on the glass plane.
84.
Pictorial perspective can never make an object at the same distance,

look of the same size as it appears to the eye. You see that the
apex of the pyramid _f c d_ is as far from the object _c_ _d_ as the
same point _f_ is from the object _a_ _b_; and yet _c_ _d_, which is
the base made by the painter's point, is smaller than _a_ _b_ which
is the base of the lines from the objects converging in the eye and
refracted at _s_ _t_, the surface of the eye. This may be proved by
experiment, by the lines of vision and then by the lines of the
painter's plumbline by cutting the real lines of vision on one and
the same plane and measuring on it one and the same object.
85.
PERSPECTIVE.
The vertical plane is a perpendicular line, imagined as in front of

the central point where the apex of the pyramids converge. And this
plane bears the same relation to this point as a plane of glass
would, through which you might see the various objects and draw them
on it. And the objects thus drawn would be smaller than the
originals, in proportion as the distance between the glass and the
eye was smaller than that between the glass and the objects.
PERSPECTIVE.
The different converging pyramids produced by the objects, will

show, on the plane, the various sizes and remoteness of the objects
causing them.
PERSPECTIVE.

All those horizontal planes of which the extremes are met by

perpendicular lines forming right angles, if they are of equal width
the more they rise to the level of eye the less this is seen, and
the more the eye is above them the more will their real width be
seen.
PERSPECTIVE.
The farther a spherical body is from the eye the more you will see
of it.
The angle of sight varies with the distance (86-88)
86.
A simple and natural method; showing how objects appear to the eye
without any other medium.
The object that is nearest to the eye always seems larger than
another of the same size at greater distance. The eye _m_, seeing
the spaces _o v x_, hardly detects the difference between them, and
the. reason of this is that it is close to them [Footnote 6: It is
quite inconceivable to me why M. RAVAISSON, in a note to his French
translation of this simple passage should have remarked: _Il est
clair que c'est par erreur que Leonard a ècrit_ per esser visino _au
lieu de_ per non esser visino. (See his printed ed. of MS. A. p.
38.)]; but if these spaces are marked on the vertical plane _n o_
the space _o v_ will be seen at _o r_, and in the same way the space
_v x_ will appear at _r q_. And if you carry this out in any place
where you can walk round, it will look out of proportion by reason
of the great difference in the spaces _o r_ and _r q_. And this
proceeds from the eye being so much below [near] the plane that the
plane is foreshortened. Hence, if you wanted to carry it out, you
would have [to arrange] to see the perspective through a single hole
which must be at the point _m_, or else you must go to a distance of
at least 3 times the height of the object you see. The plane _o p_
being always equally remote from the eye will reproduce the objects
in a satisfactory way, so that they may be seen from place to place.
87.
How every large mass sends forth its images, which may diminish
through infinity.

The images of any large mass being infinitely divisible may be

infinitely diminished.
88.
Objects of equal size, situated in various places, will be seen by

different pyramids which will each be smaller in proportion as the
object is farther off.
89.
Perspective, in dealing with distances, makes use of two opposite

pyramids, one of which has its apex in the eye and the base as
distant as the horizon. The other has the base towards the eye and
the apex on the horizon. Now, the first includes the [visible]
universe, embracing all the mass of the objects that lie in front of
the eye; as it might be a vast landscape seen through a very small
opening; for the more remote the objects are from the eye, the
greater number can be seen through the opening, and thus the pyramid
is constructed with the base on the horizon and the apex in the eye,
as has been said. The second pyramid is extended to a spot which is
smaller in proportion as it is farther from the eye; and this second
perspective [= pyramid] results from the first.
90.
SIMPLE PERSPECTIVE.
Simple perspective is that which is constructed by art on a vertical

plane which is equally distant from the eye in every part. Complex
perspective is that which is constructed on a ground-plan in which
none of the parts are equally distant from the eye.
91.
PERSPECTIVE.
No surface can be seen exactly as it is, if the eye that sees it is

not equally remote from all its edges.
92.

WHY WHEN AN OBJECT IS PLACED CLOSE TO THE EYE ITS EDGES ARE
INDISTINCT.
When an object opposite the eye is brought too close to it, its
edges must become too confused to be distinguished; as it happens
with objects close to a light, which cast a large and indistinct
shadow, so is it with an eye which estimates objects opposite to it;
in all cases of linear perspective, the eye acts in the same way as
the light. And the reason is that the eye has one leading line (of
vision) which dilates with distance and embraces with true
discernment large objects at a distance as well as small ones that
are close. But since the eye sends out a multitude of lines which
surround this chief central one and since these which are farthest
from the centre in this cone of lines are less able to discern with
accuracy, it follows that an object brought close to the eye is not
at a due distance, but is too near for the central line to be able
to discern the outlines of the object. So the edges fall within the
lines of weaker discerning power, and these are to the function of
the eye like dogs in the chase which can put up the game but cannot
take it. Thus these cannot take in the objects, but induce the
central line of sight to turn upon them, when they have put them up.
Hence the objects which are seen with these lines of sight have
confused outlines.
The relative size of objects with regard to their distance from the
eye (93-98).
93.
PERSPECTIVE.
Small objects close at hand and large ones at a distance, being seen
within equal angles, will appear of the same size.
94.
PERSPECTIVE.
There is no object so large but that at a great distance from the

eye it does not appear smaller than a smaller object near.
95.

Among objects of equal size that which is most remote from the eye
will look the smallest. [Footnote: This axiom, sufficiently clear in
itself, is in the original illustrated by a very large diagram,
constructed like that here reproduced under No. 108.
The same idea is repeated in C. A. I a; I a, stated as follows:

_Infra le cose d'equal grandeza quella si dimostra di minor figura
che sara più distante dall' ochio_.--]
96.
Why an object is less distinct when brought near to the eye, and why
with spectacles, or without the naked eye sees badly either close or
far off [as the case may be].
97.
PERSPECTIVE.
Among objects of equal size, that which is most remote from the eye
will look the smallest.
98.
PERSPECTIVE.
No second object can be so much lower than the first as that the eye
will not see it higher than the first, if the eye is above the
second.
PERSPECTIVE.
And this second object will never be so much higher than the first
as that the eye, being below them, will not see the second as lower
than the first.
PERSPECTIVE.
If the eye sees a second square through the centre of a smaller one,
that is nearer, the second, larger square will appear to be
surrounded by the smaller one.
PERSPECTIVE--PROPOSITION.

Objects that are farther off can never be so large but that those in
front, though smaller, will conceal or surround them.
DEFINITION.
This proposition can be proved by experiment. For if you look

through a small hole there is nothing so large that it cannot be
seen through it and the object so seen appears surrounded and
enclosed by the outline of the sides of the hole. And if you stop it
up, this small stopping will conceal the view of the largest object.
The apparent size of objects defined by calculation (99-105)
99.
OF LINEAR PERSPECTIVE.
Linear Perspective deals with the action of the lines of sight, in

proving by measurement how much smaller is a second object than the
first, and how much the third is smaller than the second; and so on
by degrees to the end of things visible. I find by experience that
if a second object is as far beyond the first as the first is from
the eye, although they are of the same size, the second will seem
half the size of the first and if the third object is of the same
size as the 2nd, and the 3rd is as far beyond the second as the 2nd
from the first, it will appear of half the size of the second; and
so on by degrees, at equal distances, the next farthest will be half
the size of the former object. So long as the space does not exceed
the length of 20 braccia. But, beyond 20 braccia figures of equal
size will lose 2/4 and at 40 braccia they will lose 9/10, and 19/20
at 60 braccia, and so on diminishing by degrees. This is if the
picture plane is distant from you twice your own height. If it is
only as far off as your own height, there will be a great difference
between the first braccia and the second.
[Footnote: This chapter is included in DUFRESNE'S and MANZI'S

editions of the Treatise on Painting. H. LUDWIG, in his commentary,
calls this chapter "_eines der wichtigsten im ganzen Tractat_", but
at the same time he asserts that its substance has been so
completely disfigured in the best MS. copies that we ought not to
regard Leonardo as responsible for it. However, in the case of this
chapter, the old MS. copies agree with the original as it is

reproduced above. From the chapters given later in this edition,

which were written at a subsequent date, it would appear that
Leonardo corrected himself on these points.]
100.
OF THE DIMINUTION OF OBJECTS AT VARIOUS DISTANCES.
A second object as far distant from the first as the first is from
the eye will appear half the size of the first, though they be of
the same size really.
OF THE DEGREES OF DIMINUTION.
If you place the vertical plane at one braccio from the eye, the
first object, being at a distance of 4 braccia from your eye will
diminish to 3/4 of its height at that plane; and if it is 8 braccia
from the eye, to 7/8; and if it is 16 braccia off, it will diminish
to 15/16 of its height and so on by degrees, as the space doubles
the diminution will double.
101.
Begin from the line _m f_ with the eye below; then go up and do the
same with the line _n f_, then with the eye above and close to the 2
gauges on the ground look at _m n_; then as _c m_ is to _m n_ so
will _n m_ be to _n s_.
If _a n_ goes 3 times into _f b, m p_ will do the same into _p g_.

Then go backwards so far as that _c d_ goes twice into _a n_ and _p
g_ will be equal to _g h_. And _m p_ will go into _h p_ as often as
_d c_ into _o p_.
[Footnote: The first three lines are unfortunately very obscure.]
102.
I GIVE THE DEGREES OF THE OBJECTS SEEN BY THE EYE AS THE MUSICIAN
DOES THE NOTES HEARD BY THE EAR.
Although the objects seen by the eye do, in fact, touch each other
as they recede, I will nevertheless found my rule on spaces of 20
braccia each; as a musician does with notes, which, though they can

be carried on one into the next, he divides into degrees from note
to note calling them 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th; and has affixed a name
to each degree in raising or lowering the voice.
103.
PERSPECTIVE.
Let _f_ be the level and distance of the eye; and _a_ the vertical
plane, as high as a man; let _e_ be a man, then I say that on the
plane this will be the distance from the plane to the 2nd man.
104.
The differences in the diminution of objects of equal size in

consequence of their various remoteness from the eye will bear among
themselves the same proportions as those of the spaces between the
eye and the different objects.
Find out how much a man diminishes at a certain distance and what
its length is; and then at twice that distance and at 3 times, and
so make your general rule.
105.
The eye cannot judge where an object high up ought to descend.
106.
PERSPECTIVE.
If two similar and equal objects are placed one beyond the other at
a given distance the difference in their size will appear greater in
proportion as they are nearer to the eye that sees them. And
conversely there will seem to be less difference in their size in
proportion as they are remote from the eve.
This is proved by the proportions of their distances among

themselves; for, if the first of these two objects were as far from
the eye, as the 2nd from the first this would be called the second
proportion: since, if the first is at 1 braccia from the eye and the
2nd at two braccia, two being twice as much as one, the first object
will look twice as large as the second. But if you place the first

at a hundred braccia from you and the second at a hundred and one,
you will find that the first is only so much larger than the second
as 100 is less than 101; and the converse is equally true. And
again, the same thing is proved by the 4th of this book which shows
that among objects that are equal, there is the same proportion in
the diminution of the size as in the increase in the distance from
the eye of the spectator.
On natural perspective (107--109).
107.
OF EQUAL OBJECTS THE MOST REMOTE LOOK THE SMALLEST.
The practice of perspective may be divided into ... parts [Footnote

4: _in_ ... _parte_. The space for the number is left blank in the
original.], of which the first treats of objects seen by the eye at
any distance; and it shows all these objects just as the eye sees
them diminished, without obliging a man to stand in one place rather
than another so long as the plane does not produce a second
foreshortening.
But the second practice is a combination of perspective derived

partly from art and partly from nature and the work done by its
rules is in every portion of it, influenced by natural perspective
and artificial perspective. By natural perspective I mean that the
plane on which this perspective is represented is a flat surface,
and this plane, although it is parallel both in length and height,
is forced to diminish in its remoter parts more than in its nearer
ones. And this is proved by the first of what has been said above,
and its diminution is natural. But artificial perspective, that is
that which is devised by art, does the contrary; for objects equal
in size increase on the plane where it is foreshortened in
proportion as the eye is more natural and nearer to the plane, and
as the part of the plane on which it is figured is farther from the
eye.
And let this plane be _d e_ on which are seen 3 equal circles which
are beyond this plane _d e_, that is the circles _a b c_. Now you
see that the eye _h_ sees on the vertical plane the sections of the
images, largest of those that are farthest and smallest of the
nearest.

108.
Here follows what is wanting in the margin at the foot on the other
side of this page.
Natural perspective acts in a contrary way; for, at greater

distances the object seen appears smaller, and at a smaller distance
the object appears larger. But this said invention requires the
spectator to stand with his eye at a small hole and then, at that
small hole, it will be very plain. But since many (men's) eyes
endeavour at the same time to see one and the same picture produced
by this artifice only one can see clearly the effect of this
perspective and all the others will see confusion. It is well
therefore to avoid such complex perspective and hold to simple
perspective which does not regard planes as foreshortened, but as
much as possible in their proper form. This simple perspective, in
which the plane intersects the pyramids by which the images are
conveyed to the eye at an equal distance from the eye is our
constant experience, from the curved form of the pupil of the eye on
which the pyramids are intersected at an equal distance from the
visual virtue.
[Footnote 24: _la prima di sopra_ i. e. the first of the three

diagrams which, in the original MS., are placed in the margin at the
beginning of this chapter.]
109.
OF A MIXTURE OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL PERSPECTIVE.
This diagram distinguishes natural from artificial perspective. But

before proceeding any farther I will define what is natural and what
is artificial perspective. Natural perspective says that the more
remote of a series of objects of equal size will look the smaller,
and conversely, the nearer will look the larger and the apparent
size will diminish in proportion to the distance. But in artificial
perspective when objects of unequal size are placed at various
distances, the smallest is nearer to the eye than the largest and
the greatest distance looks as though it were the least of all; and
the cause of this is the plane on which the objects are represented;
and which is at unequal distances from the eye throughout its
length. And this diminution of the plane is natural, but the
perspective shown upon it is artificial since it nowhere agrees with

the true diminution of the said plane. Whence it follows, that when
the eye is somewhat removed from the [station point of the]
perspective that it has been gazing at, all the objects represented
look monstrous, and this does not occur in natural perspective,
which has been defined above. Let us say then, that the square _a b
c d_ figured above is foreshortened being seen by the eye situated
in the centre of the side which is in front. But a mixture of
artificial and natural perspective will be seen in this tetragon
called _el main_ [Footnote 20: _el main_ is quite legibly written in
the original; the meaning and derivation of the word are equally
doubtful.], that is to say _e f g h_ which must appear to the eye of
the spectator to be equal to _a b c d_ so long as the eye remains in
its first position between _c_ and _d_. And this will be seen to
have a good effect, because the natural perspective of the plane
will conceal the defects which would [otherwise] seem monstrous.
_III._
_Six books on Light and Shade._
_Linear Perspective cannot be immediately followed by either the_

"prospettiva de' perdimenti" _or the_ "prospettiva de' colori" _or
the aerial perspective; since these branches of the subject
presuppose a knowledge of the principles of Light and Shade. No
apology, therefore, is here needed for placing these immediately
after Linear Perspective._
_We have various plans suggested by Leonardo for the arrangement of

the mass of materials treating of this subject. Among these I have
given the preference to a scheme propounded in No._ III, _because,
in all probability, we have here a final and definite purpose
expressed. Several authors have expressed it as their opinion that
the Paris Manuscript_ C _is a complete and finished treatise on
Light and Shade. Certainly, the Principles of Light and Shade form
by far the larger portion of this MS. which consists of two separate
parts; still, the materials are far from being finally arranged. It
is also evident that he here investigates the subject from the point
of view of the Physicist rather than from that of the Painter._
_The plan of a scheme of arrangement suggested in No._ III _and

adopted by me has been strictly adhered to for the first four Books.
For the three last, however, few materials have come down to us; and
it must be admitted that these three Books would find a far more

appropriate place in a work on Physics than in a treatise on

Painting. For this reason I have collected in Book V all the
chapters on Reflections, and in Book VI I have put together and
arranged all the sections of MS._ C _that belong to the book on
Painting, so far as they relate to Light and Shade, while the
sections of the same MS. which treat of the_ "Prospettiva de'
perdimenti" _have, of course, been excluded from the series on Light
and Shade._
[Footnote III: This text has already been published with some slight
variations in Dozio's pamphlet _Degli scritti e disegni di Leonardo
da Vinci_, Milan 1871, pp. 30--31. Dozio did not transcribe it from
the original MS. which seems to have remained unknown to him, but
from an old copy (MS. H. 227 in the Ambrosian Library).]
GENERAL INTRODUCTION.
Prolegomena.
110.
You must first explain the theory and then the practice. First you
must describe the shadows and lights on opaque objects, and then on
transparent bodies.
Scheme of the books on Light and shade.
111.
INTRODUCTION.
[Having already treated of the nature of shadows and the way in

which they are cast [Footnote 2: _Avendo io tractato._--We may
suppose that he here refers to some particular MS., possibly Paris
C.], I will now consider the places on which they fall; and their
curvature, obliquity, flatness or, in short, any character I may be
able to detect in them.]
Shadow is the obstruction of light. Shadows appear to me to be of

supreme importance in perspective, because, without them opaque and
solid bodies will be ill defined; that which is contained within
their outlines and their boundaries themselves will be
ill-understood unless they are shown against a background of a

different tone from themselves. And therefore in my first

proposition concerning shadow I state that every opaque body is
surrounded and its whole surface enveloped in shadow and light. And
on this proposition I build up the first Book. Besides this, shadows
have in themselves various degrees of darkness, because they are
caused by the absence of a variable amount of the luminous rays; and
these I call Primary shadows because they are the first, and
inseparable from the object to which they belong. And on this I will
found my second Book. From these primary shadows there result
certain shaded rays which are diffused through the atmosphere and
these vary in character according to that of the primary shadows
whence they are derived. I shall therefore call these shadows
Derived shadows because they are produced by other shadows; and the
third Book will treat of these. Again these derived shadows, where
they are intercepted by various objects, produce effects as various
as the places where they are cast and of this I will treat in the
fourth Book. And since all round the derived shadows, where the
derived shadows are intercepted, there is always a space where the
light falls and by reflected dispersion is thrown back towards its
cause, it meets the original shadow and mingles with it and modifies
it somewhat in its nature; and on this I will compose my fifth Book.
Besides this, in the sixth Book I will investigate the many and
various diversities of reflections resulting from these rays which
will modify the original [shadow] by [imparting] some of the various
colours from the different objects whence these reflected rays are
derived. Again, the seventh Book will treat of the various distances
that may exist between the spot where the reflected rays fall and
that where they originate, and the various shades of colour which
they will acquire in falling on opaque bodies.
Different principles and plans of treatment (112--116).
112.
First I will treat of light falling through windows which I will

call Restricted [Light] and then I will treat of light in the open
country, to which I will give the name of diffused Light. Then I
will treat of the light of luminous bodies.
113.
OF PAINTING.

The conditions of shadow and light [as seen] by the eye are 3. Of
these the first is when the eye and the light are on the same side
of the object seen; the 2nd is when the eye is in front of the
object and the light is behind it. The 3rd is when the eye is in
front of the object and the light is on one side, in such a way as
that a line drawn from the object to the eye and one from the object
to the light should form a right angle where they meet.
114.
OF PAINTING.
This is another section: that is, of the nature of a reflection

(from) an object placed between the eye and the light under various
aspects.
115.
OF PAINTING.
As regards all visible objects 3 things must be considered. These

are the position of the eye which sees: that of the object seen
[with regard] to the light, and the position of the light which
illuminates the object, _b_ is the eye, _a_ the object seen, _c_ the
light, _a_ is the eye, _b_ the illuminating body, _c_ is the
illuminated object.
116.
Let _a_ be the light, _b_ the eye, _c_ the object seen by the eye
and in the light. These show, first, the eye between the light and
the body; the 2nd, the light between the eye and the body; the 3rd
the body between the eye and the light, _a_ is the eye, _b_ the
illuminated object, _c_ the light.
117.
OF PAINTING.
OF THE THREE KINDS OF LIGHT THAT ILLUMINATE OPAQUE BODIES.
The first kind of Light which may illuminate opaque bodies is called
Direct light--as that of the sun or any other light from a window or

flame. The second is Diffused [universal] light, such as we see in

cloudy weather or in mist and the like. The 3rd is Subdued light,
that is when the sun is entirely below the horizon, either in the
evening or morning.
118.
OF LIGHT.
The lights which may illuminate opaque bodies are of 4 kinds. These
are: diffused light as that of the atmosphere, within our horizon.
And Direct, as that of the sun, or of a window or door or other
opening. The third is Reflected light; and there is a 4th which is
that which passes through [semi] transparent bodies, as linen or
paper or the like, but not transparent like glass, or crystal, or
other diaphanous bodies, which produce the same effect as though
nothing intervened between the shaded object and the light that
falls upon it; and this we will discuss fully in our discourse.
Definition of the nature of shadows (119--122).
119.
WHAT LIGHT AND SHADOW ARE.
Shadow is the absence of light, merely the obstruction of the

luminous rays by an opaque body. Shadow is of the nature of
darkness. Light [on an object] is of the nature of a luminous body;
one conceals and the other reveals. They are always associated and
inseparable from all objects. But shadow is a more powerful agent
than light, for it can impede and entirely deprive bodies of their
light, while light can never entirely expel shadow from a body, that
is from an opaque body.
120.
Shadow is the diminution of light by the intervention of an opaque

body. Shadow is the counterpart of the luminous rays which are cut
off by an opaque body.
This is proved because the shadow cast is the same in shape and size
as the luminous rays were which are transformed into a shadow.

121.
Shadow is the diminution alike of light and of darkness, and stands

between darkness and light.
A shadow may be infinitely dark, and also of infinite degrees of

absence of darkness.
The beginnings and ends of shadow lie between the light and darkness
and may be infinitely diminished and infinitely increased. Shadow is
the means by which bodies display their form.
The forms of bodies could not be understood in detail but for

shadow.
122.
OF THE NATURE OF SHADOW.
Shadow partakes of the nature of universal matter. All such matters

are more powerful in their beginning and grow weaker towards the
end, I say at the beginning, whatever their form or condition may be
and whether visible or invisible. And it is not from small
beginnings that they grow to a great size in time; as it might be a
great oak which has a feeble beginning from a small acorn. Yet I may
say that the oak is most powerful at its beginning, that is where it
springs from the earth, which is where it is largest (To return:)
Darkness, then, is the strongest degree of shadow and light is its
least. Therefore, O Painter, make your shadow darkest close to the
object that casts it, and make the end of it fading into light,
seeming to have no end.
Of the various kinds of shadows. (123-125).
123.
Darkness is absence of light. Shadow is diminution of light.

Primitive shadow is that which is inseparable from a body not in the
light. Derived shadow is that which is disengaged from a body in
shadow and pervades the air. A cast transparent shadow is that which
is surrounded by an illuminated surface. A simple shadow is one
which receives no light from the luminous body which causes it. A
simple shadow begins within the line which starts from the edge of

the luminous body _a b_.
124.
A simple shadow is one where no light at all interferes with it.
A compound shadow is one which is somewhat illuminated by one or

more lights.
125.
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A SHADOW THAT IS INSEPARABLE FROM A

BODY AND A CAST SHADOW?
An inseparable shadow is that which is never absent from the

illuminated body. As, for instance a ball, which so long as it is in
the light always has one side in shadow which never leaves it for
any movement or change of position in the ball. A separate shadow
may be and may not be produced by the body itself. Suppose the ball
to be one braccia distant from a wall with a light on the opposite
side of it; this light will throw upon the wall exactly as broad a
shadow as is to be seen on the side of the ball that is turned
towards the wall. That portion of the cast shadow will not be
visible when the light is below the ball and the shadow is thrown up
towards the sky and finding no obstruction on its way is lost.
126.
HOW THERE ARE 2 KINDS OF LIGHT, ONE SEPARABLE FROM, AND THE OTHER
INSEPARABLE FROM BODIES.
Of the various kinds of light (126, 127).
Separate light is that which falls upon the body. Inseparable light
is the side of the body that is illuminated by that light. One is
called primary, the other derived. And, in the same way there are
two kinds of shadow:--One primary and the other derived. The primary
is that which is inseparable from the body, the derived is that
which proceeds from the body conveying to the surface of the wall
the form of the body causing it.
127.

How there are 2 different kinds of light; one being called diffused,
the other restricted. The diffused is that which freely illuminates
objects. The restricted is that which being admitted through an
opening or window illuminates them on that side only.
[Footnote: At the spot marked _A_ in the first diagram Leonardo

wrote _lume costretto_ (restricted light). At the spot _B_ on the
second diagram he wrote _lume libero_ (diffused light).]
General remarks (128. 129).
128.
Light is the chaser away of darkness. Shade is the obstruction of

light. Primary light is that which falls on objects and causes light
and shade. And derived lights are those portions of a body which are
illuminated by the primary light. A primary shadow is that side of a
body on which the light cannot fall.
The general distribution of shadow and light is that sum total of

the rays thrown off by a shaded or illuminated body passing through
the air without any interference and the spot which intercepts and
cuts off the distribution of the dark and light rays.
And the eye can best distinguish the forms of objects when it is
placed between the shaded and the illuminated parts.
129.
MEMORANDUM OF THINGS I REQUIRE TO HAVE GRANTED [AS AXIOMS] IN MY

EXPLANATION OF PERSPECTIVE.
I ask to have this much granted me--to assert that every ray
passing through air of equal density throughout, travels in a
straight line from its cause to the object or place it falls upon.
FIRST BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.
On the nature of light (130. 131).
130.
The reason by which we know that a light radiates from a single

centre is this: We plainly see that a large light is often much

broader than some small object which nevertheless--and although the
rays [of the large light] are much more than twice the extent [of
the small body]--always has its shadow cast on the nearest surface
very visibly. Let _c f_ be a broad light and _n_ be the object in
front of it, casting a shadow on the plane, and let _a b_ be the
plane. It is clear that it is not the broad light that will cast the
shadow _n_ on the plane, but that the light has within it a centre
is shown by this experiment. The shadow falls on the plane as is
shown at _m o t r_.
[Footnote 13: In the original MS. no explanatory text is placed

after this title-line; but a space is left for it and the text
beginning at line 15 comes next.] Why, to two [eyes] or in front of
two eyes do 3 objects appear as two?
Why, when you estimate the direction of an object with two sights
the nearer appears confused. I say that the eye projects an infinite
number of lines which mingle or join those reaching it which come to
it from the object looked at. And it is only the central and
sensible line that can discern and discriminate colours and objects;
all the others are false and illusory. And if you place 2 objects at
half an arm's length apart if the nearer of the two is close to the
eye its form will remain far more confused than that of the second;
the reason is that the first is overcome by a greater number of
false lines than the second and so is rendered vague.
Light acts in the same manner, for in the effects of its lines
(=rays), and particularly in perspective, it much resembles the eye;
and its central rays are what cast the true shadow. When the object
in front of it is too quickly overcome with dim rays it will cast a
broad and disproportionate shadow, ill defined; but when the object
which is to cast the shadow and cuts off the rays near to the place
where the shadow falls, then the shadow is distinct; and the more so
in proportion as the light is far off, because at a long distance
the central ray is less overcome by false rays; because the lines
from the eye and the solar and other luminous rays passing through
the atmosphere are obliged to travel in straight lines. Unless they
are deflected by a denser or rarer air, when they will be bent at
some point, but so long as the air is free from grossness or
moisture they will preserve their direct course, always carrying the
image of the object that intercepts them back to their point of
origin. And if this is the eye, the intercepting object will be seen

by its colour, as well as by form and size. But if the intercepting

plane has in it some small perforation opening into a darker
chamber--not darker in colour, but by absence of light--you will see
the rays enter through this hole and transmitting to the plane
beyond all the details of the object they proceed from both as to
colour and form; only every thing will be upside down. But the size
[of the image] where the lines are reconstructed will be in
proportion to the relative distance of the aperture from the plane
on which the lines fall [on one hand] and from their origin [on the
other]. There they intersect and form 2 pyramids with their point
meeting [a common apex] and their bases opposite. Let _a b_ be the
point of origin of the lines, _d e_ the first plane, and _c_ the
aperture with the intersection of the lines; _f g_ is the inner
plane. You will find that _a_ falls upon the inner plane below at
_g_, and _b_ which is below will go up to the spot _f_; it will be
quite evident to experimenters that every luminous body has in
itself a core or centre, from which and to which all the lines
radiate which are sent forth by the surface of the luminous body and
reflected back to it; or which, having been thrown out and not
intercepted, are dispersed in the air.
131.
THE RAYS WHETHER SHADED OR LUMINOUS HAVE GREATER STRENGTH AND EFFECT
AT THEIR POINTS THAN AT THEIR SIDES.
Although the points of luminous pyramids may extend into shaded

places and those of pyramids of shadow into illuminated places, and
though among the luminous pyramids one may start from a broader base
than another; nevertheless, if by reason of their various length
these luminous pyramids acquire angles of equal size their light
will be equal; and the case will be the same with the pyramids of
shadow; as may be seen in the intersected pyramids _a b c_ and _d e
f_, which though their bases differ in size are equal as to breadth
and light.
[Footnote: 51--55: This supplementary paragraph is indicated as being

a continuation of line 45, by two small crosses.]
The difference between light and lustre (132--135).
132.

Of the difference between light and lustre; and that lustre is not
included among colours, but is saturation of whiteness, and derived
from the surface of wet bodies; light partakes of the colour of the
object which reflects it (to the eye) as gold or silver or the like.
133.
OF THE HIGHEST LIGHTS WHICH TURN AND MOVE AS THE EYE MOVES WHICH
SEES THE OBJECT.
Suppose the body to be the round object figured here and let the
light be at the point _a_, and let the illuminated side of the
object be _b c_ and the eye at the point _d_: I say that, as lustre
is every where and complete in each part, if you stand at the point
_d_ the lustre will appear at _c_, and in proportion as the eye
moves from _d_ to _a_, the lustre will move from _c_ to _n_.
134.
OF PAINTING.
Heigh light or lustre on any object is not situated [necessarily] in

the middle of an illuminated object, but moves as and where the eye
moves in looking at it.
135.
OF LIGHT AND LUSTRE.
What is the difference between light and the lustre which is seen on
the polished surface of opaque bodies?
The lights which are produced from the polished surface of opaque
bodies will be stationary on stationary objects even if the eye on
which they strike moves. But reflected lights will, on those same
objects, appear in as many different places on the surface as
different positions are taken by the eye.
WHAT BODIES HAVE LIGHT UPON THEM WITHOUT LUSTRE?
Opaque bodies which have a hard and rough surface never display any
lustre in any portion of the side on which the light falls.

WHAT BODIES WILL DISPLAY LUSTRE BUT NOT LOOK ILLUMINATED?
Those bodies which are opaque and hard with a hard surface reflect
light [lustre] from every spot on the illuminated side which is in a
position to receive light at the same angle of incidence as they
occupy with regard to the eye; but, as the surface mirrors all the
surrounding objects, the illuminated [body] is not recognisable in
these portions of the illuminated body.
136.
The relations of luminous to illuminated bodies.
The middle of the light and shade on an object in light and shade is
opposite to the middle of the primary light. All light and shadow
expresses itself in pyramidal lines. The middle of the shadow on any
object must necessarily be opposite the middle of its light, with a
direct line passing through the centre of the body. The middle of
the light will be at _a_, that of the shadow at _b_. [Again, in
bodies shown in light and shade the middle of each must coincide
with the centre of the body, and a straight line will pass through
both and through that centre.]
[Footnote: In the original MS., at the spot marked _a_ of the first
diagram Leonardo wrote _primitiuo_, and at the spot marked
_c_--_primitiva_ (primary); at the spot marked _b_ he wrote
_dirivatiuo_ and at _d deriuatiua_ (derived).]
Experiments on the relation of light and shadow within a room

(137--140).
137.
SHOWS HOW LIGHT FROM ANY SIDE CONVERGES TO ONE POINT.
Although the balls _a b c_ are lighted from one window,

nevertheless, if you follow the lines of their shadows you will see
they intersect at a point forming the angle _n_.
[Footnote: The diagram belonging to this passage is slightly

sketched on Pl. XXXII; a square with three balls below it. The first
three lines of the text belonging to it are written above the sketch
and the six others below it.]

138.
Every shadow cast by a body has a central line directed to a single

point produced by the intersection of luminous lines in the middle
of the opening and thickness of the window. The proposition stated
above, is plainly seen by experiment. Thus if you draw a place with
a window looking northwards, and let this be _s f_, you will see a
line starting from the horizon to the east, which, touching the 2
angles of the window _o f_, reaches _d_; and from the horizon on the
west another line, touching the other 2 angles _r s_, and ending at
_c_; and their intersection falls exactly in the middle of the
opening and thickness of the window. Again, you can still better
confirm this proof by placing two sticks, as shown at _g h_; and you
will see the line drawn from the centre of the shadow directed to
the centre _m_ and prolonged to the horizon _n f_.
[Footnote: _B_ here stands for _cerchio del' orizonte tramontano_ on

the original diagram (the circle of the horizon towards the North);
_A_ for _levante_ (East) and _C_ for _ponete_ (West).]
139.
Every shadow with all its variations, which becomes larger as its
distance from the object is greater, has its external lines
intersecting in the middle, between the light and the object. This
proposition is very evident and is confirmed by experience. For, if
_a b_ is a window without any object interposed, the luminous
atmosphere to the right hand at _a_ is seen to the left at _d_. And
the atmosphere at the left illuminates on the right at _c_, and the
lines intersect at the point _m_.
[Footnote: _A_ here stands for _levante_ (East), _B_ for _ponente_
(West).]
140.
Every body in light and shade is situated between 2 pyramids one

dark and the other luminous, one is visible the other is not. But
this only happens when the light enters by a window. Supposing _a b_
to be the window and _r_ the body in light and shade, the light to
the right hand _z_ will pass the object to the left and go on to
_p_; the light to the left at _k_ will pass to the right of the

object at _i_ and go on to _m_ and the two lines will intersect at
_c_ and form a pyramid. Then again _a_ _b_ falls on the shaded body
at _i_ _g_ and forms a pyramid _f_ _i_ _g_. _f_ will be dark because
the light _a_ _b_ can never fall there; _i_ _g_ _c_ will be
illuminated because the light falls upon it.
Light and shadow with regard to the position of the eye (141--145).
141.
Every shaded body that is larger than the pupil and that interposes
between the luminous body and the eye will be seen dark.
When the eye is placed between the luminous body and the objects
illuminated by it, these objects will be seen without any shadow.
[Footnote: The diagram which in the original stands above line 1 is

given on Plate II, No 2. Then, after a blank space of about eight
lines, the diagram Plate II No 3 is placed in the original. There is
no explanation of it beyond the one line written under it.]
142.
Why the 2 lights one on each side of a body having two pyramidal
sides of an obtuse apex leave it devoid of shadow.
[Footnote: The sketch illustrating this is on Plate XLI No 1.]
143.
A body in shadow situated between the light and the eye can never
display its illuminated portion unless the eye can see the whole of
the primary light.
[Footnote: _A_ stands for _corpo_ (body), _B_ for _lume_ (light).]
144.
The eye which looks (at a spot) half way between the shadow and the
light which surrounds the body in shadow will see that the deepest
shadows on that body will meet the eye at equal angles, that is at
the same angle as that of sight.

[Footnote: In both these diagrams _A_ stands for _lume_ (light) _B_
for _ombra_ (shadow).]
145.
OF THE DIFFERENT LIGHT AND SHADE IN VARIOUS ASPECTS AND OF OBJECTS

PLACED IN THEM.
If the sun is in the East and you look towards the West you will see
every thing in full light and totally without shadow because you see
them from the same side as the sun: and if you look towards the
South or North you will see all objects in light and shade, because
you see both the side towards the sun and the side away from it; and
if you look towards the coming of the sun all objects will show you
their shaded side, because on that side the sun cannot fall upon
them.
The law of the incidence of light.
146.
The edges of a window which are illuminated by 2 lights of equal

degrees of brightness will not reflect light of equal brightness
into the chamber within.
If _b_ is a candle and _a c_ our hemisphere both will illuminate the

edges of the window _m_ _n_, but light _b_ will only illuminate _f
g_ and the hemisphere _a_ will light all of _d e_.
147.
OF PAINTING.
That part of a body which receives the luminous rays at equal angles
will be in a higher light than any other part of it.
And the part which the luminous rays strike between less equal
angles will be less strongly illuminated.
SECOND BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.
Gradations of strength in the shadows (148. 149).

148.
THAT PORTION OF A BODY IN LIGHT AND SHADE WILL BE LEAST LUMINOUS

WHICH IS SEEN UNDER THE LEAST AMOUNT OF LIGHT.
That part of the object which is marked _m_ is in the highest light
because it faces the window _a d_ by the line _a f_; _n_ is in the
second grade because the light _b d_ strikes it by the line _b e_;
_o_ is in the third grade, as the light falls on it from _c d_ by
the line _c h_; _p_ is the lowest light but one as _c d_ falls on it
by the line _d v_; _q_ is the deepest shadow for no light falls on
it from any part of the window.
In proportion as _c d_ goes into _a d_ so will _n r s_ be darker

than _m_, and all the rest is space without shadow.
[Footnote: The diagram belonging to this chapter is No. 1 on Plate

III. The letters _a b e d_ and _r_ are not reproduced in facsimile
of the original, but have been replaced by ordinary type in the
margin. 5-12. The original text of these lines is reproduced within
the diagram.--Compare No 275.]
149.
The light which falls on a shaded body at the acutest angle receives
the highest light, and the darkest portion is that which receives it
at an obtuse angle and both the light and the shadow form pyramids.
The angle _c_ receives the highest grade of light because it is
directly in front of the window _a b_ and the whole horizon of the
sky _m x_. The angle _a_ differs but little from _c_ because the
angles which divide it are not so unequal as those below, and only
that portion of the horizon is intercepted which lies between _y_
and _x_. Although it gains as much on the other side its line is
nevertheless not very strong because one angle is smaller than its
fellow. The angles _e i_ will have less light because they do not
see much of the light _m s_ and the light _v x_ and their angles are
very unequal. Yhe angle _k_ and the angle _f_ are each placed
between very unequal angles and therefore have but little light,
because at _k_ it has only the light _p t_, and at _f_ only _t q_;
_o g_ is the lowest grade of light because this part has no light at
all from the sky; and thence come the lines which will reconstruct a
pyramid that is the counterpart of the pyramid _c_; and this pyramid
_l_ is in the first grade of shadow; for this too is placed between

equal angles directly opposite to each other on either side of a

straight line which passes through the centre of the body and goes
to the centre of the light. The several luminous images cast within
the frame of the window at the points _a_ and _b_ make a light which
surrounds the derived shadow cast by the solid body at the points 4
and 6. The shaded images increase from _o g_ and end at 7 and 8.
[Footnote: The diagram belonging to this chapter is No. 2 on Plate

III. In the original it is placed between lines 3 and 4, and in the
reproduction these are shown in part. The semi circle above is
marked _orizonte_ (horizon). The number 6 at the left hand side,
outside the facsimile, is in the place of a figure which has become
indistinct in the original.]
On the intensity of shadows as dependent on the distance from the

light (150-152).
150.
The smaller the light that falls upon an object the more shadow it
will display. And the light will illuminate a smaller portion of the
object in proportion as it is nearer to it; and conversely, a larger
extent of it in proportion as it is farther off.
A light which is smaller than the object on which it falls will

light up a smaller extent of it in proportion as it is nearer to it,
and the converse, as it is farther from it. But when the light is
larger than the object illuminated it will light a larger extent of
the object in proportion as it is nearer and the converse when they
are farther apart.
151.
That portion of an illuminated object which is nearest to the source

of light will be the most strongly illuminated.
152.
That portion of the primary shadow will be least dark which is

farthest from the edges.
The derived shadow will be darker than the primary shadow where it
is contiguous with it.

On the proportion of light and shade (153-157).
153.
That portion of an opaque body will be more in shade or more in

light, which is nearer to the dark body, by which it is shaded, or
to the light that illuminates it.
Objects seen in light and shade show in greater relief than those
which are wholly in light or in shadow.
154.
OF PERSPECTIVE.
The shaded and illuminated sides of opaque objects will display the
same proportion of light and darkness as their objects [Footnote 6:
The meaning of _obbietti_ (objects) is explained in no 153, lines
1-4.--Between the title-line and the next there is, in the
original, a small diagram representing a circle described round a
square.].
155.
OF PAINTING.
The outlines and form of any part of a body in light and shade are
indistinct in the shadows and in the high lights; but in the
portions between the light and the shadows they are highly
conspicuous.
156.
OF PAINTING.
Among objects in various degrees of shade, when the light proceeds

from a single source, there will be the same proportion in their
shadows as in the natural diminution of the light and the same must
be understood of the degrees of light.
157.

A single and distinct luminous body causes stronger relief in the

object than a diffused light; as may be seen by comparing one side
of a landscape illuminated by the sun, and one overshadowed by
clouds, and so illuminated only by the diffused light of the
atmosphere.
THIRD BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.
Definition of derived shadow (158. 159).
158.
Derived shadow cannot exist without primary shadow. This is proved

by the first of this which says: Darkness is the total absence of
light, and shadow is an alleviation of darkness and of light, and it
is more or less dark or light in proportion as the darkness is
modified by the light.
159.
Shadow is diminution of light.
Darkness is absence of light.
Shadow is divided into two kinds, of which the first is called

primary shadow, the second is derived shadow. The primary shadow is
always the basis of the derived shadow.
The edges of the derived shadow are straight lines.
[Footnote: The theory of the _ombra_ dirivativa_--a technical

expression for which there is no precise English equivalent is
elaborately treated by Leonardo. But both text and diagrams (as Pl.
IV, 1-3 and Pl. V) must at once convince the student that the
distinction he makes between _ombra primitiva_ and _ombra
dirivativa_ is not merely justifiable but scientific. _Ombra
dirivativa_ is by no means a mere abstract idea. This is easily
proved by repeating the experiment made by Leonardo, and by filling
with smoke the room in which the existence of the _ombra dirivativa_
is investigated, when the shadow becomes visible. Nor is it
difficult to perceive how much of Leonardo's teaching depended on
this theory. The recognised, but extremely complicated science of
cast shadows--_percussione dell' ombre dirivative_ as Leonardo

calls them--is thus rendered more intelligible if not actually

simpler, and we must assume this theory as our chief guide through
the investigations which follow.]
The darkness of the derived shadow diminishes in proportion as it is

remote from the primary shadow.
Different sorts of derived shadows (160-162).
160.
SHADOW AND LIGHT.
The forms of shadows are three: inasmuch as if the solid body which
casts the shadow is equal (in size) to the light, the shadow
resembles a column without any termination (in length). If the body
is larger than the light the shadow resembles a truncated and
inverted pyramid, and its length has also no defined termination.
But if the body is smaller than the light, the shadow will resemble
a pyramid and come to an end, as is seen in eclipses of the moon.
161.
OF SIMPLE DERIVED SHADOWS.
The simple derived shadow is of two kinds: one kind which has its
length defined, and two kinds which are undefined; and the defined
shadow is pyramidal. Of the two undefined, one is a column and the
other spreads out; and all three have rectilinear outlines. But the
converging, that is the pyramidal, shadow proceeds from a body that
is smaller than the light, and the columnar from a body equal in
size to the light, and the spreading shadow from a body larger than
the light; &c.
OF COMPOUND DERIVED SHADOWS.
Compound derived shadows are of two kinds; that is columnar and

spreading.
162.
OF SHADOW.

Derived shadows are of three kinds of which one is spreading, the

second columnar, the third converging to the point where the two
sides meet and intersect, and beyond this intersection the sides are
infinitely prolonged or straight lines. And if you say, this shadow
must terminate at the angle where the sides meet and extend no
farther, I deny this, because above in the first on shadow I have
proved: that a thing is completely terminated when no portion of it
goes beyond its terminating lines. Now here, in this shadow, we see
the converse of this, in as much as where this derived shadow
originates we obviously have the figures of two pyramids of shadow
which meet at their angles. Hence, if, as [my] opponent says, the
first pyramid of shadow terminates the derivative shadow at the
angle whence it starts, then the second pyramid of shadow--so says
the adversary--must be caused by the angle and not from the body in
shadow; and this is disproved with the help of the 2nd of this which
says: Shadow is a condition produced by a body casting a shadow, and
interposed between this shadow and the luminous body. By this it is
made clear that the shadow is not produced by the angle of the
derived shadow but only by the body casting the shadow; &c. If a
spherical solid body is illuminated by a light of elongated form the
shadow produced by the longest portion of this light will have less
defined outlines than that which is produced by the breadth of the
same light. And this is proved by what was said before, which is:
That a shadow will have less defined outlines in proportion as the
light which causes it is larger, and conversely, the outlines are
clearer in proportion as it is smaller.
[Footnote: The two diagrams to this chapter are on Plate IV, No. 1.]
On the relation of derived and primary shadow (163-165).
163.
The derived shadow can never resemble the body from which it
proceeds unless the light is of the same form and size as the body
causing the shadow.
The derived shadow cannot be of the same form as the primary shadow
unless it is intercepted by a plane parallel to it.
164.
HOW A CAST SHADOW CAN NEVER BE OF THE SAME SIZE AS THE BODY THAT

CASTS IT.
If the rays of light proceed, as experience shows, from a single

point and are diffused in a sphere round this point, radiating and
dispersed through the air, the farther they spread the wider they
must spread; and an object placed between the light and a wall is
always imaged larger in its shadow, because the rays that strike it
[Footnote: 7. The following lines are wanting to complete the
logical connection.] would, by the time they have reached the wall,
have become larger.
165.
Any shadow cast by a body in light and shade is of the same nature
and character as that which is inseparable from the body. The centre
of the length of a shadow always corresponds to that of the luminous
body [Footnote 6: This second statement of the same idea as in the
former sentence, but in different words, does not, in the original,
come next to the foregoing; sections 172 and 127 are placed between
them.]. It is inevitable that every shadow must have its centre in a
line with the centre of the light.
On the shape of derived shadows (166-174).
166.
OF THE PYRAMIDAL SHADOW.
The pyramidal shadow produced by a columnar body will be narrower

than the body itself in proportion as the simple derived shadow is
intersected farther from the body which casts it.
[Footnote 166: Compare the first diagram to No. 161. If we here

conceive of the outlines of the pyramid of shadow on the ground as
prolonged beyond its apex this gives rise to a second pyramid; this
is what is spoken of at the beginning of No. 166.]
167.
The cast shadow will be longest when the light is lowest.
The cast shadow will be shortest when the light is highest.

168.
Both the primary and derived shadow will be larger when caused by
the light of a candle than by diffused light. The difference between
the larger and smaller shadows will be in inverse proportion to the
larger and smaller lights causing them.
[Footnote: In the diagrams _A_ stands for _celo_ (sky), _B_ for
_cadela_ (candle).]
169.
ALL BODIES, IN PROPORTION AS THEY ARE NEARER TO, OR FARTHER FROM THE
SOURCE OF LIGHT, WILL PRODUCE LONGER OR SHORTER DERIVED SHADOWS.
Among bodies of equal size, that one which is illuminated by the

largest light will have the shortest shadow. Experiment confirms
this proposition. Thus the body _m_ _n_ is surrounded by a larger
amount of light than the body _p q_, as is shown above. Let us say
that _v c a b d x_ is the sky, the source of light, and that _s t_
is a window by which the luminous rays enter, and so _m n_ and _p q_
are bodies in light and shade as exposed to this light; _m n_ will
have a small derived shadow, because its original shadow will be
small; and the derivative light will be large, again, because the
original light _c d_ will be large and _p q_ will have more derived
shadow because its original shadow will be larger, and its derived
light will be smaller than that of the body _m n_ because that
portion of the hemisphere _a b_ which illuminates it is smaller than
the hemisphere _c d_ which illuminates the body _m n_.
[Footnote: The diagram, given on Pl. IV, No. 2, stands in the

original between lines 2 and 7, while the text of lines 3 to 6 is
written on its left side. In the reproduction of this diagram the
letter _v_ at the outer right-hand end has been omitted.]
170.
The shadow _m_ bears the same proportion to the shadow _n_ as the
line _b c_ to the line _f c_.
171.
OF PAINTING.

Of different shadows of equal strength that which is nearest the eye

will seem the least strong.
Why is the shadow _e a b_ in the first grade of strength, _b c_ in

the second; _c d_ in the third? The reason is that as from _e a b_
the sky is nowhere visible, it gets no light whatever from the sky,
and so has no direct [primary] light. _b c_ faces the portion of the
sky _f g_ and is illuminated by it. _c d_ faces the sky at _h k_. _c
d_, being exposed to a larger extent of sky than _b c_, it is
reasonable that it should be more lighted. And thus, up to a certain
distance, the wall _a d_ will grow lighter for the reasons here
given, until the darkness of the room overpowers the light from the
window.
172.
When the light of the atmosphere is restricted [by an opening] and

illuminates bodies which cast shadows, these bodies being equally
distant from the centre of the window, that which is most obliquely
placed will cast the largest shadow beyond it.
173.
These bodies standing apart in a room lighted by a single window

will have derivative shadows more or less short according as they
are more or less opposite to the window. Among the shadows cast by
bodies of equal mass but at unequal distances from the opening by
which they are illuminated, that shadow will be the longest of the
body which is least in the light. And in proportion as one body is
better illuminated than another its shadow will be shorter than
another. The proportion _n m_ and _e v k_ bear to _r t_ and _v x_
corresponds with that of the shadow _x_ to 4 and _y_.
The reason why those bodies which are placed most in front of the
middle of the window throw shorter shadows than those obliquely
situated is:--That the window appears in its proper form and to the
obliquely placed ones it appears foreshortened; to those in the
middle, the window shows its full size, to the oblique ones it
appears smaller; the one in the middle faces the whole hemisphere
that is _e f_ and those on the side have only a strip; that is _q r_
faces _a b_; and _m n_ faces _c d_; the body in the middle having a
larger quantity of light than those at the sides is lighted from a

point much below its centre, and thus the shadow is shorter. And the
pyramid _g_ 4 goes into _l y_ exactly as often as _a b_ goes into _e
f_. The axis of every derivative shadow passes through 6 1/2
[Footnote 31: _passa per_ 6 1/2 (passes through 6 1/2). The meaning
of these words is probably this: Each of the three axes of the
derived shadow intersects the centre (_mezzo_) of the primary shadow
(_ombra originale_) and, by prolongation upwards crosses six lines.
This is self evident only in the middle diagram; but it is equally

true of the side figures if we conceive of the lines 4 _f_, _x n v
m_, _y l k v_, and 4 _e_, as prolonged beyond the semicircle of the
horizon.] and is in a straight line with the centre of the primary
shadow, with the centre of the body casting it and of the derivative
light and with the centre of the window and, finally, with the
centre of that portion of the source of light which is the celestial
hemisphere, _y h_ is the centre of the derived shade, _l h_ of the
primary shadow, _l_ of the body throwing it, _l k_ of the derived
light, _v_ is the centre of the window, _e_ is the final centre of
the original light afforded by that portion of the hemisphere of the
sky which illuminates the solid body.
[Footnote: Compare the diagram on Pl. IV, No. 3. In the original

this drawing is placed between lines 3 and 22; the rest, from line 4
to line 21, is written on the left hand margin.]
174.
THE FARTHER THE DERIVED SHADOW IS PROLONGED THE LIGHTER IT BECOMES.
You will find that the proportion of the diameter of the derived
shadow to that of the primary shadow will be the same as that
between the darkness of the primary shadow and that of the derived
shadow.
[Footnote 6: Compare No. 177.] Let _a b_ be the diameter of the

primary shadow and _c d_ that of the derived shadow, I say that _a
b_ going, as you see, three times into _d c_, the shadow _d c_ will
be three times as light as the shadow _a b_. [Footnote 8: Compare
No. 177.]
If the size of the illuminating body is larger than that of the

illuminated body an intersection of shadow will occur, beyond which
the shadows will run off in two opposite directions as if they were

caused by two separate lights.
On the relative intensity of derived shadows (175-179).
175.
ON PAINTING.
The derived shadow is stronger in proportion as it is nearer to its

place of origin.
176.
HOW SHADOWS FADE AWAY AT LONG DISTANCES.
Shadows fade and are lost at long distances because the larger
quantity of illuminated air which lies between the eye and the
object seen tints the shadow with its own colour.
177.
_a b_ will be darker than _c d_ in proportion as _c d_ is broader

than _a b_.
[Footnote: In the original MS. the word _lume_ (light) is written at

the apex of the pyramid.]
178.
It can be proved why the shadow _o p c h_ is darker in proportion as

it is nearer to the line _p h_ and is lighter in proportion as it is
nearer to the line _o c_. Let the light _a b_, be a window, and let
the dark wall in which this window is, be _b s_, that is, one of the
sides of the wall.
Then we may say that the line _p h_ is darker than any other part of
the space _o p c h_, because this line faces the whole surface in
shadow of [Footnote: In the original the diagram is placed between
lines 27 and 28.] the wall _b s_. The line _o c_ is lighter than the
other part of this space _o p c h_, because this line faces the
luminous space _a b_.
Where the shadow is larger, or smaller, or equal the body which

casts it.
[First of the character of divided lights. [Footnote 14: _lumi

divisi_. The text here breaks off abruptly.]
OF THE COMPOUND SHADOW _F, R, C, H_ CAUSED BY A SINGLE LIGHT.
The shadow _f r c h_ is under such conditions as that where it is

farthest from its inner side it loses depth in proportion. To prove
this:
Let _d a_, be the light and _f n_ the solid body, and let _a e_ be
one of the side walls of the window that is _d a_. Then I
say--according to the 2nd [proposition]: that the surface of any
body is affected by the tone of the objects surrounding it,--that
the side _r c_, which faces the dark wall _a e_ must participate of
its darkness and, in the same way that the outer surface which faces
the light _d a_ participates of the light; thus we get the outlines
of the extremes on each side of the centre included between them.]
This is divided into four parts. The first the extremes, which
include the compound shadow, secondly the compound shadow between
these extremes.
179.
THE ACTION OF THE LIGHT AS FROM ITS CENTRE.
If it were the whole of the light that caused the shadows beyond the
bodies placed in front of it, it would follow that any body much
smaller than the light would cast a pyramidal shadow; but experience
not showing this, it must be the centre of the light that produces
this effect.
[Footnote: The diagram belonging to this passage is between lines 4

and 5 in the original. Comp. the reproduction Pl. IV, No. 4. The
text and drawing of this chapter have already been published with
tolerable accuracy. See M. JORDAN: "_Das Malerbuch des Leonardo da
Vinci_". Leipzig 1873, P. 90.]
PROOF.
Let _a b_ be the width of the light from a window, which falls on a

stick set up at one foot from _a c_ [Footnote 6: _bastone_ (stick).

The diagram has a sphere in place of a stick.]. And let _a d_ be the
space where all the light from the window is visible. At _c e_ that
part of the window which is between _l b_ cannot be seen. In the
same way _a m_ cannot be seen from _d f_ and therefore in these two
portions the light begins to fail.
Shadow as produced by two lights of different size (180. 181).
180.
A body in light and shade placed between two equal lights side by
side will cast shadows in proportion to the [amount of] light. And
the shadows will be one darker than the other in proportion as one
light is nearer to the said body than the other on the opposite
side.
A body placed at an equal distance between two lights will cast two
shadows, one deeper than the other in proportion, as the light which
causes it is brighter than the other.
[Footnote: In the MS. the larger diagram is placed above the first
line; the smaller one between l. 4 & 5.]
181.
A light which is smaller than the body it illuminates produces

shadows of which the outlines end within [the surface of] the body,
and not much compound shadow; and falls on less than half of it. A
light which is larger than the body it illuminates, falls on more
than half of it, and produces much compound shadow.
The effect of light at different distances.
182.
OF THE SHADOW CAST BY A BODY PLACED BETWEEN 2 EQUAL LIGHTS.
A body placed between 2 equal lights will cast 2 shadows of itself

in the direction of the lines of the 2 lights; and if you move this
body placing it nearer to one of the lights the shadow cast towards
the nearer light will be less deep than that which falls towards the
more distant one.

Further complications in the derived shadows (183-187).
183.
The greatest depth of shadow is in the simple derived shadow because

it is not lighted by either of the two lights _a b, c d_.
The next less deep shadow is the derived shadow _e f n_; and in this
the shadow is less by half, because it is illuminated by a single
light, that is _c d_.
This is uniform in natural tone because it is lighted throughout by

one only of the two luminous bodies [10]. But it varies with the
conditions of shadow, inasmuch as the farther it is away from the
light the less it is illuminated by it [13].
The third degree of depth is the middle shadow [Footnote 15: We

gather from what follows that _q g r_ here means _ombra media_ (the
middle shadow).]. But this is not uniform in natural tone; because
the nearer it gets to the simple derived shadow the deeper it is
[Footnote 18: Compare lines 10-13], and it is the uniformly gradual
diminution by increase of distance which is what modifies it
[Footnote 20: See Footnote 18]: that is to say the depth of a shadow
increases in proportion to the distance from the two lights.
The fourth is the shadow _k r s_ and this is all the darker in

natural tone in proportion as it is nearer to _k s_, because it gets
less of the light _a o_, but by the accident [of distance] it is
rendered less deep, because it is nearer to the light _c d_, and
thus is always exposed to both lights.
The fifth is less deep in shadow than either of the others because
it is always entirely exposed to one of the lights and to the whole
or part of the other; and it is less deep in proportion as it is
nearer to the two lights, and in proportion as it is turned towards
the outer side _x t_; because it is more exposed to the second light
_a b_.
[Footnote: The diagram to this section is given on Pl. V. To the

left is the facsimile of the beginning of the text belonging to it.]
184.

OF SIMPLE SHADOWS.
Why, at the intersections _a_, _b_ of the two compound shadows _e f_

and _m e_, is a simple shadow pfoduced as at _e h_ and _m g_, while
no such simple shadow is produced at the other two intersections _c
d_ made by the very same compound shadows?
ANSWER.
Compound shadow are a mixture of light and shade and simple shadows
are simply darkness. Hence, of the two lights _n_ and _o_, one falls
on the compound shadow from one side, and the other on the compound
shadow from the other side, but where they intersect no light falls,
as at _a b_; therefore it is a simple shadow. Where there is a
compound shadow one light or the other falls; and here a difficulty
arises for my adversary since he says that, where the compound
shadows intersect, both the lights which produce the shadows must of
necessity fall and therefore these shadows ought to be neutralised;
inasmuch as the two lights do not fall there, we say that the shadow
is a simple one and where only one of the two lights falls, we say
the shadow is compound, and where both the lights fall the shadow is
neutralised; for where both lights fall, no shadow of any kind is
produced, but only a light background limiting the shadow. Here I
shall say that what my adversary said was true: but he only mentions
such truths as are in his favour; and if we go on to the rest he
must conclude that my proposition is true. And that is: That if both
lights fell on the point of intersection, the shadows would be
neutralised. This I confess to be true if [neither of] the two
shadows fell in the same spot; because, where a shadow and a light
fall, a compound shadow is produced, and wherever two shadows or two
equal lights fall, the shadow cannot vary in any part of it, the
shadows and the lights both being equal. And this is proved in the
eighth [proposition] on proportion where it is said that if a given
quantity has a single unit of force and resistance, a double
quantity will have double force and double resistance.
DEFINITION.
The intersection _n_ is produced by the shadows caused by the light

_b_, because this light _b_ produces the shadow _x b_, and the
shadow _s b_, but the intersection _m_ is produced by the light _a_
which causes the shadow _s a_, and the shadow _x a_.

But if you uncover both the lights _a b_, then you get the two
shadows _n m_ both at once, and besides these, two other, simple
shadows are produced at _r o_ where neither of the two lights falls
at all. The grades of depth in compound shadows are fewer in
proportion as the lights falling on, and crossing them are less
numerous.
186.
Why the intersections at _n_ being composed of two compound derived

shadows, forms a compound shadow and not a simple one, as happens
with other intersections of compound shadows. This occurs, according
to the 2nd [diagram] of this [prop.] which says:--The intersection
of derived shadows when produced by the intersection of columnar
shadows caused by a single light does not produce a simple shadow.
And this is the corollary of the 1st [prop.] which says:--The
intersection of simple derived shadows never results in a deeper
shadow, because the deepest shadows all added together cannot be
darker than one by itself. Since, if many deepest shadows increased
in depth by their duplication, they could not be called the
_deepest_ shadows, but only part-shadows. But if such intersections
are illuminated by a second light placed between the eye and the
intersecting bodies, then those shadows would become compound
shadows and be uniformly dark just as much at the intersection as
throughout the rest. In the 1st and 2nd above, the intersections _i
k_ will not be doubled in depth as it is doubled in quantity. But in
this 3rd, at the intersections _g n_ they will be double in depth
and in quantity.
187.
HOW AND WHEN THE SURROUNDINGS IN SHADOW MINGLE THEIR DERIVED SHADOW
WITH THE LIGHT DERIVED FROM THE LUMINOUS BODY.
The derived shadow of the dark walls on each side of the bright
light of the window are what mingle their various degrees of shade
with the light derived from the window; and these various depths of
shade modify every portion of the light, except where it is
strongest, at _c_. To prove this let _d a_ be the primary shadow
which is turned towards the point _e_, and darkens it by its derived
shadow; as may be seen by the triangle _a e d_, in which the
angle _e_ faces the darkened base _d a e_; the point _v_ faces the

dark shadow _a s_ which is part of _a d_, and as the whole is

greater than a part, _e_ which faces the whole base [of the
triangle], will be in deeper shadow than _v_ which only faces part
of it. In consequence of the conclusion [shown] in the above
diagram, _t_ will be less darkened than _v_, because the base of the
_t_ is part of the base of the _v_; and in the same way it follows
that _p_ is less in shadow than _t_, because the base of the _p_ is
part of the base of the _t_. And _c_ is the terminal point of the
derived shadow and the chief beginning of the highest light.
[Footnote: The diagram on Pl. IV, No. 5 belongs to this passage; but
it must be noted that the text explains only the figure on the
right-hand side.]
FOURTH BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.
On the shape of the cast shadows (188-191).
188.
The form of the shadow cast by any body of uniform density can never
be the same as that of the body producing it. [Footnote: Comp. the
drawing on PI. XXVIII, No. 5.]
189.
No cast shadow can produce the true image of the body which casts it
on a vertical plane unless the centre of the light is equally
distant from all the edges of that body.
190.
If a window _a b_ admits the sunlight into a room, the sunlight will

magnify the size of the window and diminish the shadow of a man in
such a way as that when the man makes that dim shadow of himself,
approach to that which defines the real size of the window, he will
see the shadows where they come into contact, dim and confused from
the strength of the light, shutting off and not allowing the solar
rays to pass; the effect of the shadow of the man cast by this
contact will be exactly that figured above.
[Footnote: It is scarcely possible to render the meaning of this

sentence with strict accuracy; mainly because the grammatical

construction is defective in the most important part--line 4. In the

very slight original sketch the shadow touches the upper arch of the
window and the correction, here given is perhaps not justified.]
191.
A shadow is never seen as of uniform depth on the surface which

intercepts it unless every portion of that surface is equidistant
from the luminous body. This is proved by the 7th which says:--The
shadow will appear lighter or stronger as it is surrounded by a
darker or a lighter background. And by the 8th of this:--The
background will be in parts darker or lighter, in proportion as it
is farther from or nearer to the luminous body. And:--Of various
spots equally distant from the luminous body those will always be in
the highest light on which the rays fall at the smallest angles: The
outline of the shadow as it falls on inequalities in the surface
will be seen with all the contours similar to those of the body that
casts it, if the eye is placed just where the centre of the light
was.
The shadow will look darkest where it is farthest from the body that
casts it. The shadow _c d_, cast by the body in shadow _a b_ which
is equally distant in all parts, is not of equal depth because it is
seen on a back ground of varying brightness. [Footnote: Compare the
three diagrams on Pl. VI, no 1 which, in the original accompany this
section.]
On the outlines of cast shadows (192-195).
192.
The edges of a derived shadow will be most distinct where it is cast

nearest to the primary shadow.
193.
As the derived shadow gets more distant from the primary shadow, the
more the cast shadow differs from the primary shadow.
194.
OF SHADOWS WHICH NEVER COME TO AN END.

The greater the difference between a light and the body lighted by
it, the light being the larger, the more vague will be the outlines
of the shadow of that object.
The derived shadow will be most confused towards the edges of its
interception by a plane, where it is remotest from the body casting
it.
195.
What is the cause which makes the outlines of the shadow vague and
confused?
Whether it is possible to give clear and definite outlines to the

edges of shadows.
On the relative size of shadows (196. 197).
196.
THE BODY WHICH IS NEAREST TO THE LIGHT CASTS THE LARGEST SHADOW, AND
WHY?
If an object placed in front of a single light is very close to it

you will see that it casts a very large shadow on the opposite wall,
and the farther you remove the object from the light the smaller
will the image of the shadow become.
WHY A SHADOW LARGER THAN THE BODY THAT PRODUCES IT BECOMES OUT OF
PROPORTION.
The disproportion of a shadow which is larger than the body

producing it, results from the light being smaller than the body, so
that it cannot be at an equal distance from the edges of the body
[Footnote 11: H. LUDWIG in his edition of the old copies, in the
Vatican library--in which this chapter is included under Nos. 612,
613 and 614 alters this passage as follows: _quella parte ch'e piu
propinqua piu cresce che le distanti_, although the Vatican copy
agrees with the original MS. in having _distante_ in the former and
_propinque_ in the latter place. This supposed amendment seems to me
to invert the facts. Supposing for instance, that on Pl. XXXI No. 3.
_f_ is the spot where the light is that illuminates the figure there
represented, and that the line behind the figure represents a wall

on which the shadow of the figure is thrown. It is evident, that in

that case the nearest portion, in this case the under part of the
thigh, is very little magnified in the shadow, and the remoter
parts, for instance the head, are more magnified.]; and the portions
which are most remote are made larger than the nearer portions for
this reason [Footnote 12: See Footnote 11].
WHY A SHADOW WHICH IS LARGER THAN THE BODY CAUSING IT HAS

ILL-DEFINED OUTLINES.
The atmosphere which surrounds a light is almost like light itself

for brightness and colour; but the farther off it is the more it
loses this resemblance. An object which casts a large shadow and is
near to the light, is illuminated both by that light by the luminous
atmosphere; hence this diffused light gives the shadow ill-defined
edges.
197.
A luminous body which is long and narrow in shape gives more

confused outlines to the derived shadow than a spherical light, and
this contradicts the proposition next following: A shadow will have
its outlines more clearly defined in proportion as it is nearer to
the primary shadow or, I should say, the body casting the shadow;
[Footnote 14: The lettering refers to the lower diagram, Pl. XLI,
No. 5.] the cause of this is the elongated form of the luminous body
_a c_, &c. [Footnote 16: See Footnote 14].
Effects on cast shadows by the tone of the back ground.
198.
OF MODIFIED SHADOWS.
Modified shadows are those which are cast on light walls or other
illuminated objects.
A shadow looks darkest against a light background. The outlines of a

derived shadow will be clearer as they are nearer to the primary
shadow. A derived shadow will be most defined in shape where it is
intercepted, where the plane intercepts it at the most equal angle.
Those parts of a shadow will appear darkest which have darker

objects opposite to them. And they will appear less dark when they
face lighter objects. And the larger the light object opposite, the
more the shadow will be lightened.
And the larger the surface of the dark object the more it will
darken the derived shadow where it is intercepted.
A disputed proposition.
199.
OF THE OPINION OF SOME THAT A TRIANGLE CASTS NO SHADOW ON A PLANE

SURFACE.
Certain mathematicians have maintained that a triangle, of which the

base is turned to the light, casts no shadow on a plane; and this
they prove by saying [5] that no spherical body smaller than the
light can reach the middle with the shadow. The lines of radiant
light are straight lines [6]; therefore, suppose the light to be _g
h_ and the triangle _l m n_, and let the plane be _i k_; they say
the light _g_ falls on the side of the triangle _l n_, and the
portion of the plane _i q_. Thus again _h_ like _g_ falls on the
side _l m_, and then on _m n_ and the plane _p k_; and if the whole
plane thus faces the lights _g h_, it is evident that the triangle
has no shadow; and that which has no shadow can cast none. This, in
this case appears credible. But if the triangle _n p g_ were not
illuminated by the two lights _g_ and _h_, but by _i p_ and _g_ and
_k_ neither side is lighted by more than one single light: that is
_i p_ is invisible to _h g_ and _k_ will never be lighted by _g_;
hence _p q_ will be twice as light as the two visible portions that
are in shadow.
[Footnote: 5--6. This passage is so obscure that it would be rash to

offer an explanation. Several words seem to have been omitted.]
On the relative depth of cast shadows (200-202).
200.
A spot is most in the shade when a large number of darkened rays

fall upon it. The spot which receives the rays at the widest angle
and by darkened rays will be most in the dark; a will be twice as
dark as b, because it originates from twice as large a base at an

equal distance. A spot is most illuminated when a large number of

luminous rays fall upon it. d is the beginning of the shadow _d f_,
and tinges _c_ but _a_ little; _d e_ is half of the shadow _d f_ and
gives a deeper tone where it is cast at _b_ than at _f_. And the
whole shaded space _e_ gives its tone to the spot _a_. [Footnote:
The diagram here referred to is on Pl. XLI, No. 2.]
201.
_A n_ will be darker than _c r_ in proportion to the number of times

that _a b_ goes into _c d_.
202.
The shadow cast by an object on a plane will be smaller in

proportion as that object is lighted by feebler rays. Let _d e_ be
the object and _d c_ the plane surface; the number of times that _d
e_ will go into _f g_ gives the proportion of light at _f h_ to _d
c_. The ray of light will be weaker in proportion to its distance
from the hole through which it falls.
FIFTH BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.
Principles of reflection (203. 204).
203.
OF THE WAY IN WHICH THE SHADOWS CAST BY OBJECTS OUGHT TO BE DEFINED.
If the object is the mountain here figured, and the light is at the
point _a_, I say that from _b d_ and also from _c f_ there will be
no light but from reflected rays. And this results from the fact
that rays of light can only act in straight lines; and the same is
the case with the secondary or reflected rays.
204.
The edges of the derived shadow are defined by the hues of the
illuminated objects surrounding the luminous body which produces the
shadow.
On reverberation.

205.
OF REVERBERATION.
Reverberation is caused by bodies of a bright nature with a flat and

semi opaque surface which, when the light strikes upon them, throw
it back again, like the rebound of a ball, to the former object.
WHERE THERE CAN BE NO REFLECTED LIGHTS.
All dense bodies have their surfaces occupied by various degrees of

light and shade. The lights are of two kinds, one called original,
the other borrowed. Original light is that which is inherent in the
flame of fire or the light of the sun or of the atmosphere. Borrowed
light will be reflected light; but to return to the promised
definition: I say that this luminous reverberation is not produced
by those portions of a body which are turned towards darkened
objects, such as shaded spots, fields with grass of various height,
woods whether green or bare; in which, though that side of each
branch which is turned towards the original light has a share of
that light, nevertheless the shadows cast by each branch separately
are so numerous, as well as those cast by one branch on the others,
that finally so much shadow is the result that the light counts for
nothing. Hence objects of this kind cannot throw any reflected light
on opposite objects.
Reflection on water (206. 207).
206.
PERSPECTIVE.
The shadow or object mirrored in water in motion, that is to say in

small wavelets, will always be larger than the external object
producing it.
207.
It is impossible that an object mirrored on water should correspond

in form to the object mirrored, since the centre of the eye is above
the surface of the water.
This is made plain in the figure here given, which demonstrates that

the eye sees the surface _a b_, and cannot see it at _l f_, and at
_r t_; it sees the surface of the image at _r t_, and does not see
it in the real object _c d_. Hence it is impossible to see it, as
has been said above unless the eye itself is situated on the surface
of the water as is shown below [13].
[Footnote: _A_ stands for _ochio_ [eye], _B_ for _aria_ [air], _C_
for _acqua_ [water], _D_ for _cateto_ [cathetus].--In the original
MS. the second diagram is placed below line 13.]
Experiments with the mirror (208-210).
208.
THE MIRROR.
If the illuminated object is of the same size as the luminous body

and as that in which the light is reflected, the amount of the
reflected light will bear the same proportion to the intermediate
light as this second light will bear to the first, if both bodies
are smooth and white.
209.
Describe how it is that no object has its limitation in the mirror

but in the eye which sees it in the mirror. For if you look at your
face in the mirror, the part resembles the whole in as much as the
part is everywhere in the mirror, and the whole is in every part of
the same mirror; and the same is true of the whole image of any
object placed opposite to this mirror, &c.
210.
No man can see the image of another man in a mirror in its proper
place with regard to the objects; because every object falls on [the
surface of] the mirror at equal angles. And if the one man, who sees
the other in the mirror, is not in a direct line with the image he
will not see it in the place where it really falls; and if he gets
into the line, he covers the other man and puts himself in the place
occupied by his image. Let _n o_ be the mirror, _b_ the eye of your
friend and _d_ your own eye. Your friend's eye will appear to you at
_a_, and to him it will seem that yours is at _c_, and the
intersection of the visual rays will occur at _m_, so that either of

you touching _m_ will touch the eye of the other man which shall be
open. And if you touch the eye of the other man in the mirror it
will seem to him that you are touching your own.
Appendix:--On shadows in movement (211. 212).
211.
OF THE SHADOW AND ITS MOTION.
When two bodies casting shadows, and one in front of the other, are
between a window and the wall with some space between them, the
shadow of the body which is nearest to the plane of the wall will
move if the body nearest to the window is put in transverse motion
across the window. To prove this let _a_ and _b_ be two bodies
placed between the window _n m_ and the plane surface _o p_ with
sufficient space between them as shown by the space _a b_. I say
that if the body _a_ is moved towards _s_ the shadow of the body _b_
which is at _c_ will move towards _d_.
212.
OF THE MOTION OF SHADOWS.
The motion of a shadow is always more rapid than that of the body
which produces it if the light is stationary. To prove this let _a_
be the luminous body, and _b_ the body casting the shadow, and _d_
the shadow. Then I say that in the time while the solid body moves
from _b_ to _c_, the shadow _d_ will move to _e_; and this
proportion in the rapidity of the movements made in the same space
of time, is equal to that in the length of the space moved over.
Thus, given the proportion of the space moved over by the body _b_
to _c_, to that moved over by the shadow _d_ to _e_, the proportion
in the rapidity of their movements will be the same.
But if the luminous body is also in movement with a velocity equal

to that of the solid body, then the shadow and the body that casts
it will move with equal speed. And if the luminous body moves more
rapidly than the solid body, the motion of the shadow will be slower
than that of the body casting it.
But if the luminous body moves more slowly than the solid body, then
the shadow will move more rapidly than that body.

SIXTH BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.
The effect of rays passing through holes (213. 214).
213.
PERSPECTIVE.
If you transmit the rays of the sun through a hole in the shape of a
star you will see a beautiful effect of perspective in the spot
where the sun's rays fall.
[Footnote: In this and the following chapters of MS. C the order of

the original paging has been adhered to, and is shown in
parenthesis. Leonardo himself has but rarely worked out the subject
of these propositions. The space left for the purpose has
occasionally been made use of for quite different matter. Even the
numerous diagrams, most of them very delicately sketched, lettered
and numbered, which occur on these pages, are hardly ever explained,
with the exception of those few which are here given.]
214.
No small hole can so modify the convergence of rays of light as to

prevent, at a long distance, the transmission of the true form of
the luminous body causing them. It is impossible that rays of light
passing through a parallel [slit], should not display the form of
the body causing them, since all the effects produced by a luminous
body are [in fact] the reflection of that body: The moon, shaped
like a boat, if transmitted through a hole is figured in the surface
[it falls on] as a boatshaped object. [Footnote 8: In the MS. a
blank space is left after this question.] Why the eye sees bodies at
a distance, larger than they measure on the vertical plane?.
[Footnote: This chapter, taken from another MS. may, as an

exception, be placed here, as it refers to the same subject as the
preceding section.]
On gradation of shadows (215. 216).
215.

Although the breadth and length of lights and shadow will be

narrower and shorter in foreshortening, the quality and quantity of
the light and shade is not increased nor diminished.
[3]The function of shade and light when diminished by

foreshortening, will be to give shadow and to illuminate an object
opposite, according to the quality and quantity in which they fall
on the body.
[5]In proportion as a derived shadow is nearer to its penultimate

extremities the deeper it will appear, _g z_ beyond the intersection
faces only the part of the shadow [marked] _y z_; this by
intersection takes the shadow from _m n_ but by direct line it takes
the shadow _a m_ hence it is twice as deep as _g z_. _Y x_, by
intersection takes the shadow _n o_, but by direct line the shadow
_n m a_, therefore _x y_ is three times as dark as _z g_; _x f_, by
intersection faces _o b_ and by direct line _o n m a_, therefore we
must say that the shadow between _f x_ will be four times as dark as
the shadow _z g_, because it faces four times as much shadow.
Let _a b_ be the side where the primary shadow is, and _b c_ the
primary light, _d_ will be the spot where it is intercepted,_f g_
the derived shadow and _f e_ the derived light.
And this must be at the beginning of the explanation.
[Footnote: In the original MS. the text of No. 252 precedes the one
given here. In the text of No. 215 there is a blank space of about
four lines between the lines 2 and 3. The diagram given on Pl. VI,
No. 2 is placed between lines 4 and 5. Between lines 5 and 6 there
is another space of about three lines and one line left blank
between lines 8 and 9. The reader will find the meaning of the whole
passage much clearer if he first reads the final lines 11--13.
Compare also line 4 of No. 270.]
On relative proportion of light and shadows (216--221).
216.
That part of the surface of a body on which the images [reflection]

from other bodies placed opposite fall at the largest angle will
assume their hue most strongly. In the diagram below, 8 is a larger
angle than 4, since its base _a n_ is larger than _e n_ the base of

4. This diagram below should end at _a n_ 4 8. [4]That portion of

the illuminated surface on which a shadow is cast will be brightest
which lies contiguous to the cast shadow. Just as an object which is
lighted up by a greater quantity of luminous rays becomes brighter,
so one on which a greater quantity of shadow falls, will be darker.
Let 4 be the side of an illuminated surface 4 8, surrounding the

cast shadow _g e_ 4. And this spot 4 will be lighter than 8, because
less shadow falls on it than on 8. Since 4 faces only the shadow _i
n_; and 8 faces and receives the shadow _a e_ as well as _i n_ which
makes it twice as dark. And the same thing happens when you put the
atmosphere and the sun in the place of shade and light.
[12] The distribution of shadow, originating in, and limited by,

plane surfaces placed near to each other, equal in tone and directly
opposite, will be darker at the ends than at the beginning, which
will be determined by the incidence of the luminous rays. You will
find the same proportion in the depth of the derived shadows _a n_
as in the nearness of the luminous bodies _m b_, which cause them;
and if the luminous bodies were of equal size you would still
farther find the same proportion in the light cast by the luminous
circles and their shadows as in the distance of the said luminous
bodies.
[Footnote: The diagram originally placed between lines 3 and 4 is on

Pl. VI, No. 3. In the diagram given above line 14 of the original,
and here printed in the text, the words _corpo luminoso_ [luminous
body] are written in the circle _m_, _luminoso_ in the circle _b_
and _ombroso_ [body in shadow] in the circle _o_.]
217.
THAT PART OF THE REFLECTION WILL BE BRIGHTEST WHERE THE REFLECTED

RAYS ARE SHORTEST.
[2] The darkness occasioned by the casting of combined shadows will

be in conformity with its cause, which will originate and terminate
between two plane surfaces near together, alike in tone and directly
opposite each other.
[4] In proportion as the source of light is larger, the luminous and

shadow rays will be more mixed together. This result is produced
because wherever there is a larger quantity of luminous rays, there

is most light, but where there are fewer there is least light,
consequently the shadow rays come in and mingle with them.
[Footnote: Diagrams are inserted before lines 2 and 4.]
218.
In all the proportions I lay down it must be understood that the

medium between the bodies is always the same. [2] The smaller the
luminous body the more distinct will the transmission of the shadows
be.
[3] When of two opposite shadows, produced by the same body, one is
twice as dark as the other though similar in form, one of the two
lights causing them must have twice the diameter that the other has
and be at twice the distance from the opaque body. If the object is
lowly moved across the luminous body, and the shadow is intercepted
at some distance from the object, there will be the same relative
proportion between the motion of the derived shadow and the motion
of the primary shadow, as between the distance from the object to
the light, and that from the object to the spot where the shadow is
intercepted; so that though the object is moved slowly the shadow
moves fast.
[Footnote: There are diagrams inserted before lines 2 and 3 but they
are not reproduced here. The diagram above line 6 is written upon as
follows: at _A lume_ (light), at _B obbietto_ (body), at _C ombra
d'obbietto_ (shadow of the object).]
219.
A luminous body will appear less brilliant when surrounded by a

bright background.
[2] I have found that the stars which are nearest to the horizon
look larger than the others because light falls upon them from a
larger proportion of the solar body than when they are above us; and
having more light from the sun they give more light, and the bodies
which are most luminous appear the largest. As may be seen by the
sun through a mist, and overhead; it appears larger where there is
no mist and diminished through mist. No portion of the luminous body
is ever visible from any spot within the pyramid of pure derived
shadow.

[Footnote: Between lines 1 and 2 there is in the original a large

diagram which does not refer to this text. ]
220.
A body on which the solar rays fall between the thin branches of
trees far apart will cast but a single shadow.
[2] If an opaque body and a luminous one are (both) spherical the
base of the pyramid of rays will bear the same proportion to the
luminous body as the base of the pyramid of shade to the opaque
body.
[4] When the transmitted shadow is intercepted by a plane surface

placed opposite to it and farther away from the luminous body than
from the object [which casts it] it will appear proportionately
darker and the edges more distinct.
[Footnote: The diagram which, in the original, is placed above line

2, is similar to the one, here given on page 73 (section 120).--The
diagram here given in the margin stands, in the original, between
lines 3 and 4.]
221.
A body illuminated by the solar rays passing between the thick

branches of trees will produce as many shadows as there are branches
between the sun and itself.
Where the shadow-rays from an opaque pyramidal body are intercepted

they will cast a shadow of bifurcate outline and various depth at
the points. A light which is broader than the apex but narrower than
the base of an opaque pyramidal body placed in front of it, will
cause that pyramid to cast a shadow of bifurcate form and various
degrees of depth.
If an opaque body, smaller than the light, casts two shadows and if
it is the same size or larger, casts but one, it follows that a
pyramidal body, of which part is smaller, part equal to, and part
larger than, the luminous body, will cast a bifurcate shadow.
[Footnote: Between lines 2 and 3 there are in the original two large

diagrams.]
_IV._
_Perspective of Disappearance._
_The theory of the_ "Prospettiva de' perdimenti" _would, in many

important details, be quite unintelligible if it had not been led up
by the principles of light and shade on which it is based. The word_
"Prospettiva" _in the language of the time included the principles
of optics; what Leonardo understood by_ "Perdimenti" _will be
clearly seen in the early chapters, Nos._ 222--224. _It is in the
very nature of the case that the farther explanations given in the
subsequent chapters must be limited to general rules. The sections
given as_ 227--231 _"On indistinctness at short distances" have, it
is true, only an indirect bearing on the subject; but on the other
hand, the following chapters,_ 232--234, _"On indistinctness at
great distances," go fully into the matter, and in chapters_
235--239, _which treat "Of the importance of light and shade in the
Perspective of Disappearance", the practical issues are distinctly
insisted on in their relation to the theory. This is naturally
followed by the statements as to "the effect of light or dark
backgrounds on the apparent size of bodies"_ (_Nos._ 240--250). _At
the end I have placed, in the order of the original, those sections
from the MS._ C _which treat of the "Perspective of Disappearance"
and serve to some extent to complete the treatment of the subject_
(251--262).
Definition (222. 223).
222.
OF THE DIMINISHED DISTINCTNESS OF THE OUTLINES OF OPAQUE BODIES.
If the real outlines of opaque bodies are indistinguishable at even

a very short distance, they will be more so at long distances; and,
since it is by its outlines that we are able to know the real form
of any opaque body, when by its remoteness we fail to discern it as
a whole, much more must we fail to discern its parts and outlines.
223.
OF THE DIMINUTION IN PERSPECTIVE OF OPAQUE OBJECTS.

Among opaque objects of equal size the apparent diminution of size

will be in proportion to their distance from the eye of the
spectator; but it is an inverse proportion, since, where the
distance is greater, the opaque body will appear smaller, and the
less the distance the larger will the object appear. And this is the
fundamental principle of linear perspective and it
follows:--[11]every object as it becomes more remote loses first
those parts which are smallest. Thus of a horse, we should lose the
legs before the head, because the legs are thinner than the head;
and the neck before the body for the same reason. Hence it follows
that the last part of the horse which would be discernible by the
eye would be the mass of the body in an oval form, or rather in a
cylindrical form and this would lose its apparent thickness before
its length--according to the 2nd rule given above, &c. [Footnote 23:
Compare line 11.].
If the eye remains stationary the perspective terminates in the

distance in a point. But if the eye moves in a straight [horizontal]
line the perspective terminates in a line and the reason is that
this line is generated by the motion of the point and our sight;
therefore it follows that as we move our sight [eye], the point
moves, and as we move the point, the line is generated, &c.
An illustration by experiment.
224.
Every visible body, in so far as it affects the eye, includes three

attributes; that is to say: mass, form and colour; and the mass is
recognisable at a greater distance from the place of its actual
existence than either colour or form. Again, colour is discernible
at a greater distance than form, but this law does not apply to
luminous bodies.
The above proposition is plainly shown and proved by experiment;

because: if you see a man close to you, you discern the exact
appearance of the mass and of the form and also of the colouring; if
he goes to some distance you will not recognise who he is, because
the character of the details will disappear, if he goes still
farther you will not be able to distinguish his colouring, but he
will appear as a dark object, and still farther he will appear as a
very small dark rounded object. It appears rounded because distance

so greatly diminishes the various details that nothing remains

visible but the larger mass. And the reason is this: We know very
well that all the images of objects reach the senses by a small
aperture in the eye; hence, if the whole horizon _a d_ is admitted
through such an aperture, the object _b c_ being but a very small
fraction of this horizon what space can it fill in that minute image
of so vast a hemisphere? And because luminous bodies have more power
in darkness than any others, it is evident that, as the chamber of
the eye is very dark, as is the nature of all colored cavities, the
images of distant objects are confused and lost in the great light
of the sky; and if they are visible at all, appear dark and black,
as every small body must when seen in the diffused light of the
atmosphere.
[Footnote: The diagram belonging to this passage is placed between

lines 5 and 6; it is No. 4 on Pl. VI. ]
A guiding rule.
225.
OF THE ATMOSPHERE THAT INTERPOSES BETWEEN THE EYE AND VISIBLE

OBJECTS.
An object will appear more or less distinct at the same distance, in

proportion as the atmosphere existing between the eye and that
object is more or less clear. Hence, as I know that the greater or
less quantity of the air that lies between the eye and the object
makes the outlines of that object more or less indistinct, you must
diminish the definiteness of outline of those objects in proportion
to their increasing distance from the eye of the spectator.
An experiment.
226.
When I was once in a place on the sea, at an equal distance from the
shore and the mountains, the distance from the shore looked much
greater than that from the mountains.
On indistinctness at short distances (227-231).
227.

If you place an opaque object in front of your eye at a distance of

four fingers' breadth, if it is smaller than the space between the
two eyes it will not interfere with your seeing any thing that may
be beyond it. No object situated beyond another object seen by the
eye can be concealed by this [nearer] object if it is smaller than
the space from eye to eye.
228.
The eye cannot take in a luminous angle which is too close to it.
229.
That part of a surface will be better lighted on which the light

falls at the greater angle. And that part, on which the shadow falls
at the greatest angle, will receive from those rays least of the
benefit of the light.
230.
OF THE EYE.
The edges of an object placed in front of the pupil of the eye will
be less distinct in proportion as they are closer to the eye. This
is shown by the edge of the object _n_ placed in front of the pupil
_d_; in looking at this edge the pupil also sees all the space _a c_
which is beyond the edge; and the images the eye receives from that
space are mingled with the images of the edge, so that one image
confuses the other, and this confusion hinders the pupil from
distinguishing the edge.
231.
The outlines of objects will be least clear when they are nearest to
the eye, and therefore remoter outlines will be clearer. Among
objects which are smaller than the pupil of the eye those will be
less distinct which are nearer to the eye.
On indistinctness at great distances (232-234).
232.

Objects near to the eye will appear larger than those at a distance.
Objects seen with two eyes will appear rounder than if they are seen
with only one.
Objects seen between light and shadow will show the most relief.
233.
OF PAINTING.
Our true perception of an object diminishes in proportion as its

size is diminished by distance.
234.
PERSPECTIVE.
Why objects seen at a distance appear large to the eye and in the
image on the vertical plane they appear small.
PERSPECTIVE.
I ask how far away the eye can discern a non-luminous body, as, for
instance, a mountain. It will be very plainly visible if the sun is
behind it; and could be seen at a greater or less distance according
to the sun's place in the sky.
[Footnote: The clue to the solution of this problem (lines 1-3) is

given in lines 4-6, No. 232. Objects seen with both eyes appear
solid since they are seen from two distinct points of sight
separated by the distance between the eyes, but this solidity cannot
be represented in a flat drawing. Compare No. 535.]
The importance of light and shade in the perspective of

disappearance (235-239).
235.
An opaque body seen in a line in which the light falls will reveal
no prominences to the eye. For instance, let _a_ be the solid body
and _c_ the light; _c m_ and _c n_ will be the lines of incidence of
the light, that is to say the lines which transmit the light to the

object _a_. The eye being at the point _b_, I say that since the
light _c_ falls on the whole part _m n_ the portions in relief on
that side will all be illuminated. Hence the eye placed at _c_
cannot see any light and shade and, not seeing it, every portion
will appear of the same tone, therefore the relief in the prominent
or rounded parts will not be visible.
236.
OF PAINTING.
When you represent in your work shadows which you can only discern
with difficulty, and of which you cannot distinguish the edges so
that you apprehend them confusedly, you must not make them sharp or
definite lest your work should have a wooden effect.
237.
OF PAINTING.
You will observe in drawing that among the shadows some are of
undistinguishable gradation and form, as is shown in the 3rd
[proposition] which says: Rounded surfaces display as many degrees
of light and shade as there are varieties of brightness and darkness
reflected from the surrounding objects.
238.
OF LIGHT AND SHADE.
You who draw from nature, look (carefully) at the extent, the
degree, and the form of the lights and shadows on each muscle; and
in their position lengthwise observe towards which muscle the axis
of the central line is directed.
239.
An object which is [so brilliantly illuminated as to be] almost as

bright as light will be visible at a greater distance, and of larger
apparent size than is natural to objects so remote.
The effect of light or dark backgrounds on the apparent size of

objects (240-250).

240.
A shadow will appear dark in proportion to the brilliancy of the

light surrounding it and conversely it will be less conspicuous
where it is seen against a darker background.
241.
OF ORDINARY PERSPECTIVE.
An object of equal breadth and colour throughout, seen against a

background of various colours will appear unequal in breadth.
And if an object of equal breadth throughout, but of various

colours, is seen against a background of uniform colour, that object
will appear of various breadth. And the more the colours of the
background or of the object seen against the ground vary, the
greater will the apparent variations in the breadth be though the
objects seen against the ground be of equal breadth [throughout].
242.
A dark object seen against a bright background will appear smaller

than it is.
A light object will look larger when it is seen against a background

darker than itself.
243.
OF LIGHT.
A luminous body when obscured by a dense atmosphere will appear

smaller; as may be seen by the moon or sun veiled by mists.
OF LIGHT.
Of several luminous bodies of equal size and brilliancy and at an

equal distance, that will look the largest which is surrounded by
the darkest background.
OF LIGHT.

I find that any luminous body when seen through a dense and thick
mist diminishes in proportion to its distance from the eye. Thus it
is with the sun by day, as well as the moon and the other eternal
lights by night. And when the air is clear, these luminaries appear
larger in proportion as they are farther from the eye.
244.
That portion of a body of uniform breadth which is against a lighter

background will look narrower [than the rest].
[4] _e_ is a given object, itself dark and of uniform breadth; _a b_

and _c d_ are two backgrounds one darker than the other; _b c_ is a
bright background, as it might be a spot lighted by the sun through
an aperture in a dark room. Then I say that the object _e g_ will
appear larger at _e f_ than at _g h_; because _e f_ has a darker
background than _g h_; and again at _f g_ it will look narrower from
being seen by the eye _o_, on the light background _b c_. [Footnote
12: The diagram to which the text, lines 1-11, refers, is placed in
the original between lines 3 and 4, and is given on Pl. XLI, No. 3.
Lines 12 to 14 are explained by the lower of the two diagrams on Pl.
XLI, No. 4. In the original these are placed after line 14.] That
part of a luminous body, of equal breadth and brilliancy throughout,
will look largest which is seen against the darkest background; and
the luminous body will seem on fire.
245.
WHY BODIES IN LIGHT AND SHADE HAVE THEIR OUTLINES ALTERED BY THE
COLOUR AND BRIGHTNESS OF THE OBJECTS SERVING AS A BACKGROUND TO
THEM.
If you look at a body of which the illuminated portion lies and ends
against a dark background, that part of the light which will look
brightest will be that which lies against the dark [background] at
_d_. But if this brighter part lies against a light background, the
edge of the object, which is itself light, will be less distinct
than before, and the highest light will appear to be between the
limit of the background _m f_ and the shadow. The same thing is seen
with regard to the dark [side], inasmuch as that edge of the shaded
portion of the object which lies against a light background, as at
_l_, it looks much darker than the rest. But if this shadow lies

against a dark background, the edge of the shaded part will appear
lighter than before, and the deepest shade will appear between the
edge and the light at the point _o_.
[Footnote: In the original diagram _o_ is inside the shaded surface

at the level of _d_.]
246.
An opaque body will appear smaller when it is surrounded by a highly

luminous background, and a light body will appear larger when it is
seen against a darker background. This may be seen in the height of
buildings at night, when lightning flashes behind them; it suddenly
seems, when it lightens, as though the height of the building were
diminished. For the same reason such buildings look larger in a
mist, or by night than when the atmosphere is clear and light.
247.
ON LIGHT BETWEEN SHADOWS
When you are drawing any object, remember, in comparing the grades
of light in the illuminated portions, that the eye is often deceived
by seeing things lighter than they are. And the reason lies in our
comparing those parts with the contiguous parts. Since if two
[separate] parts are in different grades of light and if the less
bright is conterminous with a dark portion and the brighter is
conterminous with a light background--as the sky or something
equally bright--, then that which is less light, or I should say
less radiant, will look the brighter and the brighter will seem the
darker.
248.
Of objects equally dark in themselves and situated at a considerable

and equal distance, that will look the darkest which is farthest
above the earth.
249.
TO PROVE HOW IT IS THAT LUMINOUS BODIES APPEAR LARGER, AT A

DISTANCE, THAN THEY ARE.

If you place two lighted candles side by side half a braccio apart,
and go from them to a distance 200 braccia you will see that by the
increased size of each they will appear as a single luminous body
with the light of the two flames, one braccio wide.
TO PROVE HOW YOU MAY SEE THE REAL SIZE OF LUMINOUS BODIES.
If you wish to see the real size of these luminous bodies, take a
very thin board and make in it a hole no bigger than the tag of a
lace and place it as close to your eye as possible, so that when you
look through this hole, at the said light, you can see a large space
of air round it. Then by rapidly moving this board backwards and
forwards before your eye you will see the light increase [and
diminish].
Propositions on perspective of disappearance from MS. C. (250-262).
250.
Of several bodies of equal size and equally distant from the eye,
those will look the smallest which are against the lightest
background.
Every visible object must be surrounded by light and shade. A

perfectly spherical body surrounded by light and shade will appear
to have one side larger than the other in proportion as one is more
highly lighted than the other.
251.
PERSPECTIVE.
No visible object can be well understood and comprehended by the

human eye excepting from the difference of the background against
which the edges of the object terminate and by which they are
bounded, and no object will appear [to stand out] separate from that
background so far as the outlines of its borders are concerned. The
moon, though it is at a great distance from the sun, when, in an
eclipse, it comes between our eyes and the sun, appears to the eyes
of men to be close to the sun and affixed to it, because the sun is
then the background to the moon.
252.

A luminous body will appear more brilliant in proportion as it is

surrounded by deeper shadow. [Footnote: The diagram which, in the
original, is placed after this text, has no connection with it.]
253.
The straight edges of a body will appear broken when they are
conterminous with a dark space streaked with rays of light.
[Footnote: Here again the diagrams in the original have no
connection with the text.]
254.
Of several bodies, all equally large and equally distant, that which
is most brightly illuminated will appear to the eye nearest and
largest. [Footnote: Here again the diagrams in the original have no
connection with the text.]
255.
If several luminous bodies are seen from a great distance although

they are really separate they will appear united as one body.
256.
If several objects in shadow, standing very close together, are seen

against a bright background they will appear separated by wide
intervals.
257.
Of several bodies of equal size and tone, that which is farthest

will appear the lightest and smallest.
258.
Of several objects equal in size, brightness of background and

length that which has the flattest surface will look the largest. A
bar of iron equally thick throughout and of which half is red hot,
affords an example, for the red hot part looks thicker than the
rest.

259.
Of several bodies of equal size and length, and alike in form and in
depth of shade, that will appear smallest which is surrounded by the
most luminous background.
260.
DIFFERENT PORTIONS OF A WALL SURFACE WILL BE DARKER OR BRIGHTER IN

PROPORTION AS THE LIGHT OR SHADOW FALLS ON THEM AT A LARGER ANGLE.
The foregoing proposition can be clearly proved in this way. Let us

say that _m q_ is the luminous body, then _f g_ will be the opaque
body; and let _a e_ be the above-mentioned plane on which the said
angles fall, showing [plainly] the nature and character of their
bases. Then: _a_ will be more luminous than _b_; the base of the
angle _a_ is larger than that of _b_ and it therefore makes a
greater angle which will be _a m q_; and the pyramid _b p m_ will be
narrower and _m o c_ will be still finer, and so on by degrees, in
proportion as they are nearer to _e_, the pyramids will become
narrower and darker. That portion of the wall will be the darkest
where the breadth of the pyramid of shadow is greater than the
breadth of the pyramid of light.
At the point _a_ the pyramid of light is equal in strength to the

pyramid of shadow, because the base _f g_ is equal to the base _r
f_. At the point _d_ the pyramid of light is narrower than the
pyramid of shadow by so much as the base _s f_ is less than the base
_f g_.
Divide the foregoing proposition into two diagrams, one with the
pyramids of light and shadow, the other with the pyramids of light
[only].
261.
Among shadows of equal depth those which are nearest to the eye will
look least deep.
262.
The more brilliant the light given by a luminous body, the deeper
will the shadows be cast by the objects it illuminates.

_V._
_Theory of colours._
_Leonardo's theory of colours is even more intimately connected with

his principles of light and shade than his Perspective of
Disappearance and is in fact merely an appendix or supplement to
those principles, as we gather from the titles to sections_ 264,
267_, and _276_, while others again_ (_Nos._ 281, 282_) are headed_
Prospettiva.
_A very few of these chapters are to be found in the oldest copies

and editions of the Treatise on Painting, and although the material
they afford is but meager and the connection between them but
slight, we must still attribute to them a special theoretical value
as well as practical utility--all the more so because our knowledge
of the theory and use of colours at the time of the Renaissance is
still extremely limited._
The reciprocal effects of colours on objects placed opposite each

other (263-272).
263.
OF PAINTING.
The hue of an illuminated object is affected by that of the luminous

body.
264.
OF SHADOW.
The surface of any opaque body is affected by the colour of

surrounding objects.
265.
A shadow is always affected by the colour of the surface on which it

is cast.
266.

An image produced in a mirror is affected by the colour of the

mirror.
267.
OF LIGHT AND SHADE.
Every portion of the surface of a body is varied [in hue] by the

[reflected] colour of the object that may be opposite to it.
EXAMPLE.
If you place a spherical body between various objects that is to say

with [direct] sunlight on one side of it, and on the other a wall
illuminated by the sun, which wall may be green or of any other
colour, while the surface on which it is placed may be red, and the
two lateral sides are in shadow, you will see that the natural
colour of that body will assume something of the hue reflected from
those objects. The strongest will be [given by] the luminous body;
the second by the illuminated wall, the third by the shadows. There
will still be a portion which will take a tint from the colour of
the edges.
268.
The surface of every opaque body is affected by the colour of the

objects surrounding it. But this effect will be strong or weak in
proportion as those objects are more or less remote and more or less
strongly [coloured].
269.
OF PAINTING.
The surface of every opaque body assumes the hues reflected from
surrounding objects.
The surface of an opaque body assumes the hues of surrounding

objects more strongly in proportion as the rays that form the images
of those objects strike the surface at more equal angles.
And the surface of an opaque body assumes a stronger hue from the

surrounding objects in proportion as that surface is whiter and the

colour of the object brighter or more highly illuminated.
270.
OF THE RAYS WHICH CONVEY THROUGH THE AIR THE IMAGES OF OBJECTS.
All the minutest parts of the image intersect each other without
interfering with each other. To prove this let _r_ be one of the
sides of the hole, opposite to which let _s_ be the eye which sees
the lower end _o_ of the line _n o_. The other extremity cannot
transmit its image to the eye _s_ as it has to strike the end _r_
and it is the same with regard to _m_ at the middle of the line. The
case is the same with the upper extremity _n_ and the eye _u_. And
if the end _n_ is red the eye _u_ on that side of the holes will not
see the green colour of _o_, but only the red of _n_ according to
the 7th of this where it is said: Every form projects images from
itself by the shortest line, which necessarily is a straight line,
&c.
[Footnote: 13. This probably refers to the diagram given under No.
66.]
271.
OF PAINTING.
The surface of a body assumes in some degree the hue of those around
it. The colours of illuminated objects are reflected from the
surfaces of one to the other in various spots, according to the
various positions of those objects. Let _o_ be a blue object in full
light, facing all by itself the space _b c_ on the white sphere _a b
e d e f_, and it will give it a blue tinge, _m_ is a yellow body
reflected onto the space _a b_ at the same time as _o_ the blue
body, and they give it a green colour (by the 2nd [proposition] of
this which shows that blue and yellow make a beautiful green &c.)
And the rest will be set forth in the Book on Painting. In that Book
it will be shown, that, by transmitting the images of objects and
the colours of bodies illuminated by sunlight through a small round
perforation and into a dark chamber onto a plane surface, which
itself is quite white, &c.
But every thing will be upside down.

Combination of different colours in cast shadows.
272.
That which casts the shadow does not face it, because the shadows
are produced by the light which causes and surrounds the shadows.
The shadow caused by the light _e_, which is yellow, has a blue
tinge, because the shadow of the body _a_ is cast upon the pavement
at _b_, where the blue light falls; and the shadow produced by the
light _d_, which is blue, will be yellow at _c_, because the yellow
light falls there and the surrounding background to these shadows _b
c_ will, besides its natural colour, assume a hue compounded of
yellow and blue, because it is lighted by the yellow light and by
the blue light both at once.
Shadows of various colours, as affected by the lights falling on

them. That light which causes the shadow does not face it.
[Footnote: In the original diagram we find in the circle _e_

"_giallo_" (yellow) and the cirle _d_ "_azurro"_ (blue) and also
under the circle of shadow to the left "_giallo_" is written and
under that to the right "_azurro_".
In the second diagram where four circles are placed in a row we find
written, beginning at the left hand, "_giallo_" (yellow), "_azurro_"
(blue), "_verde_" (green), "_rosso_" (red).]
The effect of colours in the camera obscura (273-274).
273.
The edges of a colour(ed object) transmitted through a small hole

are more conspicuous than the central portions.
The edges of the images, of whatever colour, which are transmitted

through a small aperture into a dark chamber will always be stronger
than the middle portions.
274.
OF THE INTERSECTIONS OF THE IMAGES IN THE PUPIL OF THE EYE.

The intersections of the images as they enter the pupil do not

mingle in confusion in the space where that intersection unites
them; as is evident, since, if the rays of the sun pass through two
panes of glass in close contact, of which one is blue and the other
yellow, the rays, in penetrating them, do not become blue or yellow
but a beautiful green. And the same thing would happen in the eye,
if the images which were yellow or green should mingle where they
[meet and] intersect as they enter the pupil. As this does not
happen such a mingling does not exist.
OF THE NATURE OF THE RAYS COMPOSED OF THE IMAGES OF OBJECTS, AND OF

THEIR INTERSECTIONS.
The directness of the rays which transmit the forms and colours of
the bodies whence they proceed does not tinge the air nor can they
affect each other by contact where they intersect. They affect only
the spot where they vanish and cease to exist, because that spot
faces and is faced by the original source of these rays, and no
other object, which surrounds that original source can be seen by
the eye where these rays are cut off and destroyed, leaving there
the spoil they have conveyed to it. And this is proved by the 4th
[proposition], on the colour of bodies, which says: The surface of
every opaque body is affected by the colour of surrounding objects;
hence we may conclude that the spot which, by means of the rays
which convey the image, faces--and is faced by the cause of the
image, assumes the colour of that object.
On the colours of derived shadows (275. 276).
275.
ANY SHADOW CAST BY AN OPAQUE BODY SMALLER THAN THE LIGHT CAUSING THE
SHADOW WILL THROW A DERIVED SHADOW WHICH IS TINGED BY THE COLOUR OF
THE LIGHT.
Let _n_ be the source of the shadow _e f_; it will assume its hue.
Let _o_ be the source of _h e_ which will in the same way be tinged
by its hue and so also the colour of _v h_ will be affected by _p_
which causes it; and the shadow of the triangle _z k y_ will be
affected by the colour of _q_, because it is produced by it. [7] In
proportion as _c d_ goes into _a d_, will _n r s_ be darker than
_m_; and the rest of the space will be shadowless [11]. _f g_ is
the highest light, because here the whole light of the window _a d_

falls; and thus on the opaque body _m e_ is in equally high light;

_z k y_ is a triangle which includes the deepest shadow, because the
light _a d_ cannot reach any part of it. _x h_ is the 2nd grade of
shadow, because it receives only 1/3 of the light from the window,
that is _c d_. The third grade of shadow is _h e_, where two thirds
of the light from the window is visible. The last grade of shadow is
_b d e f_, because the highest grade of light from the window falls
at _f_.
[Footnote: The diagram Pl. III, No. 1 belongs to this chapter as

well as the text given in No. 148. Lines 7-11 (compare lines 8-12 of
No. 148) which are written within the diagram, evidently apply to
both sections and have therefore been inserted in both.]
276.
OF THE COLOURS OF SIMPLE DERIVED SHADOWS.
The colour of derived shadows is always affected by that of the body

towards which they are cast. To prove this: let an opaque body be
placed between the plane _s c t d_ and the blue light _d e_ and the
red light _a b_, then I say that _d e_, the blue light, will fall on
the whole surface _s c t d_ excepting at _o p_ which is covered by
the shadow of the body _q r_, as is shown by the straight lines _d q
o e r p_. And the same occurs with the light _a b_ which falls on
the whole surface _s c t d_ excepting at the spot obscured by the
shadow _q r_; as is shown by the lines _d q o_, and _e r p_. Hence
we may conclude that the shadow _n m_ is exposed to the blue light
_d e_; but, as the red light _a b_ cannot fall there, _n m_ will
appear as a blue shadow on a red background tinted with blue,
because on the surface _s c t d_ both lights can fall. But in the
shadows only one single light falls; for this reason these shadows
are of medium depth, since, if no light whatever mingled with the
shadow, it would be of the first degree of darkness &c. But in the
shadow at _o p_ the blue light does not fall, because the body _q r_
interposes and intercepts it there. Only the red light _a b_ falls
there and tinges the shadow of a red hue and so a ruddy shadow
appears on the background of mingled red and blue.
The shadow of _q r_ at _o p_ is red, being caused by the blue light

_d e_; and the shadow of _q r_ at _o' p'_ is blue being caused by
the red light _a b_. Hence we say that the blue light in this
instance causes a red derived shadow from the opaque body _q' r'_,

while the red light causes the same body to cast a blue derived
shadow; but the primary shadow [on the dark side of the body itself]
is not of either of those hues, but a mixture of red and blue.
The derived shadows will be equal in depth if they are produced by

lights of equal strength and at an equal distance; this is proved.
[Footnote 53: The text is unfinished in the original.]
[Footnote: In the original diagram Leonardo has written within the

circle _q r corpo obroso_ (body in shadow); at the spot marked _A,
luminoso azzurro_ (blue luminous body); at _B, luminoso rosso_ (red
luminous body). At _E_ we read _ombra azzurra_ (blue tinted shadow)
and at _D ombra rossa_ (red tinted shadow).]
On the nature of colours (277. 278).
277.
No white or black is transparent.
278.
OF PAINTING.
[Footnote 2: See Footnote 3] Since white is not a colour but the

neutral recipient of every colour [Footnote 3: _il bianco non e
colore ma e inpotentia ricettiva d'ogni colore_ (white is not a
colour, but the neutral recipient of every colour). LEON BATT.
ALBERTI "_Della pittura_" libro I, asserts on the contrary: "_Il
bianco e'l nero non sono veri colori, ma sono alteratione delli
altri colori_" (ed. JANITSCHEK, p. 67; Vienna 1877).], when it is
seen in the open air and high up, all its shadows are bluish; and
this is caused, according to the 4th [prop.], which says: the
surface of every opaque body assumes the hue of the surrounding
objects. Now this white [body] being deprived of the light of the
sun by the interposition of some body between the sun and itself,
all that portion of it which is exposed to the sun and atmosphere
assumes the colour of the sun and atmosphere; the side on which the
sun does not fall remains in shadow and assumes the hue of the
atmosphere. And if this white object did not reflect the green of
the fields all the way to the horizon nor get the brightness of the
horizon itself, it would certainly appear simply of the same hue as
the atmosphere.

On gradations in the depth of colours (279. 280).
279.
Since black, when painted next to white, looks no blacker than when
next to black; and white when next to black looks no whiter than
white, as is seen by the images transmitted through a small hole or
by the edges of any opaque screen ...
280.
OF COLOURS.
Of several colours, all equally white, that will look whitest which
is against the darkest background. And black will look intensest
against the whitest background.
And red will look most vivid against the yellowest background; and
the same is the case with all colours when surrounded by their
strongest contrasts.
On the reflection of colours (281-283).
281.
PERSPECTIVE.
Every object devoid of colour in itself is more or less tinged by

the colour [of the object] placed opposite. This may be seen by
experience, inasmuch as any object which mirrors another assumes the
colour of the object mirrored in it. And if the surface thus
partially coloured is white the portion which has a red reflection
will appear red, or any other colour, whether bright or dark.
PERSPECTIVE.
Every opaque and colourless body assumes the hue of the colour
reflected on it; as happens with a white wall.
282.
PERSPECTIVE.

That side of an object in light and shade which is towards the light
transmits the images of its details more distinctly and immediately
to the eye than the side which is in shadow.
PERSPECTIVE.
The solar rays reflected on a square mirror will be thrown back to

distant objects in a circular form.
PERSPECTIVE.
Any white and opaque surface will be partially coloured by

reflections from surrounding objects.
[Footnote 281. 282: The title line of these chapters is in the

original simply _"pro"_, which may be an abbreviation for either
_Propositione_ or _Prospettiva_--taking Prospettiva of course in its
widest sense, as we often find it used in Leonardo's writings. The
title _"pro"_ has here been understood to mean _Prospettiva_, in
accordance with the suggestion afforded by page 10b of this same
MS., where the first section is headed _Prospettiva_ in full (see
No. 94), while the four following sections are headed merely _"pro"_
(see No. 85).]
283.
WHAT PORTION OF A COLOURED SURFACE OUGHT IN REASON TO BE THE MOST

INTENSE.
If _a_ is the light, and _b_ illuminated by it in a direct line,

_c_, on which the light cannot fall, is lighted only by reflection
from _b_ which, let us say, is red. Hence the light reflected from
it, will be affected by the hue of the surface causing it and will
tinge the surface _c_ with red. And if _c_ is also red you will see
it much more intense than _b_; and if it were yellow you would see
there a colour between yellow and red.
On the use of dark and light colours in painting (284--286).
284.
WHY BEAUTIFUL COLOURS MUST BE IN THE [HIGHEST] LIGHT.

Since we see that the quality of colour is known [only] by means of

light, it is to be supposed that where there is most light the true
character of a colour in light will be best seen; and where there is
most shadow the colour will be affected by the tone of that. Hence,
O Painter! remember to show the true quality of colours in bright
lights.
285.
An object represented in white and black will display stronger

relief than in any other way; hence I would remind you O Painter! to
dress your figures in the lightest colours you can, since, if you
put them in dark colours, they will be in too slight relief and
inconspicuous from a distance. And the reason is that the shadows of
all objects are dark. And if you make a dress dark there is little
variety in the lights and shadows, while in light colours there are
many grades.
286.
OF PAINTING.
Colours seen in shadow will display more or less of their natural

brilliancy in proportion as they are in fainter or deeper shadow.
But if these same colours are situated in a well-lighted place, they

will appear brighter in proportion as the light is more brilliant.
THE ADVERSARY.
The variety of colours in shadow must be as great as that of the

colours in the objects in that shadow.
THE ANSWER.
Colours seen in shadow will display less variety in proportion as

the shadows in which they lie are deeper. And evidence of this is to
be had by looking from an open space into the doorways of dark and
shadowy churches, where the pictures which are painted in various
colours all look of uniform darkness.
Hence at a considerable distance all the shadows of different

colours will appear of the same darkness.
It is the light side of an object in light and shade which shows the
true colour.
On the colours of the rainbow (287. 288).
287.
Treat of the rainbow in the last book on Painting, but first write
the book on colours produced by the mixture of other colours, so as
to be able to prove by those painters' colours how the colours of
the rainbow are produced.
288.
WHETHER THE COLOURS OF THE RAINBOW ARE PRODUCED BY THE SUN.
The colours of the rainbow are not produced by the sun, for they
occur in many ways without the sunshine; as may be seen by holding a
glass of water up to the eye; when, in the glass--where there are
those minute bubbles always seen in coarse glass--each bubble, even
though the sun does not fall on it, will produce on one side all the
colours of the rainbow; as you may see by placing the glass between
the day light and your eye in such a way as that it is close to the
eye, while on one side the glass admits the [diffused] light of the
atmosphere, and on the other side the shadow of the wall on one side
of the window; either left or right, it matters not which. Then, by
turning the glass round you will see these colours all round the
bubbles in the glass &c. And the rest shall be said in its place.
THAT THE EYE HAS NO PART IN PRODUCING THE COLOURS OF THE RAINBOW.
In the experiment just described, the eye would seem to have some
share in the colours of the rainbow, since these bubbles in the
glass do not display the colours except through the medium of the
eye. But, if you place the glass full of water on the window sill,
in such a position as that the outer side is exposed to the sun's
rays, you will see the same colours produced in the spot of light
thrown through the glass and upon the floor, in a dark place, below
the window; and as the eye is not here concerned in it, we may
evidently, and with certainty pronounce that the eye has no share in
producing them.

OF THE COLOURS IN THE FEATHERS OF CERTAIN BIRDS.
There are many birds in various regions of the world on whose

feathers we see the most splendid colours produced as they move, as
we see in our own country in the feathers of peacocks or on the
necks of ducks or pigeons, &c.
Again, on the surface of antique glass found underground and on the

roots of turnips kept for some time at the bottom of wells or other
stagnant waters [we see] that each root displays colours similar to
those of the real rainbow. They may also be seen when oil has been
placed on the top of water and in the solar rays reflected from the
surface of a diamond or beryl; again, through the angular facet of a
beryl every dark object against a background of the atmosphere or
any thing else equally pale-coloured is surrounded by these rainbow
colours between the atmosphere and the dark body; and in many other
circumstances which I will not mention, as these suffice for my
purpose.
_VI._
_'Prospettiva de' colri' (Perspective of Colour)_
_and_
_'Prospettiva aerea' (Aerial Perspective)._
_Leonardo distinctly separates these branches of his subject, as may

be seen in the beginning of No._ 295. _Attempts have been made to
cast doubts on the results which Leonardo arrived at by experiment
on the perspective of colour, but not with justice, as may be seen
from the original text of section_ 294.
_The question as to the composition of the atmosphere, which is

inseparable from a discussion on Aerial Perspective, forms a
separate theory which is treated at considerable length. Indeed the
author enters into it so fully that we cannot escape the conviction
that he must have dwelt with particular pleasure on this part of his
subject, and that he attached great importance to giving it a
character of general applicability._
General rules (289--291).

289.
The variety of colour in objects cannot be discerned at a great

distance, excepting in those parts which are directly lighted up by
the solar rays.
290.
As to the colours of objects: at long distances no difference is

perceptible in the parts in shadow.
291.
OF THE VISIBILITY OF COLOURS.
Which colour strikes most? An object at a distance is most

conspicuous, when it is lightest, and the darkest is least visible.
An exceptional case.
292.
Of the edges [outlines] of shadows. Some have misty and ill defined
edges, others distinct ones.
No opaque body can be devoid of light and shade, except it is in a

mist, on ground covered with snow, or when snow is falling on the
open country which has no light on it and is surrounded with
darkness.
And this occurs [only] in spherical bodies, because in other bodies

which have limbs and parts, those sides of limbs which face each
other reflect on each other the accidental [hue and tone] of their
surface.
An experiment.
293.
ALL COLOURS ARE AT A DISTANCE UNDISTINGUISHABLE AND UNDISCERNIBLE.
All colours at a distance are undistinguishable in shadow, because

an object which is not in the highest light is incapable of

transmitting its image to the eye through an atmosphere more
luminous than itself; since the lesser brightness must be absorbed
by the greater. For instance: We, in a house, can see that all the
colours on the surface of the walls are clearly and instantly
visible when the windows of the house are open; but if we were to go
out of the house and look in at the windows from a little distance
to see the paintings on those walls, instead of the paintings we
should see an uniform deep and colourless shadow.
The practice of the prospettiva de colori.
294.
HOW A PAINTER SHOULD CARRY OUT THE PERSPECTIVE OF COLOUR IN

PRACTICE.
In order to put into practice this perspective of the variation and

loss or diminution of the essential character of colours, observe at
every hundred braccia some objects standing in the landscape, such
as trees, houses, men and particular places. Then in front of the
first tree have a very steady plate of glass and keep your eye very
steady, and then, on this plate of glass, draw a tree, tracing it
over the form of that tree. Then move it on one side so far as that
the real tree is close by the side of the tree you have drawn; then
colour your drawing in such a way as that in colour and form the two
may be alike, and that both, if you close one eye, seem to be
painted on the glass and at the same distance. Then, by the same
method, represent a second tree, and a third, with a distance of a
hundred braccia between each. And these will serve as a standard and
guide whenever you work on your own pictures, wherever they may
apply, and will enable you to give due distance in those works. [14]
But I have found that as a rule the second is 4/5 of the first when
it is 20 braccia beyond it.
[Footnote: This chapter is one of those copied in the Manuscript of

the Vatican library Urbinas 1270, and the original text is rendered
here with no other alterations, but in the orthography. H. LUDWIG,
in his edition of this copy translates lines 14 and 15 thus: "_Ich
finde aber als Regel, dass der zweite um vier Funftel des ersten
abnimmt, wenn er namlich zwanzig Ellen vom ersten entfernt ist
(?)"_. He adds in his commentary: "_Das Ende der Nummer ist wohl
jedenfalls verstummelt_". However the translation given above shows

that it admits of a different rendering.]
The rules of aerial perspective (295--297).
295.
OF AERIAL PERSPECTIVE.
There is another kind of perspective which I call Aerial

Perspective, because by the atmosphere we are able to distinguish
the variations in distance of different buildings, which appear
placed on a single line; as, for instance, when we see several
buildings beyond a wall, all of which, as they appear above the top
of the wall, look of the same size, while you wish to represent them
in a picture as more remote one than another and to give the effect
of a somewhat dense atmosphere. You know that in an atmosphere of
equal density the remotest objects seen through it, as mountains, in
consequence of the great quantity of atmosphere between your eye and
them--appear blue and almost of the same hue as the atmosphere
itself [Footnote 10: _quado il sole e per leuante_ (when the sun is
in the East). Apparently the author refers here to morning light in
general. H. LUDWIG however translates this passage from the Vatican
copy "_wenn namlich die Sonne (dahinter) im Osten steht_".] when the
sun is in the East [Footnote 11: See Footnote 10]. Hence you must
make the nearest building above the wall of its real colour, but the
more distant ones make less defined and bluer. Those you wish should
look farthest away you must make proportionately bluer; thus, if one
is to be five times as distant, make it five times bluer. And by
this rule the buildings which above a [given] line appear of the
same size, will plainly be distinguished as to which are the more
remote and which larger than the others.
296.
The medium lying between the eye and the object seen, tinges that
object with its colour, as the blueness of the atmosphere makes the
distant mountains appear blue and red glass makes objects seen
beyond it, look red. The light shed round them by the stars is
obscured by the darkness of the night which lies between the eye and
the radiant light of the stars.
297.

Take care that the perspective of colour does not disagree with the
size of your objects, hat is to say: that the colours diminish from
their natural [vividness] in proportion as the objects at various
distances dimmish from their natural size.
On the relative density of the atmosphere (298--290).
298.
WHY THE ATMOSPHERE MUST BE REPRESENTED AS PALER TOWARDS THE LOWER

PORTION.
Because the atmosphere is dense near the earth, and the higher it is
the rarer it becomes. When the sun is in the East if you look
towards the West and a little way to the South and North, you will
see that this dense atmosphere receives more light from the sun than
the rarer; because the rays meet with greater resistance. And if the
sky, as you see it, ends on a low plain, that lowest portion of the
sky will be seen through a denser and whiter atmosphere, which will
weaken its true colour as seen through that medium, and there the
sky will look whiter than it is above you, where the line of sight
travels through a smaller space of air charged with heavy vapour.
And if you turn to the East, the atmosphere will appear darker as
you look lower down because the luminous rays pass less freely
through the lower atmosphere.
299.
OF THE MODE OF TREATING REMOTE OBJECTS IN PAINTING.
It is easy to perceive that the atmosphere which lies closest to the

level ground is denser than the rest, and that where it is higher
up, it is rarer and more transparent. The lower portions of large
and lofty objects which are at a distance are not much seen, because
you see them along a line which passes through a denser and thicker
section of the atmosphere. The summits of such heights are seen
along a line which, though it starts from your eye in a dense
atmosphere, still, as it ends at the top of those lofty objects,
ceases in a much rarer atmosphere than exists at their base; for
this reason the farther this line extends from your eye, from point
to point the atmosphere becomes more and more rare. Hence, O
Painter! when you represent mountains, see that from hill to hill
the bases are paler than the summits, and in proportion as they

recede beyond each other make the bases paler than the summits;
while, the higher they are the more you must show of their true form
and colour.
On the colour of the atmosphere (300-307).
300.
OF THE COLOUR OF THE ATMOSPHERE.
I say that the blueness we see in the atmosphere is not intrinsic

colour, but is caused by warm vapour evaporated in minute and
insensible atoms on which the solar rays fall, rendering them
luminous against the infinite darkness of the fiery sphere which
lies beyond and includes it. And this may be seen, as I saw it by
any one going up [Footnote 5: With regard to the place spoken of as
_M'oboso_ (compare No. 301 line 20) its identity will be discussed
under Leonardo's Topographical notes in Vol. II.] Monboso, a peak of
the Alps which divide France from Italy. The base of this mountain
gives birth to the four rivers which flow in four different
directions through the whole of Europe. And no mountain has its base
at so great a height as this, which lifts itself almost above the
clouds; and snow seldom falls there, but only hail in the summer,
when the clouds are highest. And this hail lies [unmelted] there, so
that if it were not for the absorption of the rising and falling
clouds, which does not happen twice in an age, an enormous mass of
ice would be piled up there by the hail, and in the middle of July I
found it very considerable. There I saw above me the dark sky, and
the sun as it fell on the mountain was far brighter here than in the
plains below, because a smaller extent of atmosphere lay between the
summit of the mountain and the sun. Again as an illustration of the
colour of the atmosphere I will mention the smoke of old and dry
wood, which, as it comes out of a chimney, appears to turn very
blue, when seen between the eye and the dark distance. But as it
rises, and comes between the eye and the bright atmosphere, it at
once shows of an ashy grey colour; and this happens because it no
longer has darkness beyond it, but this bright and luminous space.
If the smoke is from young, green wood, it will not appear blue,
because, not being transparent and being full of superabundant
moisture, it has the effect of condensed clouds which take distinct
lights and shadows like a solid body. The same occurs with the
atmosphere, which, when overcharged with moisture appears white, and
the small amount of heated moisture makes it dark, of a dark blue

colour; and this will suffice us so far as concerns the colour of

the atmosphere; though it might be added that, if this transparent
blue were the natural colour of the atmosphere, it would follow that
wherever a larger mass air intervened between the eye and the
element of fire, the azure colour would be more intense; as we see
in blue glass and in sapphires, which are darker in proportion as
they are larger. But the atmosphere in such circumstances behaves in
an opposite manner, inasmuch as where a greater quantity of it lies
between the eye and the sphere of fire, it is seen much whiter. This
occurs towards the horizon. And the less the extent of atmosphere
between the eye and the sphere of fire, the deeper is the blue
colour, as may be seen even on low plains. Hence it follows, as I
say, that the atmosphere assumes this azure hue by reason of the
particles of moisture which catch the rays of the sun. Again, we may
note the difference in particles of dust, or particles of smoke, in
the sun beams admitted through holes into a dark chamber, when the
former will look ash grey and the thin smoke will appear of a most
beautiful blue; and it may be seen again in in the dark shadows of
distant mountains when the air between the eye and those shadows
will look very blue, though the brightest parts of those mountains
will not differ much from their true colour. But if any one wishes
for a final proof let him paint a board with various colours, among
them an intense black; and over all let him lay a very thin and
transparent [coating of] white. He will then see that this
transparent white will nowhere show a more beautiful blue than over
the black--but it must be very thin and finely ground.
[Footnote 7: _reta_ here has the sense of _malanno_.]
301.
Experience shows us that the air must have darkness beyond it and
yet it appears blue. If you produce a small quantity of smoke from
dry wood and the rays of the sun fall on this smoke, and if you then
place behind the smoke a piece of black velvet on which the sun does
not shine, you will see that all the smoke which is between the eye
and the black stuff will appear of a beautiful blue colour. And if
instead of the velvet you place a white cloth smoke, that is too
thick smoke, hinders, and too thin smoke does not produce, the
perfection of this blue colour. Hence a moderate amount of smoke
produces the finest blue. Water violently ejected in a fine spray
and in a dark chamber where the sun beams are admitted produces
these blue rays and the more vividly if it is distilled water, and

thin smoke looks blue. This I mention in order to show that the
blueness of the atmosphere is caused by the darkness beyond it, and
these instances are given for those who cannot confirm my experience
on Monboso.
302.
When the smoke from dry wood is seen between the eye of the
spectator and some dark space [or object], it will look blue. Thus
the sky looks blue by reason of the darkness beyond it. And if you
look towards the horizon of the sky, you will see the atmosphere is
not blue, and this is caused by its density. And thus at each
degree, as you raise your eyes above the horizon up to the sky over
your head, you will see the atmosphere look darker [blue] and this
is because a smaller density of air lies between your eye and the
[outer] darkness. And if you go to the top of a high mountain the
sky will look proportionately darker above you as the atmosphere
becomes rarer between you and the [outer] darkness; and this will be
more visible at each degree of increasing height till at last we
should find darkness.
That smoke will look bluest which rises from the driest wood and
which is nearest to the fire and is seen against the darkest
background, and with the sunlight upon it.
303.
A dark object will appear bluest in proportion as it has a greater

mass of luminous atmosphere between it and the eye. As may be seen
in the colour of the sky.
304.
The atmosphere is blue by reason of the darkness above it because

black and white make blue.
305.
In the morning the mist is denser above than below, because the sun
draws it upwards; hence tall buildings, even if the summit is at the
same distance as the base have the summit invisible. Therefore,
also, the sky looks darkest [in colour] overhead, and towards the
horizon it is not blue but rather between smoke and dust colour.

The atmosphere, when full of mist, is quite devoid of blueness, and

only appears of the colour of clouds, which shine white when the
weather is fine. And the more you turn to the west the darker it
will be, and the brighter as you look to the east. And the verdure
of the fields is bluish in a thin mist, but grows grey in a dense
one.
The buildings in the west will only show their illuminated side,
where the sun shines, and the mist hides the rest. When the sun
rises and chases away the haze, the hills on the side where it lifts
begin to grow clearer, and look blue, and seem to smoke with the
vanishing mists; and the buildings reveal their lights and shadows;
through the thinner vapour they show only their lights and through
the thicker air nothing at all. This is when the movement of the
mist makes it part horizontally, and then the edges of the mist will
be indistinct against the blue of the sky, and towards the earth it
will look almost like dust blown up. In proportion as the atmosphere
is dense the buildings of a city and the trees in a landscape will
look fewer, because only the tallest and largest will be seen.
Darkness affects every thing with its hue, and the more an object
differs from darkness, the more we see its real and natural colour.
The mountains will look few, because only those will be seen which
are farthest apart; since, at such a distance, the density increases
to such a degree that it causes a brightness by which the darkness
of the hills becomes divided and vanishes indeed towards the top.
There is less [mist] between lower and nearer hills and yet little
is to be distinguished, and least towards the bottom.
306.
The surface of an object partakes of the colour of the light which

illuminates it; and of the colour of the atmosphere which lies
between the eye and that object, that is of the colour of the
transparent medium lying between the object and the eye; and among
colours of a similar character the second will be of the same tone
as the first, and this is caused by the increased thickness of the
colour of the medium lying between the object and the eye.
307. OF PAINTING.
Of various colours which are none of them blue that which at a great

distance will look bluest is the nearest to black; and so,

conversely, the colour which is least like black will at a great
distance best preserve its own colour.
Hence the green of fields will assume a bluer hue than yellow or
white will, and conversely yellow or white will change less than
green, and red still less.
_VII._
_On the Proportions and on the Movements of the Human Figure._
_Leonardo's researches on the proportions and movements of the human

figure must have been for the most part completed and written before
the year_ 1498; _for LUCA PACIOLO writes, in the dedication to
Ludovico il Moro, of his book_ Divina Proportione, _which was
published in that year:_ "Leonardo da venci ... hauedo gia co tutta
diligetia al degno libro de pictura e movimenti humani posto fine".
_The selection of Leonardo's axioms contained in the Vatican copy

attributes these words to the author:_ "e il resto si dira nella
universale misura del huomo". (_MANZI, p. 147; LUDWIG, No. 264_).
_LOMAZZO, again, in his_ Idea del Tempio della Pittura Milano 1590,
cap. IV, _says:_ "Lionardo Vinci ... dimostro anco in figura tutte
le proporzioni dei membri del corpo umano".
_The Vatican copy includes but very few sections of the_ "Universale
misura del huomo" _and until now nothing has been made known of the
original MSS. on the subject which have supplied the very extensive
materials for this portion of the work. The collection at Windsor,
belonging to her Majesty the Queen, includes by far the most
important part of Leonardo's investigations on this subject,
constituting about half of the whole of the materials here
published; and the large number of original drawings adds greatly to
the interest which the subject itself must command. Luca Paciolo
would seem to have had these MSS. (which I have distinguished by the
initials W. P.) in his mind when he wrote the passage quoted above.
Still, certain notes of a later date--such as Nos. 360, 362 and 363,
from MS. E, written in 1513--14, sufficiently prove that Leonardo did
not consider his earlier studies on the Proportions and Movements of
the Human Figure final and complete, as we might suppose from Luca
Paciolo's statement. Or else he took the subject up again at a
subsequent period, since his former researches had been carried on

at Milan between 1490 and 1500. Indeed it is highly probable that

the anatomical studies which he was pursuing zvith so much zeal
between 1510--16 should have led him to reconsider the subject of
Proportion.
Preliminary observations (308. 309).
308.
Every man, at three years old is half the full height he will grow
to at last.
309.
If a man 2 braccia high is too small, one of four is too tall, the
medium being what is admirable. Between 2 and 4 comes 3; therefore
take a man of 3 braccia in height and measure him by the rule I will
give you. If you tell me that I may be mistaken, and judge a man to
be well proportioned who does not conform to this division, I answer
that you must look at many men of 3 braccia, and out of the larger
number who are alike in their limbs choose one of those who are most
graceful and take your measurements. The length of the hand is 1/3
of a braccio [8 inches] and this is found 9 times in man. And the
face [Footnote 7: The account here given of the _braccio_ is of
importance in understanding some of the succeeding chapters. _Testa_
must here be understood to mean the face. The statements in this
section are illustrated in part on Pl. XI.] is the same, and from
the pit of the throat to the shoulder, and from the shoulder to the
nipple, and from one nipple to the other, and from each nipple to
the pit of the throat.
Proportions of the head and face (310-318).
310.
The space between the parting of the lips [the mouth] and the base
of the nose is one-seventh of the face.
The space from the mouth to the bottom of the chin _c d_ is the
fourth part of the face and equal to the width of the mouth.
The space from the chin to the base of the nose _e f_ is the third
part of the face and equal to the length of the nose and to the

forehead.
The distance from the middle of the nose to the bottom of the chin
_g h_, is half the length of the face.
The distance from the top of the nose, where the eyebrows begin, to
the bottom of the chin, _i k_, is two thirds of the face.
The space from the parting of the lips to the top of the chin _l m_,
that is where the chin ends and passes into the lower lip of the
mouth, is the third of the distance from the parting of the lips to
the bottom of the chin and is the twelfth part of the face. From the
top to the bottom of the chin _m n_ is the sixth part of the face
and is the fifty fourth part of a man's height.
From the farthest projection of the chin to the throat _o p_ is

equal to the space between the mouth and the bottom of the chin, and
a fourth of the face.
The distance from the top of the throat to the pit of the throat
below _q r_ is half the length of the face and the eighteenth part
of a man's height.
From the chin to the back of the neck _s t_, is the same distance as
between the mouth and the roots of the hair, that is three quarters
of the head.
From the chin to the jaw bone _v x_ is half the head and equal to
the thickness of the neck in profile.
The thickness of the head from the brow to the nape is once and 3/4
that of the neck.
[Footnote: The drawings to this text, lines 1-10 are on Pl. VII, No.
I. The two upper sketches of heads, Pl. VII, No. 2, belong to lines
11-14, and in the original are placed immediately below the sketches
reproduced on Pl. VII, No. 1.]
311.
The distance from the attachment of one ear to the other is equal to
that from the meeting of the eyebrows to the chin, and in a fine
face the width of the mouth is equal to the length from the parting

of the lips to the bottom of the chin.
312.
The cut or depression below the lower lip of the mouth is half way
between the bottom of the nose and the bottom of the chin.
The face forms a square in itself; that is its width is from the
outer corner of one eye to the other, and its height is from the
very top of the nose to the bottom of the lower lip of the mouth;
then what remains above and below this square amounts to the height
of such another square, _a_ _b_ is equal to the space between _c_
_d_; _d_ _n_ in the same way to _n_ _c_, and likewise _s_ _r_, _q_
_p_, _h_ _k_ are equal to each other.
It is as far between _m_ and _s_ as from the bottom of the nose to
the chin. The ear is exactly as long as the nose. It is as far from
_x_ to _j_ as from the nose to the chin. The parting of the mouth
seen in profile slopes to the angle of the jaw. The ear should be as
high as from the bottom of the nose to the top of the eye-lid. The
space between the eyes is equal to the width of an eye. The ear is
over the middle of the neck, when seen in profile. The distance from
4 to 5 is equal to that from s_ to _r_.
[Footnote: See Pl. VIII, No. I, where the text of lines 3-13 is also
given in facsimile.]
313.
(_a_ _b_) is equal to (_c_ _d_).
[Footnote: See Pl. VII, No. 3. Reference may also be made here to
two pen and ink drawings of heads in profile with figured
measurements, of which there is no description in the MS. These are
given on Pl. XVII, No. 2.--A head, to the left, with part of the
torso [W. P. 5a], No. 1 on the same plate is from MS. A 2b and in
the original occurs on a page with wholly irrelevant text on matters
of natural history. M. RAVAISSON in his edition of the Paris MS. A
has reproduced this head and discussed it fully [note on page 12];
he has however somewhat altered the original measurements. The
complicated calculations which M. RAVAISSON has given appear to me
in no way justified. The sketch, as we see it, can hardly have been
intended for any thing more than an experimental attempt to

ascertain relative proportions. We do not find that Leonardo made

use of circular lines in any other study of the proportions of the
human head. At the same time we see that the proportions of this
sketch are not in accordance with the rules which he usually
observed (see for instance No. 310).]
The head _a_ _f_ 1/6 larger than _n_ _f_.
315.
From the eyebrow to the junction of the lip with the chin, and the
angle of the jaw and the upper angle where the ear joins the temple
will be a perfect square. And each side by itself is half the head.
The hollow of the cheek bone occurs half way between the tip of the
nose and the top of the jaw bone, which is the lower angle of the
setting on of the ear, in the frame here represented.
From the angle of the eye-socket to the ear is as far as the length
of the ear, or the third of the face.
[Footnote: See Pl. IX. The text, in the original is written behind
the head. The handwriting would seem to indicate a date earlier than
1480. On the same leaf there is a drawing in red chalk of two
horsemen of which only a portion of the upper figure is here
visible. The whole leaf measures 22 1/2 centimetres wide by 29 long,
and is numbered 127 in the top right-hand corner.]
316.
From _a_ to _b_--that is to say from the roots of the hair in front
to the top of the head--ought to be equal to _c_ _d_;--that is from
the bottom of the nose to the meeting of the lips in the middle of
the mouth. From the inner corner of the eye _m_ to the top of the
head _a_ is as far as from _m_ down to the chin _s_. _s_ _c_ _f_ _b_
are all at equal distances from each other.
[Footnote: The drawing in silver-point on bluish tinted paper--Pl.

X--which belongs to this chapter has been partly drawn over in ink
by Leonardo himself.]
317.

From the top of the head to the bottom of the chin is 1/9, and from
the roots of the hair to the chin is 1/9 of the distance from the
roots of the hair to the ground. The greatest width of the face is
equal to the space between the mouth and the roots of the hair and
is 1/12 of the whole height. From the top of the ear to the top of
the head is equal to the distance from the bottom of the chin to the
lachrymatory duct of the eye; and also equal to the distance from
the angle of the chin to that of the jaw; that is the 1/16 of the
whole. The small cartilage which projects over the opening of the
ear towards the nose is half-way between the nape and the eyebrow;
the thickness of the neck in profile is equal to the space between
the chin and the eyes, and to the space between the chin and the
jaw, and it is 1/18 of the height of the man.
318.
_a b_, _c d_, _e f_, _g h_, _i k_ are equal to each other in size

excepting that _d f_ is accidental.
[Footnote: See Pl. XI.]
Proportions of the head seen in front (319-321).
319.
_a n o f_ are equal to the mouth.
_a c_ and _a f_ are equal to the space between one eye and the
other.
_n m o f q r_ are equal to half the width of the eye lids, that is

from the inner [lachrymatory] corner of the eye to its outer corner;
and in like manner the division between the chin and the mouth; and
in the same way the narrowest part of the nose between the eyes. And
these spaces, each in itself, is the 19th part of the head, _n o_ is
equal to the length of the eye or of the space between the eyes.
_m c_ is 1/3 of _n m_ measuring from the outer corner of the eyelids

to the letter _c_. _b s_ will be equal to the width of the nostril.
[Footnote: See Pl. XII.]
320.

The distance between the centres of the pupils of the eyes is 1/3 of
the face. The space between the outer corners of the eyes, that is
where the eye ends in the eye socket which contains it, thus the
outer corners, is half the face.
The greatest width of the face at the line of the eyes is equal to
the distance from the roots of the hair in front to the parting of
the lips.
[Footnote: There are, with this section, two sketches of eyes, not
reproduced here.]
321.
The nose will make a double square; that is the width of the nose at
the nostrils goes twice into the length from the tip of the nose to
the eyebrows. And, in the same way, in profile the distance from the
extreme side of the nostril where it joins the cheek to the tip of
the nose is equal to the width of the nose in front from one nostril
to the other. If you divide the whole length of the nose--that is
from the tip to the insertion of the eyebrows, into 4 equal parts,
you will find that one of these parts extends from the tip of the
nostrils to the base of the nose, and the upper division lies
between the inner corner of the eye and the insertion of the
eyebrows; and the two middle parts [together] are equal to the
length of the eye from the inner to the outer corner.
[Footnote: The two bottom sketches on Pl. VII, No. 4 face the six
lines of this section,--With regard to the proportions of the head
in profile see No. 312.]
322.
The great toe is the sixth part of the foot, taking the measure in
profile, on the inside of the foot, from where this toe springs from
the ball of the sole of the foot to its tip _a b_; and it is equal
to the distance from the mouth to the bottom of the chin. If you
draw the foot in profile from the outside, make the little toe begin
at three quarters of the length of the foot, and you will find the
same distance from the insertion of this toe as to the farthest
prominence of the great toe.

323.
For each man respectively the distance between _a b_ is equal to _c

d_.
324.
Relative proportion of the hand and foot.
The foot is as much longer than the hand as the thickness of the arm
at the wrist where it is thinnest seen facing.
Again, you will find that the foot is as much longer than the hand
as the space between the inner angle of the little toe to the last
projection of the big toe, if you measure along the length of the
foot.
The palm of the hand without the fingers goes twice into the length
of the foot without the toes.
If you hold your hand with the fingers straight out and close
together you will find it to be of the same width as the widest part
of the foot, that is where it is joined onto the toes.
And if you measure from the prominence of the inner ancle to the end
of the great toe you will find this measure to be as long as the
whole hand.
From the top angle of the foot to the insertion of the toes is equal
to the hand from wrist joint to the tip of the thumb.
The smallest width of the hand is equal to the smallest width of the
foot between its joint into the leg and the insertion of the toes.
The width of the heel at the lower part is equal to that of the arm
where it joins the hand; and also to the leg where it is thinnest
when viewed in front.
The length of the longest toe, from its first division from the
great toe to its tip is the fourth of the foot from the centre of
the ancle bone to the tip, and it is equal to the width of the
mouth. The distance between the mouth and the chin is equal to that
of the knuckles and of the three middle fingers and to the length of

their first joints if the hand is spread, and equal to the distance
from the joint of the thumb to the outset of the nails, that is the
fourth part of the hand and of the face.
The space between the extreme poles inside and outside the foot
called the ancle or ancle bone _a b_ is equal to the space between
the mouth and the inner corner of the eye.
325.
The foot, from where it is attached to the leg, to the tip of the
great toe is as long as the space between the upper part of the chin
and the roots of the hair _a b_; and equal to five sixths of the
face.
326.
_a d_ is a head's length, _c b_ is a head's length. The four smaller

toes are all equally thick from the nail at the top to the bottom,
and are 1/13 of the foot.
[Footnote: See Pl. XIV, No. 1, a drawing of a foot with the text in
three lines below it.]
327.
The whole length of the foot will lie between the elbow and the
wrist and between the elbow and the inner angle of the arm towards
the breast when the arm is folded. The foot is as long as the whole
head of a man, that is from under the chin to the topmost part of
the head[Footnote 2: _nel modo che qui i figurato_. See Pl. VII, No.
4, the upper figure. The text breaks off at the end of line 2 and
the text given under No. 321 follows below. It may be here remarked
that the second sketch on W. P. 311 has in the original no
explanatory text.] in the way here figured.
Proportions of the leg (328-331).
328.
The greatest thickness of the calf of the leg is at a third of its

height _a b_, and is a twentieth part thicker than the greatest
thickness of the foot.

_a c_ is half of the head, and equal to _d b_ and to the insertion

of the five toes _e f_. _d k_ diminishes one sixth in the leg _g h_.
_g h_ is 1/3 of the head; _m n_ increases one sixth from _a e_ and
is 7/12 of the head, _o p_ is 1/10 less than _d k_ and is 6/17 of
the head. _a_ is at half the distance between _b q_, and is 1/4 of
the man. _r_ is half way between _s_ and _b_[Footnote 11: _b_ is
here and later on measured on the right side of the foot as seen by
the spectator.]. The concavity of the knee outside _r_ is higher
than that inside _a_. The half of the whole height of the leg from
the foot _r_, is half way between the prominence _s_ and the ground
_b_. _v_ is half way between _t_ and _b_. The thickness of the thigh
seen in front is equal to the greatest width of the face, that is
2/3 of the length from the chin to the top of the head; _z r_ is 5/6
of 7 to _v_; _m n_ is equal to 7 _v_ and is 1/4 of _r b_, _x y_ goes
3 times into _r b_, and into _r s_.
[Footnote 22-35: The sketch illustrating these lines is on Pl. XIII,

No. 2.]
[Footnote 22: a b _entra in_ c f 6 _e_ 6 _in_ c n. Accurate

measurement however obliges us to read 7 for 6.] _a b_ goes six
times into _c f_ and six times into _c n_ and is equal to _g h_; _i
k l m_ goes 4 times into _d f_, and 4 times into _d n_ and is 3/7 of
the foot; _p q r s_ goes 3 times into _d f, and 3 times into _b n_;
[Footnote: 25. _y_ is not to be found on the diagram and _x_ occurs
twice; this makes the passage very obscure.] _x y_ is 1/8 of _x f_
and is equal to _n q_. 3 7 is 1/9 of _n f_; 4 5 is 1/10 of _n f_
[Footnote: 22-27. Compare with this lines 18-24 of No. 331, and the
sketch of a leg in profile Pl. XV.].
I want to know how much a man increases in height by standing on

tip-toe and how much _p g_ diminishes by stooping; and how much it
increases at _n q_ likewise in bending the foot.
[Footnote 34: _e f_ 4 _dal cazo_. By reading _i_ for _e_ the sense
of this passage is made clear.] _e f_ is four times in the distance
between the genitals and the sole of the foot; [Footnote 35: 2 is
not to be found in the sketch which renders the passage obscure. The
two last lines are plainly legible in the facsimile.] 3 7 is six
times from 3 to 2 and is equal to _g h_ and _i k_.
[Footnote: The drawing of a leg seen in front Pl. XIII, No. 1

belongs to the text from lines 3-21. The measurements in this

section should be compared with the text No. 331, lines 1-13, and
the sketch of a leg seen in front on Pl. XV.]
329.
The length of the foot from the end of the toes to the heel goes
twice into that from the heel to the knee, that is where the leg
bone [fibula] joins the thigh bone [femur].
330.
_a n b_ are equal; _c n d_ are equal; _n c_ makes two feet; _n d_

makes 2 feet.
[Footnote: See the lower sketch, Pl. XIV, No. 1.]
331.
_m n o_ are equal. The narrowest width of the leg seen in front goes
8 times from the sole of the foot to the joint of the knee, and is
the same width as the arm, seen in front at the wrist, and as the
longest measure of the ear, and as the three chief divisions into
which we divide the face; and this measurement goes 4 times from the
wrist joint of the hand to the point of the elbow. [14] The foot is
as long as the space from the knee between _a_ and _b_; and the
patella of the knee is as long as the leg between _r_ and _s_.
[18] The least thickness of the leg in profile goes 6 times from the
sole of the foot to the knee joint and is the same width as the
space between the outer corner of the eye and the opening of the
ear, and as the thickest part of the arm seen in profile and between
the inner corner of the eye and the insertion of the hair.
_a b c_ [_d_] are all relatively of equal length, _c d_ goes twice

from the sole of the foot to the centre of the knee and the same
from the knee to the hip.
[28]_a b c_ are equal; _a_ to _b_ is 2 feet--that is to say

measuring from the heel to the tip of the great toe.
[Footnote: See Pl. XV. The text of lines 2-17 is to the left of the
front view of the leg, to which it refers. Lines 18-27 are in the

middle column and refer to the leg seen in profile and turned to the
left, on the right hand side of the writing. Lines 20-30 are above,
to the left and apply to the sketch below them.
Some farther remarks on the proportion of the leg will be found in

No. 336, lines 6, 7.]
On the central point of the whole body.
332.
In kneeling down a man will lose the fourth part of his height.
When a man kneels down with his hands folded on his breast the navel
will mark half his height and likewise the points of the elbows.
Half the height of a man who sits--that is from the seat to the top
of the head--will be where the arms fold below the breast, and
below the shoulders. The seated portion--that is from the seat to
the top of the head--will be more than half the man's [whole height]
by the length of the scrotum.
[Footnote: See Pl. VIII, No. 2.]
The relative proportions of the torso and of the whole figure.
333.
The cubit is one fourth of the height of a man and is equal to the
greatest width of the shoulders. From the joint of one shoulder to
the other is two faces and is equal to the distance from the top of
the breast to the navel. [Footnote 9: _dalla detta somita_. It would
seem more accurate to read here _dal detto ombilico_.] From this
point to the genitals is a face's length.
[Footnote: Compare with this the sketches on the other page of the
same leaf. Pl. VIII, No. 2.]
The relative proportions of the head and of the torso.
334.
From the roots of the hair to the top of the breast _a b_ is the

sixth part of the height of a man and this measure is equal.
From the outside part of one shoulder to the other is the same
distance as from the top of the breast to the navel and this measure
goes four times from the sole of the foot to the lower end of the
nose.
The [thickness of] the arm where it springs from the shoulder in
front goes 6 times into the space between the two outside edges of
the shoulders and 3 times into the face, and four times into the
length of the foot and three into the hand, inside or outside.
[Footnote: The three sketches Pl. XIV, No. 2 belong to this text.]
The relative proportions of the torso and of the leg (335. 336).
335.
_a b c_ are equal to each other and to the space from the armpit of
the shoulder to the genitals and to the distance from the tip of the
fingers of the hand to the joint of the arm, and to the half of the
breast; and you must know that _c b_ is the third part of the height
of a man from the shoulders to the ground; _d e f_ are equal to each
other and equal to the greatest width of the shoulders.
[Footnote: See Pl. XVI, No. 1.]
336.
--Top of the chin--hip--the insertion of the middle finger. The end

of the calf of the leg on the inside of the thigh.--The end of the
swelling of the shin bone of the leg. [6] The smallest thickness of
the leg goes 3 times into the thigh seen in front.
[Footnote: See Pl. XVII, No. 2, middle sketch.]
The relative proportions of the torso and of the foot.
337.
The torso _a b_ in its thinnest part measures a foot; and from _a_
to _b_ is 2 feet, which makes two squares to the seat--its thinnest
part goes 3 times into the length, thus making 3 squares.

[Footnote: See Pl, VII, No. 2, the lower sketch.]
The proportions of the whole figure (338-341).
338.
A man when he lies down is reduced to 1/9 of his height.
339.
The opening of the ear, the joint of the shoulder, that of the hip
and the ancle are in perpendicular lines; _a n_ is equal to _m o_.
[Footnote: See Pl. XVI, No. 2, the upper sketch.]
340.
From the chin to the roots of the hair is 1/10 of the whole figure.
From the joint of the palm of the hand to the tip of the longest
finger is 1/10. From the chin to the top of the head 1/8; and from
the pit of the stomach to the top of the breast is 1/6, and from the
pit below the breast bone to the top of the head 1/4. From the chin
to the nostrils 1/3 Part of the face, the same from the nostrils to
the brow and from the brow to the roots of the hair, and the foot is
1/6, the elbow 1/4, the width of the shoulders 1/4.
341.
The width of the shoulders is 1/4 of the whole. From the joint of
the shoulder to the hand is 1/3, from the parting of the lips to
below the shoulder-blade is one foot.
The greatest thickness of a man from the breast to the spine is one
8th of his height and is equal to the space between the bottom of
the chin and the top of the head.
The greatest width is at the shoulders and goes 4.
The torso from the front and back.
342.

The width of a man under the arms is the same as at the hips.
A man's width across the hips is equal to the distance from the top
of the hip to the bottom of the buttock, when a man stands equally
balanced on both feet; and there is the same distance from the top
of the hip to the armpit. The waist, or narrower part above the hips
will be half way between the arm pits and the bottom of the buttock.
[Footnote: The lower sketch Pl. XVI, No. 2, is drawn by the side of
line 1.]
Vitruvius' scheme of proportions.
343.
Vitruvius, the architect, says in his work on architecture that the

measurements of the human body are distributed by Nature as follows:
that is that 4 fingers make 1 palm, and 4 palms make 1 foot, 6 palms
make 1 cubit; 4 cubits make a man's height. And 4 cubits make one
pace and 24 palms make a man; and these measures he used in his
buildings. If you open your legs so much as to decrease your height
1/14 and spread and raise your arms till your middle fingers touch
the level of the top of your head you must know that the centre of
the outspread limbs will be in the navel and the space between the
legs will be an equilateral triangle.
The length of a man's outspread arms is equal to his height.
From the roots of the hair to the bottom of the chin is the tenth of
a man's height; from the bottom of the chin to the top of his head
is one eighth of his height; from the top of the breast to the top
of his head will be one sixth of a man. From the top of the breast
to the roots of the hair will be the seventh part of the whole man.
From the nipples to the top of the head will be the fourth part of a
man. The greatest width of the shoulders contains in itself the
fourth part of the man. From the elbow to the tip of the hand will
be the fifth part of a man; and from the elbow to the angle of the
armpit will be the eighth part of the man. The whole hand will be
the tenth part of the man; the beginning of the genitals marks the
middle of the man. The foot is the seventh part of the man. From the
sole of the foot to below the knee will be the fourth part of the
man. From below the knee to the beginning of the genitals will be
the fourth part of the man. The distance from the bottom of the chin

to the nose and from the roots of the hair to the eyebrows is, in
each case the same, and like the ear, a third of the face.
[Footnote: See Pl. XVIII. The original leaf is 21 centimetres wide

and 33 1/2 long. At the ends of the scale below the figure are
written the words _diti_ (fingers) and _palmi_ (palms). The passage
quoted from Vitruvius is Book III, Cap. 1, and Leonardo's drawing is
given in the editions of Vitruvius by FRA GIOCONDO (Venezia 1511,
fol., Firenze 1513, 8vo.) and by CESARIANO (Como 1521).]
The arm and head.
344.
From _b_ to _a_ is one head, as well as from _c_ to _a_ and this
happens when the elbow forms a right angle.
[Footnote: See Pl. XLI, No. 1.]
Proportions of the arm (345-349).
345.
From the tip of the longest finger of the hand to the shoulder joint
is four hands or, if you will, four faces.
_a b c_ are equal and each interval is 2 heads.
[Footnote: Lines 1-3 are given on Pl. XV below the front view of the
leg; lines 4 and 5 are below again, on the left side. The lettering
refers to the bent arm near the text.]
346.
The hand from the longest finger to the wrist joint goes 4 times
from the tip of the longest finger to the shoulder joint.
347.
_a b c_ are equal to each other and to the foot and to the space
between the nipple and the navel _d e_ will be the third part of the
whole man.

_f g_ is the fourth part of a man and is equal to _g h_ and measures

a cubit.
[Footnote: See Pl. XIX, No. 1. 1. _mamolino_ (=_bambino_, little

child) may mean here the navel.]
348.
_a b_ goes 4 times into _a c_ and 9 into _a m_. The greatest

thickness of the arm between the elbow and the hand goes 6 times
into _a m_ and is equal to _r f_. The greatest thickness of the arm
between the shoulder and the elbow goes 4 times into _c m_, and is
equal to _h n g_. The smallest thickness of the arm above the elbow
_x y_ is not the base of a square, but is equal to half the space
_h_ 3 which is found between the inner joint of the arm and the
wrist joint.
[11]The width of the wrist goes 12 times into the whole arm; that is
from the tip of the fingers to the shoulder joint; that is 3 times
into the hand and 9 into the arm.
The arm when bent is 4 heads.
The arm from the shoulder to the elbow in bending increases in

length, that is in the length from the shoulder to the elbow, and
this increase is equal to the thickness of the arm at the wrist when
seen in profile. And the space between the bottom of the chin and
the parting of the lips, is equal to the thickness of the 2 middle
fingers, and to the width of the mouth and to the space between the
roots of the hair on the forehead and the top of the head [Footnote:
_Queste cose_. This passage seems to have been written on purpose to
rectify the foregoing lines. The error is explained by the
accompanying sketch of the bones of the arm.]. All these distances
are equal to each other, but they are not equal to the
above-mentioned increase in the arm.
The arm between the elbow and wrist never increases by being bent or
extended.
The arm, from the shoulder to the inner joint when extended.
When the arm is extended, _p n_ is equal to _n a_. And when it is

bent _n a_ diminishes 1/6 of its length and _p n_ does the same. The

outer elbow joint increases 1/7 when bent; and thus by being bent it
increases to the length of 2 heads. And on the inner side, by
bending, it is found that whereas the arm from where it joins the
side to the wrist, was 2 heads and a half, in bending it loses the
half head and measures only two: one from the [shoulder] joint to
the end [by the elbow], and the other to the hand.
The arm when folded will measure 2 faces up to the shoulder from the
elbow and 2 from the elbow to the insertion of the four fingers on
the palm of the hand. The length from the base of the fingers to the
elbow never alters in any position of the arm.
If the arm is extended it decreases by 1/3 of the length between _b_

and _h_; and if--being extended--it is bent, it will increase the
half of _o e_. [Footnote 59-61: The figure sketched in the margin is
however drawn to different proportions.] The length from the
shoulder to the elbow is the same as from the base of the thumb,
inside, to the elbow _a b c_.
[Footnote 62-64: The arm sketch on the margin of the MS. is

identically the same as that given below on Pl. XX which may
therefore be referred to in this place. In line 62 we read therefore
_z c_ for _m n_.] The smallest thickness of the arm in profile _z c_
goes 6 times between the knuckles of the hand and the dimple of the
elbow when extended and 14 times in the whole arm and 42 in the
whole man [64]. The greatest thickness of the arm in profile is
equal to the greatest thickness of the arm in front; but the first
is placed at a third of the arm from the shoulder joint to the elbow
and the other at a third from the elbow towards the hand.
[Footnote: Compare Pl. XVII. Lines 1-10 and 11-15 are written in two
columns below the extended arm, and at the tips of the fingers we
find the words: _fine d'unghie_ (ends of the nails). Part of the
text--lines 22 to 25--is visible by the side of the sketches on Pl.
XXXV, No. 1.]
349.
From the top of the shoulder to the point of the elbow is as far as
from that point to the joints of the four fingers with the palm of
the hand, and each is 2 faces.
[5]_a e_ is equal to the palm of the hand, _r f_ and _o g_ are equal

to half a head and each goes 4 times into _a b_ and _b c_. From _c_
to _m_ is 1/2 a head; _m n_ is 1/3 of a head and goes 6 times into
_c b_ and into _b a_; _a b_ loses 1/7 of its length when the arm is
extended; _c b_ never alters; _o_ will always be the middle point
between _a_ and _s_.
_y l_ is the fleshy part of the arm and measures one head; and when
the arm is bent this shrinks 2/5 of its length; _o a_ in bending
loses 1/6 and so does _o r_.
_a b_ is 1/7 of _r c_. _f s_ will be 1/8 of _r c_, and each of those

2 measurements is the largest of the arm; _k h_ is the thinnest part
between the shoulder and the elbow and it is 1/8 of the whole arm _r
c_; _o p_ is 1/5 of _r l_; _c z_ goes 13 times into _r c_.
[Footnote: See Pl. XX where the text is also seen from lines 5-23.]
The movement of the arm (350-354).
350.
In the innermost bend of the joints of every limb the reliefs are
converted into a hollow, and likewise every hollow of the innermost
bends becomes a convexity when the limb is straightened to the
utmost. And in this very great mistakes are often made by those who
have insufficient knowledge and trust to their own invention and do
not have recourse to the imitation of nature; and these variations
occur more in the middle of the sides than in front, and more at the
back than at the sides.
351.
When the arm is bent at an angle at the elbow, it will produce some
angle; the more acute the angle is, the more will the muscles within
the bend be shortened; while the muscles outside will become of
greater length than before. As is shown in the example; _d c e_ will
shrink considerably; and _b n_ will be much extended.
[Footnote: See Pl. XIX, No. 2.]
352.
OF PAINTING.

The arm, as it turns, thrusts back its shoulder towards the middle
of the back.
353.
The principal movements of the hand are 10; that is forwards,

backwards, to right and to left, in a circular motion, up or down,
to close and to open, and to spread the fingers or to press them
together.
354.
OF THE MOTIONS OF THE FINGERS.
The movements of the fingers principally consist in extending and

bending them. This extension and bending vary in manner; that is,
sometimes they bend altogether at the first joint; sometimes they
bend, or extend, half way, at the 2nd joint; and sometimes they bend
in their whole length and in all the three joints at once. If the 2
first joints are hindered from bending, then the 3rd joint can be
bent with greater ease than before; it can never bend of itself, if
the other joints are free, unless all three joints are bent. Besides
all these movements there are 4 other principal motions of which 2
are up and down, the two others from side to side; and each of these
is effected by a single tendon. From these there follow an infinite
number of other movements always effected by two tendons; one tendon
ceasing to act, the other takes up the movement. The tendons are
made thick inside the fingers and thin outside; and the tendons
inside are attached to every joint but outside they are not.
[Footnote 26: This head line has, in the original, no text to

follow.] Of the strength [and effect] of the 3 tendons inside the
fingers at the 3 joints.
The movement of the torso (355-361).
355.
Observe the altered position of the shoulder in all the movements of

the arm, going up and down, inwards and outwards, to the back and to
the front, and also in circular movements and any others.

And do the same with reference to the neck, hands and feet and the
breast above the lips &c.
356.
Three are the principal muscles of the shoulder, that is _b c d_,

and two are the lateral muscles which move it forward and backward,
that is _a o_; _a_ moves it forward, and _o_ pulls it back; and bed
raises it; _a b c_ moves it upwards and forwards, and _c d o_
upwards and backwards. Its own weight almost suffices to move it
downwards.
The muscle _d_ acts with the muscle _c_ when the arm moves forward;
and in moving backward the muscle _b_ acts with the muscle _c_.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXI. In the original the lettering has been
written in ink upon the red chalk drawing and the outlines of the
figures have in most places been inked over.]
357.
OF THE LOINS, WHEN BENT.
The loins or backbone being bent. The breasts are are always lower
than the shoulderblades of the back.
If the breast bone is arched the breasts are higher than the
shoulderblades.
If the loins are upright the breast will always be found at the same
level as the shoulderblades.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXII, No. 1.]
358.
_a b_ the tendon and ankle in raising the heel approach each other
by a finger's breadth; in lowering it they separate by a finger's
breadth.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXII, No. 2. Compare this facsimile and text with
Pl. III, No. 2, and p. 152 of MANZI'S edition. Also with No. 274 of
LUDWIG'S edition of the Vatican Copy.]

359.
Just so much as the part _d a_ of the nude figure decreases in this

position so much does the opposite part increase; that is: in
proportion as the length of the part _d a_ diminishes the normal
size so does the opposite upper part increase beyond its [normal]
size. The navel does not change its position to the male organ; and
this shrinking arises because when a figure stands on one foot, that
foot becomes the centre [of gravity] of the superimposed weight.
This being so, the middle between the shoulders is thrust above it
out of it perpendicular line, and this line, which forms the central
line of the external parts of the body, becomes bent at its upper
extremity [so as to be] above the foot which supports the body; and
the transverse lines are forced into such angles that their ends are
lower on the side which is supported. As is shown at _a b c_.
360.
OF PAINTING.
Note in the motions and attitudes of figures how the limbs vary, and
their feeling, for the shoulderblades in the motions of the arms and
shoulders vary the [line of the] back bone very much. And you will
find all the causes of this in my book of Anatomy.
361.
OF [CHANGE OF] ATTITUDE.
The pit of the throat is over the feet, and by throwing one arm
forward the pit of the throat is thrown off that foot. And if the
leg is thrown forward the pit of the throat is thrown forward; and.
so it varies in every attitude.
362.
OF PAINTING.
Indicate which are the muscles, and which the tendons, which become
prominent or retreat in the different movements of each limb; or

which do neither [but are passive]. And remember that these

indications of action are of the first importance and necessity in
any painter or sculptor who professes to be a master &c.
And indicate the same in a child, and from birth to decrepitude at

every stage of its life; as infancy, childhood, boyhood, youth &c.
And in each express the alterations in the limbs and joints, which
swell and which grow thinner.
363.
O Anatomical Painter! beware lest the too strong indication of the

bones, sinews and muscles, be the cause of your becoming wooden in
your painting by your wish to make your nude figures display all
their feeling. Therefore, in endeavouring to remedy this, look in
what manner the muscles clothe or cover their bones in old or lean
persons; and besides this, observe the rule as to how these same
muscles fill up the spaces of the surface that extend between them,
which are the muscles which never lose their prominence in any
amount of fatness; and which too are the muscles of which the
attachments are lost to sight in the very least plumpness. And in
many cases several muscles look like one single muscle in the
increase of fat; and in many cases, in growing lean or old, one
single muscle divides into several muscles. And in this treatise,
each in its place, all their peculiarities will be explained--and
particularly as to the spaces between the joints of each limb &c.
Again, do not fail [to observe] the variations in the forms of the
above mentioned muscles, round and about the joints of the limbs of
any animal, as caused by the diversity of the motions of each limb;
for on some side of those joints the prominence of these muscles is
wholly lost in the increase or diminution of the flesh of which
these muscles are composed, &c.
[Footnote: DE ROSSI remarks on this chapter, in the Roman edition of

the Trattato, p. 504: "_Non in questo luogo solo, ma in altri ancora
osserverà il lettore, che Lionardo va fungendo quelli che fanno
abuso della loro dottrina anatomica, e sicuramente con ciò ha in
mira il suo rivale Bonarroti, che di anatomia facea tanta pompa_."
Note, that Leonardo wrote this passage in Rome, probably under the
immediate impression of MICHAELANGELO'S paintings in the Sistine
Chapel and of RAPHAEL'S Isaiah in Sant' Agostino.]

364.
OF THE DIFFERENT MEASUREMENTS OF BOYS AND MEN.
There is a great difference in the length between the joints in men

and boys for, in man, from the top of the shoulder [by the neck] to
the elbow, and from the elbow to the tip of the thumb and from one
shoulder to the other, is in each instance two heads, while in a boy
it is but one because Nature constructs in us the mass which is the
home of the intellect, before forming that which contains the vital
elements.
365.
OF PAINTING.
Which are the muscles which subdivide in old age or in youth, when
becoming lean? Which are the parts of the limbs of the human frame
where no amount of fat makes the flesh thicker, nor any degree of
leanness ever diminishes it?
The thing sought for in this question will be found in all the
external joints of the bones, as the shoulder, elbow, wrists,
finger-joints, hips, knees, ankle-bone and toes and the like; all of
which shall be told in its place. The greatest thickness acquired by
any limb is at the part of the muscles which is farthest from its
attachments.
Flesh never increases on those portions of the limb where the bones
are near to the surface.
At _b r d a c e f_ the increase or diminution of the flesh never

makes any considerable difference. Nature has placed in front of man
all those parts which feel most pain under a blow; and these are the
shin of the leg, the forehead, and the nose. And this was done for
the preservation of man, since, if such pain were not felt in these
parts, the number of blows to which they would be exposed must be
the cause of their destruction.
Describe why the bones of the arm and leg are double near the hand
and foot [respectively].
And where the flesh is thicker or thinner in the bending of the

limbs.
366.
OF PAINTING.
Every part of the whole must be in proportion to the whole. Thus, if

a man is of a stout short figure he will be the same in all his
parts: that is with short and thick arms, wide thick hands, with
short fingers with their joints of the same character, and so on
with the rest. I would have the same thing understood as applying to
all animals and plants; in diminishing, [the various parts] do so in
due proportion to the size, as also in enlarging.
367.
OF THE AGREEMENT OF THE PROPORTION OF THE LIMBS.
And again, remember to be very careful in giving your figures limbs,

that they must appear to agree with the size of the body and
likewise to the age. Thus a youth has limbs that are not very
muscular not strongly veined, and the surface is delicate and round,
and tender in colour. In man the limbs are sinewy and muscular,
while in old men the surface is wrinkled, rugged and knotty, and the
sinews very prominent.
HOW YOUNG BOYS HAVE THEIR JOINTS JUST THE REVERSE OF THOSE OF MEN,
AS TO SIZE.
Little children have all the joints slender and the portions between
them are thick; and this happens because nothing but the skin covers
the joints without any other flesh and has the character of sinew,
connecting the bones like a ligature. And the fat fleshiness is laid
on between one joint and the next, and between the skin and the
bones. But, since the bones are thicker at the joints than between
them, as a mass grows up the flesh ceases to have that superfluity
which it had, between the skin and the bones; whence the skin clings
more closely to the bone and the limbs grow more slender. But since
there is nothing over the joints but the cartilaginous and sinewy
skin this cannot dry up, and, not drying up, cannot shrink. Thus,
and for this reason, children are slender at the joints and fat
between the joints; as may be seen in the joints of the fingers,
arms, and shoulders, which are slender and dimpled, while in man on

the contrary all the joints of the fingers, arms, and legs are
thick; and wherever children have hollows men have prominences.
The movement of the human figure (368-375).
368.
Of the manner of representing the 18 actions of man. Repose,

movement, running, standing, supported, sitting, leaning, kneeling,
lying down, suspended. Carrying or being carried, thrusting,
pulling, striking, being struck, pressing down and lifting up.
[As to how a figure should stand with a weight in its hand [Footnote
8: The original text ends here.] Remember].
369.
A sitting man cannot raise himself if that part of his body which is
front of his axis [centre of gravity] does not weigh more than that
which is behind that axis [or centre] without using his arms.
A man who is mounting any slope finds that he must involuntarily

throw the most weight forward, on the higher foot, rather than
behind--that is in front of the axis and not behind it. Hence a man
will always, involuntarily, throw the greater weight towards the
point whither he desires to move than in any other direction.
The faster a man runs, the more he leans forward towards the point
he runs to and throws more weight in front of his axis than behind.
A man who runs down hill throws the axis onto his heels, and one who
runs up hill throws it into the points of his feet; and a man
running on level ground throws it first on his heels and then on the
points of his feet.
This man cannot carry his own weight unless, by drawing his body
back he balances the weight in front, in such a way as that the foot
on which he stands is the centre of gravity.
370.
How a man proceeds to raise himself to his feet, when he is sitting

on level ground.
371.
A man when walking has his head in advance of his feet.
A man when walking across a long level plain first leans [rather]
backwards and then as much forwards.
[Footnote 3-6: He strides forward with the air of a man going down
hill; when weary, on the contrary he walks like a man going up
hill.]
372.
A man when running throws less weight on his legs than when standing
still. And in the same way a horse which is running feels less the
weight of the man he carries. Hence many persons think it wonderful
that, in running, the horse can rest on one single foot. From this
it may be stated that when a weight is in progressive motion the
more rapid it is the less is the perpendicular weight towards the
centre.
373.
If a man, in taking a jump from firm ground, can leap 3 braccia, and
when he was taking his leap it were to recede 1/3 of a braccio, that
would be taken off his former leap; and so if it were thrust forward
1/3 of a braccio, by how much would his leap be increased?
374.
OF DRAWING.
When a man who is running wants to neutralise the impetus that

carries him on he prepares a contrary impetus which is generated by
his hanging backwards. This can be proved, since, if the impetus
carries a moving body with a momentum equal to 4 and the moving body
wants to turn and fall back with a momentum of 4, then one momentum
neutralises the other contrary one, and the impetus is neutralised.
Of walking up and down (375-379)

375.
When a man wants to stop running and check the impetus he is forced
to hang back and take short quick steps. [Footnote: Lines 5-31 refer
to the two upper figures, and the lower figure to the right is
explained by the last part of the chapter.] The centre of gravity of
a man who lifts one of his feet from the ground always rests on the
centre of the sole of the foot [he stands on].
A man, in going up stairs involuntarily throws so much weight

forward and on the side of the upper foot as to be a counterpoise to
the lower leg, so that the labour of this lower leg is limited to
moving itself.
The first thing a man does in mounting steps is to relieve the leg
he is about to lift of the weight of the body which was resting on
that leg; and besides this, he gives to the opposite leg all the
rest of the bulk of the whole man, including [the weight of] the
other leg; he then raises the other leg and sets the foot upon the
step to which he wishes to raise himself. Having done this he
restores to the upper foot all the weight of the body and of the leg
itself, and places his hand on his thigh and throws his head forward
and repeats the movement towards the point of the upper foot,
quickly lifting the heel of the lower one; and with this impetus he
lifts himself up and at the same time extends the arm which rested
on his knee; and this extension of the arm carries up the body and
the head, and so straightens the spine which was curved.
[32] The higher the step is which a man has to mount, the farther
forward will he place his head in advance of his upper foot, so as
to weigh more on _a_ than on _b_; this man will not be on the step
_m_. As is shown by the line _g f_.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXIII, No. 1. The lower sketch to the left
belongs to the four first lines.]
376.
I ask the weight [pressure] of this man at every degree of motion on

these steps, what weight he gives to _b_ and to _c_.
[Footnote 8: These lines are, in the original, written in ink]

Observe the perpendicular line below the centre of gravity of the

man.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXIII, No. 2.]
377.
In going up stairs if you place your hands on your knees all the
labour taken by the arms is removed from the sinews at the back of
the knees.
378.
The sinew which guides the leg, and which is connected with the
patella of the knee, feels it a greater labour to carry the man
upwards, in proportion as the leg is more bent; and the muscle which
acts upon the angle made by the thigh where it joins the body has
less difficulty and has a less weight to lift, because it has not
the [additional] weight of the thigh itself. And besides this it has
stronger muscles, being those which form the buttock.
379.
A man coming down hill takes little steps, because the weight rests
upon the hinder foot, while a man mounting takes wide steps, because
his weight rests on the foremost foot.
On the human body in action (380-388).
380.
OF THE HUMAN BODY IN ACTION.
When you want to represent a man as moving some weight consider what
the movements are that are to be represented by different lines;
that is to say either from below upwards, with a simple movement, as
a man does who stoops forward to take up a weight which he will lift
as he straightens himself. Or as a man does who wants to squash
something backwards, or to force it forwards or to pull it downwards
with ropes passed through pullies [Footnote 10: Compare the sketch

on page 198 and on 201 (S. K. M. II.1 86b).]. And here remember that
the weight of a man pulls in proportion as his centre of gravity is
distant from his fulcrum, and to this is added the force given by
his legs and bent back as he raises himself.
381.
Again, a man has even a greater store of strength in his legs than
he needs for his own weight; and to see if this is true, make a man
stand on the shore-sand and then put another man on his back, and
you will see how much he will sink in. Then take the man from off
his back and make him jump straight up as high as he can, and you
will find that the print of his feet will be made deeper by the jump
than from having the man on his back. Hence, here, by 2 methods it
is proved that a man has double the strength he requires to support
his own body.
382.
OF PAINTING.
If you have to draw a man who is in motion, or lifting or pulling,

or carrying a weight equal to his own, in what way must you set on
his legs below his body?
[Footnote: In the MS. this question remains unanswered.]
383.
OF THE STRENGTH OF MAN.
A man pulling a [dead] weight balanced against himself cannot pull

more than his own weight. And if he has to raise it he will [be able
to] raise as much more than his weight as his strength may be more
than that of other men. [Footnote 7: The stroke at the end of this
line finishes in the original in a sort of loop or flourish, and a
similar flourish occurs at the end of the previous passage written
on the same page. M. RAVAISSON regards these as numbers (compare the
photograph of page 30b in his edition of MS. A). He remarks: "_Ce
chiffre_ 8 _et, a la fin de l'alinea precedent, le chiffre_ 7 _sont,
dans le manuscrit, des renvois_."] The greatest force a man can
apply, with equal velocity and impetus, will be when he sets his
feet on one end of the balance [or lever] and then presses his

shoulders against some stable body. This will raise a weight at the
other end of the balance [lever], equal to his own weight and [added
to that] as much weight as he can carry on his shoulders.
384.
No animal can simply move [by its dead weight] a greater weight than
the sum of its own weight outside the centre of his fulcrum.
385.
A man who wants to send an arrow very far from the bow must be
standing entirely on one foot and raising the other so far from the
foot he stands on as to afford the requisite counterpoise to his
body which is thrown on the front foot. And he must not hold his arm
fully extended, and in order that he may be more able to bear the
strain he must hold a piece of wood which there is in all crossbows,
extending from the hand to the breast, and when he wishes to shoot
he suddenly leaps forward at the same instant and extends his arm
with the bow and releases the string. And if he dexterously does
every thing at once it will go a very long way.
386.
When two men are at the opposite ends of a plank that is balanced,
and if they are of equal weight, and if one of them wants to make a
leap into the air, then his leap will be made down from his end of
the plank and the man will never go up again but must remain in his
place till the man at the other end dashes up the board.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXIV, No. 3.]
387.
Of delivering a blow to the right or left.
[Footnote: Four sketches on Pl. XXIV, No. 1 belong to this passage.

The rest of the sketches and notes on that page are of a
miscellaneous nature.]
388.
Why an impetus is not spent at once [but diminishes] gradually in

some one direction? [Footnote 1: The paper has been damaged at the
end of line 1.] The impetus acquired in the line _a b c d_ is spent
in the line _d e_ but not so completely but that some of its force
remains in it and to this force is added the momentum in the line _d
e_ with the force of the motive power, and it must follow than the
impetus multiplied by the blow is greater that the simple impetus
produced by the momentum _d e_.
[Footnote 8: The sketch No. 2 on Pl. XXIV stands, in the original,

between lines 7 and 8. Compare also the sketches on Pl. LIV.] A man
who has to deal a great blow with his weapon prepares himself with
all his force on the opposite side to that where the spot is which
he is to hit; and this is because a body as it gains in velocity
gains in force against the object which impedes its motion.
On hair falling down in curls.
389.
Observe the motion of the surface of the water which resembles that
of hair, and has two motions, of which one goes on with the flow of
the surface, the other forms the lines of the eddies; thus the water
forms eddying whirlpools one part of which are due to the impetus of
the principal current and the other to the incidental motion and
return flow.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXV. Where also the text of this passage is given
in facsimile.]
On draperies (390--392).
390.
OF THE NATURE OF THE FOLDS IN DRAPERY.
That part of a fold which is farthest from the ends where it is

confined will fall most nearly in its natural form.
Every thing by nature tends to remain at rest. Drapery, being of

equal density and thickness on its wrong side and on its right, has
a tendency to lie flat; therefore when you give it a fold or plait
forcing it out of its flatness note well the result of the
constraint in the part where it is most confined; and the part which

is farthest from this constraint you will see relapses most into the
natural state; that is to say lies free and flowing.
EXAMPLE.
[Footnote 13: _a c sia_. In the original text _b_ is written instead

of _c_--an evident slip of the pen.] Let _a b c_ be the fold of the
drapery spoken of above, _a c_ will be the places where this folded
drapery is held fast. I maintain that the part of the drapery which
is farthest from the plaited ends will revert most to its natural
form.
Therefore, _b_ being farthest from _a_ and _c_ in the fold _a b c_
it will be wider there than anywhere else.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 6, and compare the drawing from
Windsor Pl. XXX for farther illustration of what is here stated.]
391.
OF SMALL FOLDS IN DRAPERIES.
How figures dressed in a cloak should not show the shape so much as
that the cloak looks as if it were next the flesh; since you surely
cannot wish the cloak to be next the flesh, for you must suppose
that between the flesh and the cloak there are other garments which
prevent the forms of the limbs appearing distinctly through the
cloak. And those limbs which you allow to be seen you must make
thicker so that the other garments may appear to be under the cloak.
But only give something of the true thickness of the limbs to a
nymph [Footnote 9: _Una nifa_. Compare the beautiful drawing of a
Nymph, in black chalk from the Windsor collection, Pl. XXVI.] or an
angel, which are represented in thin draperies, pressed and clinging
to the limbs of the figures by the action of the wind.
392.
You ought not to give to drapery a great confusion of many folds,

but rather only introduce them where they are held by the hands or
the arms; the rest you may let fall simply where it is its nature to
flow; and do not let the nude forms be broken by too many details
and interrupted folds. How draperies should be drawn from nature:
that is to say if youwant to represent woollen cloth draw the folds

from that; and if it is to be silk, or fine cloth or coarse, or of

linen or of crape, vary the folds in each and do not represent
dresses, as many do, from models covered with paper or thin leather
which will deceive you greatly.
[Footnote: The little pen and ink drawing from Windsor (W. 102),
given on Pl. XXVIII, No. 7, clearly illustrates the statement made
at the beginning of this passage; the writing of the cipher 19 on
the same page is in Leonardo's hand; the cipher 21 is certainly
not.]
_VIII._
_Botany for Painters and Elements of Landscape Painting._
_The chapters composing this portion of the work consist of

observations on Form, Light and Shade in Plants, and particularly in
Trees summed up in certain general rules by which the author intends
to guide the artist in the pictorial representation of landscape._
_With these the first principles of a_ Theory of Landscape painting

_are laid down--a theory as profoundly thought out in its main
lines as it is lucidly worked out in its details. In reading these
chapters the conviction is irresistible that such a_ Botany for
painters _is or ought to be of similar importance in the practice of
painting as the principles of the Proportions and Movements of the
human figure_ i. e. Anatomy for painters.
_There can be no doubt that Leonardo, in laying down these rules,

did not intend to write on Botany in the proper scientific
sense--his own researches on that subject have no place here; it
need only be observed that they are easily distinguished by their
character and contents from those which are here collected and
arranged under the title 'Botany for painters'. In some cases where
this division might appear doubtful,--as for instance in No._
402--_the Painter is directly addressed and enjoined to take the
rule to heart as of special importance in his art._
_The original materials are principally derived from MS._ G, _in

which we often find this subject treated on several pages in
succession without any of that intermixture of other matters, which
is so frequent in Leonardo's writings. This MS., too, is one of the
latest; when it was written, the great painter was already more than

sixty years of age, so we can scarcely doubt that he regarded all he

wrote as his final views on the subject. And the same remark applies
to the chapters from MSS._ E _and_ M _which were also written
between_ 1513--15.
_For the sake of clearness, however, it has been desirable to

sacrifice--with few exceptions--the original order of the passages
as written, though it was with much reluctance and only after long
hesitation that I resigned myself to this necessity. Nor do I mean
to impugn the logical connection of the author's ideas in his MS.;
but it will be easily understood that the sequence of disconnected
notes, as they occurred to Leonardo and were written down from time
to time, might be hardly satisfactory as a systematic arrangement of
his principles. The reader will find in the Appendix an exact
account of the order of the chapters in the original MS. and from
the data there given can restore them at will. As the materials are
here arranged, the structure of the tree as regards the growth of
the branches comes first_ (394-411) _and then the insertion of the
leaves on the stems_ (412-419). _Then follow the laws of Light and
Shade as applied, first, to the leaves (420-434), and, secondly, to
the whole tree and to groups of trees_ (435-457). _After the remarks
on the Light and Shade in landscapes generally_ (458-464), _we find
special observations on that of views of towns and buildings_
(465-469). _To the theory of Landscape Painting belong also the
passages on the effect of Wind on Trees_ (470-473) _and on the Light
and Shade of Clouds_ (474-477), _since we find in these certain
comparisons with the effect of Light and Shade on Trees_ (e. g.: _in
No._ 476, 4. 5; _and No._ 477, 9. 12). _The chapters given in the
Appendix Nos._ 478 _and_ 481 _have hardly any connection with the
subjects previously treated._
Classification of trees.
393.
TREES.
Small, lofty, straggling, thick, that is as to foliage, dark, light,

russet, branched at the top; some directed towards the eye, some
downwards; with white stems; this transparent in the air, that not;
some standing close together, some scattered.
The relative thickness of the branches to the trunk (393--396).

394.
All the branches of a tree at every stage of its height when put
together are equal in thickness to the trunk [below them].
All the branches of a water [course] at every stage of its course,

if they are of equal rapidity, are equal to the body of the main
stream.
395.
Every year when the boughs of a plant [or tree] have made an end of
maturing their growth, they will have made, when put together, a
thickness equal to that of the main stem; and at every stage of its
ramification you will find the thickness of the said main stem; as:
_i k_, _g h_, _e f_, _c d_, _a b_, will always be equal to each
other; unless the tree is pollard--if so the rule does not hold
good.
All the branches have a direction which tends to the centre of the
tree _m_.
[Footnote: The two sketches of leafless trees one above another on

the left hand side of Pl. XXVII, No. 1, belong to this passage.]
396.
If the plant n grows to the thickness shown at m, its branches will

correspond [in thickness] to the junction a b in consequence of the
growth inside as well as outside.
The branches of trees or plants have a twist wherever a minor branch

is given off; and this giving off the branch forms a fork; this said
fork occurs between two angles of which the largest will be that
which is on the side of the larger branch, and in proportion, unless
accident has spoilt it.
[Footnote: The sketches illustrating this are on the right hand side
of PI. XXVII, No. I, and the text is also given there in facsimile.]
397.

There is no boss on branches which has not been produced by some

branch which has failed.
The lower shoots on the branches of trees grow more than the upper
ones and this occurs only because the sap that nourishes them, being
heavy, tends downwards more than upwards; and again, because those
[branches] which grow downwards turn away from the shade which
exists towards the centre of the plant. The older the branches are,
the greater is the difference between their upper and their lower
shoots and in those dating from the same year or epoch.
[Footnote: The sketch accompanying this in the MS. is so effaced

that an exact reproduction was impossible.]
398.
OF THE SCARS ON TREES.
The scars on trees grow to a greater thickness than is required by

the sap of the limb which nourishes them.
399.
The plant which gives out the smallest ramifications will preserve
the straightest line in the course of its growth.
[Footnote: This passage is illustrated by two partly effaced

sketches. One of these closely resembles the lower one given under
No. 408, the other also represents short closely set boughs on an
upright trunk.]
400.
OF THE RAMIFICATION.
The beginning of the ramification [the shoot] always has the central
line [axis] of its thickness directed to the central line [axis] of
the plant itself.
401.
In starting from the main stem the branches always form a base with
a prominence as is shown at _a b c d_.

402.
WHY, VERY FREQUENTLY, TIMBER HAS VEINS THAT ARE NOT STRAIGHT.
When the branches which grow the second year above the branch of the
preceding year, are not of equal thickness above the antecedent
branches, but are on one side, then the vigour of the lower branch
is diverted to nourish the one above it, although it may be somewhat
on one side.
But if the ramifications are equal in their growth, the veins of the
main stem will be straight [parallel] and equidistant at every
degree of the height of the plant.
Wherefore, O Painter! you, who do not know these laws! in order to

escape the blame of those who understand them, it will be well that
you should represent every thing from nature, and not despise such
study as those do who work [only] for money.
The direction of growth (403-407).
403.
OF THE RAMIFICATIONS OF PLANTS.
The plants which spread very much have the angles of the spaces
which divide their branches more obtuse in proportion as their point
of origin is lower down; that is nearer to the thickest and oldest
portion of the tree. Therefore in the youngest portions of the tree
the angles of ramification are more acute. [Footnote: Compare the
sketches on the lower portion of Pl. XXVII, No. 2.]
404.
The tips of the boughs of plants [and trees], unless they are borne
down by the weight of their fruits, turn towards the sky as much as
possible.
The upper side of their leaves is turned towards the sky that it may
receive the nourishment of the dew which falls at night.
The sun gives spirit and life to plants and the earth nourishes them

with moisture. [9] With regard to this I made the experiment of

leaving only one small root on a gourd and this I kept nourished
with water, and the gourd brought to perfection all the fruits it
could produce, which were about 60 gourds of the long kind, andi set
my mind diligently [to consider] this vitality and perceived that
the dews of night were what supplied it abundantly with moisture
through the insertion of its large leaves and gave nourishment to
the plant and its offspring--or the seeds which its offspring had
to produce--[21].
The rule of the leaves produced on the last shoot of the year will
be that they will grow in a contrary direction on the twin branches;
that is, that the insertion of the leaves turns round each branch in
such a way, as that the sixth leaf above is produced over the sixth
leaf below, and the way they turn is that if one turns towards its
companion to the right, the other turns to the left, the leaf
serving as the nourishing breast for the shoot or fruit which grows
the following year.
[Footnote: A French translation of lines 9-12 was given by M.

RAVAISSON in the _Gazette des Beaux Arts_, Oct. 1877; his paper also
contains some valuable information as to botanical science in the
ancient classical writers and at the time of the Renaissance.]
405.
The lowest branches of those trees which have large leaves and heavy
fruits, such as nut-trees, fig-trees and the like, always droop
towards the ground.
The branches always originate above [in the axis of] the leaves.
406.
The upper shoots of the lateral branches of plants lie closer to the
parent branch than the lower ones.
407.
The lowest branches, after they have formed the angle of their
separation from the parent stem, always bend downwards so as not to
crowd against the other branches which follow them on the same stem
and to be better able to take the air which nourishes them. As is

shown by the angle _b a c_; the branch _a c_ after it has made the
corner of the angle _a c_ bends downwards to _c d_ and the lesser
shoot _c_ dries up, being too thin.
The main branch always goes below, as is shown by the branch _f n

m_, which does not go to _f n o_.
The forms of trees (408--411).
408.
The elm always gives a greater length to the last branches of the
year's growth than to the lower ones; and Nature does this because
the highest branches are those which have to add to the size of the
tree; and those at the bottom must get dry because they grow in the
shade and their growth would be an impediment to the entrance of the
solar rays and the air among the main branches of the tree.
The main branches of the lower part bend down more than those above,
so as to be more oblique than those upper ones, and also because
they are larger and older.
409.
In general almost all the upright portions of trees curve somewhat

turning the convexity towards the South; and their branches are
longer and thicker and more abundant towards the South than towards
the North. And this occurs because the sun draws the sap towards
that surface of the tree which is nearest to it.
And this may be observed if the sun is not screened off by other
plants.
410.
The cherry-tree is of the character of the fir tree as regards its

ramification placed in stages round its main stem; and its branches
spring, 4 or five or 6 [together] opposite each other; and the tips
of the topmost shoots form a pyramid from the middle upwards; and
the walnut and oak form a hemisphere from the middle upwards.
411.

The bough of the walnut which is only hit and beaten when it has
brought to perfection...
[Footnote: The end of the text and the sketch in red chalk belonging
to it, are entirely effaced.]
The insertion of the leaves (412--419).
412.
OF THE INSERTION OF THE BRANCHES ON PLANTS.
Such as the growth of the ramification of plants is on their

principal branches, so is that of the leaves on the shoots of the
same plant. These leaves have [Footnote 6: _Quattro modi_ (four
modes). Only three are described in the text, the fourth is only
suggested by a sketch.
This passage occurs in MANZI'S edition of the Trattato, p. 399, but

without the sketches and the text is mutilated in an important part.
The whole passage has been commented on, from MANZI'S version, in
Part I of the _Nuovo Giornale Botanico Italiano_, by Prof. G.
UZIELLI (Florence 1869, Vol. I). He remarks as to the 'four modes':
"_Leonardo, come si vede nelle linie sententi da solo tre esempli.
Questa ed altre inessattezze fanno desiderare, sia esaminato di
nuovo il manoscritto Vaticano_". This has since been done by D.
KNAPP of Tubingen, and his accurate copy has been published by H.
LUDWIG, the painter. The passage in question occurs in his edition
as No. 833; and there also the drawings are wanting. The space for
them has been left vacant, but in the Vatican copy '_niente_' has
been written on the margin; and in it, as well as in LUDWIG'S and
MANZI'S edition, the text is mutilated.] four modes of growing one
above another. The first, which is the most general, is that the
sixth always originates over the sixth below [Footnote 8: _la sesta
di sotto. "Disposizione 2/5 o 1/5. Leonardo osservo probabilmente
soltanto la prima"_ (UZIELLl).]; the second is that two third ones
above are over the two third ones below [Footnote 10: _terze di
sotto: "Intende qui senza dubbio parlare di foglie decussate, in cui
il terzo verticello e nel piano del primo"_ (UZIELLI).]; and the
third way is that the third above is over the third below [Footnote
11: 3a _di sotto: "Disposizione 1/2"_ (UZIELLI).].
[Footnote: See the four sketches on the upper portion of the page

reproduced as fig. 2 on P1. XXVII.]
413.
A DESCRIPTION OF THE ELM.
The ramification of the elm has the largest branch at the top. The
first and the last but one are smaller, when the main trunk is
straight.
The space between the insertion of one leaf to the rest is half the
extreme length of the leaf or somewhat less, for the leaves are at
an interval which is about the 3rd of the width of the leaf.
The elm has more leaves near the top of the boughs than at the base;
and the broad [surface] of the leaves varies little as to [angle
and] aspect.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXVII, No. 3. Above the sketch and close under
the number of the page is the word '_olmo_' (elm).]
414.
In the walnut tree the leaves which are distributed on the shoots of
this year are further apart from each other and more numerous in
proportion as the branch from which this shoot springs is a young
one. And they are inserted more closely and less in number when the
shoot that bears them springs from an old branch. Its fruits are
borne at the ends of the shoots. And its largest boughs are the
lowest on the boughs they spring from. And this arises from the
weight of its sap which is more apt to descend than to rise, and
consequently the branches which spring from them and rise towards
the sky are small and slender [20]; and when the shoot turns towards
the sky its leaves spread out from it [at an angle] with an equal
distribution of their tips; and if the shoot turns to the horizon
the leaves lie flat; and this arises from the fact that leaves
without exception, turn their underside to the earth [29].
The shoots are smaller in proportion as they spring nearer to the

base of the bough they spring from.
[Footnote: See the two sketches on Pl XXVII, No. 4. The second

refers to the passage lines 20-30.]

415.
OF THE INSERTION OF THE LEAVES ON THE BRANCHES.
The thickness of a branch never diminishes within the space between

one leaf and the next excepting by so much as the thickness of the
bud which is above the leaf and this thickness is taken off from the
branch above [the node] as far as the next leaf.
Nature has so placed the leaves of the latest shoots of many plants
that the sixth leaf is always above the first, and so on in
succession, if the rule is not [accidentally] interfered with; and
this occurs for two useful ends in the plant: First that as the
shoot and the fruit of the following year spring from the bud or eye
which lies above and in close contact with the insertion of the leaf
[in the axil], the water which falls upon the shoot can run down to
nourish the bud, by the drop being caught in the hollow [axil] at
the insertion of the leaf. And the second advantage is, that as
these shoots develop in the following year one will not cover the
next below, since the 5 come forth on five different sides; and the
sixth which is above the first is at some distance.
416.
OF THE RAMIFICATIONS OF TREES AND THEIR FOLIAGE.
The ramifications of any tree, such as the elm, are wide and slender
after the manner of a hand with spread fingers, foreshortened. And
these are seen in the distribution [thus]: the lower portions are
seen from above; and those that are above are seen from below; and
those in the middle, some from below and some from above. The upper
part is the extreme [top] of this ramification and the middle
portion is more foreshortened than any other of those which are
turned with their tips towards you. And of those parts of the middle
of the height of the tree, the longest will be towards the top of
the tree and will produce a ramification like the foliage of the
common willow, which grows on the banks of rivers.
Other ramifications are spherical, as those of such trees as put

forth their shoots and leaves in the order of the sixth being placed
above the first. Others are thin and light like the willow and
others.

417.
You will see in the lower branches of the elder, which puts forth
leaves two and two placed crosswise [at right angles] one above
another, that if the stem rises straight up towards the sky this
order never fails; and its largest leaves are on the thickest part
of the stem and the smallest on the slenderest part, that is towards
the top. But, to return to the lower branches, I say that the leaves
on these are placed on them crosswise like [those on] the upper
branches; and as, by the law of all leaves, they are compelled to
turn their upper surface towards the sky to catch the dew at night,
it is necessary that those so placed should twist round and no
longer form a cross.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXVII, No. 5.]
418.
A leaf always turns its upper side towards the sky so that it may
the better receive, on all its surface, the dew which drops gently
from the atmosphere. And these leaves are so distributed on the
plant as that one shall cover the other as little as possible, but
shall lie alternately one above another as may be seen in the ivy
which covers the walls. And this alternation serves two ends; that
is, to leave intervals by which the air and sun may penetrate
between them. The 2nd reason is that the drops which fall from the
first leaf may fall onto the fourth or--in other trees--onto the
sixth.
419.
Every shoot and every fruit is produced above the insertion [in the
axil] of its leaf which serves it as a mother, giving it water from
the rain and moisture from the dew which falls at night from above,
and often it protects them against the too great heat of the rays of
the sun.
LIGHT ON BRANCHES AND LEAVES (420--422).
420.
That part of the body will be most illuminated which is hit by the

luminous ray coming between right angles.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 1.]
421.
Young plants have more transparent leaves and a more lustrous bark
than old ones; and particularly the walnut is lighter coloured in
May than in September.
422.
OF THE ACCIDENTS OF COLOURING IN TREES.
The accidents of colour in the foliage of trees are 4. That is:

shadow, light, lustre [reflected light] and transparency.
OF THE VISIBILITY OF THESE ACCIDENTS.
These accidents of colour in the foliage of trees become confused at

a great distance and that which has most breadth [whether light or
shade, &c.] will be most conspicuous.
The proportions of light and shade in a leaf (423-426).
423.
OF THE SHADOWS OF A LEAF.
Sometimes a leaf has three accidents [of light] that is: shade,
lustre [reflected light] and transparency [transmitted light]. Thus,
if the light were at _n_ as regards the leaf _s_, and the eye at
_m_, it would see _a_ in full light, _b_ in shadow and _c_
transparent.
424.
A leaf with a concave surface seen from the under side and
up-side-down will sometimes show itself as half in shade, and half
transparent. Thus, if _o p_ is the leaf and the light _m_ and the
eye _n_, this will see _o_ in shadow because the light does not fall
upon it between equal angles, neither on the upper nor the under
side, and _p_ is lighted on the upper side and the light is

transmitted to its under side. [Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 2, the
upper sketch on the page. In the original they are drawn in red
chalk.]
425.
Although those leaves which have a polished surface are to a great

extent of the same colour on the right side and on the reverse, it
may happen that the side which is turned towards the atmosphere will
have something of the colour of the atmosphere; and it will seem to
have more of this colour of the atmosphere in proportion as the eye
is nearer to it and sees it more foreshortened. And, without
exception the shadows show as darker on the upper side than on the
lower, from the contrast offered by the high lights which limit the
shadows.
The under side of the leaf, although its colour may be in itself the
same as that of the upper side, shows a still finer colour--a colour
that is green verging on yellow--and this happens when the leaf is
placed between
426.
the eye and the light which falls upon it from the opposite side.
And its shadows are in the same positions as those were of the
opposite side. Therefore, O Painter! when you do trees close at
hand, remember that if the eye is almost under the tree you will see
its leaves [some] on the upper and [some] on the under side, and the
upper side will be bluer in proportion as they are seen more
foreshortened, and the same leaf sometimes shows part of the right
side and part of the under side, whence you must make it of two
colours.
Of the transparency of leaves (427-429).
427.
The shadows in transparent leaves seen from the under side are the
same shadows as there are on the right side of this leaf, they will
show through to the underside together with lights, but the lustre
[reflected light] can never show through.

428.
When one green has another [green] behind it, the lustre on the
leaves and their transparent [lights] show more strongly than in
those which are [seen] against the brightness of the atmosphere.
And if the sun illuminates the leaves without their coming between
it and the eye and without the eye facing the sun, then the
reflected lights and the transparent lights are very strong.
It is very effective to show some branches which are low down and
dark and so set off the illuminated greens which are at some
distance from the dark greens seen below. That part is darkest which
is nearest to the eye or which is farthest from the luminous
atmosphere.
429.
Never paint leaves transparent to the sun, because they are

confused; and this is because on the transparency of one leaf will
be seen the shadow of another leaf which is above it. This shadow
has a distinct outline and a certain depth of shade and sometimes is
[as much as] half or a third of the leaf which is shaded; and
consequently such an arrangement is very confused and the imitation
of it should be avoided.
The light shines least through a leaf when it falls upon it at an

acute angle.
The gradations of shade and colour in leaves (430-434).
430.
The shadows of plants are never black, for where the atmosphere
penetrates there can never be utter darkness.
431.
If the light comes from _m_ and the eye is at _n_ the eye will see
the colour of the leaves _a b_ all affected by the colour of _m_
--that is of the atmosphere; and _b c_ will be seen from the under
side as transparent, with a beautiful green colour verging on
yellow.

If _m_ is the luminous body lighting up the leaf _s_ all the eyes
that see the under side of this leaf will see it of a beautiful
light green, being transparent.
In very many cases the positions of the leaves will be without

shadow [or in full light], and their under side will be transparent
and the right side lustrous [reflecting light].
432.
The willow and other similar trees, which have their boughs lopped
every 3 or 4 years, put forth very straight branches, and their
shadow is about the middle where these boughs spring; and towards
the extreme ends they cast but little shade from having small leaves
and few and slender branches. Hence the boughs which rise towards
the sky will have but little shade and little relief; and the
branches which are at an angle from the horizon, downwards, spring
from the dark part of the shadow and grow thinner by degrees up to
their ends, and these will be in strong relief, being in gradations
of light against a background of shadow.
That tree will have the least shadow which has the fewest branches
and few leaves.
433.
OF DARK LEAVES IN FRONT OF TRANSPARENT ONES.
When the leaves are interposed between the light and the eye, then
that which is nearest to the eye will be the darkest, and the most
distant will be the lightest, not being seen against the atmosphere;
and this is seen in the leaves which are away from the centre of the
tree, that is towards the light.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 2, the lower sketch.]
434.
OF THE LIGHTS ON DARK LEAVES.
The lights on such leaves which are darkest, will be most near to
the colour of the atmosphere that is reflected in them. And the

cause of this is that the light on the illuminated portion mingles

with the dark hue to compose a blue colour; and this light is
produced by the blueness of the atmosphere which is reflected in the
smooth surface of these leaves and adds to the blue hue which this
light usually produces when it falls on dark objects.
OF THE LIGHTS ON LEAVES OF A YELLOWISH GREEN.
But leaves of a green verging on yellow when they reflect the

atmosphere do not produce a reflection verging on blue, inasmuch as
every thing which appears in a mirror takes some colour from that
mirror, hence the blue of the atmosphere being reflected in the
yellow of the leaf appears green, because blue and yellow mixed
together make a very fine green colour, therefore the lustre of
light leaves verging on yellow will be greenish yellow.
A classification of trees according to their colours.
435.
The trees in a landscape are of various kinds of green, inasmuch as

some verge towards blackness, as firs, pines, cypresses, laurels,
box and the like. Some tend to yellow such as walnuts, and pears,
vines and verdure. Some are both yellowish and dark as chesnuts,
holm-oak. Some turn red in autumn as the service-tree, pomegranate,
vine, and cherry; and some are whitish as the willow, olive, reeds
and the like. Trees are of various forms ...
The proportions of light and shade in trees (436-440).
436.
OF A GENERALLY DISTRIBUTED LIGHT AS LIGHTING UP TREES.
That part of the trees will be seen to lie in the least dark shadow
which is farthest from the earth.
To prove it let _a p_ be the tree, _n b c_ the illuminated

hemisphere [the sky], the under portion of the tree faces the earth
_p c_, that is on the side _o_, and it faces a small part of the
hemisphere at _c d_. But the highest part of the convexity a faces
the greatest part of the hemisphere, that is _b c_. For this
reason--and because it does not face the darkness of the earth--it

is in fuller light. But if the tree has dense foliage, as the

laurel, arbutus, box or holm oak, it will be different; because,
although _a_ does not face the earth, it faces the dark [green] of
the leaves cut up by many shadows, and this darkness is reflected
onto the under sides of the leaves immediately above. Thus these
trees have their darkest shadows nearest to the middle of the tree.
437.
OF THE SHADOWS OF VERDURE.
The shadows of verdure are always somewhat blue, and so is every

shadow of every object; and they assume this hue more in proportion
as they are remote from the eye, and less in proportion as they are
nearer. The leaves which reflect the blue of the atmosphere always
present themselves to the eye edgewise.
OF THE ILLUMINATED PART OF VERDURE AND OF MOUNTAINS.
The illuminated portion, at a great distance, will appear most

nearly of its natural colour where the strongest light falls upon
it.
438.
OF TREES THAT ARE LIGHTED BY THE SUN AND BY THE ATMOSPHERE.
In trees that are illuminated [both] by the sun and the atmosphere
and that have leaves of a dark colour, one side will be illuminated
by the atmosphere [only] and in consequence of this light will tend
to blueness, while on the other side they will be illuminated by the
atmosphere and the sun; and the side which the eye sees illuminated
by the sun will reflect light.
439.
OF DEPICTING A FOREST SCENE.
The trees and plants which are most thickly branched with slender
branches ought to have less dark shadow than those trees and plants
which, having broader leaves, will cast more shadow.
440.

ON PAINTING.
In the position of the eye which sees that portion of a tree

illuminated which turns towards the light, one tree will never be
seen to be illuminated equally with the other. To prove this, let
the eye be _c_ which sees the two trees _b d_ which are illuminated
by the sun _a_; I say that this eye _c_ will not see the light in
the same proportion to the shade, in one tree as in the other.
Because, the tree which is nearest to the sun will display so much
the stronger shadow than the more distant one, in proportion as one
tree is nearer to the rays of the sun that converge to the eye than
the other; &c.
You see that the eye _c_ sees nothing of the tree _d_ but shadow,
while the same eye _c_ sees thè tree _b_ half in light and half in
shade.
When a tree is seen from below, the eye sees the top of it as placed
within the circle made by its boughs[23].
Remember, O Painter! that the variety of depth of shade in any one

particular species of tree is in proportion to the rarity or density
of their branches.
[Footnote: The two lower sketches on the left of Pl XXVIII, No. 3,

refer to lines 21-23. The upper sketch has apparently been effaced
by Leonardo himself.]
The distribution of light and shade with reference to the position

of the spectator (441-443).
441.
The shadows of trees placed in a landscape do not display themselves

in the same position in the trees on the right hand and those on the
left; still more so if the sun is to the right or left. As is proved
by the 4th which says: Opaque bodies placed between the light and
the eye display themselves entirely in shadow; and by the 5th: The
eye when placed between the opaque body and the light sees the
opaque body entirely illuminated. And by the 6th: When the eye and
the opaque body are placed between darkness and light, it will be
seen half in shadow and half in light.

[Footnote: See the figure on the right hand side of Pl. XXVIII, No.
3. The first five lines of the text are written below the diagram
and above it are the last eight lines of the text, given as No.
461.]
442.
OF THE HERBS OF THE FIELD.
Of the plants which take a shadow from the plants which spring among
them, those which are on this side [in front] of the shadow have the
stems lighted up on a background of shadow, and the plants on which
the shadows fall have their stems dark on a light background; that
is on the background beyond the shadow.
OF TREES WHICH ARE BETWEEN THE EYE AND THE LIGHT.
Of the trees which are between the eye and the light the part in
front will be light; but this light will be broken by the
ramifications of transparent leaves--being seen from the under
side--and lustrous leaves--being seen from the upper side; and the
background below and behind will be dark green, being in shadow from
the front portion of the said tree. This occurs in trees placed
above the eye.
443.
FROM WHENCE TO DEPICT A LANDSCAPE
Landscapes should be represented so that the trees may be half in

light and half in shadow; but it is better to do them when the sun
is covered with clouds, for then the trees are lighted by the
general light of the sky, and the general darkness of the earth. And
then they are darkest in certain parts in proportion as those parts
are nearest to the middle of the tree and to the earth.
The effects of morning light (444-448).
444.
OF TREES TO THE SOUTH.

When the sun is in the east the trees to the South and to the North
have almost as much light as shadow. But a greater share of light in
proportion as they lie to the West and a greater share of shadow in
proportion as they lie to the East.
OF MEADOWS.
If the sun is in the East the verdure of the meadows and of other
small plants is of a most beautiful green from being transparent to
the sun; this does not occur in the meadows to the West, and in
those to the South and North the grass is of a moderately brilliant
green.
445.
OF THE 4 POINTS OF THE COMPASS [IN LANDSCAPES].
When the sun is in the East all the portions of plants lighted by it
are of a most lively verdure, and this happens because the leaves
lighted by the sun within the half of the horizon that is the
Eastern half, are transparent; and within the Western semicircle the
verdure is of a dull hue and the moist air is turbid and of the
colour of grey ashes, not being transparent like that in the East,
which is quite clear and all the more so in proportion as it is
moister.
The shadows of the trees to the East cover a large portion of them
and are darker in proportion as the foliage of the trees is thicker.
446.
OF TREES IN THE EAST.
When the sun is in the East the trees seen towards the East will
have the light which surrounds them all round their shadows,
excepting on the side towards the earth; unless the tree has been
pruned [below] in the past year. And the trees to the South and
North will be half in shade and half in light, and more or less in
shade or in light in proportion as they are more or less to the East
or to the West.
The [position of] the eye above or below varies the shadows and
lights in trees, inasmuch as the eye placed above sees the tree with

the little shadow, and the eye placed below with a great deal of
shadow.
The colour of the green in plants varies as much as their species.
447.
OF THE SHADOWS IN TREES.
The sun being in the East [to the right], the trees to the West [or
left] of the eye will show in small relief and almost imperceptible
gradations, because the atmosphere which lies between the eye and
those trees is very dense [Footnote 7: _per la 7a di questo_. This
possibly referred to something written on the seventh page of this
note book marked _G_. Unfortunately it has been cut out and lost.],
see the 7th of this--and they have no shade; for though a shadow
exists in every detail of the ramification, it results that the
images of the shade and light that reach the eye are confused and
mingled together and cannot be perceived on account of their
minuteness. And the principal lights are in the middle of the trees,
and the shadows to wards the edges; and their separation is shown by
the shadows of the intervals between the trees; but when the forests
are thick with trees the thin edges are but little seen.
448.
OF TREES TO THE EAST.
When the sun is in the East the trees are darker towards the middle
while their edges are light.
The effects of midday light.
449.
OBJECTS IN HIGH LIGHT SHOW BUT LITTLE, BUT BETWEEN LIGHT AND SHADOW
THEY STAND OUT WELL.
To represent a landscape choose that the sun shall be at noon and

look towards the West or East and then draw. And if you turn towards
the North, every object placed on that side will have no shadow,
particularly those which are nearest to the [direction of the]
shadow of your head. And if you turn towards the South every object

on that side will be wholly in shadow. All the trees which are
towards the sun and have the atmosphere for their background are
dark, and the other trees which lie against that darkness will be
black [very dark] in the middle and lighter towards the edges.
The appearance of trees in the distance (450. 451).
450.
OF THE SPACES [SHOWING THE SKY] IN TREES THEMSELVES.
The spaces between the parts in the mass of trees, and the spaces
between the trees in the air, are, at great distances, invisible to
the eye; for, where it is an effort [even] to see the whole it is
most difficult to discern the parts.--But a confused mixture is the
result, partaking chiefly of the [hue] which predominates. The
spaces between the leaves consist of particles of illuminated air
which are very much smaller than the tree and are lost sight of
sooner than the tree; but it does not therefore follow that they are
not there. Hence, necessarily, a compounded [effect] is produced of
the sky and of the shadows of the tree in shade, which both together
strike the eye which sees them.
OF TREES WHICH CONCEAL THESE SPACES IN ONE ANOTHER.
That part of a tree will show the fewest spaces, behind which a
large number of trees are standing between the tree and the air
[sky]; thus in the tree _a_ the spaces are not concealed nor in _b_,
as there is no tree behind. But in _c_ only half shows the spaces
filled up by the tree _d_, and part of the tree _d_ is filled up by
the tree _e_ and a little farther on all the spaces in the mass of
the trees are lost, and only that at the side remains.
451.
OF TREES.
What outlines are seen in trees at a distance against the sky which
serves as their background?
The outlines of the ramification of trees, where they lie against

the illuminated sky, display a form which more nearly approaches the
spherical on proportion as they are remote, and the nearer they are

the less they appear in this spherical form; as in the first tree
_a_ which, being near to the eye, displays the true form of its
ramification; but this shows less in _b_ and is altogether lost in
_c_, where not merely the branches of the tree cannot be seen but
the whole tree is distinguished with difficulty. Every object in
shadow, of whatever form it may be, at a great distance appears to
be spherical. And this occurs because, if it is a square body, at a
very short distance it loses its angles, and a little farther off it
loses still more of its smaller sides which remain. And thus before
the whole is lost [to sight] the parts are lost, being smaller than
the whole; as a man, who in such a distant position loses his legs,
arms and head before [the mass of] his body, then the outlines of
length are lost before those of breadth, and where they have become
equal it would be a square if the angles remained; but as they are
lost it is round.
[Footnote: The sketch No. 4, Pl. XXVIII, belongs to this passage.]
The cast shadow of trees (452. 453).
452.
The image of the shadow of any object of uniform breadth can never
be [exactly] the same as that of the body which casts it.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 5.]
Light and shade on groups of trees (453-457).
453.
All trees seen against the sun are dark towards the middle and this
shadow will be of the shape of the tree when apart from others.
The shadows cast by trees on which the sun shines are as dark as
those of the middle of the tree.
The shadow cast by a tree is never less than the mass of the tree
but becomes taller in proportion as the spot on which it falls,
slopes towards the centre of the world.
The shadow will be densest in the middle of the tree when the tree
has the fewest branches.

[Footnote: The three diagrams which accompany this text are placed,
in the original, before lines 7-11. At the spots marked _B_ Leonardo
wrote _Albero_ (tree). At _A_ is the word _Sole_ (sun), at _C Monte_
(mountain) at _D piano_ (plain) and at _E cima_ (summit).]
Every branch participates of the central shadow of every other

branch and consequently [of that] of the whole tree.
The form of any shadow from a branch or tree is circumscribed by the

light which falls from the side whence the light comes; and this
illumination gives the shape of the shadow, and this may be of the
distance of a mile from the side where the sun is.
If it happens that a cloud should anywhere overshadow some part of a

hill the [shadow of the] trees there will change less than in the
plains; for these trees on the hills have their branches thicker,
because they grow less high each year than in the plains. Therefore
as these branches are dark by nature and being so full of shade, the
shadow of the clouds cannot darken them any more; but the open
spaces between the trees, which have no strong shadow change very
much in tone and particularly those which vary from green; that is
ploughed lands or fallen mountains or barren lands or rocks. Where
the trees are against the atmosphere they appear all the same
colour--if indeed they are not very close together or very thickly
covered with leaves like the fir and similar trees. When you see the
trees from the side from which the sun lights them, you will see
them almost all of the same tone, and the shadows in them will be
hidden by the leaves in the light, which come between your eye and
those shadows.
TREES AT A SHORT DISTANCE.
[Footnote 29: The heading _alberi vicini_ (trees at a short

distance) is in the original manuscript written in the margin.] When
the trees are situated between the sun and the eye, beyond the
shadow which spreads from their centre, the green of their leaves
will be seen transparent; but this transparency will be broken in
many places by the leaves and boughs in shadow which will come
between you and them, or, in their upper portions, they will be
accompanied by many lights reflected from the leaves.
454.

The trees of the landscape stand out but little from each other;
because their illuminated portions come against the illuminated
portions of those beyond and differ little from them in light and
shade.
455.
Of trees seen from below and against the light, one beyond the other
and near together. The topmost part of the first will be in great
part transparent and light, and will stand out against the dark
portion of the second tree. And thus it will be with all in
succession that are placed under the same conditions.
Let _s_ be the light, and _r_ the eye, _c d n_ the first tree, _a b
c_ the second. Then I say that _r_, the eye, will see the portion _c
f_ in great part transparent and lighted by the light _s_ which
falls upon it from the opposite side, and it will see it, on a dark
ground _b c_ because that is the dark part and shadow of the tree _a
b c_.
But if the eye is placed at _t_ it will see _o p_ dark on the light
background _n g_.
Of the transparent and shadowy parts of trees, that which is nearest

to you is the darkest.
456.
That part of a tree which has shadow for background, is all of one
tone, and wherever the trees or branches are thickest they will be
darkest, because there are no little intervals of air. But where the
boughs lie against a background of other boughs, the brighter parts
are seen lightest and the leaves lustrous from the sunlight falling
on them.
457.
In the composition of leafy trees be careful not to repeat too often

the same colour of one tree against the same colour of another
[behind it]; but vary it with a lighter, or a darker, or a stronger
green.

On the treatment of light for landscapes (458-464).
458.
The landscape has a finer azure [tone] when, in fine weather the sun
is at noon than at any other time of the day, because the air is
purified of moisture; and looking at it under that aspect you will
see the trees of a beautiful green at the outside and the shadows
dark towards the middle; and in the remoter distance the atmosphere
which comes between you and them looks more beautiful when there is
something dark beyond. And still the azure is most beautiful. The
objects seen from the side on which the sun shines will not show you
their shadows. But, if you are lower than the sun, you can see what
is not seen by the sun and that will be all in shade. The leaves of
the trees, which come between you and the sun are of two principal
colours which are a splendid lustre of green, and the reflection of
the atmosphere which lights up the objects which cannot be seen by
the sun, and the shaded portions which only face the earth, and the
darkest which are surrounded by something that is not dark. The
trees in the landscape which are between you and the sun are far
more beautiful than those you see when you are between the sun and
them; and this is so because those which face the sun show their
leaves as transparent towards the ends of their branches, and those
that are not transparent--that is at the ends--reflect the light;
and the shadows are dark because they are not concealed by any
thing.
The trees, when you place yourself between them and the sun, will
only display to you their light and natural colour, which, in
itself, is not very strong, and besides this some reflected lights
which, being against a background which does not differ very much
from themselves in tone, are not conspicuous; and if you are lower
down than they are situated, they may also show those portions on
which the light of the sun does not fall and these will be dark.
In the Wind.
But, if you are on the side whence the wind blows, you will see the
trees look very much lighter than on the other sides, and this
happens because the wind turns up the under side of the leaves,
which, in all trees, is much whiter than the upper sides; and, more
especially, will they be very light indeed if the wind blows from
the quarter where the sun is, and if you have your back turned to

it.
[Footnote: At _S_, in the original is the word _Sole_ (sun) and at

_N parte di nuvolo_ (the side of the clouds).]
459.
When the sun is covered by clouds, objects are less conspicuous,

because there is little difference between the light and shade of
the trees and of the buildings being illuminated by the brightness
of the atmosphere which surrounds the objects in such a way that the
shadows are few, and these few fade away so that their outline is
lost in haze.
460.
OF TREES AND LIGHTS ON THEM.
The best method of practice in representing country scenes, or I

should say landscapes with their trees, is to choose them so that
the sun is covered with clouds so that the landscape receives an
universal light and not the direct light of the sun, which makes the
shadows sharp and too strongly different from the lights.
461.
OF PAINTING.
In landscapes which represent [a scene in] winter. The mountains

should not be shown blue, as we see in the mountains in the summer.
And this is proved [Footnote 5. 6.: _Per la_ 4_a di questo_. It is
impossible to ascertain what this quotation refers to. _Questo_
certainly does not mean the MS. in hand, nor any other now known to
us. The same remark applies to the phrase in line 15: _per la_ 2_a
di questo_.] in the 4th of this which says: Among mountains seen
from a great distance those will look of the bluest colour which are
in themselves the darkest; hence, when the trees are stripped of
their leaves, they will show a bluer tinge which will be in itself
darker; therefore, when the trees have lost their leaves they will
look of a gray colour, while, with their leaves, they are green, and
in proportion as the green is darker than the grey hue the green
will be of a bluer tinge than the gray. Also by the 2nd of this: The
shadows of trees covered with leaves are darker than the shadows of

those trees which have lost their leaves in proportion as the trees
covered with leaves are denser than those without leaves--and thus
my meaning is proved.
The definition of the blue colour of the atmosphere explains why the
landscape is bluer in the summer than in the winter.
462.
OF PAINTING IN A LANDSCAPE.
If the slope of a hill comes between the eye and the horizon,
sloping towards the eye, while the eye is opposite the middle of the
height of this slope, then that hill will increase in darkness
throughout its length. This is proved by the 7th of this which says
that a tree looks darkest when it is seen from below; the
proposition is verified, since this hill will, on its upper half
show all its trees as much from the side which is lighted by the
light of the sky, as from that which is in shade from the darkness
of the earth; whence it must result that these trees are of a medium
darkness. And from this [middle] spot towards the base of the hill,
these trees will be lighter by degrees by the converse of the 7th
and by the said 7th: For trees so placed, the nearer they are to the
summit of the hill the darker they necessarily become. But this
darkness is not in proportion to the distance, by the 8th of this
which says: That object shows darkest which is [seen] in the
clearest atmosphere; and by the 10th: That shows darkest which
stands out against a lighter background.
[Footnote: The quotation in this passage again cannot be verified.]
463.
OF LANDSCAPES.
The colours of the shadows in mountains at a great distance take a

most lovely blue, much purer than their illuminated portions. And
from this it follows that when the rock of a mountain is reddish the
illuminated portions are violet (?) and the more they are lighted
the more they display their proper colour.
464.

A place is most luminous when it is most remote from mountains.
On the treatment of light for views of towns (465-469).
465.
OF LIGHT AND SHADOW IN A TOWN.
When the sun is in the East and the eye is above the centre of a
town, the eye will see the Southern part of the town with its roofs
half in shade and half in light, and the same towards the North; the
Eastern side will be all in shadow and the Western will be all in
light.
466.
Of the houses of a town, in which the divisions between the houses

may be distinguished by the light which fall on the mist at the
bottom. If the eye is above the houses the light seen in the space
that is between one house and the next sinks by degrees into thicker
mist; and yet, being less transparent, it appears whiter; and if the
houses are some higher than the others, since the true [colour] is
always more discernible through the thinner atmosphere, the houses
will look darker in proportion as they are higher up. Let _n o p q_
represent the various density of the atmosphere thick with moisture,
_a_ being the eye, the house _b c_ will look lightest at the bottom,
because it is in a thicker atmosphere; the lines _c d f_ will appear
equally light, for although _f_ is more distant than _c_, it is
raised into a thinner atmosphere, if the houses _b e_ are of the
same height, because they cross a brightness which is varied by
mist, but this is only because the line of the eye which starts from
above ends by piercing a lower and denser atmosphere at _d_ than at
_b_. Thus the line a _f_ is lower at _f_ than at _c_; and the house
_f_ will be seen darker at _e_ from the line _e k_ as far as _m_,
than the tops of the houses standing in front of it.
467.
OF TOWNS OR OTHER BUILDINGS SEEN IN THE EVENING OR THE MORNING

THROUGH THE MIST.
Of buildings seen at a great distance in the evening or the morning,

as in mist or dense atmosphere, only those portions are seen in

brightness which are lighted up by the sun which is near the

horizon; and those portions which are not lighted up by the sun
remain almost of the same colour and medium tone as the mist.
WHY OBJECTS WHICH ARE HIGH UP AND AT A DISTANCE ARE DARKER THAN THE
LOWER ONES, EVEN IF THE MIST IS UNIFORMLY DENSE.
Of objects standing in a mist or other dense atmosphere, whether

from vapour or smoke or distance, those will be most visible which
are the highest. And among objects of equal height that will be the
darkest [strongest] which has for background the deepest mist. Thus
the eye _h_ looking at _a b c_, towers of equal height, one with
another, sees _c_ the top of the first tower at _r_, at two degrees
of depth in the mist; and sees the height of the middle tower _b_
through one single degree of mist. Therefore the top of the tower
_c_ appears stronger than the top of the tower _b_, &c.
468.
OF THE SMOKE OF A TOWN.
Smoke is seen better and more distinctly on the Eastern side than on
the Western when the sun is in the East; and this arises from two
causes; the first is that the sun, with its rays, shines through the
particles of the smoke and lights them up and makes them visible.
The second is that the roofs of the houses seen in the East at this
time are in shadow, because their obliquity does not allow of their
being illuminated by the sun. And the same thing occurs with dust;
and both one and the other look the lighter in proportion as they
are denser, and they are densest towards the middle.
469.
OF SMOKE AND DUST.
If the sun is in the East the smoke of cities will not be visible in
the West, because on that side it is not seen penetrated by the
solar rays, nor on a dark background; since the roofs of the houses
turn the same side to the eye as they turn towards the sun, and on
this light background the smoke is not very visible.
But dust, under the same aspect, will look darker than smoke being
of denser material than smoke which is moist.

The effect of wind on trees (470-473).
470.
OF REPRESENTING WIND.
In representing wind, besides the bending of the boughs and the

reversing of their leaves towards the quarter whence the wind comes,
you should also represent them amid clouds of fine dust mingled with
the troubled air.
471.
Describe landscapes with the wind, and the water, and the setting
and rising of the sun.
THE WIND.
All the leaves which hung towards the earth by the bending of the
shoots with their branches, are turned up side down by the gusts of
wind, and here their perspective is reversed; for, if the tree is
between you and the quarter of the wind, the leaves which are
towards you remain in their natural aspect, while those on the
opposite side which ought to have their points in a contrary
direction have, by being turned over, their points turned towards
you.
472.
Trees struck by the force of the wind bend to the side towards which
the wind is blowing; and the wind being past they bend in the
contrary direction, that is in reverse motion.
473.
That portion of a tree which is farthest from the force which

strikes it is the most injured by the blow because it bears most
strain; thus nature has foreseen this case by thickening them in
that part where they can be most hurt; and most in such trees as
grow to great heights, as pines and the like. [Footnote: Compare the
sketch drawn with a pen and washed with Indian ink on Pl. XL, No. 1.
In the Vatican copy we find, under a section entitled '_del fumo_',

the following remark: _Era sotto di questo capitulo un rompimento di

montagna, per dentro delle quali roture scherzaua fiame di fuoco,
disegnate di penna et ombrate d'acquarella, da uedere cosa mirabile
et uiua (Ed. MANZI, p. 235. Ed. LUDWIG, Vol. I, 460). This appears
to refer to the left hand portion of the drawing here given from the
Windsor collection, and from this it must be inferred, that the leaf
as it now exists in the library of the Queen of England, was already
separated from the original MS. at the time when the Vatican copy
was made.]
Light and shade on clouds (474-477).
474.
Describe how the clouds are formed and how they dissolve, and what
cause raises vapour.
475.
The shadows in clouds are lighter in proportion as they are nearer

to the horizon.
[Footnote: The drawing belonging to this was in black chalk and is

totally effaced.]
476.
When clouds come between the sun and the eye all the upper edges of
their round forms are light, and towards the middle they are dark,
and this happens because towards the top these edges have the sun
above them while you are below them; and the same thing happens with
the position of the branches of trees; and again the clouds, like
the trees, being somewhat transparent, are lighted up in part, and
at the edges they show thinner.
But, when the eye is between the cloud and the sun, the cloud has
the contrary effect to the former, for the edges of its mass are
dark and it is light towards the middle; and this happens because
you see the same side as faces the sun, and because the edges have
some transparency and reveal to the eye that portion which is hidden
beyond them, and which, as it does not catch the sunlight like that
portion turned towards it, is necessarily somewhat darker. Again, it
may be that you see the details of these rounded masses from the

lower side, while the sun shines on the upper side and as they are
not so situated as to reflect the light of the sun, as in the first
instance they remain dark.
The black clouds which are often seen higher up than those which are
illuminated by the sun are shaded by other clouds, lying between
them and the sun.
Again, the rounded forms of the clouds that face the sun, show their
edges dark because they lie against the light background; and to see
that this is true, you may look at the top of any cloud that is
wholly light because it lies against the blue of the atmosphere,
which is darker than the cloud.
[Footnote: A drawing in red chalk from the Windsor collection (see

Pl. XXIX), representing a landscape with storm-clouds, may serve to
illustrate this section as well as the following one.]
477.
OF CLOUDS, SMOKE AND DUST AND THE FLAMES OF A FURNACE OR OF A

BURNING KILN.
The clouds do not show their rounded forms excepting on the sides
which face the sun; on the others the roundness is imperceptible
because they are in the shade. [Footnote: The text of this chapter
is given in facsimile on Pls. XXXVI and XXXVII. The two halves of
the leaf form but one in the original. On the margin close to lines
4 and 5 is the note: _rossore d'aria inverso l'orizonte_--(of the
redness of the atmosphere near the horizon). The sketches on the
lower portion of the page will be spoken of in No. 668.]
If the sun is in the East and the clouds in the West, the eye placed
between the sun and the clouds sees the edges of the rounded forms
composing these clouds as dark, and the portions which are
surrounded by this dark [edge] are light. And this occurs because
the edges of the rounded forms of these clouds are turned towards
the upper or lateral sky, which is reflected in them.
Both the cloud and the tree display no roundness at all on their
shaded side.
On images reflected in water.

478.
Painters often deceive themselves, by representing water in which

they make the water reflect the objects seen by the man. But the
water reflects the object from one side and the man sees it from the
other; and it often happens that the painter sees an object from
below, and thus one and the same object is seen from hind part
before and upside down, because the water shows the image of the
object in one way, and the eye sees it in another.
Of rainbows and rain (479. 480).
479.
The colours in the middle of the rainbow mingle together.
The bow in itself is not in the rain nor in the eye that sees it;
though it is generated by the rain, the sun, and the eye. The
rainbow is always seen by the eye that is between the rain and the
body of the sun; hence if the sun is in the East and the rain is in
the West it will appear on the rain in the West.
480.
When the air is condensed into rain it would produce a vacuum if the
rest of the air did not prevent this by filling its place, as it
does with a violent rush; and this is the wind which rises in the
summer time, accompanied by heavy rain.
Of flower seeds.
481.
All the flowers which turn towards the sun perfect their seeds; but
not the others; that is to say those which get only the reflection
of the sun.
IX.
_The Practice of Painting._
_It is hardly necessary to offer any excuses for the division

carried out in the arrangement of the text into practical

suggestions and theoretical enquiries. It was evidently intended by
Leonardo himself as we conclude from incidental remarks in the MSS.
(for instance No_ 110_). The fact that this arrangement was never
carried out either in the old MS. copies or in any edition since, is
easily accounted for by the general disorder which results from the
provisional distribution of the various chapters in the old copies.
We have every reason to believe that the earliest copyists, in
distributing the materials collected by them, did not in the least
consider the order in which the original MS.lay before them._
_It is evident that almost all the chapters which refer to the
calling and life of the painter--and which are here brought together
in the first section (Nos._ 482-508_)--may be referred to two
distinct periods in Leonardo's life; most of them can be dated as
belonging to the year_ 1492 _or to_ 1515. _At about this later time
Leonardo may have formed the project of completing his Libro della
Pittura, after an interval of some years, as it would seem, during
which his interest in the subject had fallen somewhat into the
background._
_In the second section, which treats first of the artist's studio,
the construction of a suitable window forms the object of careful
investigations; the special importance attached to this by Leonardo
is sufficiently obvious. His theory of the incidence of light which
was fully discussed in a former part of this work, was to him by no
means of mere abstract value, but, being deduced, as he says, from
experience (or experiment) was required to prove its utility in
practice. Connected with this we find suggestions for the choice of
a light with practical hints as to sketching a picture and some
other precepts of a practical character which must come under
consideration in the course of completing the painting. In all this
I have followed the same principle of arrangement in the text as was
carried out in the Theory of Painting, thus the suggestions for the
Perspective of a picture, (Nos._ 536-569_), are followed by the
theory of light and shade for the practical method of optics (Nos._
548--566_) and this by the practical precepts or the treatment of
aerial perspective (_567--570_)._
_In the passage on Portrait and Figure Painting the principles of

painting as applied to a bust and head are separated and placed
first, since the advice to figure painters must have some connection
with the principles of the treatment of composition by which they

are followed._
_But this arrangement of the text made it seem advisable not to pick
out the practical precepts as to the representation of trees and
landscape from the close connection in which they were originally
placed--unlike the rest of the practical precepts--with the theory
of this branch of the subject. They must therefore be sought under
the section entitled Botany for Painters._
_As a supplement to the_ Libro di Pittura _I have here added those

texts which treat of the Painter's materials,--as chalk, drawing
paper, colours and their preparation, of the management of oils and
varnishes; in the appendix are some notes on chemical substances.
Possibly some of these, if not all, may have stood in connection
with the preparation of colours. It is in the very nature of things
that Leonardo's incidental indications as to colours and the like
should be now-a-days extremely obscure and could only be explained
by professional experts--by them even in but few instances. It might
therefore have seemed advisable to reproduce exactly the original
text without offering any translation. The rendering here given is
merely an attempt to suggest what Leonardo's meaning may have been._
_LOMAZZO tells us in his_ Trattato dell'arte della Pittura, Scultura

ed Architettura (Milano 1584, libro II, Cap. XIV): "Va discorrendo
ed argomentando Leonardo Vinci in un suo libro letto da me (?)
questi anni passati, ch'egli scrisse di mano stanca ai prieghi di
LUDOVICO SFORZA duca di Milano, in determinazione di questa
questione, se e piu nobile la pittura o la scultura; dicendo che
quanto piu un'arte porta seco fatica di corpo, e sudore, tanto piu e
vile, e men pregiata". _But the existence of any book specially
written for Lodovico il Moro on the superiority of Painting over
sculpture is perhaps mythical. The various passages in praise of
Painting as compared not merely with Sculpture but with Poetry, are
scattered among MSS. of very different dates._
_Besides, the way, in which the subject is discussed appears not to

support the supposition, that these texts were prepared at a special
request of the Duke._
I.
MORAL PRECEPTS FOR THE STUDENT OF PAINTING.

How to ascertain the dispositions for an artistic career.
482.
A WARNING CONCERNING YOUTHS WISHING TO BE PAINTERS.
Many are they who have a taste and love for drawing, but no talent;
and this will be discernible in boys who are not diligent and never
finish their drawings with shading.
The course of instruction for an artist (483-485).
483.
The youth should first learn perspective, then the proportions of

objects. Then he may copy from some good master, to accustom himself
to fine forms. Then from nature, to confirm by practice the rules he
has learnt. Then see for a time the works of various masters. Then
get the habit of putting his art into practice and work.
[Footnote: The Vatican copy and numerous abridgements all place this
chapter at the beginning of the _Trattato_, and in consequence
DUFRESNE and all subsequent editors have done the same. In the
Vatican copy however all the general considerations on the relation
of painting to the other arts are placed first, as introductory.]
484.
OF THE ORDER OF LEARNING TO DRAW.
First draw from drawings by good masters done from works of art and
from nature, and not from memory; then from plastic work, with the
guidance of the drawing done from it; and then from good natural
models and this you must put into practice.
485.
PRECEPTS FOR DRAWING.
The artist ought first to exercise his hand by copying drawings from
the hand of a good master. And having acquired that practice, under
the criticism of his master, he should next practise drawing objects
in relief of a good style, following the rules which will presently

be given.
The study of the antique (486. 487).
486.
OF DRAWING.
Which is best, to draw from nature or from the antique? and which is
more difficult to do outlines or light and shade?
487.
It is better to imitate [copy] the antique than modern work.
[Footnote 486, 487: These are the only two passages in which
Leonardo alludes to the importance of antique art in the training of
an artist. The question asked in No. 486 remains unanswered by him
and it seems to me very doubtful whether the opinion stated in No.
487 is to be regarded as a reply to it. This opinion stands in the
MS. in a connection--as will be explained later on--which seems to
require us to limit its application to a single special case. At any
rate we may suspect that when Leonardo put the question, he felt
some hesitation as to the answer. Among his very numerous drawings I
have not been able to find a single study from the antique, though a
drawing in black chalk, at Windsor, of a man on horseback (PI.
LXXIII) may perhaps be a reminiscence of the statue of Marcus
Aurelius at Rome. It seems to me that the drapery in a pen and ink
drawing of a bust, also at Windsor, has been borrowed from an
antique model (Pl. XXX). G. G. Rossi has, I believe, correctly
interpreted Leonardo's feeling towards the antique in the following
note on this passage in manzi's edition, p. 501: "Sappiamo dalla
storia, che i valorosi artisti Toscani dell'età dell'oro dell'arte
studiarono sugli antichi marmi raccolti dal Magnifico LORENZO DE'
MEDICI. Pare che il Vinci a tali monumenti non si accostasse. Quest'
uomo sempre riconosce per maestra la natura, e questo principio lo
stringeva alla sola imitazione dì essa"--Compare No. 10, 26--28
footnote.]
The necessity of anatomical knowledge (488. 489).
488.

OF PAINTING.
It is indispensable to a Painter who would be thoroughly familiar

with the limbs in all the positions and actions of which they are
capable, in the nude, to know the anatomy of the sinews, bones,
muscles and tendons so that, in their various movements and
exertions, he may know which nerve or muscle is the cause of each
movement and show those only as prominent and thickened, and not the
others all over [the limb], as many do who, to seem great
draughtsmen, draw their nude figures looking like wood, devoid of
grace; so that you would think you were looking at a sack of walnuts
rather than the human form, or a bundle of radishes rather than the
muscles of figures.
489.
HOW IT IS NECESSARY TO A PAINTER THAT HE SHOULD KNOW THE INTRINSIC

FORMS [STRUCTURE] OF MAN.
The painter who is familiar with the nature of the sinews, muscles,
and tendons, will know very well, in giving movement to a limb, how
many and which sinews cause it; and which muscle, by swelling,
causes the contraction of that sinew; and which sinews, expanded
into the thinnest cartilage, surround and support the said muscle.
Thus he will variously and constantly demonstrate the different
muscles by means of the various attitudes of his figures, and will
not do, as many who, in a variety of movements, still display the
very same things [modelling] in the arms, back, breast and legs. And
these things are not to be regarded as minor faults.
How to acquire practice.
490.
OF STUDY AND THE ORDER OF STUDY.
I say that first you ought to learn the limbs and their mechanism,
and having this knowledge, their actions should come next, according
to the circumstances in which they occur in man. And thirdly to
compose subjects, the studies for which should be taken from natural
actions and made from time to time, as circumstances allow; and pay
attention to them in the streets and _piazze_ and fields, and note
them down with a brief indication of the forms; [Footnote 5: Lines

5-7 explained by the lower portion of the sketch No. 1 on Pl. XXXI.]
thus for a head make an o, and for an arm a straight or a bent line,
and the same for the legs and the body, [Footnote 7: Lines 5-7
explained by the lower portion of the sketch No. 1 on Pl. XXXI.] and
when you return home work out these notes in a complete form. The
Adversary says that to acquire practice and do a great deal of work
it is better that the first period of study should be employed in
drawing various compositions done on paper or on walls by divers
masters, and that in this way practice is rapidly gained, and good
methods; to which I reply that the method will be good, if it is
based on works of good composition and by skilled masters. But since
such masters are so rare that there are but few of them to be found,
it is a surer way to go to natural objects, than to those which are
imitated from nature with great deterioration, and so form bad
methods; for he who can go to the fountain does not go to the
water-jar.
[Footnote: This passage has been published by Dr. M. JORDAN, _Das

Malerbuck des L. da Vinci_, p. 89; his reading however varies
slightly from mine.]
Industry and thoroughness the first conditions (491-493.)
491.
WHAT RULES SHOULD BE GIVEN TO BOYS LEARNING TO PAINT.
We know for certain that sight is one of the most rapid actions we
can perform. In an instant we see an infinite number of forms, still
we only take in thoroughly one object at a time. Supposing that you,
Reader, were to glance rapidly at the whole of this written page,
you would instantly perceive that it was covered with various
letters; but you could not, in the time, recognise what the letters
were, nor what they were meant to tell. Hence you would need to see
them word by word, line by line to be able to understand the
letters. Again, if you wish to go to the top of a building you must
go up step by step; otherwise it will be impossible that you should
reach the top. Thus I say to you, whom nature prompts to pursue this
art, if you wish to have a sound knowledge of the forms of objects
begin with the details of them, and do not go on to the second
[step] till you have the first well fixed in memory and in practice.
And if you do otherwise you will throw away your time, or certainly
greatly prolong your studies. And remember to acquire diligence

rather than rapidity.
492.
HOW THAT DILIGENCE [ACCURACY] SHOULD FIRST BE LEARNT RATHER THAN

RAPID EXECUTION.
If you, who draw, desire to study well and to good purpose, always
go slowly to work in your drawing; and discriminate in. the lights,
which have the highest degree of brightness, and to what extent and
likewise in the shadows, which are those that are darker than the
others and in what way they intermingle; then their masses and the
relative proportions of one to the other. And note in their
outlines, which way they tend; and which part of the lines is curved
to one side or the other, and where they are more or less
conspicuous and consequently broad or fine; and finally, that your
light and shade blend without strokes and borders [but] looking like
smoke. And when you have thus schooled your hand and your judgment
by such diligence, you will acquire rapidity before you are aware.
The artist's private life and choice of company (493-494).
493.
OF THE LIFE OF THE PAINTER IN THE COUNTRY.
A painter needs such mathematics as belong to painting. And the

absence of all companions who are alienated from his studies; his
brain must be easily impressed by the variety of objects, which
successively come before him, and also free from other cares
[Footnote 6: Leonardo here seems to be speaking of his own method of
work as displayed in his MSS. and this passage explains, at least in
part, the peculiarities in their arrangement.]. And if, when
considering and defining one subject, a second subject
intervenes--as happens when an object occupies the mind, then he
must decide which of these cases is the more difficult to work out,
and follow that up until it becomes quite clear, and then work out
the explanation of the other [Footnote 11: Leonardo here seems to be
speaking of his own method of work as displayed in his MSS. and this
passage explains, at least in part, the peculiarities in their
arrangement.]. And above all he must keep his mind as clear as the
surface of a mirror, which assumes colours as various as those of
the different objects. And his companions should be like him as to

their studies, and if such cannot be found he should keep his

speculations to himself alone, so that at last he will find no more
useful company [than his own].
[Footnote: In the title line Leonardo had originally written _del

pictore filosofo_ (the philosophical painter), but he himself struck
out_filosofo_. Compare in No. 363 _pictora notomista_ (anatomical
painter). The original text is partly reproduced on Pl. CI.]
494.
OF THE LIFE OF THE PAINTER IN HIS STUDIO.
To the end that well-being of the body may not injure that of the
mind, the painter or draughtsman must remain solitary, and
particularly when intent on those studies and reflections which will
constantly rise up before his eye, giving materials to be well
stored in the memory. While you are alone you are entirely your own
[master] and if you have one companion you are but half your own,
and the less so in proportion to the indiscretion of his behaviour.
And if you have many companions you will fall deeper into the same
trouble. If you should say: "I will go my own way and withdraw
apart, the better to study the forms of natural objects", I tell
you, you will not be able to help often listening to their chatter.
And so, since one cannot serve two masters, you will badly fill the
part of a companion, and carry out your studies of art even worse.
And if you say: "I will withdraw so far that their words cannot
reach me and they cannot disturb me", I can tell you that you will
be thought mad. But, you see, you will at any rate be alone. And if
you must have companions ship find it in your studio. This may
assist you to have the advantages which arise from various
speculations. All other company may be highly mischievous.
The distribution of time for studying (495-497).
495.
OF WHETHER IT IS BETTER TO DRAW WITH COMPANIONS OR NOT.
I say and insist that drawing in company is much better than alone,
for many reasons. The first is that you would be ashamed to be seen
behindhand among the students, and such shame will lead you to
careful study. Secondly, a wholesome emulation will stimulate you to

be among those who are more praised than yourself, and this praise
of others will spur you on. Another is that you can learn from the
drawings of others who do better than yourself; and if you are
better than they, you can profit by your contempt for their defects,
while the praise of others will incite you to farther merits.
[Footnote: The contradiction by this passage of the foregoing

chapter is only apparent. It is quite clear, from the nature of the
reasoning which is here used to prove that it is more improving to
work with others than to work alone, that the studies of pupils only
are under consideration here.]
496.
OF STUDYING, IN THE DARK, WHEN YOU WAKE, OR IN BED BEFORE YOU GO TO

SLEEP.
I myself have proved it to be of no small use, when in bed in the

dark, to recall in fancy the external details of forms previously
studied, or other noteworthy things conceived by subtle speculation;
and this is certainly an admirable exercise, and useful for
impressing things on the memory.
497.
OF THE TIME FOR STUDYING SELECTION OF SUBJECTS.
Winter evenings ought to be employed by young students in looking

over the things prepared during the summer; that is, all the
drawings from the nude done in the summer should be brought together
and a choice made of the best [studies of] limbs and bodies among
them, to apply in practice and commit to memory.
OF POSITIONS.
After this in the following summer you should select some one who is
well grown and who has not been brought up in doublets, and so may
not be of stiff carriage, and make him go through a number of agile
and graceful actions; and if his muscles do not show plainly within
the outlines of his limbs that does not matter at all. It is enough
that you can see good attitudes and you can correct [the drawing of]
the limbs by those you studied in the winter.

[Footnote: An injunction to study in the evening occurs also in No.

524.]
On the productive power of minor artists (498-501).
498.
He is a poor disciple who does not excel his master.
499.
Nor is the painter praiseworthy who does but one thing well, as the
nude figure, heads, draperies, animals, landscapes or other such
details, irrespective of other work; for there can be no mind so
inept, that after devoting itself to one single thing and doing it
constantly, it should fail to do it well.
[Footnote: In MANZI'S edition (p. 502) the painter G. G. Bossi

indignantly remarks on this passage. "_Parla il Vince in questo
luogo come se tutti gli artisti avessero quella sublimita d'ingegno
capace di abbracciare tutte le cose, di cui era egli dotato"_ And he
then mentions the case of CLAUDE LORRAIN. But he overlooks the fact
that in Leonardo's time landscape painting made no pretensions to
independence but was reckoned among the details (_particulari_,
lines 3, 4).]
500.
THAT A PAINTER IS NOT ADMIRABLE UNLESS HE IS UNIVERSAL.
Some may distinctly assert that those persons are under a delusion
who call that painter a good master who can do nothing well but a
head or a figure. Certainly this is no great achievement; after
studying one single thing for a life-time who would not have
attained some perfection in it? But, since we know that painting
embraces and includes in itself every object produced by nature or
resulting from the fortuitous actions of men, in short, all that the
eye can see, he seems to me but a poor master who can only do a
figure well. For do you not perceive how many and various actions
are performed by men only; how many different animals there are, as
well as trees, plants, flowers, with many mountainous regions and
plains, springs and rivers, cities with public and private
buildings, machines, too, fit for the purposes of men, divers

costumes, decorations and arts? And all these things ought to be

regarded as of equal importance and value, by the man who can be
termed a good painter.
501.
OF THE MISERABLE PRETENCES MADE BY THOSE WHO FALSELY AND UNWORTHILY

ACQUIRE THE NAME OF PAINTERS.
Now there is a certain race of painters who, having studied but

little, must need take as their standard of beauty mere gold and
azure, and these, with supreme conceit, declare that they will not
give good work for miserable payment, and that they could do as well
as any other if they were well paid. But, ye foolish folks! cannot
such artists keep some good work, and then say: this is a costly
work and this more moderate and this is average work and show that
they can work at all prices?
A caution against one-sided study.
502.
HOW, IN IMPORTANT WORKS, A MAN SHOULD NOT TRUST ENTIRELY TO HIS

MEMORY WITHOUT CONDESCENDING TO DRAW FROM NATURE.
Any master who should venture to boast that he could remember all
the forms and effects of nature would certainly appear to me to be
graced with extreme ignorance, inasmuch as these effects are
infinite and our memory is not extensive enough to retain them.
Hence, O! painter, beware lest the lust of gain should supplant in
you the dignity of art; for the acquisition of glory is a much
greater thing than the glory of riches. Hence, for these and other
reasons which might be given, first strive in drawing to represent
your intention to the eye by expressive forms, and the idea
originally formed in your imagination; then go on taking out or
putting in, until you have satisfied yourself. Then have living men,
draped or nude, as you may have purposed in your work, and take care
that in dimensions and size, as determined by perspective, nothing
is left in the work which is not in harmony with reason and the
effects in nature. And this will be the way to win honour in your
art.
How to acquire universality (503-506).

503.
OF VARIETY IN THE FIGURES.
The painter should aim at universality, because there is a great

want of self-respect in doing one thing well and another badly, as
many do who study only the [rules of] measure and proportion in the
nude figure and do not seek after variety; for a man may be well
proportioned, or he may be fat and short, or tall and thin, or
medium. And a painter who takes no account of these varieties always
makes his figures on one pattern so that they might all be taken for
brothers; and this is a defect that demands stern reprehension.
504.
HOW SOMETHING MAY BE LEARNT EVERYWHERE.
Nature has beneficently provided that throughout the world you may
find something to imitate.
505.
OF THE MEANS OF ACQUIRING UNIVERSALITY.
It is an easy matter to men to acquire universality, for all

terrestrial animals resemble each other as to their limbs, that is
in their muscles, sinews and bones; and they do not vary excepting
in length or in thickness, as will be shown under Anatomy. But then
there are aquatic animals which are of great variety; I will not try
to convince the painter that there is any rule for them for they are
of infinite variety, and so is the insect tribe.
506.
PAINTING.
The mind of the painter must resemble a mirror, which always takes
the colour of the object it reflects and is completely occupied by
the images of as many objects as are in front of it. Therefore you
must know, Oh Painter! that you cannot be a good one if you are not
the universal master of representing by your art every kind of form
produced by nature. And this you will not know how to do if you do

not see them, and retain them in your mind. Hence as you go through
the fields, turn your attention to various objects, and, in turn
look now at this thing and now at that, collecting a store of divers
facts selected and chosen from those of less value. But do not do
like some painters who, when they are wearied with exercising their
fancy dismiss their work from their thoughts and take exercise in
walking for relaxation, but still keep fatigue in their mind which,
though they see various objects [around them], does not apprehend
them; but, even when they meet friends or relations and are saluted
by them, although they see and hear them, take no more cognisance of
them than if they had met so much empty air.
Useful games and exercises (507. 508).
507.
OF GAMES TO BE PLAYED BY THOSE WHO DRAW.
When, Oh draughtsmen, you desire to find relaxation in games you

should always practise such things as may be of use in your
profession, by giving your eye good practice in judging accurately
of the breadth and length of objects. Thus, to accustom your mind to
such things, let one of you draw a straight line at random on a
wall, and each of you, taking a blade of grass or of straw in his
hand, try to cut it to the length that the line drawn appears to him
to be, standing at a distance of 10 braccia; then each one may go up
to the line to measure the length he has judged it to be. And he who
has come nearest with his measure to the length of the pattern is
the best man, and the winner, and shall receive the prize you have
settled beforehand. Again you should take forshortened measures:
that is take a spear, or any other cane or reed, and fix on a point
at a certain distance; and let each one estimate how many times he
judges that its length will go into that distance. Again, who will
draw best a line one braccio long, which shall be tested by a
thread. And such games give occasion to good practice for the eye,
which is of the first importance in painting.
508.
A WAY OF DEVELOPING AND AROUSING THE MIND TO VARIOUS INVENTIONS.
I cannot forbear to mention among these precepts a new device for

study which, although it may seem but trivial and almost ludicrous,

is nevertheless extremely useful in arousing the mind to various

inventions. And this is, when you look at a wall spotted with
stains, or with a mixture of stones, if you have to devise some
scene, you may discover a resemblance to various landscapes,
beautified with mountains, rivers, rocks, trees, plains, wide
valleys and hills in varied arrangement; or again you may see
battles and figures in action; or strange faces and costumes, and an
endless variety of objects, which you could reduce to complete and
well drawn forms. And these appear on such walls confusedly, like
the sound of bells in whose jangle you may find any name or word you
choose to imagine.
II.
THE ARTIST'S STUDIO.--INSTRUMENTS AND HELPS FOR THE APPLICATION OF

PERSPECTIVE.--ON JUDGING OF A PICTURE.
On the size of the studio.
509.
Small rooms or dwellings discipline the mind, large ones weaken it.
On the construction of windows (510-512).
510.
The larger the wall the less the light will be.
511.
The different kinds of light afforded in cellars by various forms of

windows. The least useful and the coldest is the window at _a_. The
most useful, the lightest and warmest and most open to the sky is
the window at _b_. The window at _c_ is of medium utility.
[Footnote: From a reference to the notes on the right light for

painting it becomes evident that the observations made on
cellar-windows have a direct bearing on the construction of the
studio-window. In the diagram _b_ as well as in that under No. 510
the window-opening is reduced to a minimum, but only, it would seem,
in order to emphasize the advantage of walls constructed on the plan
there shown.]

512.
OF THE PAINTER'S WINDOW AND ITS ADVANTAGE.
The painter who works from nature should have a window, which he can
raise and lower. The reason is that sometimes you will want to
finish a thing you are drawing, close to the light.
Let _a b c d_ be the chest on which the work may be raised or

lowered, so that the work moves up and down and not the painter. And
every evening you can let down the work and shut it up above so that
in the evening it may be in the fashion of a chest which, when shut
up, may serve the purpose of a bench.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXXI, No. 2. In this plate the lines have
unfortunately lost their sharpness, for the accidental loss of the
negative has necessitated a reproduction from a positive. But having
formerly published this sketch by another process, in VON LUTZOW'S
_Zeitschrift fur bildende Kunst_ (Vol. XVII, pg. 13) I have
reproduced it here in the text. The sharpness of the outline in the
original sketch is here preserved but it gives it from the reversed
side.]
On the best light for painting (513-520).
513.
Which light is best for drawing from nature; whether high or low, or
large or small, or strong and broad, or strong and small, or broad
and weak or small and weak?
[Footnote: The question here put is unanswered in the original MS.]
514.
OF THE QUALITY OF THE LIGHT.
A broad light high up and not too strong will render the details of
objects very agreeable.
515.

THAT THE LIGHT FOR DRAWING FROM NATURE SHOULD BE HIGH UP.
The light for drawing from nature should come from the North in
order that it may not vary. And if you have it from the South, keep
the window screened with cloth, so that with the sun shining the
whole day the light may not vary. The height of the light should be
so arranged as that every object shall cast a shadow on the ground
of the same length as itself.
516.
THE KIND OF LIGHT REQUISITE FOR PAINTING LIGHT AND SHADE.
An object will display the greatest difference of light and shade

when it is seen in the strongest light, as by sunlight, or, at
night, by the light of a fire. But this should not be much used in
painting because the works remain crude and ungraceful.
An object seen in a moderate light displays little difference in the

light and shade; and this is the case towards evening or when the
day is cloudy, and works then painted are tender and every kind of
face becomes graceful. Thus, in every thing extremes are to be
avoided: Too much light gives crudeness; too little prevents our
seeing. The medium is best.
OF SMALL LIGHTS.
Again, lights cast from a small window give strong differences of

light and shade, all the more if the room lighted by it be large,
and this is not good for painting.
517.
PAINTING.
The luminous air which enters by passing through orifices in walls

into dark rooms will render the place less dark in proportion as the
opening cuts into the walls which surround and cover in the
pavement.
518.
OF THE QUALITY OF LIGHT.

In proportion to the number of times that _a b_ goes into _c d_ will

it be more luminous than _c d_. And similarly, in proportion as the
point _e_ goes into _c d_ will it be more luminous than _c d;_ and
this light is useful for carvers of delicate work. [Footnote 5: For
the same reason a window thus constructed would be convenient for an
illuminator or a miniature painter.]
[Footnote: M. RAVAISSON in his edition of the Paris MS. A remarks on

this passage: _"La figure porte les lettres_ f _et_ g, _auxquelles
rien ne renvoie dans l'explication; par consequent, cette
explication est incomplete. La figure semblerait, d'ailleurs, se
rapporter a l'effet de la reflexion par un miroir concave."_ So far
as I can see the text is not imperfect, nor is the sense obscure. It
is hardly necessary to observe that _c d_ here indicate the wall of
the room opposite to the window _e_ and the semicircle described by
_f g_ stands for the arch of the sky; this occurs in various
diagrams, for example under 511. A similar semicircle, Pl III, No. 2
(and compare No. 149) is expressly called '_orizonte_' in writing.]
519.
That the light should fall upon a picture from one window only. This
may be seen in the case of objects in this form. If you want to
represent a round ball at a certain height you must make it oval in
this shape, and stand so far off as that by foreshortening it
appears round.
520.
OF SELECTING THE LIGHT WHICH GIVES MOST GRACE TO FACES.
If you should have a court yard that you can at pleasure cover with
a linen awning that light will be good. Or when you want to take a
portrait do it in dull weather, or as evening falls, making the
sitter stand with his back to one of the walls of the court yard.
Note in the streets, as evening falls, the faces of the men and
women, and when the weather is dull, what softness and delicacy you
may perceive in them. Hence, Oh Painter! have a court arranged with
the walls tinted black and a narrow roof projecting within the
walls. It should be 10 braccia wide and 20 braccia long and 10
braccia high and covered with a linen awning; or else paint a work
towards evening or when it is cloudy or misty, and this is a perfect

light.
On various helps in preparing a picture (521-530).
521.
To draw a nude figure from nature, or any thing else, hold in your
hand a plumb-line to enable you to judge of the relative position
of objects.
522.
OF DRAWING AN OBJECT.
When you draw take care to set up a principal line which you must
observe all throughout the object you are drawing; every thing
should bear relation to the direction of this principal line.
523.
OF A MODE OF DRAWING A PLACE ACCURATELY.
Have a piece of glass as large as a half sheet of royal folio paper

and set thus firmly in front of your eyes that is, between your eye
and the thing you want to draw; then place yourself at a distance of
2/3 of a braccia from the glass fixing your head with a machine in
such a way that you cannot move it at all. Then shut or entirely
cover one eye and with a brush or red chalk draw upon the glass that
which you see beyond it; then trace it on paper from the glass,
afterwards transfer it onto good paper, and paint it if you like,
carefully attending to the arial perspective.
HOW TO LEARN TO PLACE YOUR FIGURES CORRECTLY.
If you want to acquire a practice of good and correct attitudes for

your figures, make a square frame or net, and square it out with
thread; place this between your eye and the nude model you are
drawing, and draw these same squares on the paper on which you mean
to draw the figure, but very delicately. Then place a pellet of wax
on a spot of the net which will serve as a fixed point, which,
whenever you look at your model, must cover the pit of the throat;
or, if his back is turned, it may cover one of the vertebrae of the
neck. Thus these threads will guide you as to each part of the body

which, in any given attitude will be found below the pit of the
throat, or the angles of the shoulders, or the nipples, or hips and
other parts of the body; and the transverse lines of the net will
show you how much the figure is higher over the leg on which it is
posed than over the other, and the same with the hips, and the knees
and the feet. But always fix the net perpendicularly so that all the
divisions that you see the model divided into by the net work
correspond with your drawing of the model on the net work you have
sketched. The squares you draw may be as much smaller than those of
the net as you wish that your figure should be smaller than nature.
Afterwards remember when drawing figures, to use the rule of the
corresponding proportions of the limbs as you have learnt it from
the frame and net. This should be 3 braccia and a half high and 3
braccia wide; 7 braccia distant from you and 1 braccio from the
model.
[Footnote: Leonardo is commonly credited with the invention of the

arrangement of a plate of glass commonly known as the "vertical
plane." Professor E. VON BRUCKE in his _"Bruchstucke aus der Theorie
der bildenden Kunste,"_ Leipzig 1877, pg. 3, writes on this
contrivance. _"Unsere Glastafel ist die sogenannte Glastafel des
Leonardo da Vinci, die in Gestalt einer Glastafel vorgestellte
Bildflache."_]
524.
A METHOD OF DRAWING AN OBJECT IN RELIEF AT NIGHT.
Place a sheet of not too transparent paper between the relievo and
the light and you can draw thus very well.
[Footnote: Bodies thus illuminated will show on the surface of the

paper how the copyist has to distribute light and shade.]
525.
If you want to represent a figure on a wall, the wall being

foreshortened, while the figure is to appear in its proper form, and
as standing free from the wall, you must proceed thus: have a thin
plate of iron and make a small hole in the centre; this hole must be
round. Set a light close to it in such a position as that it shines
through the central hole, then place any object or figure you please
so close to the wall that it touches it and draw the outline of the

shadow on the wall; then fill in the shade and add the lights; place
the person who is to see it so that he looks through that same hole
where at first the light was; and you will never be able to persuade
yourself that the image is not detached from the wall.
[Footnote: _uno piccolo spiracelo nel mezzo_. M. RAVAISSON, in his

edition of MS. A (Paris), p. 52, reads _nel muro_--evidently a
mistake for _nel mezzo_ which is quite plainly written; and he
translates it _"fait lui une petite ouverture dans le mur,"_ adding
in a note: _"les mots 'dans le mur' paraissent etre de trop.
Leonardo a du les ecrire par distraction"_ But _'nel mezzo'_ is
clearly legible even on the photograph facsimile given by Ravaisson
himself, and the objection he raises disappears at once. It is not
always wise or safe to try to prove our author's absence of mind or
inadvertence by apparent difficulties in the sense or connection of
the text.]
526.
TO DRAW A FIGURE ON A WALL 12 BRACCIA HIGH WHICH SHALL LOOK 24

BRACCIA HIGH.
If you wish to draw a figure or any other object to look 24 braccia

high you must do it in this way. First, on the surface _m r_ draw
half the man you wish to represent; then the other half; then put on
the vault _m n_ [the rest of] the figure spoken of above; first set
out the vertical plane on the floor of a room of the same shape as
the wall with the coved part on which you are to paint your figure.
Then, behind it, draw a figure set out in profile of whatever size
you please, and draw lines from it to the point _f_ and, as these
lines cut _m n_ on the vertical plane, so will the figure come on
the wall, of which the vertical plane gives a likeness, and you will
have all the [relative] heights and prominences of the figure. And
the breadth or thickness which are on the upright wall _m n_ are to
be drawn in their proper form, since, as the wall recedes the figure
will be foreshortened by itself; but [that part of] the figure which
goes into the cove you must foreshorten, as if it were standing
upright; this diminution you must set out on a flat floor and there
must stand the figure which is to be transferred from the vertical
plane _r n_[Footnote 17: _che leverai dalla pariete r n_. The
letters refer to the larger sketch, No. 3 on Pl. XXXI.] in its real
size and reduce it once more on a vertical plane; and this will be a
good method [Footnote 18: Leonardo here says nothing as to how the

image foreshortened by perspective and thus produced on the vertical

plane is to be transferred to the wall; but from what is said in
Nos. 525 and 523 we may conclude that he was familiar with the
process of casting the enlarged shadow of a squaring net on the
surface of a wall to guide him in drawing the figure.
_Pariete di rilieuo; "sur une parai en relief"_ (RAVAISSON). _"Auf

einer Schnittlinie zum Aufrichten"_ (LUDWIG). The explanation of
this puzzling expression must be sought in No. 545, lines 15-17.].
[Footnote: See Pl. XXXI. 3. The second sketch, which in the plate is
incomplete, is here reproduced and completed from the original to
illustrate the text. In the original the larger diagram is placed
between lines 5 and 6.
1. 2. C. A. 157a; 463a has the similar heading: '_del cressciere

della figura_', and the text begins: "_Se voli fare 1a figura
grande_ b c" but here it breaks off. The translation here given
renders the meaning of the passage as I think it must be understood.
The MS. is perfectly legible and the construction of the sentence is
simple and clear; difficulties can only arise from the very fullness
of the meaning, particularly towards the end of the passage.]
527.
If you would to draw a cube in an angle of a wall, first draw the

object in its own proper shape and raise it onto a vertical plane
until it resembles the angle in which the said object is to be
represented.
528.
Why are paintings seen more correctly in a mirror than out of it?
529.
HOW THE MIRROR IS THE MASTER [AND GUIDE] OF PAINTERS.
When you want to see if your picture corresponds throughout with the
objects you have drawn from nature, take a mirror and look in that
at the reflection of the real things, and compare the reflected
image with your picture, and consider whether the subject of the two
images duly corresponds in both, particularly studying the mirror.

You should take the mirror for your guide--that is to say a flat
mirror--because on its surface the objects appear in many respects
as in a painting. Thus you see, in a painting done on a flat
surface, objects which appear in relief, and in the mirror--also a
flat surface--they look the same. The picture has one plane surface
and the same with the mirror. The picture is intangible, in so far
as that which appears round and prominent cannot be grasped in the
hands; and it is the same with the mirror. And since you can see
that the mirror, by means of outlines, shadows and lights, makes
objects appear in relief, you, who have in your colours far stronger
lights and shades than those in the mirror, can certainly, if you
compose your picture well, make that also look like a natural scene
reflected in a large mirror.
[Footnote: I understand the concluding lines of this passage as

follows: If you draw the upper half a figure on a large sheet of
paper laid out on the floor of a room (_sala be piana_) to the same
scale (_con le sue vere grosseze_) as the lower half, already drawn
upon the wall (lines 10, 11)you must then reduce them on a '_pariete
di rilievo_,' a curved vertical plane which serves as a model to
reproduce the form of the vault.]
530.
OF JUDGING YOUR OWN PICTURES.
We know very well that errors are better recognised in the works of
others than in our own; and that often, while reproving little
faults in others, you may ignore great ones in yourself. To avoid
such ignorance, in the first place make yourself a master of
perspective, then acquire perfect knowledge of the proportions of
men and other animals, and also, study good architecture, that is so
far as concerns the forms of buildings and other objects which are
on the face of the earth; these forms are infinite, and the better
you know them the more admirable will your work be. And in cases
where you lack experience do not shrink from drawing them from
nature. But, to carry out my promise above [in the title]--I say
that when you paint you should have a flat mirror and often look at
your work as reflected in it, when you will see it reversed, and it
will appear to you like some other painter's work, so you will be
better able to judge of its faults than in any other way. Again, it
is well that you should often leave off work and take a little
relaxation, because, when you come back to it you are a better

judge; for sitting too close at work may greatly deceive you. Again,
it is good to retire to a distance because the work looks smaller
and your eye takes in more of it at a glance and sees more easily
the discords or disproportion in the limbs and colours of the
objects.
On the management of works (531. 532).
531.
OF A METHOD OF LEARNING WELL BY HEART.
When you want to know a thing you have studied in your memory
proceed in this way: When you have drawn the same thing so many
times that you think you know it by heart, test it by drawing it
without the model; but have the model traced on flat thin glass and
lay this on the drawing you have made without the model, and note
carefully where the tracing does not coincide with your drawing, and
where you find you have gone wrong; and bear in mind not to repeat
the same mistakes. Then return to the model, and draw the part in
which you were wrong again and again till you have it well in your
mind. If you have no flat glass for tracing on, take some very thin
kidts-kin parchment, well oiled and dried. And when you have used it
for one drawing you can wash it clean with a sponge and make a
second.
532.
THAT A PAINTER OUGHT TO BE CURIOUS TO HEAR THE OPINIONS OF EVERY ONE

ON HIS WORK.
Certainly while a man is painting he ought not to shrink from

hearing every opinion. For we know very well that a man, though he
may not be a painter, is familiar with the forms of other men and
very capable of judging whether they are hump backed, or have one
shoulder higher or lower than the other, or too big a mouth or nose,
and other defects; and, as we know that men are competent to judge
of the works of nature, how much more ought we to admit that they
can judge of our errors; since you know how much a man may be
deceived in his own work. And if you are not conscious of this in
yourself study it in others and profit by their faults. Therefore be
curious to hear with patience the opinions of others, consider and
weigh well whether those who find fault have ground or not for

blame, and, if so amend; but, if not make as though you had not
heard, or if he should be a man you esteem show him by argument the
cause of his mistake.
On the limitations of painting (533-535)
533.
HOW IN SMALL OBJECTS ERRORS ARE LESS EVIDENT THAN IN LARGE ONES.
In objects of minute size the extent of error is not so perceptible

as in large ones; and the reason is that if this small object is a
representation of a man or of some other animal, from the immense
diminution the details cannot be worked out by the artist with the
finish that is requisite. Hence it is not actually complete; and,
not being complete, its faults cannot be determined. For instance:
Look at a man at a distance of 300 braccia and judge attentively
whether he be handsome or ugly, or very remarkable or of ordinary
appearance. You will find that with the utmost effort you cannot
persuade yourself to decide. And the reason is that at such a
distance the man is so much diminished that the character of the
details cannot be determined. And if you wish to see how much this
man is diminished [by distance] hold one of your fingers at a span's
distance from your eye, and raise or lower it till the top joint
touches the feet of the figure you are looking at, and you will see
an incredible reduction. For this reason we often doubt as to the
person of a friend at a distance.
534.
WHY A PAINTING CAN NEVER APPEAR DETACHED AS NATURAL OBJECTS DO.
Painters often fall into despair of imitating nature when they see
their pictures fail in that relief and vividness which objects have
that are seen in a mirror; while they allege that they have colours
which for brightness or depth far exceed the strength of light and
shade in the reflections in the mirror, thus displaying their own
ignorance rather than the real cause, because they do not know it.
It is impossible that painted objects should appear in such relief
as to resemble those reflected in the mirror, although both are seen
on a flat surface, unless they are seen with only one eye; and the
reason is that two eyes see one object behind another as _a_ and _b_
see _m_ and _n_. _m_ cannot exactly occupy [the space of] _n_

because the base of the visual lines is so broad that the second
body is seen beyond the first. But if you close one eye, as at _s_
the body _f_ will conceal _r_, because the line of sight proceeds
from a single point and makes its base in the first body, whence the
second, of the same size, can never be seen.
[Footnote: This passage contains the solution of the problem

proposed in No. 29, lines 10-14. Leonardo was evidently familiar
with the law of optics on which the construction of the stereoscope
depends. Compare E. VON BRUCKE, _Bruchstucke aus der Theorie der
bildenden Kunste_, pg. 69: "_Schon Leonardo da Vinci wusste, dass
ein noch so gut gemaltes Bild nie den vollen Eindruck der
Korperlichkeit geben kann, wie ihn die Natur selbst giebt. Er
erklart dies auch in Kap. LIII und Kap. CCCXLI_ (ed. DU FRESNE)
_des_ 'Trattato' _in sachgemasser Weise aus dem Sehen mit beiden
Augen_."
Chap. 53 of DU FRESNE'S edition corresponds to No. 534 of this

work.]
535.
WHY OF TWO OBJECTS OF EQUAL SIZE A PAINTED ONE WILL LOOK LARGER THAN
A SOLID ONE.
The reason of this is not so easy to demonstrate as many others.

Still I will endeavour to accomplish it, if not wholly, at any rate
in part. The perspective of diminution demonstrates by reason, that
objects diminish in proportion as they are farther from the eye, and
this reasoning is confirmed by experience. Hence, the lines of sight
that extend between the object and the eye, when they are directed
to the surface of a painting are all intersected at uniform limits,
while those lines which are directed towards a piece of sculpture
are intersected at various limits and are of various lengths. The
lines which are longest extend to a more remote limb than the others
and therefore that limb looks smaller. As there are numerous lines
each longer than the others--since there are numerous parts, each
more remote than the others and these, being farther off,
necessarily appear smaller, and by appearing smaller it follows that
their diminution makes the whole mass of the object look smaller.
But this does not occur in painting; since the lines of sight all
end at the same distance there can be no diminution, hence the parts
not being diminished the whole object is undiminished, and for this

reason painting does not diminish, as a piece of sculpture does.
On the choice of a position (536-537)
536.
HOW HIGH THE POINT OF SIGHT SHOULD BE PLACED.
The point of sight must be at the level of the eye of an ordinary

man, and the farthest limit of the plain where it touches the sky
must be placed at the level of that line where the earth and sky
meet; excepting mountains, which are independent of it.
537.
OF THE WAY TO DRAW FIGURES FOR HISTORICAL PICTURES.
The painter must always study on the wall on which he is to picture

a story the height of the position where he wishes to arrange his
figures; and when drawing his studies for them from nature he must
place himself with his eye as much below the object he is drawing
as, in the picture, it will have to be above the eye of the
spectator. Otherwise the work will look wrong.
The apparent size of figures in a picture (538-539)
538.
OF PLACING A FIGURE IN THE FOREGROUND OF A HISTORICAL PICTURE.
You must make the foremost figure in the picture less than the size
of nature in proportion to the number of braccia at which you place
it from the front line, and make the others in proportion by the
above rule.
539.
PERSPECTIVE.
You are asked, O Painter, why the figures you draw on a small scale
according to the laws of perspective do not appear--notwithstanding
the demonstration of distance--as large as real ones--their height
being the same as in those painted on the wall.

And why [painted] objects seen at a small distance appear larger

than the real ones?
The right position of the artist, when painting, and of the

spectator (540-547)
540.
OF PAINTING.
When you draw from nature stand at a distance of 3 times the height
of the object you wish to draw.
541.
OF DRAWING FROM RELIEF.
In drawing from the round the draughtsman should so place himself

that the eye of the figure he is drawing is on a level with his own.
This should be done with any head he may have to represent from
nature because, without exception, the figures or persons you meet
in the streets have their eyes on the same level as your own; and if
you place them higher or lower you will see that your drawing will
not be true.
542.
WHY GROUPS OF FIGURES ONE ABOVE ANOTHER ARE TO BE AVOIDED.
The universal practice which painters adopt on the walls of chapels

is greatly and reasonably to be condemned. Inasmuch as they
represent one historical subject on one level with a landscape and
buildings, and then go up a step and paint another, varying the
point [of sight], and then a third and a fourth, in such a way as
that on one wall there are 4 points of sight, which is supreme folly
in such painters. We know that the point of sight is opposite the
eye of the spectator of the scene; and if you would [have me] tell
you how to represent the life of a saint divided into several
pictures on one and the same wall, I answer that you must set out
the foreground with its point of sight on a level with the eye of
the spectator of the scene, and upon this plane represent the more
important part of the story large and then, diminishing by degrees

the figures, and the buildings on various hills and open spaces, you
can represent all the events of the history. And on the remainder of
the wall up to the top put trees, large as compared with the
figures, or angels if they are appropriate to the story, or birds or
clouds or similar objects; otherwise do not trouble yourself with it
for your whole work will be wrong.
543.
A PICTURE OF OBJECTS IN PERSPECTIVE WILL LOOK MORE LIFELIKE WHEN

SEEN FROM THE POINT FROM WHICH THE OBJECTS WERE DRAWN.
If you want to represent an object near to you which is to have the

effect of nature, it is impossible that your perspective should not
look wrong, with every false relation and disagreement of proportion
that can be imagined in a wretched work, unless the spectator, when
he looks at it, has his eye at the very distance and height and
direction where the eye or the point of sight was placed in doing
this perspective. Hence it would be necessary to make a window, or
rather a hole, of the size of your face through which you can look
at the work; and if you do this, beyond all doubt your work, if it
is correct as to light and shade, will have the effect of nature;
nay you will hardly persuade yourself that those objects are
painted; otherwise do not trouble yourself about it, unless indeed
you make your view at least 20 times as far off as the greatest
width or height of the objects represented, and this will satisfy
any spectator placed anywhere opposite to the picture.
If you want the proof briefly shown, take a piece of wood in the
form of a little column, eight times as high as it is thick, like a
column without any plinth or capital; then mark off on a flat wall
40 equal spaces, equal to its width so that between them they make
40 columns resembling your little column; you then must fix,
opposite the centre space, and at 4 braccia from the wall, a thin
strip of iron with a small round hole in the middle about as large
as a big pearl. Close to this hole place a light touching it. Then
place your column against each mark on the wall and draw the outline
of its shadow; afterwards shade it and look through the hole in the
iron plate.
[Footnote: In the original there is a wide space between lines 3 and

4 in which we find two sketches not belonging to the text. It is
unnecessary to give prominence to the points in which my reading

differs from that of M. RAVAISSON or to justify myself, since they

are all of secondary importance and can also be immediately verified
from the photograph facsimile in his edition.]
544.
A diminished object should be seen from the same distance, height

and direction as the point of sight of your eye, or else your
knowledge will produce no good effect.
And if you will not, or cannot, act on this principle--because as

the plane on which you paint is to be seen by several persons you
would need several points of sight which would make it look
discordant and wrong--place yourself at a distance of at least 10
times the size of the objects.
The lesser fault you can fall into then, will be that of
representing all the objects in the foreground of their proper size,
and on whichever side you are standing the objects thus seen will
diminish themselves while the spaces between them will have no
definite ratio. For, if you place yourself in the middle of a
straight row [of objects], and look at several columns arranged in a
line you will see, beyond a few columns separated by intervals, that
the columns touch; and beyond where they touch they cover each
other, till the last column projects but very little beyond the last
but one. Thus the spaces between the columns are by degrees entirely
lost. So, if your method of perspective is good, it will produce the
same effect; this effect results from standing near the line in
which the columns are placed. This method is not satisfactory unless
the objects seen are viewed from a small hole, in the middle of
which is your point of sight; but if you proceed thus your work will
be perfect and will deceive the beholder, who will see the columns
as they are here figured.
Here the eye is in the middle, at the point _a_ and near to the
columns.
[Footnote: The diagram which stands above this chapter in the

original with the note belonging to it: "a b _e la ripruova_" (_a b_
is the proof) has obviously no connection with the text. The second
sketch alone is reproduced and stands in the original between lines
22 and 23.]

545.
If you cannot arrange that those who look at your work should stand
at one particular point, when constructing your work, stand back
until your eye is at least 20 times as far off as the greatest
height and width of your work. This will make so little difference
when the eye of the spectator moves, that it will be hardly
appreciable, and it will look very good.
If the point of sight is at _t_ you would make the figures on the
circle _d b e_ all of one size, as each of them bears the same
relation to the point _t_. But consider the diagram given below and
you will see that this is wrong, and why I shall make _b_ smaller
than _d e_ [Footnote 8: The second diagram of this chapter stands in
the original between lines 8 and 9.].
It is easy to understand that if 2 objects equal to each other are

placed side by side the one at 3 braccia distance looks smaller than
that placed at 2 braccia. This however is rather theoretical than
for practice, because you stand close by [Footnote 11: Instead of
'_se preso_' (=_sie presso_) M. RAVAISSON reads '_sempre se_' which
gives rise to the unmeaning rendering: '_parceque toujours_ ...'].
All the objects in the foreground, whether large or small, are to be

drawn of their proper size, and if you see them from a distance they
will appear just as they ought, and if you see them close they will
diminish of themselves.
[Footnote 15: Compare No. 526 line 18.] Take care that the vertical
plan on which you work out the perspective of the objects seen is of
the same form as the wall on which the work is to be executed.
546.
OF PAINTING.
The size of the figures represented ought to show you the distance
they are seen from. If you see a figure as large as nature you know
it appears to be close to the eye.
547.
WHERE A SPECTATOR SHOULD STAND TO LOOK AT A PICTURE.

Supposing _a b_ to be the picture and _d_ to be the light, I say

that if you place yourself between _c_ and _e_ you will not
understand the picture well and particularly if it is done in oils,
or still more if it is varnished, because it will be lustrous and
somewhat of the nature of a mirror. And for this reason the nearer
you go towards the point _c_, the less you will see, because the
rays of light falling from the window on the picture are reflected
to that point. But if you place yourself between _e_ and _d_ you
will get a good view of it, and the more so as you approach the
point _d_, because that spot is least exposed to these reflected
rays of light.
III.
THE PRACTICAL METHODS OF LIGHT AND SHADE AND AERIAL PERSPECTIVE.
Gradations of light and shade.
548.
OF PAINTING: OF THE DARKNESS OF THE SHADOWS, OR I MAY SAY, THE

BRIGHTNESS OF THE LIGHTS.
Although practical painters attribute to all shaded objects--trees,

fields, hair, beards and skin--four degrees of darkness in each
colour they use: that is to say first a dark foundation, secondly a
spot of colour somewhat resembling the form of the details, thirdly
a somewhat brighter and more defined portion, fourthly the lights
which are more conspicuous than other parts of the figure; still to
me it appears that these gradations are infinite upon a continuous
surface which is in itself infinitely divisible, and I prove it
thus:--[Footnote 7: See Pl. XXXI, No. 1; the two upper sketches.]
Let _a g_ be a continuous surface and let _d_ be the light which
illuminates it; I say--by the 4th [proposition] which says that that
side of an illuminated body is most highly lighted which is nearest
to the source of light--that therefore _g_ must be darker than _c_
in proportion as the line _d g_ is longer than the line _d c_, and
consequently that these gradations of light--or rather of shadow,
are not 4 only, but may be conceived of as infinite, because _c d_
is a continuous surface and every continuous surface is infinitely
divisible; hence the varieties in the length of lines extending
between the light and the illuminated object are infinite, and the

proportion of the light will be the same as that of the length of

the lines between them; extending from the centre of the luminous
body to the surface of the illuminated object.
On the choice of light for a picture (549-554).
549.
HOW THE PAINTER MUST PLACE HIMSELF WITH REFERENCE TO THE LIGHT, TO
GIVE THE EFFECT OF RELIEF.
Let _a b_ be the window, _m_ the point of light. I say that on

whichever side the painter places himself he will be well placed if
only his eye is between the shaded and the illuminated portions of
the object he is drawing; and this place you will find by putting
yourself between the point _m_ and the division between the shadow
and the light on the object to be drawn.
550.
THAT SHADOWS CAST BY A PARTICULAR LIGHT SHOULD BE AVOIDED, BECAUSE

THEY ARE EQUALLY STRONG AT THE ENDS AND AT THE BEGINNING.
The shadows cast by the sun or any other particular light have not a
pleasing effect on the body to which they belong, because the parts
remain confuse, being divided by distinct outlines of light and
shade. And the shadows are of equal strength at the end and at the
beginning.
551.
HOW LIGHT SHOULD BE THROWN UPON FIGURES.
The light must be arranged in accordance with the natural conditions

under which you wish to represent your figures: that is, if you
represent them in the sunshine make the shadows dark with large
spaces of light, and mark their shadows and those of all the
surrounding objects strongly on the ground. And if you represent
them as in dull weather give little difference of light and shade,
without any shadows at their feet. If you represent them as within
doors, make a strong difference between the lights and shadows, with
shadows on the ground. If the window is screened and the walls
white, there will be little difference of light. If it is lighted by

firelight make the high lights ruddy and strong, and the shadows
dark, and those cast on the walls and on the floor will be clearly
defined and the farther they are from the body the broader and
longer will they be. If the light is partly from the fire and partly
from the outer day, that of day will be the stronger and that of the
fire almost as red as fire itself. Above all see that the figures
you paint are broadly lighted and from above, that is to say all
living persons that you paint; for you will see that all the people
you meet out in the street are lighted from above, and you must know
that if you saw your most intimate friend with a light [on his face]
from below you would find it difficult to recognise him.
552.
OF HELPING THE APPARENT RELIEF OF A PICTURE BY GIVING IT ARTIFICIAL

LIGHT AND SHADE.
To increase relief of a picture you may place, between your figure

and the solid object on which its shadow falls, a line of bright
light, dividing the figure from the object in shadow. And on the
same object you shall represent two light parts which will surround
the shadow cast upon the wall by the figure placed opposite [6]; and
do this frequently with the limbs which you wish should stand out
somewhat from the body they belong to; particularly when the arms
cross the front of the breast show, between the shadow cast by the
arms on the breast and the shadow on the arms themselves, a little
light seeming to fall through a space between the breast and the
arms; and the more you wish the arm to look detached from the breast
the broader you must make the light; always contrive also to arrange
the figures against the background in such a way as that the parts
in shadow are against a light background and the illuminated
portions against a dark background.
[Footnote 6: Compare the two diagrams under No. 565.]
553.
OF SITUATION.
Remember [to note] the situation of your figures; for the light and
shade will be one thing if the object is in a dark place with a
particular light, and another thing if it is in a light place with
direct sunlight; one thing in a dark place with a diffused evening

light or a cloudy sky, and another in the diffused light of the

atmosphere lighted by the sun.
554.
OF THE JUDGMENT TO BE MADE OF A PAINTER'S WORK.
First you must consider whether the figures have the relief required
by their situation and the light which illuminates them; for the
shadows should not be the same at the extreme ends of the
composition as in the middle, because it is one thing when figures
are surrounded by shadows and another when they have shadows only on
one side. Those which are in the middle of the picture are
surrounded by shadows, because they are shaded by the figures which
stand between them and the light. And those are lighted on one side
only which stand between the principal group and the light, because
where they do not look towards the light they face the group and the
darkness of the group is thrown on them: and where they do not face
the group they face the brilliant light and it is their own darkness
shadowing them, which appears there.
In the second place observe the distribution or arrangement of

figures, and whether they are distributed appropriately to the
circumstances of the story. Thirdly, whether the figures are
actively intent on their particular business.
555.
OF THE TREATMENT OF THE LIGHTS.
First give a general shadow to the whole of that extended part which
is away from the light. Then put in the half shadows and the strong
shadows, comparing them with each other and, in the same way give
the extended light in half tint, afterwards adding the half lights
and the high lights, likewise comparing them together.
The distribution of light and shade (556-559)
556.
OF SHADOWS ON BODIES.
When you represent the dark shadows in bodies in light and shade,

always show the cause of the shadow, and the same with reflections;
because the dark shadows are produced by dark objects and the
reflections by objects only moderately lighted, that is with
diminished light. And there is the same proportion between the
highly lighted part of a body and the part lighted by a reflection
as between the origin of the lights on the body and the origin of
the reflections.
557.
OF LIGHTS AND SHADOWS.
I must remind you to take care that every portion of a body, and
every smallest detail which is ever so little in relief, must be
given its proper importance as to light and shade.
558.
OF THE WAY TO MAKE THE SHADOW ON FIGURES CORRESPOND TO THE LIGHT AND
TO [THE COLOUR] OF THE BODY.
When you draw a figure and you wish to see whether the shadow is the
proper complement to the light, and neither redder nor yellower than
is the nature of the colour you wish to represent in shade, proceed
thus. Cast a shadow with your finger on the illuminated portion, and
if the accidental shadow that you have made is like the natural
shadow cast by your finger on your work, well and good; and by
putting your finger nearer or farther off, you can make darker or
lighter shadows, which you must compare with your own.
559.
OF SURROUNDING BODIES BY VARIOUS FORMS OF SHADOW.
Take care that the shadows cast upon the surface of the bodies by
different objects must undulate according to the various curves of
the limbs which cast the shadows, and of the objects on which they
are cast.
The juxtaposition of light and shade (560, 561).
560.

ON PAINTING.
The comparison of the various qualities of shadows and lights not

infrequently seems ambiguous and confused to the painter who desires
to imitate and copy the objects he sees. The reason is this: If you
see a white drapery side by side with a black one, that part of the
white drapery which lies against the black one will certainly look
much whiter than the part which lies against something whiter than
itself. [Footnote: It is evident from this that so early as in 1492
Leonardo's writing in perspective was so far advanced that he could
quote his own statements.--As bearing on this subject compare what
is said in No. 280.] And the reason of this is shown in my [book on]
perspective.
561.
OF SHADOWS.
Where a shadow ends in the light, note carefully where it is paler

or deeper and where it is more or less indistinct towards the light;
and, above all, in [painting] youthful figures I remind you not to
make the shadow end like a stone, because flesh has a certain
transparency, as may be seen by looking at a hand held between the
eye and the sun, which shines through it ruddy and bright. Place the
most highly coloured part between the light and shadow. And to see
what shadow tint is needed on the flesh, cast a shadow on it with
your finger, and according as you wish to see it lighter or darker
hold your finger nearer to or farther from your picture, and copy
that [shadow].
On the lighting of the background (562-565).
562.
OF THE BACKGROUNDS FOR PAINTED FIGURES.
The ground which surrounds the forms of any object you paint should
be darker than the high lights of those figures, and lighter than
their shadowed part: &c.
563.
OF THE BACKGROUND THAT THE PAINTER SHOULD ADOPT IN HIS WORKS.

Since experience shows us that all bodies are surrounded by light

and shade it is necessary that you, O Painter, should so arrange
that the side which is in light shall terminate against a dark body
and likewise that the shadow side shall terminate against a light
body. And by [following] this rule you will add greatly to the
relief of your figures.
564.
A most important part of painting consists in the backgrounds of the

objects represented; against these backgrounds the outlines of
those natural objects which are convex are always visible, and also
the forms of these bodies against the background, even though the
colours of the bodies should be the same as that of the background.
This is caused by the convex edges of the objects not being
illuminated in the same way as, by the same light, the background is
illuminated, since these edges will often be lighter or darker than
the background. But if the edge is of the same colour as the
background, beyond a doubt it will in that part of the picture
interfere with your perception of the outline, and such a choice in
a picture ought to be rejected by the judgment of good painters,
inasmuch as the purpose of the painter is to make his figures appear
detached from the background; while in the case here described the
contrary occurs, not only in the picture, but in the objects
themselves.
565.
That you ought, when representing objects above the eye and on one
side--if you wish them to look detached from the wall--to show,
between the shadow on the object and the shadow it casts a middle
light, so that the body will appear to stand away from the wall.
On the lighting of white objects.
566.
HOW WHITE BODIES SHOULD BE REPRESENTED.
If you are representing a white body let it be surrounded by ample

space, because as white has no colour of its own, it is tinged and
altered in some degree by the colour of the objects surrounding it.

If you see a woman dressed in white in the midst of a landscape,

that side which is towards the sun is bright in colour, so much so
that in some portions it will dazzle the eyes like the sun itself;
and the side which is towards the atmosphere,--luminous through
being interwoven with the sun's rays and penetrated by them--since
the atmosphere itself is blue, that side of the woman's figure will
appear steeped in blue. If the surface of the ground about her be
meadows and if she be standing between a field lighted up by the sun
and the sun itself, you will see every portion of those folds which
are towards the meadow tinged by the reflected rays with the colour
of that meadow. Thus the white is transmuted into the colours of the
luminous and of the non-luminous objects near it.
The methods of aerial (567--570).
567.
WHY FACES [SEEN] AT A DISTANCE LOOK DARK.
We see quite plainly that all the images of visible objects that lie
before us, whether large or small, reach our sense by the minute
aperture of the eye; and if, through so small a passage the image
can pass of the vast extent of sky and earth, the face of a
man--being by comparison with such large images almost nothing by
reason of the distance which diminishes it,--fills up so little of
the eye that it is indistinguishable. Having, also, to be
transmitted from the surface to the sense through a dark medium,
that is to say the crystalline lens which looks dark, this image,
not being strong in colour becomes affected by this darkness on its
passage, and on reaching the sense it appears dark; no other reason
can in any way be assigned. If the point in the eye is black, it is
because it is full of a transparent humour as clear as air and acts
like a perforation in a board; on looking into it it appears dark
and the objects seen through the bright air and a dark one become
confused in this darkness.
WHY A MAN SEEN AT A CERTAIN DISTANCE IS NOT RECOGNISABLE.
The perspective of diminution shows us that the farther away an

object is the smaller it looks. If you look at a man at a distance
from you of an arrow's flight, and hold the eye of a small needle
close to your own eye, you can see through it several men whose
images are transmitted to the eye and will all be comprised within

the size of the needle's eye; hence, if the man who is at the
distance of an arrow's flight can send his whole image to your eye,
occupying only a small space in the needle's eye how can you
[expect] in so small a figure to distinguish or see the nose or
mouth or any detail of his person? and, not seeing these you cannot
recognise the man, since these features, which he does not show, are
what give men different aspects.
568.
THE REASON WHY SMALL FIGURES SHOULD NOT BE MADE FINISHED.
I say that the reason that objects appear diminished in size is

because they are remote from the eye; this being the case it is
evident that there must be a great extent of atmosphere between the
eye and the objects, and this air interferes with the distinctness
of the forms of the object. Hence the minute details of these
objects will be indistinguishable and unrecognisable. Therefore, O
Painter, make your smaller figures merely indicated and not highly
finished, otherwise you will produce effects the opposite to nature,
your supreme guide. The object is small by reason of the great
distance between it and the eye, this great distance is filled with
air, that mass of air forms a dense body which intervenes and
prevents the eye seeing the minute details of objects.
569.
Whenever a figure is placed at a considerable distance you lose

first the distinctness of the smallest parts; while the larger parts
are left to the last, losing all distinctness of detail and outline;
and what remains is an oval or spherical figure with confused edges.
570.
OF PAINTING.
The density of a body of smoke looks white below the horizon while
above the horizon it is dark, even if the smoke is in itself of a
uniform colour, this uniformity will vary according to the variety
in the ground on which it is seen.
IV.

OF PORTRAIT AND FIGURE PAINTING.
Of sketching figures and portraits (571-572).
571.
OF THE WAY TO LEARN TO COMPOSE FIGURES [IN GROUPS] IN HISTORICAL

PICTURES.
When you have well learnt perspective and have by heart the parts
and forms of objects, you must go about, and constantly, as you go,
observe, note and consider the circumstances and behaviour of men in
talking, quarrelling or laughing or fighting together: the action of
the men themselves and the actions of the bystanders, who separate
them or who look on. And take a note of them with slight strokes
thus, in a little book which you should always carry with you. And
it should be of tinted paper, that it may not be rubbed out, but
change the old [when full] for a new one; since these things should
not be rubbed out but preserved with great care; for the forms, and
positions of objects are so infinite that the memory is incapable of
retaining them, wherefore keep these [sketches] as your guides and
masters.
[Footnote: Among Leonardo's numerous note books of pocket size not

one has coloured paper, so no sketches answering to this description
can be pointed out. The fact that most of the notes are written in
ink, militates against the supposition that they were made in the
open air.]
572.
OF A METHOD OF KEEPING IN MIND THE FORM OF A FACE.
If you want to acquire facility for bearing in mind the expression

of a face, first make yourself familiar with a variety of [forms of]
several heads, eyes, noses, mouths, chins and cheeks and necks and
shoulders: And to put a case: Noses are of 10 types: straight,
bulbous, hollow, prominent above or below the middle, aquiline,
regular, flat, round or pointed. These hold good as to profile. In
full face they are of 11 types; these are equal thick in the middle,
thin in the middle, with the tip thick and the root narrow, or
narrow at the tip and wide at the root; with the nostrils wide or
narrow, high or low, and the openings wide or hidden by the point;

and you will find an equal variety in the other details; which
things you must draw from nature and fix them in your mind. Or else,
when you have to draw a face by heart, carry with you a little book
in which you have noted such features; and when you have cast a
glance at the face of the person you wish to draw, you can look, in
private, which nose or mouth is most like, or there make a little
mark to recognise it again at home. Of grotesque faces I need say
nothing, because they are kept in mind without difficulty.
The position of the head.
573.
HOW YOU SHOULD SET TO WORK TO DRAW A HEAD OF WHICH ALL THE PARTS
SHALL AGREE WITH THE POSITION GIVEN TO IT.
To draw a head in which the features shall agree with the turn and
bend of the head, pursue this method. You know that the eyes,
eyebrows, nostrils, corners of the mouth, and sides of the chin, the
jaws, cheeks, ears and all the parts of a face are squarely and
straightly set upon the face.
[Footnote: Compare the drawings and the text belonging to them on

Pl. IX. (No. 315), Pl. X (No. 316), Pl. XL (No. 318) and Pl. XII.
(No. 319).]
Therefore when you have sketched the face draw lines passing from
one corner of the eye to the other; and so for the placing of each
feature; and after having drawn the ends of the lines beyond the two
sides of the face, look if the spaces inside the same parallel lines
on the right and on the left are equal [12]. But be sure to remember
to make these lines tend to the point of sight.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXXI, No. 4, the slight sketch on the left hand
side. The text of this passage is written by the side of it. In this
sketch the lines seem intentionally incorrect and converging to the
right (compare I. 12) instead of parallel. Compare too with this
text the drawing in red chalk from Windsor Castle which is
reproduced on Pl. XL, No. 2.]
Of the light on the face (574-576).
574.

HOW TO KNOW WHICH SIDE OF AN OBJECT IS TO BE MORE OR LESS LUMINOUS

THAN THE OTHER.
Let _f_ be the light, the head will be the object illuminated by it
and that side of the head on which the rays fall most directly will
be the most highly lighted, and those parts on which the rays fall
most aslant will be less lighted. The light falls as a blow might,
since a blow which falls perpendicularly falls with the greatest
force, and when it falls obliquely it is less forcible than the
former in proportion to the width of the angle. _Exempli gratia_ if
you throw a ball at a wall of which the extremities are equally far
from you the blow will fall straight, and if you throw the ball at
the wall when standing at one end of it the ball will hit it
obliquely and the blow will not tell.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXXI. No. 4; the sketch on the right hand side.]
575.
THE PROOF AND REASON WHY AMONG THE ILLUMINATED PARTS CERTAIN
PORTIONS ARE IN HIGHER LIGHT THAN OTHERS.
Since it is proved that every definite light is, or seems to be,

derived from one single point the side illuminated by it will have
its highest light on the portion where the line of radiance falls
perpendicularly; as is shown above in the lines _a g_, and also in
_a h_ and in _l a_; and that portion of the illuminated side will be
least luminous, where the line of incidence strikes it between two
more dissimilar angles, as is seen at _b c d_. And by this means you
may also know which parts are deprived of light as is seen at _m k_.
Where the angles made by the lines of incidence are most equal there
will be the highest light, and where they are most unequal it will
be darkest.
I will make further mention of the reason of reflections.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXXII. The text, here given complete, is on the
right hand side. The small circles above the beginning of lines 5
and 11 as well as the circle above the text on Pl. XXXI, are in a
paler ink and evidently added by a later hand in order to
distinguish the text as belonging to the _Libro di Pittura_ (see

Prolegomena. No. 12, p. 3). The text on the left hand side of this
page is given as Nos. 577 and 137.]
576.
Where the shadow should be on the face.
General suggestions for historical pictures (577-581).
577.
When you compose a historical picture take two points, one the point
of sight, and the other the source of light; and make this as
distant as possible.
578.
Historical pictures ought not to be crowded and confused with too

many figures.
579.
PRECEPTS IN PAINTING.
Let you sketches of historical pictures be swift and the working out
of the limbs not be carried too far, but limited to the position of
the limbs, which you can afterwards finish as you please and at your
leisure.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXXVIII, No. 2. The pen and ink drawing given
there as No. 3 may also be compared with this passage. It is in the
Windsor collection where it is numbered 101.]
580.
The sorest misfortune is when your views are in advance of your

work.
581.
Of composing historical pictures. Of not considering the limbs in

the figures in historical pictures; as many do who, in the wish to
represent the whole of a figure, spoil their compositions. And when

you place one figure behind another take care to draw the whole of
it so that the limbs which come in front of the nearer figures may
stand out in their natural size and place.
How to represent the differences of age and sex (582-583).
582.
How the ages of man should be depicted: that is, Infancy, Childhood,
Youth, Manhood, Old age, Decrepitude.
[Footnote: No answer is here given to this question, in the original

MS.]
583.
Old men ought to be represented with slow and heavy movements, their
legs bent at the knees, when they stand still, and their feet placed
parallel and apart; bending low with the head leaning forward, and
their arms but little extended.
Women must be represented in modest attitudes, their legs close

together, their arms closely folded, their heads inclined and
somewhat on one side.
Old women should be represented with eager, swift and furious

gestures, like infernal furies; but the action should be more
violent in their arms and head than in their legs.
Little children, with lively and contorted movements when sitting,

and, when standing still, in shy and timid attitudes.
[Footnote: _bracci raccolte_. Compare Pl. XXXIII. This drawing, in

silver point on yellowish tinted paper, the lights heightened with
white, represents two female hands laid together in a lap. Above is
a third finished study of a right hand, apparently holding a veil
from the head across the bosom. This drawing evidently dates from
before 1500 and was very probably done at Florence, perhaps as a
preparatory study for some picture. The type of hand with its
slender thin forms is more like the style of the _Vierge aux
Rochers_ in the Louvre than any later works--as the Mona Lisa for
instance.]

Of representing the emotions.
584.
THAT A FIGURE IS NOT ADMIRABLE UNLESS IT EXPRESSES BY ITS ACTION THE

PASSION OF ITS SENTIMENT.
That figure is most admirable which by its actions best expresses

the passion that animates it.
HOW AN ANGRY MAN IS TO BE FIGURED.
You must make an angry person holding someone by the hair, wrenching
his head against the ground, and with one knee on his ribs; his
right arm and fist raised on high. His hair must be thrown up, his
brow downcast and knit, his teeth clenched and the two corners of
his mouth grimly set; his neck swelled and bent forward as he leans
over his foe, and full of furrows.
HOW TO REPRESENT A MAN IN DESPAIR.
You must show a man in despair with a knife, having already torn
open his garments, and with one hand tearing open the wound. And
make him standing on his feet and his legs somewhat bent and his
whole person leaning towards the earth; his hair flying in disorder.
Of representing imaginary animals.
585.
HOW YOU SHOULD MAKE AN IMAGINARY ANIMAL LOOK NATURAL.
You know that you cannot invent animals without limbs, each of
which, in itself, must resemble those of some other animal. Hence if
you wish to make an animal, imagined by you, appear natural--let us
say a Dragon, take for its head that of a mastiff or hound, with the
eyes of a cat, the ears of a porcupine, the nose of a greyhound, the
brow of a lion, the temples of an old cock, the neck of a water
tortoise.
[Footnote: The sketch here inserted of two men on horseback fighting

a dragon is the facsimile of a pen and ink drawing belonging to
BARON EDMOND DE ROTHSCHILD of Paris.]

The selection of forms.
586.
OF THE DELUSIONS WHICH ARISE IN JUDGING OF THE LIMBS.
A painter who has clumsy hands will paint similar hands in his
works, and the same will occur with any limb, unless long study has
taught him to avoid it. Therefore, O Painter, look carefully what
part is most ill-favoured in your own person and take particular
pains to correct it in your studies. For if you are coarse, your
figures will seem the same and devoid of charm; and it is the same
with any part that may be good or poor in yourself; it will be shown
in some degree in your figures.
587.
OF THE SELECTION OF BEAUTIFUL FACES.
It seems to me to be no small charm in a painter when he gives his

figures a pleasing air, and this grace, if he have it not by nature,
he may acquire by incidental study in this way: Look about you and
take the best parts of many beautiful faces, of which the beauty is
confirmed rather by public fame than by your own judgment; for you
might be mistaken and choose faces which have some resemblance to
your own. For it would seem that such resemblances often please us;
and if you should be ugly, you would select faces that were not
beautiful and you would then make ugly faces, as many painters do.
For often a master's work resembles himself. So select beauties as I
tell you, and fix them in your mind.
588.
Of the limbs, which ought to be carefully selected, and of all the

other parts with regard to painting.
589.
When selecting figures you should choose slender ones rather than
lean and wooden ones.
590.

OF THE MUSCLES OF ANIMALS.
The hollow spaces interposed between the muscles must not be of such
a character as that the skin should seem to cover two sticks laid
side by side like _c_, nor should they seem like two sticks somewhat
remote from such contact so that the skin hangs in an empty loose
curve as at _f_; but it should be like _i_, laid over the spongy fat
that lies in the angles as the angle _n m o_; which angle is formed
by the contact of the ends of the muscles and as the skin cannot
fold down into such an angle, nature has filled up such angles with
a small quantity of spongy and, as I may say, vesicular fat, with
minute bladders [in it] full of air, which is condensed or rarefied
in them according to the increase or the diminution of the substance
of the muscles; in which latter case the concavity _i_ always has a
larger curve than the muscle.
591.
OF UNDULATING MOVEMENTS AND EQUIPOISE IN FIGURES AND OTHER ANIMALS.
When representing a human figure or some graceful animal, be careful

to avoid a wooden stiffness; that is to say make them move with
equipoise and balance so as not to look like a piece of wood; but
those you want to represent as strong you must not make so,
excepting in the turn of the head.
How to pose figures.
592.
OF GRACE IN THE LIMBS.
The limbs should be adapted to the body with grace and with
reference to the effect that you wish the figure to produce. And if
you wish to produce a figure that shall of itself look light and
graceful you must make the limbs elegant and extended, and without
too much display of the muscles; and those few that are needed for
your purpose you must indicate softly, that is, not very prominent
and without strong shadows; the limbs, and particularly the arms
easy; that is, none of the limbs should be in a straight line with
the adjoining parts. And if the hips, which are the pole of a man,
are by reason of his position, placed so, that the right is higher

than the left, make the point of the higher shoulder in a

perpendicular line above the highest prominence of the hip, and let
this right shoulder be lower than the left. Let the pit of the
throat always be over the centre of the joint of the foot on which
the man is leaning. The leg which is free should have the knee lower
than the other, and near the other leg. The positions of the head
and arms are endless and I shall therefore not enlarge on any rules
for them. Still, let them be easy and pleasing, with various turns
and twists, and the joints gracefully bent, that they may not look
like pieces of wood.
Of appropriate gestures (593-600).
593.
A picture or representation of human figures, ought to be done in

such a way as that the spectator may easily recognise, by means of
their attitudes, the purpose in their minds. Thus, if you have to
represent a man of noble character in the act of speaking, let his
gestures be such as naturally accompany good words; and, in the same
way, if you wish to depict a man of a brutal nature, give him fierce
movements; as with his arms flung out towards the listener, and his
head and breast thrust forward beyond his feet, as if following the
speaker's hands. Thus it is with a deaf and dumb person who, when he
sees two men in conversation--although he is deprived of
hearing--can nevertheless understand, from the attitudes and
gestures of the speakers, the nature of their discussion. I once saw
in Florence a man who had become deaf who, when you spoke very loud
did not understand you, but if you spoke gently and without making
any sound, understood merely from the movement of the lips. Now
perhaps you will say that the lips of a man who speaks loudly do not
move like those of one speaking softly, and that if they were to
move them alike they would be alike understood. As to this argument,
I leave the decision to experiment; make a man speak to you gently
and note [the motion of] his lips.
[Footnote: The first ten lines of this text have already been
published, but with a slightly different reading by Dr. M. JORDAN:
_Das Malerbuch Leonardo da Vinci's_ p. 86.]
594.
OF REPRESENTING A MAN SPEAKING TO A MULTITUDE.

When you wish to represent a man speaking to a number of people,

consider the matter of which he has to treat and adapt his action to
the subject. Thus, if he speaks persuasively, let his action be
appropriate to it. If the matter in hand be to set forth an
argument, let the speaker, with the fingers of the right hand hold
one finger of the left hand, having the two smaller ones closed; and
his face alert, and turned towards the people with mouth a little
open, to look as though he spoke; and if he is sitting let him
appear as though about to rise, with his head forward. If you
represent him standing make him leaning slightly forward with body
and head towards the people. These you must represent as silent and
attentive, all looking at the orator's face with gestures of
admiration; and make some old men in astonishment at the things they
hear, with the corners of their mouths pulled down and drawn in,
their cheeks full of furrows, and their eyebrows raised, and
wrinkling the forehead where they meet. Again, some sitting with
their fingers clasped holding their weary knees. Again, some bent
old man, with one knee crossed over the other; on which let him hold
his hand with his other elbow resting in it and the hand supporting
his bearded chin.
[Footnote: The sketches introduced here are a facsimile of a pen and

ink drawing in the Louvre which Herr CARL BRUN considers as studies
for the Last Supper in the church of _Santa Maria delle Grazie_ (see
Leonardo da Vinci, LXI, pp. 21, 27 and 28 in DOHME'S _Kunst und
Kunstler_, Leipzig, Seemann). I shall not here enter into any
discussion of this suggestion; but as a justification for
introducing the drawing in this place, I may point out that some of
the figures illustrate this passage as perfectly as though they had
been drawn for that express purpose. I have discussed the
probability of a connection between this sketch and the picture of
the Last Supper on p. 335. The original drawing is 27 3/4
centimetres wide by 21 high.--The drawing in silver point on reddish
paper given on Pl. LII. No. 1--the original at Windsor Castle--may
also serve to illustrate the subject of appropriate gestures,
treated in Nos. 593 and 594.]
595.
OF THE DISPOSITION OF LIMBS.
As regards the disposition of limbs in movement you will have to

consider that when you wish to represent a man who, by some chance,
has to turn backwards or to one side, you must not make him move his
feet and all his limbs towards the side to which he turns his head.
Rather must you make the action proceed by degrees and through the
different joints; that is, those of the foot, the knee and the hip
and the neck. And if you set him on the right leg, you must make the
left knee bend inwards, and let his foot be slightly raised on the
outside, and the left shoulder be somewhat lower than the right,
while the nape of the neck is in a line directly over the outer
ancle of the left foot. And the left shoulder will be in a
perpendicular line above the toes of the right foot. And always set
your figures so that the side to which the head turns is not the
side to which the breast faces, since nature for our convenience has
made us with a neck which bends with ease in many directions, the
eye wishing to turn to various points, the different joints. And if
at any time you make a man sitting with his arms at work on
something which is sideways to him, make the upper part of his body
turn upon the hips.
[Footnote: Compare Pl. VII, No. 5. The original drawing at Windsor

Castle is numbered 104.]
596.
When you draw the nude always sketch the whole figure and then
finish those limbs which seem to you the best, but make them act
with the other limbs; otherwise you will get a habit of never
putting the limbs well together on the body.
Never make the head turn the same way as the torso, nor the arm and
leg move together on the same side. And if the face is turned to the
right shoulder, make all the parts lower on the left side than on
the right; and when you turn the body with the breast outwards, if
the head turns to the left side make the parts on the right side
higher than those on the left.
[Footnote: In the original MS. a much defaced sketch is to be seen

by the side of the second part of this chapter; its faded condition
has rendered reproduction impossible. In M. RAVAISSON'S facsimile
the outlines of the head have probably been touched up. This passage
however is fitly illustrated by the drawings on Pl. XXI.]
597.

OF PAINTING.
Of the nature of movements in man. Do not repeat the same gestures

in the limbs of men unless you are compelled by the necessity of
their action, as is shown in _a b_.
[Footnote: See Pl. V, where part of the text is also reproduced. The
effaced figure to the extreme left has evidently been cancelled by
Leonardo himself as unsatisfactory.]
598.
The motions of men must be such as suggest their dignity or their

baseness.
599.
OF PAINTING.
Make your work carry out your purpose and meaning. That is when you
draw a figure consider well who it is and what you wish it to be
doing.
OF PAINTING.
With regard to any action which you give in a picture to an old man
or to a young one, you must make it more energetic in the young man
in proportion as he is stronger than the old one; and in the same
way with a young man and an infant.
600.
OF SETTING ON THE LIMBS.
The limbs which are used for labour must be muscular and those which
are not much used you must make without muscles and softly rounded.
OF THE ACTION OF THE FIGURES.
Represent your figures in such action as may be fitted to express

what purpose is in the mind of each; otherwise your art will not be
admirable.

V.
SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS.
Of painting battle pieces (601-603).
601.
OF THE WAY OF REPRESENTING A BATTLE.
First you must represent the smoke of artillery mingling in the air
with the dust and tossed up by the movement of horses and the
combatants. And this mixture you must express thus: The dust, being
a thing of earth, has weight; and although from its fineness it is
easily tossed up and mingles with the air, it nevertheless readily
falls again. It is the finest part that rises highest; hence that
part will be least seen and will look almost of the same colour as
the air. The higher the smoke mixed with the dust-laden air rises
towards a certain level, the more it will look like a dark cloud;
and it will be seen that at the top, where the smoke is more
separate from the dust, the smoke will assume a bluish tinge and the
dust will tend to its colour. This mixture of air, smoke and dust
will look much lighter on the side whence the light comes than on
the opposite side. The more the combatants are in this turmoil the
less will they be seen, and the less contrast will there be in their
lights and shadows. Their faces and figures and their appearance,
and the musketeers as well as those near them you must make of a
glowing red. And this glow will diminish in proportion as it is
remote from its cause.
The figures which are between you and the light, if they be at a
distance, will appear dark on a light background, and the lower part
of their legs near the ground will be least visible, because there
the dust is coarsest and densest [19]. And if you introduce horses
galloping outside the crowd, make the little clouds of dust distant
from each other in proportion to the strides made by the horses; and
the clouds which are furthest removed from the horses, should be
least visible; make them high and spreading and thin, and the nearer
ones will be more conspicuous and smaller and denser [23]. The air
must be full of arrows in every direction, some shooting upwards,
some falling, some flying level. The balls from the guns must have a
train of smoke following their flight. The figures in the foreground

you must make with dust on the hair and eyebrows and on other flat
places likely to retain it. The conquerors you will make rushing
onwards with their hair and other light things flying on the wind,
with their brows bent down,
[Footnote: 19--23. Compare 608. 57--75.]
602.
and with the opposite limbs thrust forward; that is where a man puts
forward the right foot the left arm must be advanced. And if you
make any one fallen, you must show the place where he has slipped
and been dragged along the dust into blood stained mire; and in the
half-liquid earth arround show the print of the tramping of men and
horses who have passed that way. Make also a horse dragging the dead
body of his master, and leaving behind him, in the dust and mud, the
track where the body was dragged along. You must make the conquered
and beaten pale, their brows raised and knit, and the skin above
their brows furrowed with pain, the sides of the nose with wrinkles
going in an arch from the nostrils to the eyes, and make the
nostrils drawn up--which is the cause of the lines of which I
speak--, and the lips arched upwards and discovering the upper
teeth; and the teeth apart as with crying out and lamentation. And
make some one shielding his terrified eyes with one hand, the palm
towards the enemy, while the other rests on the ground to support
his half raised body. Others represent shouting with their mouths
open, and running away. You must scatter arms of all sorts among the
feet of the combatants, as broken shields, lances, broken swords and
other such objects. And you must make the dead partly or entirely
covered with dust, which is changed into crimson mire where it has
mingled with the flowing blood whose colour shows it issuing in a
sinuous stream from the corpse. Others must be represented in the
agonies of death grinding their teeth, rolling their eyes, with
their fists clenched against their bodies and their legs contorted.
Some might be shown disarmed and beaten down by the enemy, turning
upon the foe, with teeth and nails, to take an inhuman and bitter
revenge. You might see some riderless horse rushing among the enemy,
with his mane flying in the wind, and doing no little mischief with
his heels. Some maimed warrior may be seen fallen to the earth,
covering himself with his shield, while the enemy, bending over him,
tries to deal him a deathstroke. There again might be seen a number
of men fallen in a heap over a dead horse. You would see some of the
victors leaving the fight and issuing from the crowd, rubbing their

eyes and cheeks with both hands to clean them of the dirt made by
their watering eyes smarting from the dust and smoke. The reserves
may be seen standing, hopeful but cautious; with watchful eyes,
shading them with their hands and gazing through the dense and murky
confusion, attentive to the commands of their captain. The captain
himself, his staff raised, hurries towards these auxiliaries,
pointing to the spot where they are most needed. And there may be a
river into which horses are galloping, churning up the water all
round them into turbulent waves of foam and water, tossed into the
air and among the legs and bodies of the horses. And there must not
be a level spot that is not trampled with gore.
603.
OF LIGHTING THE LOWER PARTS OF BODIES CLOSE TOGETHER, AS OF MEN IN

BATTLE.
As to men and horses represented in battle, their different parts

will be dark in proportion as they are nearer to the ground on which
they stand. And this is proved by the sides of wells which grow
darker in proportion to their depth, the reason of which is that the
deepest part of the well sees and receives a smaller amount of the
luminous atmosphere than any other part.
And the pavement, if it be of the same colour as the legs of these

said men and horses, will always be more lighted and at a more
direct angle than the said legs &c.
604.
OF THE WAY TO REPRESENT A NIGHT [SCENE].
That which is entirely bereft of light is all darkness; given a

night under these conditions and that you want to represent a night
scene,--arrange that there shall be a great fire, then the objects
which are nearest to this fire will be most tinged with its colour;
for those objects which are nearest to a coloured light participate
most in its nature; as therefore you give the fire a red colour, you
must make all the objects illuminated by it ruddy; while those which
are farther from the fire are more tinted by the black hue of night.
The figures which are seen against the fire look dark in the glare
of the firelight because that side of the objects which you see is
tinged by the darkness of the night and not by the fire; and those

who stand at the side are half dark and half red; while those who
are visible beyond the edges of the flame will be fully lighted by
the ruddy glow against a black background. As to their gestures,
make those which are near it screen themselves with their hands and
cloaks as a defence against the intense heat, and with their faces
turned away as if about to retire. Of those farther off represent
several as raising their hands to screen their eyes, hurt by the
intolerable glare.
Of depicting a tempest (605. 606).
605.
Describe a wind on land and at sea. Describe a storm of rain.
606.
HOW TO REPRESENT A TEMPEST.
If you wish to represent a tempest consider and arrange well its

effects as seen, when the wind, blowing over the face of the sea and
earth, removes and carries with it such things as are not fixed to
the general mass. And to represent the storm accurately you must
first show the clouds scattered and torn, and flying with the wind,
accompanied by clouds of sand blown up from the sea shore, and
boughs and leaves swept along by the strength and fury of the blast
and scattered with other light objects through the air. Trees and
plants must be bent to the ground, almost as if they would follow
the course of the gale, with their branches twisted out of their
natural growth and their leaves tossed and turned about [Footnote
11: See Pl. XL, No. 2.]. Of the men who are there some must have
fallen to the ground and be entangled in their garments, and hardly
to be recognized for the dust, while those who remain standing may
be behind some tree, with their arms round it that the wind may not
tear them away; others with their hands over their eyes for the
dust, bending to the ground with their clothes and hair streaming in
the wind. [Footnote 15: See Pl. XXXIV, the right hand lower sketch.]
Let the sea be rough and tempestuous and full of foam whirled among
the lofty waves, while the wind flings the lighter spray through the
stormy air, till it resembles a dense and swathing mist. Of the
ships that are therein some should be shown with rent sails and the
tatters fluttering through the air, with ropes broken and masts
split and fallen. And the ship itself lying in the trough of the sea

and wrecked by the fury of the waves with the men shrieking and
clinging to the fragments of the vessel. Make the clouds driven by
the impetuosity of the wind and flung against the lofty mountain
tops, and wreathed and torn like waves beating upon rocks; the air
itself terrible from the deep darkness caused by the dust and fog
and heavy clouds.
Of representing the deluge (607-609).
607.
TO REPRESENT THE DELUGE.
The air was darkened by the heavy rain whose oblique descent driven
aslant by the rush of the winds, flew in drifts through the air not
otherwise than as we see dust, varied only by the straight lines of
the heavy drops of falling water. But it was tinged with the colour
of the fire kindled by the thunder-bolts by which the clouds were
rent and shattered; and whose flashes revealed the broad waters of
the inundated valleys, above which was seen the verdure of the
bending tree tops. Neptune will be seen in the midst of the water
with his trident, and [15] let AEolus with his winds be shown
entangling the trees floating uprooted, and whirling in the huge
waves. The horizon and the whole hemisphere were obscure, but lurid
from the flashes of the incessant lightning. Men and birds might be
seen crowded on the tall trees which remained uncovered by the
swelling waters, originators of the mountains which surround the
great abysses [Footnote 23: Compare Vol. II. No. 979.].
608.
OF THE DELUGE AND HOW TO REPRESENT IT IN A PICTURE.
Let the dark and gloomy air be seen buffeted by the rush of contrary
winds and dense from the continued rain mingled with hail and
bearing hither and thither an infinite number of branches torn from
the trees and mixed with numberless leaves. All round may be seen
venerable trees, uprooted and stripped by the fury of the winds; and
fragments of mountains, already scoured bare by the torrents,
falling into those torrents and choking their valleys till the
swollen rivers overflow and submerge the wide lowlands and their
inhabitants. Again, you might have seen on many of the hill-tops
terrified animals of different kinds, collected together and subdued

to tameness, in company with men and women who had fled there with
their children. The waters which covered the fields, with their
waves were in great part strewn with tables, bedsteads, boats and
various other contrivances made from necessity and the fear of
death, on which were men and women with their children amid sounds
of lamentation and weeping, terrified by the fury of the winds which
with their tempestuous violence rolled the waters under and over and
about the bodies of the drowned. Nor was there any object lighter
than the water which was not covered with a variety of animals
which, having come to a truce, stood together in a frightened
crowd--among them wolves, foxes, snakes and others--fleing from
death. And all the waters dashing on their shores seemed to be
battling them with the blows of drowned bodies, blows which killed
those in whom any life remained [19]. You might have seen
assemblages of men who, with weapons in their hands, defended the
small spots that remained to them against lions, wolves and beasts
of prey who sought safety there. Ah! what dreadful noises were heard
in the air rent by the fury of the thunder and the lightnings it
flashed forth, which darted from the clouds dealing ruin and
striking all that opposed its course. Ah! how many you might have
seen closing their ears with their hands to shut out the tremendous
sounds made in the darkened air by the raging of the winds mingling
with the rain, the thunders of heaven and the fury of the
thunder-bolts. Others were not content with shutting their eyes, but
laid their hands one over the other to cover them the closer that
they might not see the cruel slaughter of the human race by the
wrath of God. Ah! how many laments! and how many in their terror
flung themselves from the rocks! Huge branches of great oaks loaded
with men were seen borne through the air by the impetuous fury of
the winds. How many were the boats upset, some entire, and some
broken in pieces, on the top of people labouring to escape with
gestures and actions of grief foretelling a fearful death. Others,
with desperate act, took their own lives, hopeless of being able to
endure such suffering; and of these, some flung themselves from
lofty rocks, others strangled themselves with their own hands, other
seized their own children and violently slew them at a blow; some
wounded and killed themselves with their own weapons; others,
falling on their knees recommended themselves to God. Ah! how many
mothers wept over their drowned sons, holding them upon their knees,
with arms raised spread out towards heaven and with words and
various threatening gestures, upbraiding the wrath of the gods.
Others with clasped hands and fingers clenched gnawed them and
devoured them till they bled, crouching with their breast down on

their knees in their intense and unbearable anguish. Herds of

animals were to be seen, such as horses, oxen, goats and swine
already environed by the waters and left isolated on the high peaks
of the mountains, huddled together, those in the middle climbing to
the top and treading on the others, and fighting fiercely
themselves; and many would die for lack of food. Already had the
birds begun to settle on men and on other animals, finding no land
uncovered which was not occupied by living beings, and already had
famine, the minister of death, taken the lives of the greater number
of the animals, when the dead bodies, now fermented, where leaving
the depth of the waters and were rising to the top. Among the
buffeting waves, where they were beating one against the other, and,
like as balls full of air, rebounded from the point of concussion,
these found a resting place on the bodies of the dead. And above
these judgements, the air was seen covered with dark clouds, riven
by the forked flashes of the raging bolts of heaven, lighting up on
all sides the depth of the gloom.
The motion of the air is seen by the motion of the dust thrown up by
the horse's running and this motion is as swift in again filling up
the vacuum left in the air which enclosed the horse, as he is rapid
in passing away from the air.
Perhaps it will seem to you that you may reproach me with having
represented the currents made through the air by the motion of the
wind notwithstanding that the wind itself is not visible in the air.
To this I must answer that it is not the motion of the wind but only
the motion of the things carried along by it which is seen in the
air.
THE DIVISIONS. [Footnote 76: These observations, added at the bottom

of the page containing the full description of the doluge seem to
indicate that it was Leonardo's intention to elaborate the subject
still farther in a separate treatise.]
Darkness, wind, tempest at sea, floods of water, forests on fire,

rain, bolts from heaven, earthquakes and ruins of mountains,
overthrow of cities [Footnote 81: _Spianamenti di citta_ (overthrow
of cities). A considerable number of drawings in black chalk, at
Windsor, illustrate this catastrophe. Most of them are much rubbed;
one of the least injured is reproduced at Pl. XXXIX. Compare also
the pen and ink sketch Pl. XXXVI.].

Whirlwinds which carry water [spouts] branches of trees, and men

through the air.
Boughs stripped off by the winds, mingling by the meeting of the

winds, with people upon them.
Broken trees loaded with people.
Ships broken to pieces, beaten on rocks.
Flocks of sheep. Hail stones, thunderbolts, whirlwinds.
People on trees which are unable to to support them; trees and

rocks, towers and hills covered with people, boats, tables, troughs,
and other means of floating. Hills covered with men, women and
animals; and lightning from the clouds illuminating every thing.
[Footnote: This chapter, which, with the next one, is written on a

loose sheet, seems to be the passage to which one of the compilers
of the Vatican copy alluded when he wrote on the margin of fol. 36:
"_Qua mi ricordo della mirabile discritione del Diluuio dello
autore._" It is scarcely necessary to point out that these chapters
are among those which have never before been published. The
description in No. 607 may be regarded as a preliminary sketch for
this one. As the MS. G. (in which it is to be found) must be
attributed to the period of about 1515 we may deduce from it the
approximate date of the drawings on Pl. XXXIV, XXXV, Nos. 2 and 3,
XXXVI and XXXVII, since they obviously belong to this text. The
drawings No. 2 on Pl. XXXV are, in the original, side by side with
the text of No. 608; lines 57 to 76 are shown in the facsimile. In
the drawing in Indian ink given on Pl. XXXIV we see Wind-gods in the
sky, corresponding to the allusion to Aeolus in No. 607 1.
15.-Plates XXXVI and XXXVII form one sheet in the original. The
texts reproduced on these Plates have however no connection with the
sketches, excepting the sketches of clouds on the right hand side.
These texts are given as No. 477. The group of small figures on Pl.
XXXVII, to the left, seems to be intended for a '_congregatione
d'uomini._' See No. 608, 1. 19.]
609.
DESCRIPTION OF THE DELUGE.

Let there be first represented the summit of a rugged mountain with

valleys surrounding its base, and on its sides let the surface of
the soil be seen to slide, together with the small roots of the
bushes, denuding great portions of the surrounding rocks. And
descending ruinous from these precipices in its boisterous course,
let it dash along and lay bare the twisted and gnarled roots of
large trees overthrowing their roots upwards; and let the mountains,
as they are scoured bare, discover the profound fissures made in
them by ancient earthquakes. The base of the mountains may be in
great part clothed and covered with ruins of shrubs, hurled down
from the sides of their lofty peaks, which will be mixed with mud,
roots, boughs of trees, with all sorts of leaves thrust in with the
mud and earth and stones. And into the depth of some valley may have
fallen the fragments of a mountain forming a shore to the swollen
waters of its river; which, having already burst its banks, will
rush on in monstrous waves; and the greatest will strike upon and
destroy the walls of the cities and farmhouses in the valley [14].
Then the ruins of the high buildings in these cities will throw up a
great dust, rising up in shape like smoke or wreathed clouds against
the falling rain; But the swollen waters will sweep round the pool
which contains them striking in eddying whirlpools against the
different obstacles, and leaping into the air in muddy foam; then,
falling back, the beaten water will again be dashed into the air.
And the whirling waves which fly from the place of concussion, and
whose impetus moves them across other eddies going in a contrary
direction, after their recoil will be tossed up into the air but
without dashing off from the surface. Where the water issues from
the pool the spent waves will be seen spreading out towards the
outlet; and there falling or pouring through the air and gaining
weight and impetus they will strike on the water below piercing it
and rushing furiously to reach its depth; from which being thrown
back it returns to the surface of the lake, carrying up the air that
was submerged with it; and this remains at the outlet in foam
mingled with logs of wood and other matters lighter than water.
Round these again are formed the beginnings of waves which increase
the more in circumference as they acquire more movement; and this
movement rises less high in proportion as they acquire a broader
base and thus they are less conspicuous as they die away. But if
these waves rebound from various objects they then return in direct
opposition to the others following them, observing the same law of
increase in their curve as they have already acquired in the
movement they started with. The rain, as it falls from the clouds is
of the same colour as those clouds, that is in its shaded side;

unless indeed the sun's rays should break through them; in that case
the rain will appear less dark than the clouds. And if the heavy
masses of ruin of large mountains or of other grand buildings fall
into the vast pools of water, a great quantity will be flung into
the air and its movement will be in a contrary direction to that of
the object which struck the water; that is to say: The angle of
reflection will be equal to the angle of incidence. Of the objects
carried down by the current, those which are heaviest or rather
largest in mass will keep farthest from the two opposite shores. The
water in the eddies revolves more swiftly in proportion as it is
nearer to their centre. The crests of the waves of the sea tumble to
their bases falling with friction on the bubbles of their sides; and
this friction grinds the falling water into minute particles and
this being converted into a dense mist, mingles with the gale in the
manner of curling smoke and wreathing clouds, and at last it, rises
into the air and is converted into clouds. But the rain which falls
through the atmosphere being driven and tossed by the winds becomes
rarer or denser according to the rarity or density of the winds that
buffet it, and thus there is generated in the atmosphere a moisture
formed of the transparent particles of the rain which is near to the
eye of the spectator. The waves of the sea which break on the slope
of the mountains which bound it, will foam from the velocity with
which they fall against these hills; in rushing back they will meet
the next wave as it comes and and after a loud noise return in a
great flood to the sea whence they came. Let great numbers of
inhabitants--men and animals of all kinds--be seen driven [54] by
the rising of the deluge to the peaks of the mountains in the midst
of the waters aforesaid.
The wave of the sea at Piombino is all foaming water. [Footnote 55.
56: These two lines are written below the bottom sketch on Pl. XXXV,
3. The MS. Leic. being written about the year 1510 or later, it does
not seem to me to follow that the sketches must have been made at
Piombino, where Leonardo was in the year 1502 and possibly returned
there subsequently (see Vol. II. Topographical notes).]
Of the water which leaps up from the spot where great masses fall on
its surface. Of the winds of Piombino at Piombino. Eddies of wind
and rain with boughs and shrubs mixed in the air. Emptying the boats
of the rain water.
[Footnote: The sketches on Pl. XXXV 3 stand by the side of lines 14

to 54.]

Of depicting natural phenomena (610. 611).
610.
The tremendous fury of the wind driven by the falling in of the

hills on the caves within--by the falling of the hills which served
as roofs to these caverns.
A stone flung through the air leaves on the eye which sees it the
impression of its motion, and the same effect is produced by the
drops of water which fall from the clouds when it [16] rains.
[17] A mountain falling on a town, will fling up dust in the form of

clouds; but the colour of this dust will differ from that of the
clouds. Where the rain is thickest let the colour of the dust be
less conspicuous and where the dust is thickest let the rain be less
conspicuous. And where the rain is mingled with the wind and with
the dust the clouds created by the rain must be more transparent
than those of dust [alone]. And when flames of fire are mingled with
clouds of smoke and water very opaque and dark clouds will be formed
[Footnote 26-28: Compare Pl. XL, 1--the drawing in Indian ink on the
left hand side, which seems to be a reminiscence of his observations
of an eruption (see his remarks on Mount Etna in Vol II).]. And the
rest of this subject will be treated in detail in the book on
painting.
[Footnote: See the sketches and text on Pl. XXXVIII, No. 1. Lines
1-16 are there given on the left hand side, 17-30 on the right. The
four lines at the bottom on the right are given as No. 472. Above
these texts, which are written backwards, there are in the original
sixteen lines in a larger writing from left to right, but only half
of this is here visible. They treat of the physical laws of motion
of air and water. It does not seem to me that there is any reason
for concluding that this writing from left to right is spurious.
Compare with it the facsimile of the rough copy of Leonardo's letter
to Ludovico il Moro in Vol. II.]
611.
People were to be seen eagerly embarking victuals on various kinds

of hastily made barks. But little of the waves were visible in those
places where the dark clouds and rain were reflected.

But where the flashes caused by the bolts of heaven were reflected,
there were seen as many bright spots, caused by the image of the
flashes, as there were waves to reflect them to the eye of the
spectator.
The number of the images produced by the flash of lightning on the

waves of the water were multiplied in proportion to the distance of
the spectator's eye.
So also the number of the images was diminished in proportion as

they were nearer the eye which saw them [Footnote 22. 23: _Com'e
provato_. See Vol. II, Nos. 874-878 and 892-901], as it has been
proved in the definition of the luminosity of the moon, and of our
marine horizon when the sun's rays are reflected in it and the eye
which receives the reflection is remote from the sea.
VI.
THE ARTIST'S MATERIALS.
Of chalk and paper (612--617).
612.
To make points [crayons] for colouring dry. Temper with a little wax
and do not dry it; which wax you must dissolve with water: so that
when the white lead is thus tempered, the water being distilled, may
go off in vapour and the wax may remain; you will thus make good
crayons; but you must know that the colours must be ground with a
hot stone.
613.
Chalk dissolves in wine and in vinegar or in aqua fortis and can be

recombined with gum.
614.
PAPER FOR DRAWING UPON IN BLACK BY THE AID OF YOUR SPITTLE.
Take powdered gall nuts and vitriol, powder them and spread them on
paper like a varnish, then write on it with a pen wetted with

spittle and it will turn as black as ink.
615.
If you want to make foreshortened letters stretch the paper in a

drawing frame and then draw your letters and cut them out, and make
the sunbeams pass through the holes on to another stretched paper,
and then fill up the angles that are wanting.
616.
This paper should be painted over with candle soot tempered with
thin glue, then smear the leaf thinly with white lead in oil as is
done to the letters in printing, and then print in the ordinary way.
Thus the leaf will appear shaded in the hollows and lighted on the
parts in relief; which however comes out here just the contrary.
[Footnote: This text, which accompanies a facsimile impression of a

leaf of sage, has already been published in the _Saggio delle Opere
di L. da Vinci_, Milano 1872, p. 11. G. GOVI observes on this
passage: "_Forse aveva egli pensato ancora a farsi un erbario, od
almeno a riprodurre facilmente su carta le forme e i particolari
delle foglie di diverse piante; poiche (modificando un metodo che
probabilmente gli eia stato insegnato da altri, e che piu tardi si
legge ripetuto in molti ricettarii e libri di segreti), accanto a
una foglia di Salvia impressa in nero su carta bianca, lascio
scritto: Questa carta ...
Erano i primi tentativi di quella riproduzione immediata delle parti

vegetali, che poi sotto il nome d'Impressione Naturale, fu condotta
a tanta perfezione in questi ultimi tempi dal signor de Hauer e da
altri_."]
617.
Very excellent will be a stiff white paper, made of the usual

mixture and filtered milk of an herb called calves foot; and when
this paper is prepared and damped and folded and wrapped up it may
be mixed with the mixture and thus left to dry; but if you break it
before it is moistened it becomes somewhat like the thin paste
called _lasagne_ and you may then damp it and wrap it up and put it
in the mixture and leave it to dry; or again this paper may be
covered with stiff transparent white and _sardonio_ and then damped

so that it may not form angles and then covered up with strong
transparent size and as soon as it is firm cut it two fingers, and
leave it to dry; again you may make stiff cardboard of _sardonio_
and dry it and then place it between two sheets of papyrus and break
it inside with a wooden mallet with a handle and then open it with
care holding the lower sheet of paper flat and firm so that the
broken pieces be not separated; then have a sheet of paper covered
with hot glue and apply it on the top of all these pieces and let
them stick fast; then turn it upside down and apply transparent size
several times in the spaces between the pieces, each time pouring in
first some black and then some stiff white and each time leaving it
to dry; then smooth it and polish it.
On the preparation and use of colours (618-627).
618.
To make a fine green take green and mix it with bitumen and you will
make the shadows darker. Then, for lighter [shades] green with
yellow ochre, and for still lighter green with yellow, and for the
high lights pure yellow; then mix green and turmeric together and
glaze every thing with it. To make a fine red take cinnabar or red
chalk or burnt ochre for the dark shadows and for the lighter ones
red chalk and vermilion and for the lights pure vermilion and then
glaze with fine lake. To make good oil for painting. One part of
oil, one of the first refining and one of the second.
619.
Use black in the shadow, and in the lights white, yellow, green,
vermilion and lake. Medium shadows; take the shadow as above and mix
it with the flesh tints just alluded to, adding to it a little
yellow and a little green and occasionally some lake; for the
shadows take green and lake for the middle shades.
[Footnote 618 and 619: If we may judge from the flourishes with
which the writing is ornamented these passages must have been
written in Leonardo's youth.]
620.
You can make a fine ochre by the same method as you use to make
white.

621.
A FINE YELLOW.
Dissolve realgar with one part of orpiment, with aqua fortis.
WHITE.
Put the white into an earthen pot, and lay it no thicker than a
string, and let it stand in the sun undisturbed for 2 days; and in
the morning when the sun has dried off the night dews.
622.
To make reddish black for flesh tints take red rock crystals from
Rocca Nova or garnets and mix them a little; again armenian bole is
good in part.
623.
The shadow will be burnt ,terra-verte'.
624.
THE PROPORTIONS OF COLOURS.
If one ounce of black mixed with one ounce of white gives a certain
shade of darkness, what shade of darkness will be produced by 2
ounces of black to 1 ounce of white?
625.
Remix black, greenish yellow and at the end blue.
626.
Verdigris with aloes, or gall or turmeric makes a fine green and so

it does with saffron or burnt orpiment; but I doubt whether in a
short time they will not turn black. Ultramarine blue and glass
yellow mixed together make a beautiful green for fresco, that is
wall-painting. Lac and verdigris make a good shadow for blue in oil
painting.

627.
Grind verdigris many times coloured with lemon juice and keep it
away from yellow (?).
Of preparing the panel.
628.
TO PREPARE A PANEL FOR PAINTING ON.
The panel should be cypress or pear or service-tree or walnut. You

must coat it over with mastic and turpentine twice distilled and
white or, if you like, lime, and put it in a frame so that it may
expand and shrink according to its moisture and dryness. Then give
it [a coat] of aqua vitae in which you have dissolved arsenic or
[corrosive] sublimate, 2 or 3 times. Then apply boiled linseed oil
in such a way as that it may penetrate every part, and before it is
cold rub it well with a cloth to dry it. Over this apply liquid
varnish and white with a stick, then wash it with urine when it is
dry, and dry it again. Then pounce and outline your drawing finely
and over it lay a priming of 30 parts of verdigris with one of
verdigris with two of yellow.
[Footnote: M. RAVAISSON'S reading varies from mine in the following

passages:
1._opero allor [?] bo [alloro?]_ = "_ou bien de [laurier]_."
6. _fregalo bene con un panno_. He reads _pane_ for _panno_ and

renders it. "_Frotte le bien avec un pain de facon [jusqu'a ce]
qu'il_" etc.
7. _colla stecca po laua_. He reads "_polacca_" = "_avec le couteau

de bois [?] polonais [?]_."]
The preparation of oils (629--634).
629.
OIL.

Make some oil of mustard seed; and if you wish to make it with
greater ease mix the ground seeds with linseed oil and put it all
under the press.
630.
TO REMOVE THE SMELL OF OIL.
Take the rank oil and put ten pints into a jar and make a mark on
the jar at the height of the oil; then add to it a pint of vinegar
and make it boil till the oil has sunk to the level of the mark and
thus you will be certain that the oil is returned to its original
quantity and the vinegar will have gone off in vapour, carrying with
it the evil smell; and I believe you may do the same with nut oil or
any other oil that smells badly.
631.
Since walnuts are enveloped in a thin rind, which partakes of the

nature of ..., if you do not remove it when you make the oil from
them, this skin tinges the oil, and when you work with it this skin
separates from the oil and rises to the surface of the painting, and
this is what makes it change.
632.
TO RESTORE OIL COLOURS THAT HAVE BECOME DRY.
If you want to restore oil colours that have become dry keep them
soaking in soft soap for a night and, with your finger, mix them up
with the soft soap; then pour them into a cup and wash them with
water, and in this way you can restore colours that have got dry.
But take care that each colour has its own vessel to itself adding
the colour by degrees as you restore it and mind that they are
thoroughly softened, and when you wish to use them for tempera wash
them five and six times with spring water, and leave them to settle;
if the soft soap should be thick with any of the colours pass it
through a filter. [Footnote: The same remark applies to these
sections as to No. 618 and 619.]
633.
OIL.

Mustard seed pounded with linseed oil.
634.
... outside the bowl 2 fingers lower than the level of the oil, and
pass it into the neck of a bottle and let it stand and thus all the
oil will separate from this milky liquid; it will enter the bottle
and be as clear as crystal; and grind your colours with this, and
every coarse or viscid part will remain in the liquid. You must know
that all the oils that have been created in seads or fruits are
quite clear by nature, and the yellow colour you see in them only
comes of your not knowing how to draw it out. Fire or heat by its
nature has the power to make them acquire colour. See for example
the exudation or gums of trees which partake of the nature of rosin;
in a short time they harden because there is more heat in them than
in oil; and after some time they acquire a certain yellow hue
tending to black. But oil, not having so much heat does not do so;
although it hardens to some extent into sediment it becomes finer.
The change in oil which occurs in painting proceeds from a certain
fungus of the nature of a husk which exists in the skin which covers
the nut, and this being crushed along with the nuts and being of a
nature much resembling oil mixes with it; it is of so subtle a
nature that it combines with all colours and then comes to the
surface, and this it is which makes them change. And if you want the
oil to be good and not to thicken, put into it a little camphor
melted over a slow fire and mix it well with the oil and it will
never harden.
[Footnote: The same remark applies to these sections as to No. 618

and 619.]
On varnishes [or powders] (635-637).
635.
VARNISH [OR POWDER].
Take cypress [oil] and distil it and have a large pitcher, and put
in the extract with so much water as may make it appear like amber,
and cover it tightly so that none may evaporate. And when it is
dissolved you may add in your pitcher as much of the said solution,
as shall make it liquid to your taste. And you must know that amber

is the gum of the cypress-tree.
And since varnish [powder] is the resin of juniper, if you distil

juniper you can dissolve the said varnish [powder] in the essence,
as explained above.
636.
Notch a juniper tree and give it water at the roots, mix the liquor
which exudes with nut-oil and you will have a perfect varnish
[powder], made like amber varnish [powder], fine and of the best
quality make it in May or April.
637.
Mercury with Jupiter and Venus,--a paste made of these must be

corrected by the mould (?) continuously, until Mercury separates
itself entirely from Jupiter and Venus. [Footnote: Here, and in No.
641 _Mercurio_ seems to mean quicksilver, _Giove_ stands for iron,
_Venere_ for copper and _Saturno_ for lead.]
On chemical materials (638-650).
638.
Note how aqua vitae absorbs into itself all the colours and smells
of flowers. If you want to make blue put iris flowers into it and
for red solanum berries (?)
639.
Salt may be made from human excrement burnt and calcined and made
into lees, and dried by a slow fire, and all dung in like manner
yields salt, and these salts when distilled are very pungent.
640.

Sea water filtered through mud or clay, leaves all its saltness in
it. Woollen stuffs placed on board ship absorb fresh water. If sea
water is distilled under a retort it becomes of the first excellence
and any one who has a little stove in his kitchen can, with the same
wood as he cooks with, distil a great quantity of water if the
retort is a large one.
641.
MOULD(?).
The mould (?) may be of Venus, or of Jupiter and Saturn and placed
frequently in the fire. And it should be worked with fine emery and
the mould (?) should be of Venus and Jupiter impasted over (?)
Venus. But first you will test Venus and Mercury mixed with Jove,
and take means to cause Mercury to disperse; and then fold them well
together so that Venus or Jupiter be connected as thinly as
possible.
[Footnote: See the note to 637.]
642.
Nitre, vitriol, cinnabar, alum, salt ammoniac, sublimated mercury,

rock salt, alcali salt, common salt, rock alum, alum schist (?),
arsenic, sublimate, realgar, tartar, orpiment, verdegris.
643.
Pitch four ounces virgin wax, four ounces incense, two ounces oil of
roses one ounce.
644.
Four ounces virgin wax, four ounces Greek pitch, two ounces incense,
one ounce oil of roses, first melt the wax and oil then the Greek
pitch then the other things in powder.
645.
Very thin glass may be cut with scissors and when placed over inlaid
work of bone, gilt, or stained of other colours you can saw it
through together with the bone and then put it together and it will

retain a lustre that will not be scratched nor worn away by rubbing
with the hand.
646.
TO DILUTE WHITE WINE AND MAKE IT PURPLE.
Powder gall nuts and let this stand 8 days in the white wine; and in
the same way dissolve vitriol in water, and let the water stand and
settle very clear, and the wine likewise, each by itself, and strain
them well; and when you dilute the white wine with the water the
wine will become red.
647.
Put marcasite into aqua fortis and if it turns green, know that it
has copper in it. Take it out with saltpetre and soft soap.
648.
A white horse may have the spots removed with the Spanish haematite
or with aqua fortis or with ... Removes the black hair on a white
horse with the singeing iron. Force him to the ground.
649.
FIRE.
If you want to make a fire which will set a hall in a blaze without
injury do this: first perfume the hall with a dense smoke of incense
or some other odoriferous substance: It is a good trick to play. Or
boil ten pounds of brandy to evaporate, but see that the hall is
completely closed and throw up some powdered varnish among the fumes
and this powder will be supported by the smoke; then go into the
room suddenly with a lighted torch and at once it will be in a
blaze.
650.
FIRE.
Take away that yellow surface which covers oranges and distill them
in an alembic, until the distillation may be said to be perfect.

FIRE.
Close a room tightly and have a brasier of brass or iron with fire
in it and sprinkle on it two pints of aqua vitae, a little at a
time, so that it may be converted into smoke. Then make some one
come in with a light and suddenly you will see the room in a blaze
like a flash of lightning, and it will do no harm to any one.
VII.
PHILOSOPHY AND HISTORY OF THE ART OF PAINTING.
The relation of art and nature (651. 652).
651.
What is fair in men, passes away, but not so in art.
652.
HE WHO DESPISES PAINTING LOVES NEITHER PHILOSOPHY NOR NATURE.
If you condemn painting, which is the only imitator of all visible

works of nature, you will certainly despise a subtle invention which
brings philosophy and subtle speculation to the consideration of the
nature of all forms--seas and plains, trees, animals, plants and
flowers--which are surrounded by shade and light. And this is true
knowledge and the legitimate issue of nature; for painting is born
of nature--or, to speak more correctly, we will say it is the
grandchild of nature; for all visible things are produced by nature,
and these her children have given birth to painting. Hence we may
justly call it the grandchild of nature and related to God.
Painting is superior to poetry (653. 654).
653.
THAT PAINTING SURPASSES ALL HUMAN WORKS BY THE SUBTLE CONSIDERATIONS

BELONGING TO IT.
The eye, which is called the window of the soul, is the principal
means by which the central sense can most completely and abundantly

appreciate the infinite works of nature; and the ear is the second,
which acquires dignity by hearing of the things the eye has seen. If
you, historians, or poets, or mathematicians had not seen things
with your eyes you could not report of them in writing. And if you,
0 poet, tell a story with your pen, the painter with his brush can
tell it more easily, with simpler completeness and less tedious to
be understood. And if you call painting dumb poetry, the painter may
call poetry blind painting. Now which is the worse defect? to be
blind or dumb? Though the poet is as free as the painter in the
invention of his fictions they are not so satisfactory to men as
paintings; for, though poetry is able to describe forms, actions and
places in words, the painter deals with the actual similitude of the
forms, in order to represent them. Now tell me which is the nearer
to the actual man: the name of man or the image of the man. The name
of man differs in different countries, but his form is never changed
but by death.
654.
And if the poet gratifies the sense by means of the ear, the painter
does so by the eye--the worthier sense; but I will say no more of
this but that, if a good painter represents the fury of a battle,
and if a poet describes one, and they are both together put before
the public, you will see where most of the spectators will stop, to
which they will pay most attention, on which they will bestow most
praise, and which will satisfy them best. Undoubtedly painting being
by a long way the more intelligible and beautiful, will please most.
Write up the name of God [Christ] in some spot and setup His image
opposite and you will see which will be most reverenced. Painting
comprehends in itself all the forms of nature, while you have
nothing but words, which are not universal as form is, and if you
have the effects of the representation, we have the representation
of the effects. Take a poet who describes the beauty of a lady to
her lover and a painter who represents her and you will see to which
nature guides the enamoured critic. Certainly the proof should be
allowed to rest on the verdict of experience. You have ranked
painting among the mechanical arts but, in truth, if painters were
as apt at praising their own works in writing as you are, it would
not lie under the stigma of so base a name. If you call it
mechanical because it is, in the first place, manual, and that it is
the hand which produces what is to be found in the imagination, you
too writers, who set down manually with the pen what is devised in
your mind. And if you say it is mechanical because it is done for

money, who falls into this error--if error it can be called--more

than you? If you lecture in the schools do you not go to whoever
pays you most? Do you do any work without pay? Still, I do not say
this as blaming such views, for every form of labour looks for its
reward. And if a poet should say: "I will invent a fiction with a
great purpose," the painter can do the same, as Apelles painted
Calumny. If you were to say that poetry is more eternal, I say the
works of a coppersmith are more eternal still, for time preserves
them longer than your works or ours; nevertheless they have not much
imagination [29]. And a picture, if painted on copper with enamel
colours may be yet more permanent. We, by our arts may be called the
grandsons of God. If poetry deals with moral philosophy, painting
deals with natural philosophy. Poetry describes the action of the
mind, painting considers what the mind may effect by the motions [of
the body]. If poetry can terrify people by hideous fictions,
painting can do as much by depicting the same things in action.
Supposing that a poet applies himself to represent beauty, ferocity,
or a base, a foul or a monstrous thing, as against a painter, he may
in his ways bring forth a variety of forms; but will the painter not
satisfy more? are there not pictures to be seen, so like the actual
things, that they deceive men and animals?
Painting is superior to sculpture (655. 656).
655.
THAT SCULPTURE IS LESS INTELLECTUAL THAN PAINTING, AND LACKS MANY

CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURE.
I myself, having exercised myself no less in sculpture than in

painting and doing both one and the other in the same degree, it
seems to me that I can, without invidiousness, pronounce an opinion
as to which of the two is of the greatest merit and difficulty and
perfection. In the first place sculpture requires a certain light,
that is from above, a picture carries everywhere with it its own
light and shade. Thus sculpture owes its importance to light and
shade, and the sculptor is aided in this by the nature, of the
relief which is inherent in it, while the painter whose art
expresses the accidental aspects of nature, places his effects in
the spots where nature must necessarily produce them. The sculptor
cannot diversify his work by the various natural colours of objects;
painting is not defective in any particular. The sculptor when he
uses perspective cannot make it in any way appear true; that of the

painter can appear like a hundred miles beyond the picture itself.
Their works have no aerial perspective whatever, they cannot
represent transparent bodies, they cannot represent luminous bodies,
nor reflected lights, nor lustrous bodies--as mirrors and the like
polished surfaces, nor mists, nor dark skies, nor an infinite number
of things which need not be told for fear of tedium. As regards the
power of resisting time, though they have this resistance [Footnote
19: From what is here said as to painting on copper it is very
evident that Leonardo was not acquainted with the method of painting
in oil on thin copper plates, introduced by the Flemish painters of
the XVIIth century. J. LERMOLIEFF has already pointed out that in
the various collections containing pictures by the great masters of
the Italian Renaissance, those painted on copper (for instance the
famous reading Magdalen in the Dresden Gallery) are the works of a
much later date (see _Zeitschrift fur bildende Kunst_. Vol. X pg.
333, and: _Werke italienischer Master in den Galerien von Munchen,
Dresden und Berlin_. Leipzig 1880, pg. 158 and 159.)--Compare No.
654, 29.], a picture painted on thick copper covered with white
enamel on which it is painted with enamel colours and then put into
the fire again and baked, far exceeds sculpture in permanence. It
may be said that if a mistake is made it is not easy to remedy it;
it is but a poor argument to try to prove that a work be the nobler
because oversights are irremediable; I should rather say that it
will be more difficult to improve the mind of the master who makes
such mistakes than to repair the work he has spoilt.
656.
We know very well that a really experienced and good painter will
not make such mistakes; on the contrary, with sound rules he will
remove so little at a time that he will bring his work to a good
issue. Again the sculptor if working in clay or wax, can add or
reduce, and when his model is finished it can easily be cast in
bronze, and this is the last operation and is the most permanent
form of sculpture. Inasmuch as that which is merely of marble is
liable to ruin, but not bronze. Hence a painting done on copper
which as I said of painting may be added to or altered, resembles
sculpture in bronze, which, having first been made in wax could then
be altered or added to; and if sculpture in bronze is durable, this
work in copper and enamel is absolutely imperishable. Bronze is but
dark and rough after all, but this latter is covered with various
and lovely colours in infinite variety, as has been said above; or
if you will have me only speak of painting on panel, I am content to

pronounce between it and sculpture; saying that painting is the more

beautiful and the more imaginative and the more copious, while
sculpture is the more durable but it has nothing else. Sculpture
shows with little labour what in painting appears a miraculous thing
to do; to make what is impalpable appear palpable, flat objects
appear in relief, distant objects seem close. In fact painting is
adorned with infinite possibilities which sculpture cannot command.
Aphorisms (657-659).
657.
OF PAINTING.
Men and words are ready made, and you, O Painter, if you do not know
how to make your figures move, are like an orator who knows not how
to use his words.
658.
As soon as the poet ceases to represent in words what exists in

nature, he in fact ceases to resemble the painter; for if the poet,
leaving such representation, proceeds to describe the flowery and
flattering speech of the figure, which he wishes to make the
speaker, he then is an orator and no longer a poet nor a painter.
And if he speaks of the heavens he becomes an astrologer, and
philosopher; and a theologian, if he discourses of nature or God.
But, if he restricts himself to the description of objects, he would
enter the lists against the painter, if with words he could satisfy
the eye as the painter does.
659.
Though you may be able to tell or write the exact description of

forms, the painter can so depict them that they will appear alive,
with the shadow and light which show the expression of a face; which
you cannot accomplish with the pen though it can be achieved by the
brush.
On the history of painting (660. 661).
660.

THAT PAINTING DECLINES AND DETERIORATES FROM AGE TO AGE, WHEN

PAINTERS HAVE NO OTHER STANDARD THAN PAINTING ALREADY DONE.
Hence the painter will produce pictures of small merit if he takes

for his standard the pictures of others. But if he will study from
natural objects he will bear good fruit; as was seen in the painters
after the Romans who always imitated each other and so their art
constantly declined from age to age. After these came Giotto the
Florentine who--not content with imitating the works of Cimabue his
master--being born in the mountains and in a solitude inhabited only
by goats and such beasts, and being guided by nature to his art,
began by drawing on the rocks the movements of the goats of which he
was keeper. And thus he began to draw all the animals which were to
be found in the country, and in such wise that after much study he
excelled not only all the masters of his time but all those of many
bygone ages. Afterwards this art declined again, because everyone
imitated the pictures that were already done; thus it went on from
century to century until Tomaso, of Florence, nicknamed Masaccio,
showed by his perfect works how those who take for their standard
any one but nature--the mistress of all masters--weary themselves in
vain. And, I would say about these mathematical studies that those
who only study the authorities and not the works of nature are
descendants but not sons of nature the mistress of all good authors.
Oh! how great is the folly of those who blame those who learn from
nature [Footnote 22: _lasciando stare li autori_. In this
observation we may detect an indirect evidence that Leonardo
regarded his knowledge of natural history as derived from his own
investigations, as well as his theories of perspective and optics.
Compare what he says in praise of experience (Vol II; _XIX_).],
setting aside those authorities who themselves were the disciples of
nature.
661.
That the first drawing was a simple line drawn round the shadow of a
man cast by the sun on a wall.
The painter's scope.
662.
The painter strives and competes with nature.

_X.
Studies and Sketches for Pictures and Decorations.
An artist's manuscript notes can hardly be expected to contain any

thing more than incidental references to those masterpieces of his
work of which the fame, sounded in the writings of his
contemporaries, has left a glorious echo to posterity. We need not
therefore be surprised to find that the texts here reproduced do not
afford us such comprehensive information as we could wish. On the
other hand, the sketches and studies prepared by Leonardo for the
two grandest compositions he ever executed: The Fresco of the Last
Supper in the Refectory of Santa Maria delle Grazie at Milan, and
the Cartoon of the Battle of Anghiari, for the Palazzo della
Signoria at Florence--have been preserved; and, though far from
complete, are so much more numerous than the manuscript notes, that
we are justified in asserting that in value and interest they amply
compensate for the meagerness of the written suggestions.
The notes for the composition of the Last Supper, which are given
under nos._ 665 _and_ 666 _occur in a MS. at South Kensington, II2,
written in the years_ 1494-1495. _This MS. sketch was noted down not
more than three or four years before the painting was executed,
which justifies the inference that at the time when it was written
the painter had not made up his mind definitely even as to the
general scheme of the work; and from this we may also conclude that
the drawings of apostles' heads at Windsor, in red chalk, must be
ascribed to a later date. They are studies for the head of St.
Matthew, the fourth figure on Christ's left hand--see Pl. XL VII,
the sketch (in black chalk) for the head of St. Philip, the third
figure on the left hand--see Pl. XL VIII, for St. Peter's right
arm--see Pl. XLIX, and for the expressive head of Judas which has
unfortunately somewhat suffered by subsequent restoration of
outlines,--see Pl. L. According to a tradition, as unfounded as it
is improbable, Leonardo made use of the head of Padre Bandelli, the
prior of the convent, as the prototype of his Judas; this however
has already been contradicted by Amoretti "Memorie storiche" cap.
XIV. The study of the head of a criminal on Pl. LI has, it seems to
me, a better claim to be regarded as one of the preparatory sketches
for the head of Judas. The Windsor collection contains two old
copies of the head of St. Simon, the figure to the extreme left of
Christ, both of about equal merit (they are marked as Nos._ 21 _and_
36_)--the second was reproduced on Pl. VIII of the Grosvenor

Gallery Publication in_ 1878. _There is also at Windsor a drawing in

black chalk of folded hands (marked with the old No._ 212; _No. LXI
of the Grosvenor Gallery Publication) which I believe to be a copy
of the hands of St. John, by some unknown pupil. A reproduction of
the excellent drawings of heads of Apostles in the possession of H.
R. H. the Grand Duchess of Weimar would have been out of my province
in this work, and, with regard to them, I must confine myself to
pointing out that the difference in style does not allow of our
placing the Weimar drawings in the same category as those here
reproduced. The mode of grouping in the Weimar drawings is of itself
sufficient to indicate that they were not executed before the
picture was painted, but, on the contrary, afterwards, and it is, on
the face of it, incredible that so great a master should thus have
copied from his own work.
The drawing of Christ's head, in the Brera palace at Milan was

perhaps originally the work of Leonardo's hand; it has unfortunately
been entirely retouched and re-drawn, so that no decisive opinion
can be formed as to its genuineness.
The red chalk drawing reproduced on Pl. XLVI is in the Accademia at

Venice; it was probably made before the text, Nos._ 664 _and_ 665,
_was written.
The two pen and ink sketches on Pl. XLV seem to belong to an even
earlier date; the more finished drawing of the two, on the right
hand, represents Christ with only St. John and Judas and a third
disciple whose action is precisely that described in No._ 666,
_Pl._ 4. _It is hardly necessary to observe that the other sketches
on this page and the lines of text below the circle (containing the
solution of a geometrical problem) have no reference to the picture
of the Last Supper. With this figure of Christ may be compared a
similar pen and ink drawing reproduced on page_ 297 _below on the
left hand; the original is in the Louvre. On this page again the
rest of the sketches have no direct bearing on the composition of
the Last Supper, not even, as it seems to me, the group of four men
at the bottom to the right hand--who are listening to a fifth, in
their midst addressing them. Moreover the writing on this page (an
explanation of a disk shaped instrument) is certainly not in the
same style as we find constantly used by Leonardo after the year_
1489.
_It may be incidentally remarked that no sketches are known for the

portrait of "Mona Lisa", nor do the MS. notes ever allude to it,
though according to Vasari the master had it in hand for fully four
years.
Leonardo's cartoon for the picture of the battle of Anghiari has

shared the fate of the rival work, Michaelangelo's "Bathers summoned
to Battle". Both have been lost in some wholly inexplicable manner.
I cannot here enter into the remarkable history of this work; I can
only give an account of what has been preserved to us of Leonardo's
scheme and preparations for executing it. The extent of the material
in studies and drawings was till now quite unknown. Their
publication here may give some adequate idea of the grandeur of this
famous work. The text given as No._ 669 _contains a description of
the particulars of the battle, but for the reasons given in the note
to this text, I must abandon the idea of taking this passage as the
basis of my attempt to reconstruct the picture as the artist
conceived and executed it.
I may here remind the reader that Leonardo prepared the cartoon in
the Sala del Papa of Santa Maria Novella at Florence and worked
there from the end of October 1503 till February 1504, and then was
busied with the painting in the Sala del Consiglio in the Palazzo
della Signoria, till the work was interrupted at the end of May
1506. (See Milanesi's note to Vasari pp. 43--45 Vol. IV ed. 1880.)
Vasari, as is well known, describes only one scene or episode of the
cartoon--the Battle for the Standard in the foreground of the
composition, as it would seem; and this only was ever finished as a
mural decoration in the Sala del Consiglio. This portion of the
composition is familiar to all from the disfigured copy engraved by
Edelinck. Mariette had already very acutely observed that Edelinck
must surely have worked from a Flemish copy of the picture. There is
in the Louvre a drawing by Rubens (No. 565) which also represents
four horsemen fighting round a standard and which agrees with
Edelinck's engraving, but the engraving reverses the drawing. An
earlier Flemish drawing, such as may have served as the model for
both Rubens and Edelinck, is in the Uffizi collection (see
Philpots's Photograph, No. 732). It seems to be a work of the second
half of the XVIth century, a time when both the picture and the
cartoon had already been destroyed. It is apparently the production
of a not very skilled hand. Raphael Trichet du Fresne, 1651,
mentions that a small picture by Leonardo himself of the Battle of
the Standard was then extant in the Tuileries; by this he probably
means the painting on panel which is now in the possession of Madame

Timbal in Paris, and which has lately been engraved by Haussoullier

as a work by Leonardo. The picture, which is very carefully painted,
seems to me however to be the work of some unknown Florentine
painter, and probably executed within the first ten years of the
XVIth century. At the same time, it would seem to be a copy not from
Leonardo's cartoon, but from his picture in the Palazzo della
Signoria; at any rate this little picture, and the small Flemish
drawing in Florence are the oldest finished copies of this episode
in the great composition of the Battle of Anghiari.
In his Life of Raphael, Vasari tells us that Raphael copied certain

works of Leonardo's during his stay in Florence. Raphael's first
visit to Florence lasted from the middle of October 1504 till July
1505, and he revisited it in the summer of 1506. The hasty sketch,
now in the possession of the University of Oxford and reproduced on
page 337 also represents the Battle of the Standard and seems to
have been made during his first stay, and therefore not from the
fresco but from the cartoon; for, on the same sheet we also find,
besides an old man's head drawn in Leonardo's style, some studies
for the figure of St. John the Martyr which Raphael used in 1505 in
his great fresco in the Church of San Severo at Perugia.
Of Leonardo's studies for the Battle of Anghiari I must in the first

place point to five, on three of which--Pl. LII 2, Pl. LIII, Pl.
LVI--we find studies for the episode of the Standard. The standard
bearer, who, in the above named copies is seen stooping, holding on
to the staff across his shoulder, is immediately recognisable as the
left-hand figure in Raphael's sketch, and we find it in a similar
attitude in Leonardo's pen and ink drawing in the British
Museum--Pl. LII, 2--the lower figure to the right. It is not
difficult to identify the same figure in two more complicated groups
in the pen and ink drawings, now in the Accademia at Venice--Pl.
LIII, and Pl. LIV--where we also find some studies of foot soldiers
fighting. On the sheet in the British Museum--Pl. LII, 2--we find,
among others, one group of three horses galloping forwards: one
horseman is thrown and protects himself with his buckler against the
lance thrusts of two others on horseback, who try to pierce him as
they ride past. The same action is repeated, with some variation, in
two sketches in pen and ink on a third sheet, in the Accademia at
Venice, Pl. LV; a coincidence which suggests the probability of such
an incident having actually been represented on the cartoon. We are
not, it is true, in a position to declare with any certainty which
of these three dissimilar sketches may have been the nearest to the

group finally adopted in executing the cartoon.
With regard, however, to one of the groups of horsemen it is

possible to determine with perfect certainty not only which
arrangement was preferred, but the position it occupied in the
composition. The group of horsemen on Pl. LVII is a drawing in black
chalk at Windsor, which is there attributed to Leonardo, but which
appears to me to be the work of Cesare da Sesto, and the
Commendatore Giov. Morelli supports me in this view. It can hardly
be doubted that da Sesto, as a pupil of Leonardo's, made this
drawing from his master's cartoon, if we compare it with the copy
made by Raphael--here reproduced, for just above the fighting
horseman in Raphael's copy it is possible to detect a horse which is
seen from behind, going at a slower pace, with his tail flying out
to the right and the same horse may be seen in the very same
attitude carrying a dimly sketched rider, in the foreground of
Cesare da Sesto's drawing._
_If a very much rubbed drawing in black chalk at Windsor--Pl.

LVI--is, as it appears to be, the reversed impression of an original
drawing, it is not difficult to supplement from it the portions
drawn by Cesare da Sesto. Nay, it may prove possible to reconstruct
the whole of the lost cartoon from the mass of materials we now have
at hand which we may regard as the nucleus of the composition. A
large pen and ink drawing by Raphael in the Dresden collection,
representing three horsemen fighting, and another, by Cesare da
Sesto, in the Uffizi, of light horsemen fighting are a further
contribution which will help us to reconstruct it._
_The sketch reproduced on Pl. LV gives a suggestive example of the

way in which foot-soldiers may have been introduced into the cartoon
as fighting among the groups of horsemen; and I may here take the
opportunity of mentioning that, for reasons which it would be out of
place to enlarge upon here, I believe the two genuine drawings by
Raphael's hand in his "Venetian sketch-book" as it is called--one of
a standard bearer marching towards the left, and one of two
foot-soldiers armed with spears and fighting with a horseman--to be
undoubtedly copies from the cartoon of the Battle of Anghiari._
_Leonardo's two drawings, preserved in the museum at Buda-Pesth and

reproduced on pages 338 and 339 are preliminary studies for the
heads of fighting warriors. The two heads drawn in black chalk (pg.
338) and the one seen in profile, turned to the left, drawn in red

chalk (pg. 339), correspond exactly with those of two horsemen in

the scene of the fight round the standard as we see them in Madame
Timbal's picture and in the other finished copies. An old copy of
the last named drawing by a pupil of Leonardo is in MS. C. A. 187b;
561b (See Saggio, Tav. XXII). Leonardo used to make such finished
studies of heads as those, drawn on detached sheets, before
beginning his pictures from his drawings--compare the preparatory
studies for the fresco of the Last Supper, given on Pl. XLVII and
Pl. L. Other drawings of heads, all characterised by the expression
of vehement excitement that is appropriate to men fighting, are to
be seen at Windsor (No. 44) and at the Accademia at Venice (IV, 13);
at the back of one of the drawings at Buda-Pesth there is the bust
of a warrior carrying a spear on his left shoulder, holding up the
left arm (See Csatakepek a XVI--lk Szazadbol osszeallitotta Pvlszky
Karoly). These drawings may have been made for other portions of the
cartoon, of which no copies exist, and thus we are unable to
identify these preparatory drawings. Finally I may add that a sketch
of fighting horse and foot soldiers, formerly in the possession of
M. Thiers and published by Charles Blanc in his "Vies des Peintres"
can hardly be accepted as genuine. It is not to be found, as I am
informed, among the late President's property, and no one appears to
know where it now is._
_An attempted reconstruction of the Cartoon, which is not only

unsuccessful but perfectly unfounded, is to be seen in the
lithograph by Bergeret, published in Charles Blanc's "Vies des
peintres" and reprinted in "The great Artists. L. da Vinci", p. 80.
This misleading pasticcio may now be rejected without hesitation._
_There are yet a few original drawings by Leonardo which might be

mentioned here as possibly belonging to the cartoon of the Battle;
such as the pen and ink sketches on Pl. XXI and on Pl. XXXVIII, No.
3, but we should risk too wide a departure from the domain of
ascertained fact._
_With regard to the colours and other materials used by Leonardo the
reader may be referred to the quotations from the accounts for the
picture in question given by Milanesi in his edition of Vasari (Vol.
IV, p. 44, note) where we find entries of a similar character to
those in Leonardo's note books for the year 1505; S. K. M. 12 (see
No. 636)._
_That Leonardo was employed in designing decorations and other

preparations for high festivals, particularly for the court of

Milan, we learn not only from the writings of his contemporaries but
from his own incidental allusions; for instance in MS. C. l5b (1),
l. 9. In the arrangement of the texts referring to this I have
placed those first, in which historical personages are named--Nos.
670-674. Among the descriptions of Allegorical subjects two texts
lately found at Oxford have been included, Nos. 676 and 677. They
are particularly interesting because they are accompanied by large
sketches which render the meaning of the texts perfectly clear. It
is very intelligible that in other cases, where there are no
illustrative sketches, the notes must necessarily remain obscure or
admit of various interpretations. The literature of the time affords
ample evidence of the use of such allegorical representations,
particularly during the Carnival and in Leonardo's notes we find the
Carnival expressly mentioned--Nos. 685 and 704. Vasari in his Life
of Pontormo, particularly describes that artist's various
undertakings for Carnival festivities. These very graphic
descriptions appear to me to throw great light in more ways than one
on the meaning of Leonardo's various notes as to allegorical
representations and also on mottoes and emblems--Nos. 681-702. In
passing judgment on the allegorical sketches and emblems it must not
be overlooked that even as pictures they were always accompanied by
explanations in words. Several finished drawings of allegorical
compositions or figures have been preserved, but as they have no
corresponding explanation in the MSS. they had no claim to be
reproduced here. The female figure on Pl. XXVI may perhaps be
regarded as a study for such an allegorical painting, of which the
purport would have been explained by an inscription._
On Madonna pictures.
663.
[In the autumn of] 1478 I began the two Madonna [pictures].
[Footnote: Photographs of this page have been published by BRAUN,

No. 439, and PHILPOT, No. 718.
1. _Incominciai_. We have no other information as to the two

pictures of the Madonna here spoken of. As Leonardo here tells us
that he had begun two Madonnas at the same time, the word
'_incominciai_' may be understood to mean that he had begun at the
same time preparatory studies for two pictures to be painted later.

If this is so, the non-existence of the pictures may be explained by

supposing that they were only planned and never executed. I may here
mention a few studies for pictures of the Madonna which probably
belong to this early time; particularly a drawing in silver-point on
bluish tinted paper at Windsor--see Pl. XL, No. 3--, a drawing of
which the details have almost disappeared in the original but have
been rendered quite distinct in the reproduction; secondly a slight
pen and ink sketch in, the Codex VALLARDI, in the Louvre, fol. 64,
No. 2316; again a silver point drawing of a Virgin and child drawn
over again with the pen in the His de la Salle collection also in
the Louvre, No. 101. (See Vicomte BOTH DE TAUZIA, _Notice des
dessins de la collection His de la Salle, exposes au Louvre_. Paris
1881, pp. 80, 81.) This drawing is, it is true, traditionally
ascribed to Raphael, but the author of the catalogue very justly
points out its great resemblance with the sketches for Madonnas in
the British Museum which are indisputably Leonardo's. Some of these
have been published by Mr. HENRY WALLIS in the Art Journal, New Ser.
No. 14, Feb. 1882. If the non-existence of the two pictures here
alluded to justifies my hypothesis that only studies for such
pictures are meant by the text, it may also be supposed that the
drawings were made for some comrade in VERROCCHIO'S atelier. (See
VASARI, Sansoni's ed. Florence 1880. Vol. IV, p. 564): "_E perche a
Lerenzo piaceva fuor di modo la maniera di Lionardo, la seppe cosi
bene imitare, che niuno fu che nella pulitezza e nel finir l'opere
con diligenza l'imitasse più di lui_." Leonardo's notes give me no
opportunity of discussing the pictures executed by him in Florence,
before he moved to Milan. So the studies for the unfinished picture
of the Adoration of the Magi--in the Uffizi, Florence--cannot be
described here, nor would any discussion about the picture in the
Louvre "_La Vierge aux Rochers_" be appropriate in the absence of
all allusion to it in the MSS. Therefore, when I presently add a few
remarks on this painting in explanation of the Master's drawings for
it, it will be not merely with a view to facilitate critical
researches about the picture now in the National Gallery, London,
which by some critics has been pronounced to be a replica of the
Louvre picture, but also because I take this opportunity of
publishing several finished studies of the Master's which, even if
they were not made in Florence but later in Milan, must have been
prior to the painting of the Last Supper. The original picture in
Paris is at present so disfigured by dust and varnish that the
current reproductions in photography actually give evidence more of
the injuries to which the picture has been exposed than of the
original work itself. The wood-cut given on p. 344, is only intended

to give a general notion of the composition. It must be understood

that the outline and expression of the heads, which in the picture
is obscured but not destroyed, is here altogether missed. The
facsimiles which follow are from drawings which appear to me to be
studies for "_La Vierge aux Rochers_."
1. A drawing in silver point on brown toned paper of a woman's head

looking to the left. In the Royal Library at Turin, apparently a
study from nature for the Angel's head (Pl. XLII).
2. A study of drapery for the left leg of the same figure, done with
the brush, Indian ink on greenish paper, the lights heightened with
white.
The original is at Windsor, No. 223. The reproduction Pl. XLIII is

defective in the shadow on the upper part of the thigh, which is not
so deep as in the original; it should also be observed that the
folds of the drapery near the hips are somewhat altered in the
finished work in the Louvre, while the London copy shows a greater
resemblance to this study in that particular.
3. A study in red chalk for the bust of the Infant Christ--No. 3 in

the Windsor collection (Pl. XLIV). The well-known silver-point
drawing on pale green paper, in the Louvre, of a boy's head (No. 363
in REISET, _Notice des dessins, Ecoles d'Italie_) seems to me to be
a slightly altered copy, either from the original picture or from
this red chalk study.
4. A silver-point study on greenish paper, for the head of John the

Baptist, reproduced on p. 342. This was formerly in the Codex
Vallardi and is now exhibited among the drawings in the Louvre. The
lights are, in the original, heightened with white; the outlines,
particularly round the head and ear, are visibly restored.
There is a study of an outstretched hand--No. 288 in the Windsor

collection--which was published in the Grosvenor Gallery
Publication, 1878, simply under the title of: "No. 72 Study of a
hand, pointing" which, on the other hand, I regard as a copy by a
pupil. The action occurs in the kneeling angel of the Paris picture
and not in the London copy.
These four genuine studies form, I believe, a valuable substitute in

the absence of any MS. notes referring to the celebrated Paris

picture.]
Bernardo di Bandino's Portrait.
664.
A tan-coloured small cap, A doublet of black serge, A black jerkin

lined A blue coat lined, with fur of foxes' breasts, and the collar
of the jerkin covered with black and white stippled velvet Bernardo
di Bandino Baroncelli; black hose.
[Footnote: These eleven lines of text are by the side of the pen and
ink drawing of a man hanged--Pl. LXII, No. 1. This drawing was
exhibited in 1879 at the _Ecole des Beaux-Arts_ in Paris and the
compilers of the catalogue amused themselves by giving the victim's
name as follows: "_Un pendu, vetu d'une longue robe, les mains liées
sur le dos ... Bernardo di Bendino Barontigni, marchand de
pantalons_" (see _Catalogue descriptif des Dessins de Mailres
anciens exposes a l'Ecole des Beaux Arts_, Paris 1879; No. 83, pp.
9-10). Now, the criminal represented here, is none other than
Bernardino di Bandino Baroncelli the murderer of Giuliano de'Medici,
whose name as a coadjutor in the conspiracy of the Pazzi has gained
a melancholy notoriety by the tragedy of the 26th April 1478.
Bernardo was descended from an ancient family and the son of the man
who, under King Ferrante, was President of the High Court of Justice
in Naples. His ruined fortunes, it would seem, induced him to join
the Pazzi; he and Francesco Pazzi were entrusted with the task of
murdering Giuliano de'Medici on the fixed day. Their victim not
appearing in the cathedral at the hour when they expected him, the
two conspirators ran to the palace of the Medici and induced him to
accompany them. Giuliano then took his place in the chancel of the
Cathedral, and as the officiating priest raised the Host--the sign
agreed upon--Bernardo stabbed the unsuspecting Giuliano in the
breast with a short sword; Giuliano stepped backwards and fell dead.
The attempt on Lorenzo's life however, by the other conspirators at
the same moment, failed of success. Bernardo no sooner saw that
Lorenzo tried to make his escape towards the sacristy, than he
rushed upon him, and struck down Francesco Nori who endeavoured to
protect Lorenzo. How Lorenzo then took refuge behind the brazen
doors of the sacristy, and how, as soon as Giuliano's death was made
known, the further plans of the conspirators were defeated, while a
terrible vengeance overtook all the perpetrators and accomplices,
this is no place to tell. Bernardo Bandini alone seemed to be

favoured by fortune; he hid first in the tower of the Cathedral, and

then escaped undiscovered from Florence. Poliziano, who was with
Lorenzo in the Cathedral, says in his 'Conjurationis Pactianae
Commentarium': "_Bandinus fugitans in Tiphernatem incidit, a quo in
aciem receptus Senas pervenit_." And Gino Capponi in summing up the
reports of the numerous contemporary narrators of the event, says:
"_Bernardo Bandini ricoverato in Costantinopoli, fu per ordine del
Sultano preso e consegnato a un Antonio di Bernardino dei Medici,
che Lorenzo aveva mandato apposta in Turchia: così era grande la
potenza di quest' uomo e grande la voglia di farne mostra e che non
restasse in vita chi aveagli ucciso il fratello, fu egli applicato
appena giunto_" (_Storia della Republica di Firenze II_, 377, 378).
Details about the dates may be found in the _Chronichetta di
Belfredello Strinati Alfieri_: "_Bernardo di Bandino Bandini
sopradetto ne venne preso da Gostantinopoti a dì 14. Dicembre 1479 e
disaminato, che fu al Bargello, fu impiccato alle finestre di detto
Bargello allato alla Doana a dì 29. Dicembre MCCCCLXXIX che pochi dì
stette_." It may however be mentioned with reference to the mode of
writing the name of the assassin that, though most of his
contemporaries wrote Bernardo Bandini, in the _Breve Chronicon
Caroli Petri de Joanninis_ he is called Bernardo di Bandini
Baroncelli; and, in the _Sententiae Domini Matthaei de Toscana_,
Bernardus Joannis Bandini de Baroncellis, as is written on
Leonardo's drawing of him when hanged. Now VASARI, in the life of
_Andrea del Castagno_ (Vol. II, 680; ed. Milanesi 1878), tells us
that in 1478 this painter was commissioned by order of the Signoria
to represent the members of the Pazzi conspiracy as traitors, on the
facade of the Palazzo del Podestà--the Bargello. This statement is
obviously founded on a mistake, for Andrea del Castagno was already
dead in 1457. He had however been commissioned to paint Rinaldo
degli Albizzi, when declared a rebel and exiled in 1434, and his
adherents, as hanging head downwards; and in consequence he had
acquired the nickname of Andrea degl' Impiccati. On the 21st July
1478 the Council of Eight came to the following resolution: "_item
servatis etc. deliberaverunt et santiaverunt Sandro Botticelli pro
ejus labore in pingendo proditores flor. quadraginta largos_" (see
G. MILANESI, _Arch. star. VI_ (1862) p. 5 note.)
As has been told, Giuliano de' Medici was murdered on the 26th April
1478, and we see by this that only three months later Botticelli was
paid for his painting of the "_proditores_". We can however hardly
suppose that all the members of the conspiracy were depicted by him
in fresco on the facade of the palace, since no fewer than eighty

had been condemned to death. We have no means of knowing whether,

besides Botticelli, any other painters, perhaps Leonardo, was
commissioned, when the criminals had been hanged in person out of
the windows of the Palazzo del Podestà to represent them there
afterwards in effigy in memory of their disgrace. Nor do we know
whether the assassin who had escaped may at first not have been
provisionally represented as hanged in effigy. Now, when we try to
connect the historical facts with this drawing by Leonardo
reproduced on Pl. LXII, No. I, and the full description of the
conspirator's dress and its colour on the same sheet, there seems to
be no reasonable doubt that Bernardo Bandini is here represented as
he was actually hanged on December 29th, 1479, after his capture at
Constantinople. The dress is certainly not that in which he
committed the murder. A long furred coat might very well be worn at
Constantinople or at Florence in December, but hardly in April. The
doubt remains whether Leonardo described Bernardo's dress so fully
because it struck him as remarkable, or whether we may not rather
suppose that this sketch was actually made from nature with the
intention of using it as a study for a wall painting to be executed.
It cannot be denied that the drawing has all the appearance of
having been made for this purpose. Be this as it may, the sketch
under discussion proves, at any rate, that Leonardo was in Florence
in December 1479, and the note that accompanies it is valuable as
adding one more characteristic specimen to the very small number of
his MSS. that can be proved to have been written between 1470 and
1480.]
Notes on the Last Supper (665-668).
665.
One who was drinking and has left the glass in its position and
turned his head towards the speaker.
Another, twisting the fingers of his hands together turns with stern
brows to his companion [6]. Another with his hands spread open shows
the palms, and shrugs his shoulders up his ears making a mouth of
astonishment [8].
[9] Another speaks into his neighbour's ear and he, as he listens to
him, turns towards him to lend an ear [10], while he holds a knife
in one hand, and in the other the loaf half cut through by the
knife. [13] Another who has turned, holding a knife in his hand,

upsets with his hand a glass on the table [14].
[Footnote 665, 666: In the original MS. there is no sketch to

accompany these passages, and if we compare them with those drawings
made by Leonardo in preparation for the composition of the
picture--Pl. XLV, XLVI--, (compare also Pl. LII, 1 and the drawings
on p. 297) it is impossible to recognise in them a faithful
interpretation of the whole of this text; but, if we compare these
passages with the finished picture (see p. 334) we shall see that in
many places they coincide. For instance, compare No. 665, 1. 6--8,
with the fourth figure on the right hand of Christ. The various
actions described in lines 9--10, 13--14 are to be seen in the group
of Peter, John and Judas; in the finished picture however it is not
a glass but a salt cellar that Judas is upsetting.]
666.
Another lays his hand on the table and is looking. Another blows his
mouthful. [3] Another leans forward to see the speaker shading his
eyes with his hand. [5] Another draws back behind the one who leans
forward, and sees the speaker between the wall and the man who is
leaning [Footnote: 6. _chinato_. I have to express my regret for
having misread this word, written _cinato_ in the original, and
having altered it to _"ciclo"_ when I first published this text, in
'The Academy' for Nov. 8, 1879 immediately after I had discovered
it, and subsequently in the small biography of Leonardo da Vinci
(Great Artists) p. 29.].
[Footnote: In No. 666. Line I must refer to the furthest figure on

the left; 3, 5 and 6 describe actions which are given to the group
of disciples on the left hand of Christ.]
667.
CHRIST.
Count Giovanni, the one with the Cardinal of Mortaro.
[Footnote: As this note is in the same small Manuscript as the

passage here immediately preceding it, I may be justified in
assuming that Leonardo meant to use the features of the person here
named as a suitable model for the figure of Christ. The celebrated
drawing of the head of Christ, now hanging in the Brera Gallery at

Milan, has obviously been so much restored that it is now impossible

to say, whether it was ever genuine. We have only to compare it with
the undoubtedly genuine drawings of heads of the disciples in PI.
XLVII, XLVIII and L, to admit that not a single line of the Milan
drawing in its present state can be by the same hand.]
668.
Philip, Simon, Matthew, Thomas, James the Greater, Peter, Philip,

Andrew, Bartholomew.
[Footnote: See PI. XLVI. The names of the disciples are given in the
order in which they are written in the original, from right to left,
above each head. The original drawing is here slightly reduced in
scale; it measures 39 centimetres in length by 26 in breadth.]
669.
On the battle of Anghiari.

Florentine
Neri di Gino Capponi
Bernardetto de' Medici
Micheletto,
Niccolo da Pisa
Conte Francesco
Pietro Gian Paolo
Guelfo Orsino,
Messer Rinaldo degli
Albizzi
Begin with the address of Niccolo Piccinino to the soldiers and the
banished Florentines among whom are Messer Rinaldo degli Albizzi and
other Florentines. Then let it be shown how he first mounted on
horseback in armour; and the whole army came after him--40 squadrons
of cavalry, and 2000 foot soldiers went with him. Very early in the
morning the Patriarch went up a hill to reconnoitre the country,
that is the hills, fields and the valley watered by a river; and
from thence he beheld Niccolo Picinino coming from Borgo San
Sepolcro with his people, and with a great dust; and perceiving them
he returned to the camp of his own people and addressed them. Having
spoken he prayed to God with clasped hands, when there appeared a
cloud in which Saint Peter appeared and spoke to the Patriarch.--500
cavalry were sent forward by the Patriarch to hinder or check the

rush of the enemy. In the foremost troop Francesco the son of

Niccolo Piccinino [24] was the first to attack the bridge which was
held by the Patriarch and the Florentines. Beyond the bridge to his
left he sent forward some infantry to engage ours, who drove them
back, among whom was their captain Micheletto [29] whose lot it was
to be that day at the head of the army. Here, at this bridge there
is a severe struggle; our men conquer and the enemy is repulsed.
Here Guido and Astorre, his brother, the Lord of Faenza with a great
number of men, re-formed and renewed the fight, and rushed upon the
Florentines with such force that they recovered the bridge and
pushed forward as far as the tents. But Simonetto advanced with 600
horse, and fell upon the enemy and drove them back once more from
the place, and recaptured the bridge; and behind him came more men
with 2000 horse soldiers. And thus for a long time they fought with
varying fortune. But then the Patriarch, in order to divert the
enemy, sent forward Niccolo da Pisa [44] and Napoleone Orsino, a
beardless lad, followed by a great multitude of men, and then was
done another great feat of arms. At the same time Niccolo Piccinino
urged forward the remnant of his men, who once more made ours give
way; and if it had not been that the Patriarch set himself at their
head and, by his words and deeds controlled the captains, our
soldiers would have taken to flight. The Patriarch had some
artillery placed on the hill and with these he dispersed the enemy's
infantry; and the disorder was so complete that Niccolo began to
call back his son and all his men, and they took to flight towards
Borgo. And then began a great slaughter of men; none escaped but the
foremost of those who had fled or who hid themselves. The battle
continued until sunset, when the Patriarch gave his mind to
recalling his men and burying the dead, and afterwards a trophy was
erected.
[Footnote: 669. This passage does not seem to me to be in Leonardo's

hand, though it has hitherto been generally accepted as genuine. Not
only is the writing unlike his, but the spelling also is quite
different. I would suggest that this passage is a description of the
events of the battle drawn up for the Painter by order of the
Signoria, perhaps by some historian commissioned by them, to serve
as a scheme or programme of the work. The whole tenor of the style
seems to me to argue in favour of this theory; and besides, it would
be in no way surprising that such a document should have been
preserved among Leonardo's autographs.]
Allegorical representations referring to the duke of Milan

(670-673).
670.
Ermine with blood Galeazzo, between calm weather and a

representation of a tempest.
[Footnote: 670. Only the beginning of this text is legible; the

writing is much effaced and the sense is consequently obscure. It
seems to refer like the following passage to an allegorical
picture.]
671.
Il Moro with spectacles, and Envy depicted with False Report and
Justice black for il Moro.
Labour as having a branch of vine [_or_ a screw] in her hand.
672.
Il Moro as representing Good Fortune, with hair, and robes, and his
hands in front, and Messer Gualtieri taking him by the robes with a
respectful air from below, having come in from the front [5].
Again, Poverty in a hideous form running behind a youth. Il Moro

covers him with the skirt of his robe, and with his gilt sceptre he
threatens the monster.
A plant with its roots in the air to represent one who is at his
last;--a robe and Favour.
Of tricks [_or_ of magpies] and of burlesque poems [_or_ of

starlings].
Those who trust themselves to live near him, and who will be a large
crowd, these shall all die cruel deaths; and fathers and mothers
together with their families will be devoured and killed by cruel
creatures.
[Footnote: 1--10 have already been published by _Amoretti_ in

_Memorie Storiche_ cap. XII. He adds this note with regard to
Gualtieri: "_A questo M. Gualtieri come ad uomo generoso e benefico

scrive il Bellincioni un Sonetto (pag, 174) per chiedergli un

piacere; e 'l Tantio rendendo ragione a Lodovico il Moro, perche
pubblicasse le Rime del Bellincioni; ciò hammi imposto, gli dice:
l'humano fidele, prudente e sollicito executore delli tuoi
comandamenti Gualtero, che fa in tutte le cose ove tu possi far
utile, ogni studio vi metti._" A somewhat mysterious and evidently
allegorical composition--a pen and ink drawing--at Windsor, see PL
LVIII, contains a group of figures in which perhaps the idea is
worked out which is spoken of in the text, lines 1-5.]
673.
He was blacker than a hornet, his eyes were as red as a burning fire
and he rode on a tall horse six spans across and more than 20 long
with six giants tied up to his saddle-bow and one in his hand which
he gnawed with his teeth. And behind him came boars with tusks
sticking out of their mouths, perhaps ten spans.
Allegorical representations (674--678).
674.
Above the helmet place a half globe, which is to signify our

hemisphere, in the form of a world; on which let there be a peacock,
richly decorated, and with his tail spread over the group; and every
ornament belonging to the horse should be of peacock's feathers on a
gold ground, to signify the beauty which comes of the grace bestowed
on him who is a good servant.
On the shield a large mirror to signify that he who truly desires

favour must be mirrored in his virtues.
On the opposite side will be represented Fortitude, in like manner

in her place with her pillar in her hand, robed in white, to signify
... And all crowned; and Prudence with 3 eyes. The housing of the
horse should be of plain cloth of gold closely sprinkled with
peacock's eyes, and this holds good for all the housings of the
horse, and the man's dress. And the man's crest and his neck-chain
are of peacock's feathers on golden ground.
On the left side will be a wheel, the centre of which should be

attached to the centre of the horse's hinder thigh piece, and in the
centre Prudence is seen robed in red, Charity sitting in a fiery

chariot and with a branch of laurel in her hand, to signify the hope
which comes of good service.
[21] Messer Antonio Grimani of Venice companion of Antonio Maria

[23].
[Footnote: _Messer Antonio Gri_. His name thus abbreviated is, there
can be no doubt, Grimani. Antonio Grimani was the famous Doge who in
1499 commanded the Venetian fleet in battle against the Turks. But
after the abortive conclusion of the expedition--Ludovico being the
ally of the Turks who took possession of Friuli--, Grimani was driven
into exile; he went to live at Rome with his son Cardinal Domenico
Grimani. On being recalled to Venice he filled the office of Doge
from 1521 to 1523. _Antonio Maria_ probably means Antonio Maria
Grimani, the Patriarch of Aquileia.]
675.
Fame should be depicted as covered all over with tongues instead of

feathers, and in the figure of a bird.
676.
Pleasure and Pain represent as twins, since there never is one

without the other; and as if they were united back to back, since
they are contrary to each other.
[6] Clay, gold.
[Footnote: 7. _oro. fango_: gold, clay. These words stand below the
allegorical figure.]
If you take Pleasure know that he has behind him one who will deal
you Tribulation and Repentance.
[9] This represents Pleasure together with Pain, and show them as
twins because one is never apart from the other. They are back to
back because they are opposed to each other; and they exist as
contraries in the same body, because they have the same basis,
inasmuch as the origin of pleasure is labour and pain, and the
various forms of evil pleasure are the origin of pain. Therefore it
is here represented with a reed in his right hand which is useless
and without strength, and the wounds it inflicts are poisoned. In

Tuscany they are put to support beds, to signify that it is here

that vain dreams come, and here a great part of life is consumed. It
is here that much precious time is wasted, that is, in the morning,
when the mind is composed and rested, and the body is made fit to
begin new labours; there again many vain pleasures are enjoyed; both
by the mind in imagining impossible things, and by the body in
taking those pleasures that are often the cause of the failing of
life. And for these reasons the reed is held as their support.
[Footnote: 676. The pen and ink drawing on PI. LIX belongs to this
passage.]
[Footnote: 8. _tribolatione_. In the drawing caltrops may be seen

lying in the old man's right hand, others are falling and others
again are shewn on the ground. Similar caltrops are drawn in MS.
Tri. p. 98 and underneath them, as well as on page 96 the words
_triboli di ferro_ are written. From the accompanying text it
appears that they were intended to be scattered on the ground at the
bottom of ditches to hinder the advance of the enemy. Count Giulio
Porro who published a short account of the Trivulzio MS. in the
"_Archivio Storico Lombardo_", Anno VIII part IV (Dec. 31, 1881) has
this note on the passages treating of "_triboli_": "_E qui
aggiungerò che anni sono quando venne fabbricata la nuova
cavallerizza presso il castello di Milano, ne furono trovati due che
io ho veduto ed erano precisamente quali si trovano descritti e
disegnati da Leonardo in questo codice_".
There can therefore be no doubt that this means of defence was in

general use, whether it were originally Leonardo's invention or not.
The play on the word "_tribolatione_", as it occurs in the drawing
at Oxford, must then have been quite intelligible.]
[Footnote: 9--22. These lines, in the original, are written on the

left side of the page and refer to the figure shown on PI. LXI. Next
to it is placed the group of three figures given in PI. LX No. I.
Lines 21 and 22, which are written under it, are the only
explanation given.]
Evil-thinking is either Envy or Ingratitude.
677.
Envy must be represented with a contemptuous motion of the hand

towards heaven, because if she could she would use her strength
against God; make her with her face covered by a mask of fair
seeming; show her as wounded in the eye by a palm branch and by an
olive-branch, and wounded in the ear by laurel and myrtle, to
signify that victory and truth are odious to her. Many thunderbolts
should proceed from her to signify her evil speaking. Let her be
lean and haggard because she is in perpetual torment. Make her heart
gnawed by a swelling serpent, and make her with a quiver with
tongues serving as arrows, because she often offends with it. Give
her a leopard's skin, because this creature kills the lion out of
envy and by deceit. Give her too a vase in her hand full of flowers
and scorpions and toads and other venomous creatures; make her ride
upon death, because Envy, never dying, never tires of ruling. Make
her bridle, and load her with divers kinds of arms because all her
weapons are deadly.
Toleration.
Intolerable.
No sooner is Virtue born than Envy comes into the world to attack
it; and sooner will there be a body without a shadow than Virtue
without Envy.
[Footnote: The larger of the two drawings on PI. LXI is explained by

the first 21 lines of this passage. L. 22 and 23, which are written
above the space between the two drawings, do not seem to have any
reference to either. L. 24-27 are below the allegorical twin figure
which they serve to explain.]
678.
When Pluto's Paradise is opened, then there may be devils placed in

twelve pots like openings into hell. Here will be Death, the Furies,
ashes, many naked children weeping; living fires made of various
colours....
679.
John the Baptist

Saint Augustin
Saint Peter
Paul

Elisabeth
Saint Clara.
Bernardino
Our Lady Louis
Bonaventura
Anthony of Padua.
Saint Francis.
Francis,
Anthony, a lily and book;
Bernardino with the [monogram of] Jesus,
Louis with 3 fleur de lys on his breast and
the crown at his feet,
Bonaventura with Seraphim,
Saint Clara with the tabernacle,
Elisabeth with a Queen's crown.
[Footnote: 679. The text of the first six lines is written within a
square space of the same size as the copy here given. The names are
written in the margin following the order in which they are here
printed. In lines 7--12 the names of those saints are repeated of
whom it seemed necessary to point out the emblems.]
List of drawings.
680.
A head, full face, of a young man

with fine flowing hair,
Many flowers drawn from nature,
A head, full face, with curly hair,
Certain figures of Saint Jerome,
[6] The measurements of a figure,
Drawings of furnaces.
A head of the Duke,
[9] many designs for knots,
4 studies for the panel of Saint Angelo
A small composition of Girolamo da Fegline,
A head of Christ done with the pen,
[13] 8 Saint Sebastians,
Several compositions of Angels,
A chalcedony,
A head in profile with fine hair,
Some pitchers seen in(?) perspective,

Some machines for ships,

Some machines for waterworks,
A head, a portrait of Atalanta raising her
face;
The head of Geronimo da Fegline,
The head of Gian Francisco Borso,
Several throats of old women,
Several heads of old men,
Several nude figures, complete,
Several arms, eyes, feet, and positions,
A Madonna, finished,
Another, nearly in profile,
Head of Our Lady ascending into Heaven,
A head of an old man with long chin,
A head of a gypsy girl,
A head with a hat on,
A representation of the Passion, a cast,
A head of a girl with her hair gathered in a knot,
A head, with the brown hair dressed.
[Footnote: 680. This has already been published by AMORETTI _Memorie

storiche_ cap. XVI. His reading varies somewhat from that here
given, _e. g._ l. 5 and 6. _Certi Sangirolami in su d'una figura_;
and instead of I. 13. _Un San Bastiano_.]
[Footnote: 680. 9. _Molti disegni di gruppi_. VASARI in his life of

Leonardo (IV, 21, ed. MILANESI 1880) says: "_Oltreché perse tempo
fino a disegnare_ gruppi _di corde fatti con ordine, e che da un
capo seguissi tutto il resto fino all' altro, tanto che s'empiessi
un tondo; che se ne vede in istampa uno difficilissimo e molto
bello, e nel mezzo vi sono queste parole: Leonardus Vinci
Accademia_". _Gruppi_ must here be understood as a technical
expression for those twisted ornaments which are well known through
wood cuts. AMORETTI mentions six different ones in the Ambrosian
Library. I am indebted to M. DELABORDE for kindly informing me that
the original blocks of these are preserved in his department in the
Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. On the cover of these volumes is a
copy from one of them. The size of the original is 23 1/2
centimetres by 26 1/4. The centre portion of another is given on p.
361. G. Govi remarks on these ornaments (_Saggio_ p. 22): "_Codesti
gruppi eran probabilmente destinati a servir di modello a ferri da
rilegatori per adornar le cartelle degli scolari (?). Fregi
somigliantissimi a questi troviamo infatti impressi in oro sui

cartoni di vari volumi contemporanei, e li vediam pur figurare nelle

lettere iniziali di alcune edizioni del tempo._"
Dürer who copied them, omitting the inscription, added to the second
impressions his own monogram. In his diary he designates them simply
as "_Die sechs Knoten_" (see THAUSING, Life of A. Dürer I, 362,
363). In Leonardo's MSS. we find here and there little sketches or
suggestions for similar ornaments. Compare too G. MONGERI, _L'Arte
in Milano_, p. 315 where an ornament of the same character is given
from the old decorations of the vaulted ceiling of the Sacristy of
S. Maria delle Grazie.]
[Footnote: 680, 17. The meaning in which the word _coppi_, literally
pitchers, is here used I am unable to determine; but a change to
_copie_ seems to me too doubtful to be risked.]
681.
Stubborn rigour.
Doomed rigour.
[Footnote: See PI. LXII, No. 2, the two upper pen and ink drawings.
The originals, in the Windsor collection are slightly washed with
colour. The background is blue sky; the plough and the instrument
with the compass are reddish brown, the sun is tinted yellow].
682.
Obstacles cannot crush me

Every obstacle yields to stern resolve
He who is fixed to a star does not change
his mind.
[Footnote: This text is written to elucidate two sketches which were

obviously the first sketches for the drawings reproduced on PL LXII,
No. 2.]
683.
Ivy is [a type] of longevity.
[Footnote: In the original there is, near this text, a sketch of a

coat wreathed above the waist with ivy.]

684.
Truth the sun.

falsehood a mask.
innocence,
malignity.
Fire destroys falsehood,

that is sophistry, and
restores truth, driving out
darkness.
Fire may be represented as the destroy of

all sophistry, and as the
image and demonstration of truth;
because it is light and drives
out darkness which conceals
all essences [or subtle things].
[Footnote: See PI. LXIII. L. 1-8 are in the middle of the page; 1.
9-14 to the right below; 1. 15-22 below in the middle column. The
rest of the text is below the sketches on the left. There are some
other passages on this page relating to geometry.]
TRUTH.
Fire destroys all sophistry, that is deceit;

and maintains truth alone, that is gold.
Truth at last cannot be hidden.

Dissimulation is of no avail. Dissimulation is
to no purpose before
so great a judge.
Falsehood puts on a mask.
Nothing is hidden under the sun.
Fire is to represent truth because it

destroys all sophistry and lies; and the
mask is for lying and falsehood
which conceal truth.
685.

Movement will cease before we are

weary
of being useful.
Movement will fail sooner than usefulness.

Death sooner than I am never weary of
weariness. being useful,
In serving others I is a motto for carnval.
cannot do enough. Without fatigue.
No labour is
sufficient to tire me.
Hands into which

ducats and precious
stones fall like snow; they
never become tired by serving,
but this service is only for its
utility and not for our I am never weary
own benefit. of being useful.
Naturally
nature has so disposed me.
686.
This shall be placed in the

hand of Ingratitude.
Wood nourishes the fire that
consumes it.
687.
TO REPRESENT INGRATITUDE.
When the sun appears

which dispels darkness in
general, you put out the
light which dispelled it
for you in particular
for your need and convenience.

688.
On this side Adam and Eve on the other;

O misery of mankind, of how many things do
you make yourself the slave for money!
[Footnote: See PI. LXIV. The figures of Adam and Eve in the clouds
here alluded to would seem to symbolise their superiority to all
earthly needs.]
689.
Thus are base unions sundered.
[Footnote: A much blurred sketch is on the page by this text. It

seems to represent an unravelled plait or tissue.]
690.
Constancy does not begin, but is that

which perseveres.
[Footnote: A drawing in red chalk, also rubbed, which stands in the

original in the middle of this text, seems to me to be intended for
a sword hilt, held in a fist.]
691.
Love, Fear, and Esteem,--

Write these on three stones. Of servants.
692.
Prudence Strength.
693.
Fame alone raises herself to Heaven,

because virtuous things are in favour with God.
Disgrace should be represented upside

down, because all her deeds are contrary to
God and tend to hell.

694.
Short liberty.
695.
Nothing is so much to be feared as Evil

Report.
This Evil Report is born of life.
696.
Not to disobey.
697.
A felled tree which is shooting

again.
I am still hopeful.
A falcon,
Time.
[Footnote: I. _Albero tagliato_. This emblem was displayed during

the Carnival at Florence in 1513. See VASARI VI, 251, ed. MILANESI
1881. But the coincidence is probably accidental.]
698.
Truth here makes Falsehood torment

lying tongues.
699.
Such as harm is when it hurts me not,

is good which avails me not.
[Footnote: See PI. LX, No. 2. Compare this sketch with that on PI.
LXII, No. 2. Below the two lines of the text there are two more
lines: _li gùchi (giunchi) che ritégò le paglucole (pagliucole)
chelli (che li) anniegano_.]

700.
He who offends others, does not secure himself.
[Footnote: See PI. LX, No. 3.]
701.
Ingratitude.
[Footnote: See PI. LX, No. 4. Below the bottom sketches are the
unintelligible words "_sta stilli_." For "_Ingratitudo_" compare
also Nos. 686 and 687.]
702.
One's thoughts turn towards Hope.
[Footnote: 702. By the side of this passage is a sketch of

a cage with a bird sitting in it.]
Ornaments and Decorations for feasts (703-705).
703.
A bird, for a comedy.
[Footnote: The biographies say so much, and the author's notes say
so little of the invention attributed to Leonardo of making
artificial birds fly through the air, that the text here given is of
exceptional interest from being accompanied by a sketch. It is a
very slight drawing of a bird with outspread wings, which appears to
be sliding down a stretched string. Leonardo's flying machines and
his studies of the flight of birds will be referred to later.]
704.
A DRESS FOR THE CARNIVAL.
To make a beautiful dress cut it in thin cloth and give it an

odoriferous varnish, made of oil of turpentine and of varnish in
grain, with a pierced stencil, which must be wetted, that it may not
stick to the cloth; and this stencil may be made in a pattern of

knots which afterwards may be filled up with black and the ground
with white millet.[Footnote 7: The grains of black and white millet
would stick to the varnish and look like embroidery.]
[Footnote: Ser Giuliano, da Vinci the painter's brother, had been

commissioned, with some others, to order and to execute the garments
of the Allegorical figures for the Carnival at Florence in 1515--16;
VASARI however is incorrect in saying of the Florentine Carnival of
1513: "_equelli che feciono ed ordinarono gli abiti delle figure
furono Ser Piero da Vinci, padre di Lonardo, e Bernardino di
Giordano, bellissimi ingegni_" (See MILANESI'S ed. Voi. VI, pg.
251.)]
705.
Snow taken from the high peaks of mountains might be carried to hot
places and let to fall at festivals in open places at summer time.
*** End of Volume 1
The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci
Volume 2
Translated by Jean Paul Richter
1888
XI.
The notes on Sculpture.
Compared with the mass of manuscript treating of Painting, a very

small number of passages bearing on the practice and methods of

Sculpture are to be found scattered through the note books; these

are here given at the beginning of this section (Nos. 706-709).
There is less cause for surprise at finding that the equestrian
statue of Francesco Sforza is only incidentally spoken of; for,
although Leonardo must have worked at it for a long succession of
years, it is not in the nature of the case that it could have given
rise to much writing. We may therefore regard it as particularly
fortunate that no fewer than thirteen notes in the master's
handwriting can be brought together, which seem to throw light on
the mysterious history of this famous work. Until now writers on
Leonardo were acquainted only with the passages numbered 712, 719,
720, 722 and 723.
In arranging these notes on sculpture I have given the precedence to

those which treat of the casting of the monument, not merely because
they are the fullest, but more especially with a view to
reconstructing the monument, an achievement which really almost lies
within our reach by combining and comparing the whole of the
materials now brought to light, alike in notes and in sketches.
A good deal of the first two passages, Nos. 710 and 711, which refer
to this subject seems obscure and incomprehensible; still, they
supplement each other and one contributes in no small degree to the
comprehension of the other. A very interesting and instructive
commentary on these passages may be found in the fourth chapter of
Vasari's Introduzione della Scultura under the title "Come si fanno
i modelli per fare di bronzo le figure grandi e picciole, e come le
forme per buttarle; come si armino di ferri, e come si gettino di
metallo," &c. Among the drawings of models of the moulds for casting
we find only one which seems to represent the horse in the act of
galloping--No. 713. All the other designs show the horse as pacing
quietly and as these studies of the horse are accompanied by copious
notes as to the method of casting, the question as to the position
of the horse in the model finally selected, seems to be decided by
preponderating evidence. "Il cavallo dello Sforza"--C. Boito remarks
very appositely in the Saggio on page 26, "doveva sembrare fratello
al cavallo del Colleoni. E si direbbe che questo fosse figlio del
cavallo del Gattamelata, il quale pare figlio di uno dei quattro
cavalli che stavano forse sull' Arco di Nerone in Roma" (now at
Venice). The publication of the Saggio also contains the
reproduction of a drawing in red chalk, representing a horse walking
to the left and supported by a scaffolding, given here on Pl. LXXVI,
No. 1. It must remain uncertain whether this represents the model as

it stood during the preparations for casting it, or whether--as

seems to me highly improbable--this sketch shows the model as it was
exhibited in 1493 on the Piazza del Castello in Milan under a
triumphal arch, on the occasion of the marriage of the Emperor
Maximilian to Bianca Maria Sforza. The only important point here is
to prove that strong evidence seems to show that, of the numerous
studies for the equestrian statue, only those which represent the
horse pacing agree with the schemes of the final plans.
The second group of preparatory sketches, representing the horse as

galloping, must therefore be considered separately, a distinction
which, in recapitulating the history of the origin of the monument
seems justified by the note given under No. 720.
Galeazza Maria Sforza was assassinated in 1476 before his scheme for
erecting a monument to his father Francesco Sforza could be carried
into effect. In the following year Ludovico il Moro the young
aspirant to the throne was exiled to Pisa, and only returned to
Milan in 1479 when he was Lord (Governatore) of the State of Milan,
in 1480 after the minister Cecco Simonetta had been murdered. It may
have been soon after this that Ludovico il Moro announced a
competition for an equestrian statue, and it is tolerably certain
that Antonio del Pollajuolo took part in it, from this passage in
Vasari's Life of this artist: "E si trovo, dopo la morte sua, il
disegno e modello che a Lodovico Sforza egli aveva fatto per la
statua a cavallo di Francesco Sforza, duca di Milano; il quale
disegno e nel nostro Libro, in due modi: in uno egli ha sotto
Verona; nell'altro, egli tutto armato, e sopra un basamento pieno di
battaglie, fa saltare il cavallo addosso a un armato; ma la cagione
perche non mettesse questi disegni in opera, non ho gia potuto
sapere." One of Pollajuolo's drawings, as here described, has lately
been discovered by Senatore Giovanni Morelli in the Munich
Pinacothek. Here the profile of the horseman is a portrait of
Francesco Duke of Milan, and under the horse, who is galloping to
the left, we see a warrior thrown and lying on the ground; precisely
the same idea as we find in some of Leonardo's designs for the
monument, as on Pl. LXVI, LXVII, LXVIII, LXIX and LXXII No. 1; and,
as it is impossible to explain this remarkable coincidence by
supposing that either artist borrowed it from the other, we can only
conclude that in the terms of the competition the subject proposed
was the Duke on a horse in full gallop, with a fallen foe under its
hoofs.

Leonardo may have been in the competition there and then, but the
means for executing the monument do not seem to have been at once
forthcoming. It was not perhaps until some years later that Leonardo
in a letter to the Duke (No. 719) reminded him of the project for
the monument. Then, after he had obeyed a summons to Milan, the plan
seems to have been so far modified, perhaps in consequence of a
remonstrance on the part of the artist, that a pacing horse was
substituted for one galloping, and it may have been at the same time
that the colossal dimensions of the statue were first decided on.
The designs given on Pl. LXX, LXXI, LXXII, 2 and 3, LXXIII and LXXIV
and on pp. 4 and 24, as well as three sketches on Pl. LXIX may be
studied with reference to the project in its new form, though it is
hardly possible to believe that in either of these we see the design
as it was actually carried out. It is probable that in Milan
Leonardo worked less on drawings, than in making small models of wax
and clay as preparatory to his larger model. Among the drawings
enumerated above, one in black chalk, Pl. LXXIII--the upper sketch
on the right hand side, reminds us strongly of the antique statue of
Marcus Aurelius. If, as it would seem, Leonardo had not until then
visited Rome, he might easily have known this statue from drawings
by his former master and friend Verrocchio, for Verrocchio had been
in Rome for a long time between 1470 and 1480. In 1473 Pope Sixtus
IV had this antique equestrian statue restored and placed on a new
pedestal in front of the church of San Giovanni in Luterano.
Leonardo, although he was painting independently as early as in 1472
is still spoken of as working in Verrocchio's studio in 1477. Two
years later the Venetian senate decided on erecting an equestrian
statue to Colleoni; and as Verrocchio, to whom the work was
entrusted, did not at once move from Florence to Venice--where he
died in 1488 before the casting was completed--but on the contrary
remained in Florence for some years, perhaps even till 1485,
Leonardo probably had the opportunity of seeing all his designs for
the equestrian statue at Venice and the red chalk drawing on Pl.
LXXIV may be a reminiscence of it.
The pen and ink drawing on Pl. LXXII, No. 3, reminds us of

Donatello's statue of Gattamelata at Padua. However it does not
appear that Leonardo was ever at Padua before 1499, but we may
conclude that he took a special interest in this early bronze statue
and the reports he could procure of it, form an incidental remark
which is to be found in C. A. 145a; 432a, and which will be given in
Vol. II under Ricordi or Memoranda. Among the studies--in the widest
sense of the word--made in preparation statue we may include the

Anatomy of the Horse which Lomazzo and Vas mention; the most
important parts of this work still exist in the Queen's Li Windsor.
It was beyond a doubt compiled by Leonardo when at Milan; only
interesting records to be found among these designs are reproduced
in Nos. 716a but it must be pointed out that out of 40 sheets of
studies of the movements of the belonging to that treatise, a horse
in full gallop occurs but once.
If we may trust the account given by Paulus Jovius--about l527--

Leonardo's horse was represented as "vehementer incitatus et
anhelatus". Jovius had probably seen the model exhibited at Milan;
but, need we, in fact, infer from this description that the horse
was galloping? Compare Vasari's description of the Gattamelata
monument at Padua: "Egli [Donatello] vi ando ben volentieri, e fece
il cavallo di bronzo, che e in sulla piazza di Sant Antonio, nel
quale si dimostra lo sbuffamento ed il fremito del cavallo, ed il
grande animo e la fierezza vivacissimamente espressa dall'arte nella
figura che lo cavalca".
These descriptions, it seems to me, would only serve to mark the

difference between the work of the middle ages and that of the
renaissance.
We learn from a statement of Sabba da Castiglione that, when Milan

was taken by the French in 1499, the model sustained some injury;
and this informant, who, however is not invariably trustworthy, adds
that Leonardo had devoted fully sixteen years to this work (la forma
del cavallo, intorno a cui Leonardo avea sedici anni continui
consumati). This often-quoted passage has given ground for an
assumption, which has no other evidence to support it, that Leonardo
had lived in Milan ever since 1483. But I believe it is nearer the
truth to suppose that this author's statement alludes to the fact
that about sixteen years must have past since the competition in
which Leonardo had taken part.
I must in these remarks confine myself strictly to the task in hand

and give no more of the history of the Sforza monument than is
needed to explain the texts and drawings I have been able to
reproduce. In the first place, with regard to the drawings, I may
observe that they are all, with the following two exceptions, in the
Queen's Library at Windsor Castle; the red chalk drawing on Pl.
LXXVI No. 1 is in the MS. C. A. (see No. 7l2) and the fragmentary
pen and ink drawing on page 4 is in the Ambrosian Library. The

drawings from Windsor on Pl. LXVI have undergone a trifling

reduction from the size of the originals.
There can no longer be the slightest doubt that the well-known

engraving of several horsemen (Passavant, Le Peintre-Graveur, Vol.
V, p. 181, No. 3) is only a copy after original drawings by
Leonardo, executed by some unknown engraver; we have only to compare
the engraving with the facsimiles of drawings on Pl. LXV, No. 2, Pl.
LXVII, LXVIII and LXIX which, it is quite evident, have served as
models for the engraver.
On Pl. LXV No. 1, in the larger sketch to the right hand, only the
base is distinctly visible, the figure of the horseman is effaced.
Leonardo evidently found it unsatisfactory and therefore rubbed it
out.
The base of the monument--the pedestal for the equestrian statue--is

repeatedly sketched on a magnificent plan. In the sketch just
mentioned it has the character of a shrine or aedicula to contain a
sarcophagus. Captives in chains are here represented on the
entablature with their backs turned to that portion of the monument
which more
strictly constitutes the pedestal of the horse. The lower portion of

the aedicula is surrounded by columns. In the pen and ink drawing
Pl. LXVI--the lower drawing on the right hand side--the sarcophagus
is shown between the columns, and above the entablature is a plinth
on which the horse stands. But this arrangement perhaps seemed to
Leonardo to lack solidity, and in the little sketch on the left
hand, below, the sarcophagus is shown as lying under an arched
canopy. In this the trophies and the captive warriors are detached
from the angles. In the first of these two sketches the place for
the trophies is merely indicated by a few strokes; in the third
sketch on the left the base is altogether broader, buttresses and
pinnacles having been added so as to form three niches. The black
chalk drawing on Pl. LXVIII shows a base in which the angles are
formed by niches with pilasters. In the little sketch to the extreme
left on Pl. LXV, No. 1, the equestrian statue serves to crown a
circular temple somewhat resembling Bramante's tempietto of San
Pietro in Montario at Rome, while the sketch above to the right
displays an arrangement faintly reminding us of the tomb of the
Scaligers in Verona. The base is thus constructed of two platforms
or slabs, the upper one considerably smaller than the lower one

which is supported on flying buttresses with pinnacles.
On looking over the numerous studies in which the horse is not

galloping but merely walking forward, we find only one drawing for
the pedestal, and this, to accord with the altered character of the
statue, is quieter and simpler in style (Pl. LXXIV). It rises almost
vertically from the ground and is exactly as long as the pacing
horse. The whole base is here arranged either as an independent
baldaquin or else as a projecting canopy over a recess in which the
figure of the deceased Duke is seen lying on his sarcophagus; in the
latter case it was probably intended as a tomb inside a church.
Here, too, it was intended to fill the angles with trophies or
captive warriors. Probably only No. 724 in the text refers to the
work for the base of the monument.
If we compare the last mentioned sketch with the description of a

plan for an equestrian monument to Gian Giacomo Trivulzio (No. 725)
it seems by no means impossible that this drawing is a preparatory
study for the very monument concerning which the manuscript gives us
detailed information. We have no historical record regarding this
sketch nor do the archives in the Trivulzio Palace give us any
information. The simple monument to the great general in San Nazaro
Maggiore in Milan consists merely of a sarcophagus placed in recess
high on the wall of an octagonal chapel. The figure of the warrior
is lying on the sarcophagus, on which his name is inscribed; a piece
of sculpture which is certainly not Leonardo's work. Gian Giacomo
Trivulzio died at Chartres in 1518, only five months before
Leonardo, and it seems to me highly improbable that this should have
been the date of this sketch; under these circumstances it would
have been done under the auspices of Francis I, but the Italian
general was certainly not in favour with the French monarch at the
time. Gian Giacomo Trivulzio was a sworn foe to Ludovico il Moro,
whom he strove for years to overthrow. On the 6th September 1499 he
marched victorious into Milan at the head of a French army. In a
short time, however, he was forced to quit Milan again when Ludovico
il Moro bore down upon the city with a force of Swiss troops. On the
15th of April following, after defeating Lodovico at Novara,
Trivulzio once more entered Milan as a Conqueror, but his hopes of
becoming _Governatore_ of the place were soon wrecked by intrigue.
This victory and triumph, historians tell us, were signalised by
acts of vengeance against the dethroned Sforza, and it might have
been particularly flattering to him that the casting and
construction of the Sforza monument were suspended for the time.

It must have been at this moment--as it seems to me--that he

commissioned the artist to prepare designs for his own monument,
which he probably intended should find a place in the Cathedral or
in some other church. He, the husband of Margherita di Nicolino
Colleoni, would have thought that he had a claim to the same
distinction and public homage as his less illustrious connection had
received at the hands of the Venetian republic. It was at this very
time that Trivulzio had a medal struck with a bust portrait of
himself and the following remarkable inscription on the reverse:_
DEO FAVENTE--1499--DICTVS--10--IA--EXPVLIT--LVDOVICV--SF--
(Sfortiam) DVC-- (ducem) MLI (Mediolani)--NOIE
(nomine)--REGIS--FRANCORVM--EODEM--ANN --(anno) RED'T (redit)--LVS
(Ludovicus)--SVPERATVS ET CAPTVS--EST--AB--EO. _In the Library of
the Palazzo Trivulzio there is a MS. of Callimachus Siculus written
at the end of the XVth or beginning of the XVIth century. At the
beginning of this MS. there is an exquisite illuminated miniature of
an equestrian statue with the name of the general on the base; it is
however very doubtful whether this has any connection with
Leonardo's design.
Nos. 731-740, which treat of casting bronze, have probably a very

indirect bearing on the arrangements made for casting the equestrian
statue of Francesco Sforza. Some portions evidently relate to the
casting of cannon. Still, in our researches about Leonardo's work on
the monument, we may refer to them as giving us some clue to the
process of bronze casting at that period.
Some practical hints (706-709).
7O6.
OF A STATUE.
If you wish to make a figure in marble, first make one of clay, and
when you have finished it, let it dry and place it in a case which
should be large enough, after the figure is taken out of it, to
receive also the marble, from which you intend to reveal the figure
in imitation of the one in clay. After you have put the clay figure
into this said case, have little rods which will exactly slip in to
the holes in it, and thrust them so far in at each hole that each
white rod may touch the figure in different parts of it. And colour
the portion of the rod that remains outside black, and mark each rod

and each hole with a countersign so that each may fit into its
place. Then take the clay figure out of this case and put in your
piece of marble, taking off so much of the marble that all your rods
may be hidden in the holes as far as their marks; and to be the
better able to do this, make the case so that it can be lifted up;
but the bottom of it will always remain under the marble and in this
way it can be lifted with tools with great ease.
707.
Some have erred in teaching sculptors to measure the limbs of their

figures with threads as if they thought that these limbs were
equally round in every part where these threads were wound about
them.
708.
MEASUREMENT AND DIVISION OF A STATUE.
Divide the head into 12 degrees, and each degree divide into 12
points, and each point into 12 minutes, and the minutes into minims
and the minims into semi minims.
Degree--point--minute--minim.
709.
Sculptured figures which appear in motion, will, in their standing

position, actually look as if they were falling forward.
[Footnote: _figure di rilievo_. Leonardo applies this term

exclusively to wholly detached figures, especially to those standing
free. This note apparently refers to some particular case, though we
have no knowledge of what that may have been. If we suppose it to
refer to the first model of the equestrian statue of Francesco
Sforza (see the introduction to the notes on Sculpture) this
observation may be regarded as one of his arguments for abandoning
the first scheme of the Sforza Monument, in which the horse was to
be galloping (see page 2). It is also in favour of this theory that
the note is written in a manuscript volume already completed in
1492. Leonardo's opinions as to the shortcomings of plastic works
when compared with paintings are given under No. 655 and 656.]

Notes on the casting of the Sforza monument (710-715).
710.
Three braces which bind the mould.
[If you want to make simple casts quickly, make them in a box of
river sand wetted with vinegar.]
[When you shall have made the mould upon the horse you must make the
thickness of the metal in clay.]
Observe in alloying how many hours are wanted for each

hundredweight. [In casting each one keep the furnace and its fire
well stopped up.] [Let the inside of all the moulds be wetted with
linseed oil or oil of turpentine, and then take a handful of
powdered borax and Greek pitch with aqua vitae, and pitch the mould
over outside so that being under ground the damp may not [damage
it?]
[To manage the large mould make a model of the small mould, make a
small room in proportion.]
[Make the vents in the mould while it is on the horse.]
Hold the hoofs in the tongs, and cast them with fish glue. Weigh the
parts of the mould and the quantity of metal it will take to fill
them, and give so much to the furnace that it may afford to each
part its amount of metal; and this you may know by weighing the clay
of each part of the mould to which the quantity in the furnace must
correspond. And this is done in order that the furnace for the legs
when filled may not have to furnish metal from the legs to help out
the head, which would be impossible. [Cast at the same casting as
the horse the little door]
[Footnote: The importance of the notes included under this number is

not diminished by the fact that they have been lightly crossed out
with red chalk. Possibly they were the first scheme for some fuller
observations which no longer exist; or perhaps they were crossed out
when Leonardo found himself obliged to give up the idea of casting
the equestrian statue. In the original the first two sketches are
above l. 1, and the third below l. 9.]

711.
THE MOULD FOR THE HORSE.
Make the horse on legs of iron, strong and well set on a good
foundation; then grease it and cover it with a coating, leaving each
coat to dry thoroughly layer by layer; and this will thicken it by
the breadth of three fingers. Now fix and bind it with iron as may
be necessary. Moreover take off the mould and then make the
thickness. Then fill the mould by degrees and make it good
throughout; encircle and bind it with its irons and bake it inside
where it has to touch the bronze.
OF MAKING THE MOULD IN PIECES.
Draw upon the horse, when finished, all the pieces of the mould with
which you wish to cover the horse, and in laying on the clay cut it
in every piece, so that when the mould is finished you can take it
off, and then recompose it in its former position with its joins, by
the countersigns.
The square blocks _a b_ will be between the cover and the core, that
is in the hollow where the melted bronze is to be; and these square
blocks of bronze will support the intervals between the mould and
the cover at an equal distance, and for this reason these squares
are of great importance.
The clay should be mixed with sand.
Take wax, to return [what is not used] and to pay for what is used.
Dry it in layers.
Make the outside mould of plaster, to save time in drying and the
expense in wood; and with this plaster enclose the irons [props]
both outside and inside to a thickness of two fingers; make terra
cotta. And this mould can be made in one day; half a boat load of
plaster will serve you.
Good.
Dam it up again with glue and clay, or white of egg, and bricks and
rubbish.

[Footnote: See Pl. LXXV. The figure "40," close to the sketch in the
middle of the page between lines 16 and 17 has been added by a
collector's hand.
In the original, below line 21, a square piece of the page has been
cut out about 9 centimetres by 7 and a blank piece has been gummed
into the place.
Lines 22-24 are written on the margin. l. 27 and 28 are close to the
second marginal sketch. l. 42 is a note written above the third
marginal sketch and on the back of this sheet is the text given as
No. 642. Compare also No. 802.]
712.
All the heads of the large nails.
[Footnote: See Pl. LXXVI, No. i. This drawing has already been
published in the "_Saggio delle Opere di L. da Vinci_." Milano 1872,
Pl. XXIV, No. i. But, for various reasons I cannot regard the
editor's suggestions as satisfactory. He says: "_Veggonsi le
armature di legname colle quali forse venne sostenuto il modello,
quando per le nozze di Bianca Maria Sforza con Massimiliano
imperatore, esso fu collocato sotto un arco trionfale davanti al
Castello_."
713.
These bindings go inside.
714.
Salt may be made from human excrements, burnt and calcined, made
into lees and dried slowly at a fire, and all the excrements produce
salt in a similar way and these salts when distilled, are very
strong.
[Footnote: VASARI repeatedly states, in the fourth chapter of his

_Introduzione della Scultura_, that in preparing to cast bronze
statues horse-dung was frequently used by sculptors. If,
notwithstanding this, it remains doubtful whether I am justified in
having introduced here this text of but little interest, no such

doubt can be attached to the sketch which accompanies it.]
715.
METHOD OF FOUNDING AGAIN.
This may be done when the furnace is made [Footnote: this note is
written below the sketches.] strong and bruised.
Models for the horse of the Sforza monument (716-718).
7l6.
Messer Galeazzo's big genet
717.
Messer Galeazzo's Sicilian horse.
[Footnote: These notes are by the side of a drawing of a horse with

figured measurements.]
718.
Measurement of the Sicilian horse the leg from behind, seen in

front, lifted and extended.
[Footnote: There is no sketch belonging to this passage. Galeazze

here probably means Galeazze di San Severino, the famous captain who
married Bianca the daughter of Ludovico il Moro.]
Occasional references to the Sforza monument (719-724).
719.
Again, the bronze horse may be taken in hand, which is to be to the

immortal glory and eternal honour of the happy memory of the prince
your father, and of the illustrious house of Sforza.
[Footnote: The letter from which this passage is here extracted will
be found complete in section XXI. (see the explanation of it, on
page 2).]

720.
On the 23rd of April 1490 I began this book, and recommenced the
horse.
721.
There is to be seen, in the mountains of Parma and Piacenza, a

multitude of shells and corals full of holes, still sticking to the
rocks, and when I was at work on the great horse for Milan, a large
sackful of them, which were found thereabout, was brought to me into
my workshop, by certain peasants.
722.
Believe me, Leonardo the Florentine, who has to do the equestrian

bronze statue of the Duke Francesco that he does not need to care
about it, because he has work for all his life time, and, being so
great a work, I doubt whether he can ever finish it. [Footnote: This
passage is quoted from a letter to a committee at Piacenza for whom
Leonardo seems to have undertaken to execute some work. The letter
is given entire in section XXL; in it Leonardo remonstrates as to
some unreasonable demands.]
723.
Of the horse I will say nothing because I know the times. [Footnote:
This passage occurs in a rough copy of a letter to Ludovico il Moro,
without date (see below among the letters).]
724.
During ten years the works on the marbles have been going on I will
not wait for my payment beyond the time, when my works are finished.
[Footnote: This possibly refers to the works for the pedestal of the
equestrian statue concerning which we have no farther information in
the MSS. See p. 6.]
The project of the Trivulzio monument.
725.
THE MONUMENT TO MESSER GIOVANNI JACOMO DA TREVULZO.

[2] Cost of the making and materials for the horse [5].
[Footnote: In the original, lines 2-5, 12-14, 33-35, are written on

the margin. This passage has been recently published by G. Govi in
Vol. V, Ser. 3a, of _Transunti, Reale Accademia dei Linea, sed. del
5 Giugno, 1881,_ with the following introductory note: _"Desidero
intanto che siano stampati questi pochi frammenti perche so che sono
stati trascritti ultimamente, e verranno messi in luce tra poco
fuori d'Italia. Li ripubblichi pure chi vuole, ma si sappia almeno
che anche tra noi si conoscevano, e s'eran raccolti da anni per
comporne, quando che fosse, una edizione ordinata degli scritti di
Leonardo."_
The learned editor has left out line 22 and has written 3 _pie_ for
8 _piedi_ in line 25. There are other deviations of less importance
from the original.]
A courser, as large as life, with the rider requires for the cost of
the metal, duc. 500.
And for cost of the iron work which is inside the model, and
charcoal, and wood, and the pit to cast it in, and for binding the
mould, and including the furnace where it is to be cast ... duc.
200.
To make the model in clay and then in wax......... duc. 432.
To the labourers for polishing it when it is cast. ....... duc. 450.
in all. . duc. 1582.
[12] Cost of the marble of the monument [14].
Cost of the marble according to the drawing. The piece of marble

under the horse which is 4 braccia long, 2 braccia and 2 inches wide
and 9 inches thick 58 hundredweight, at 4 Lire and 10 Soldi per
hundredweight.. duc. 58.
And for 13 braccia and 6 inches of cornice, 7 in. wide and 4 in.
thick, 24 hundredweight....... duc. 24.
And for the frieze and architrave, which is 4 br. and 6 in. long, 2

br. wide and 6 in. thick, 29 hundredweight., duc. 20.
And for the capitals made of metal, which are 8, 5 inches in. square
and 2 in. thick, at the price of 15 ducats each, will come to......
duc. 122.
And for 8 columns of 2 br. 7 in., 4 1/2 in. thick, 20 hundredweight

duc. 20.
And for 8 bases which are 5 1/2 in. square and 2 in. high 5 hund'..
duc. 5.
And for the slab of the tombstone 4 br. io in. long, 2 br. 4 1/2 in.
wide 36 hundredweight....... duc. 36.
And for 8 pedestal feet each 8 br. long and 6 1/2 in. wide and 6 1/2
in. thick, 20 hundredweight come to... duc. 20.
And for the cornice below which is 4 br. and 10 in. long, and 2 br.
and 5 in. wide, and 4 in. thick, 32 hund'.. duc. 32.
And for the stone of which the figure of the deceased is to be made
which is 3 br. and 8 in. long, and 1 br. and 6 in. wide, and 9 in.
thick, 30 hund'.. duc. 30.
And for the stone on which the figure lies which is 3 br. and 4 in.
long and 1 br. and 2 in., wide and 4 1/2 in. thick duc. 16.
And for the squares of marble placed between the pedestals which are
8 and are 9 br. long and 9 in. wide, and 3 in. thick, 8
hundredweight . . . duc. 8. in all. . duc. 389.
[33]Cost of the work in marble[35].
Round the base on which the horse stands there are 8 figures at 25
ducats each ............ duc. 200.
And on the same base there are 8 festoons with some other ornaments,
and of these there are 4 at the price of 15 ducats each, and 4 at
the price of 8 ducats each ....... duc. 92.
And for squaring the stones duc. 6.

Again, for the large cornice which goes below the base on which the
horse stands, which is 13 br. and 6 in., at 2 due. per br. ......
duc. 27.
And for 12 br. of frieze at 5 due. per br. ........... duc. 60.
And for 12 br. of architrave at 1 1/2 duc. per br. ....... duc. 18.
And for 3 rosettes which will be the soffit of the monument, at 20

ducats each .......... duc. 60.
And for 8 fluted columns at 8 ducats each ......... duc. 64.
And for 8 bases at 1 ducat each, duc. 8.
And for 8 pedestals, of which 4 are at 10 duc. each, which go above

the angles; and 4 at 6 duc. each .. duc. 64.
And for squaring and carving the moulding of the pedestals at 2 duc.
each, and there are 8 .... duc. 16.
And for 6 square blocks with figures and trophies, at 25 duc. each
.. duc. 150.
And for carving the moulding of the stone under the figure of the
deceased .......... duc. 40.
For the statue of the deceased, to do it well .......... duc. 100.
For 6 harpies with candelabra, at 25 ducats each ......... duc. 150.
For squaring the stone on which the statue lies, and carving the
moulding ............ duc. 20.
in all .. duc. 1075.
The sum total of every thing added together amount to ...... duc.
3046.
726.
MINT AT ROME.

It can also be made without a spring. But the screw above must
always be joined to the part of the movable sheath: [Margin note:
The mint of Rome.] [Footnote: See Pl. LXXVI. This passage is taken
from a note book which can be proved to have been used in Rome.]
All coins which do not have the rim complete, are not to be accepted
as good; and to secure the perfection of their rim it is requisite
that, in the first place, all the coins should be a perfect circle;
and to do this a coin must before all be made perfect in weight, and
size, and thickness. Therefore have several plates of metal made of
the same size and thickness, all drawn through the same gauge so as
to come out in strips. And out of [24] these strips you will stamp
the coins, quite round, as sieves are made for sorting chestnuts
[27]; and these coins can then be stamped in the way indicated
above; &c.
[31] The hollow of the die must be uniformly wider than the lower,
but imperceptibly [35].
This cuts the coins perfectly round and of the exact thickness, and
weight; and saves the man who cuts and weighs, and the man who makes
the coins round. Hence it passes only through the hands of the
gauger and of the stamper, and the coins are very superior.
[Footnote: See Pl. LXXVI No. 2. The text of lines 31-35 stands
parallel 1. 24-27.
Farther evidence of Leonardo's occupations and engagements at Rome

under Pope Leo X. may be gathered from some rough copies of letters
which will be found in this volume. Hitherto nothing has been known
of his work in Rome beyond some doubtful, and perhaps mythical,
statements in Vasari.]
727.
POWDER FOR MEDALS.
The incombustible growth of soot on wicks reduced to powder, burnt

tin and all the metals, alum, isinglass, smoke from a brass forge,
each ingredient to be moistened, with aqua vitae or malmsey or
strong malt vinegar, white wine or distilled extract of turpentine,
or oil; but there should be little moisture, and cast in moulds.
[Margin note: On the coining of medals (727. 728).] [Footnote: The
meaning of _scagliuolo_ in this passage is doubtful.]

728.
OF TAKING CASTS OF MEDALS.
A paste of emery mixed with aqua vitae, or iron filings with

vinegar, or ashes of walnut leaves, or ashes of straw very finely
powdered.
[Footnote: The meaning of _scagliuolo_ in this passage is doubtful.]
The diameter is given in the lead enclosed; it is beaten with a

hammer and several times extended; the lead is folded and kept
wrapped up in parchment so that the powder may not be spilt; then
melt the lead, and the powder will be on the top of the melted lead,
which must then be rubbed between two plates of steel till it is
thoroughly pulverised; then wash it with aqua fortis, and the
blackness of the iron will be dissolved leaving the powder clean.
Emery in large grains may be broken by putting it on a cloth many

times doubled, and hit it sideways with the hammer, when it will
break up; then mix it little by little and it can be founded with
ease; but if you hold it on the anvil you will never break it, when
it is large.
Any one who grinds smalt should do it on plates of tempered steel

with a cone shaped grinder; then put it in aqua fortis, which melts
away the steel that may have been worked up and mixed with the
smalt, and which makes it black; it then remains purified and clean;
and if you grind it on porphyry the porphyry will work up and mix
with the smalt and spoil it, and aqua fortis will never remove it
because it cannot dissolve the porphyry.
If you want a fine blue colour dissolve the smalt made with tartar,
and then remove the salt.
Vitrified brass makes a fine red.
729.
STUCCO.
Place stucco over the prominence of the..... which may be composed

of Venus and Mercury, and lay it well over that prominence of the
thickness of the side of a knife, made with the ruler and cover this
with the bell of a still, and you will have again the moisture with
which you applied the paste. The rest you may dry [Margin note: On
stucco (729. 730).] [Footnote: In this passage a few words have been
written in a sort of cipher--that is to say backwards; as in l. 3
_erenev_ for _Venere_, l. 4 _oirucrem_ for Mercurio, l. 12 _il
orreve co ecarob_ for _il everro (?) co borace_. The meaning of the
word before _"di giesso"_ in l. 1 is unknown; and the sense, in
which _sagoma_ is used here and in other passages is obscure.--
_Venere_ and _Mercurio_ may mean 'marble' and 'lime', of which
stucco is composed.
12. The meaning of _orreve_ is unknown.]
well; afterwards fire it, and beat it or burnish it with a good

burnisher, and make it thick towards the side.
STUCCO.
Powder ... with borax and water to a paste, and make stucco of it,
and then heat it so that it may dry, and then varnish it, with fire,
so that it shines well.
730.
STUCCO FOR MOULDING.
Take of butter 6 parts, of wax 2 parts, and as much fine flour as

when put with these 2 things melted, will make them as firm as wax
or modelling clay.
GLUE.
Take mastic, distilled turpentine and white lead.
On bronze casting generally (731-740).
731.
TO CAST.
Tartar burnt and powdered with plaster and cast cause the plaster to

hold together when it is mixed up again; and then it will dissolve

in water.
732.
TO CAST BRONZE IN PLASTER.
Take to every 2 cups of plaster 1 of ox-horns burnt, mix them

together and make your cast with it.
733.
When you want to take a cast in wax, burn the scum with a candle,
and the cast will come out without bubbles.
734.
2 ounces of plaster to a pound of metal;-- walnut, which makes it

like the curve.
[Footnote: The second part of this is quite obscure.]
735.
[Dried earth 16 pounds, 100 pounds of metal wet clay 20,--of wet
100,-half,- which increases 4 Ibs. of water,--1 of wax, 1 Ib. of
metal, a little less,-the scrapings of linen with earth, measure for
measure.] [Footnote: The translation is given literally, but the
meaning is quite obscure.]
736.
Such as the mould is, so will the cast be.
737.
HOW CASTS OUGHT TO BE POLISHED.
Make a bunch of iron wire as thick as thread, and scrub them with
[this and] water; hold a bowl underneath that it may not make a mud
below.
HOW TO REMOVE THE ROUGH EDGES FROM BRONZE.

Make an iron rod, after the manner of a large chisel, and with this
rub over those seams on the bronze which remain on the casts of the
guns, and which are caused by the joins in the mould; but make the
tool heavy enough, and let the strokes be long and broad.
TO FACILITATE MELTING.
First alloy part of the metal in the crucible, then put it in the
furnace, and this being in a molten state will assist in beginning
to melt the copper.
TO PREVENT THE COPPER COOLING IN THE FURNACE.
When the copper cools in the furnace, be ready, as soon as you

perceive it, to cut it with a long stick while it is still in a
paste; or if it is quite cold cut it as lead is cut with broad and
large chisels.
IF YOU HAVE TO MAKE A LARGE CAST.
If you have to make a cast of a hundred thousand pounds do it with

two furnaces and with 2000 pounds in each, or as much as 3000 pounds
at most.
738.
HOW TO PROCEED TO BREAK A LARGE MASS OF BRONZE.
If you want to break up a large mass of bronze, first suspend it,

and then make round it a wall on the four sides, like a trough of
bricks, and make a great fire therein. When it is quite red hot give
it a blow with a heavy weight raised above it, and with great force.
739.
TO COMBINE LEAD WITH OTHER METAL.
If you wish for economy in combining lead with the metal in order to
lessen the amount of tin which is necessary in the metal, first
alloy the lead with the tin and then add the molten copper.
How TO MELT [METAL] IN A FURNACE.

The furnace should be between four well founded pillars.
OF THE THICKNESS OF THE COATING.
The coating should not be more than two fingers thick, it should be
laid on in four thicknesses over fine clay and then well fixed, and
it should be fired only on the inside and then carefully covered
with ashes and cow's dung.
OF THE THICKNESS OF THE GUN.
The gun being made to carry 600 Ibs. of ball and more, by this rule
you will take the measure of the diameter of the ball and divide it
into 6 parts and one of these parts will be its thickness at the
muzzle; but at the breech it must always be half. And if the ball is
to be 700 lbs., 1/7th of the diameter of the ball must be its
thickness in front; and if the ball is to be 800, the eighth of its
diameter in front; and if 900, 1/8th and 1/2 [3/16], and if 1000,
1/9th.
OF THE LENGTH OF THE BODY OF THE GUN.
If you want it to throw a ball of stone, make the length of the gun
to be 6, or as much as 7 diameters of the ball; and if the ball is
to be of iron make it as much as 12 balls, and if the ball is to be
of lead, make it as much as 18 balls. I mean when the gun is to have
the mouth fitted to receive 600 lbs. of stone ball, and more.
OF THE THICKNESS OF SMALL GUNS.
The thickness at the muzzle of small guns should be from a half to

one third of the diameter of the ball, and the length from 30 to 36
balls.
740.
OF LUTING THE FURNACE WITHIN.
The furnace must be luted before you put the metal in it, with earth
from Valenza, and over that with ashes.
[Footnote 1. 2.: _Terra di Valenza_.--Valenza is north of

Alessandria on the Po.]
OF RESTORING THE METAL WHEN IT IS BECOMING COOL.
When you see that the bronze is congealing take some willow-wood cut
in small chips and make up the fire with it.
THE CAUSE OF ITS CURDLING.
I say that the cause of this congealing often proceeds from too much
fire, or from ill-dried wood.
TO KNOW THE CONDITION OF THE FIRE.
You may know when the fire is good and fit for your purpose by a
clear flame, and if you see the tips of the flames dull and ending
in much smoke do not trust it, and particularly when the flux metal
is almost fluid.
OF ALLOYING THE METAL.
Metal for guns must invariably be made with 6 or even 8 per cent,
that is 6 of tin to one hundred of copper, for the less you put in,
the stronger will the gun be.
WHEN THE TIN SHOULD BE ADDED TO THE COPPER.
The tin should be put in with the copper when the copper is reduced
to a fluid.
HOW TO HASTEN THE MELTING.
You can hasten the melting when 2/3ds of the copper is fluid; you
can then, with a stick of chestnut-wood, repeatedly stir what of
copper remains entire amidst what is melted.
_Introductory Observations on the Architectural Designs (XII), and

Writings on Architecture (XIII)._
_Until now very little has been known regarding Leonardo's labours
in the domain of Architecture. No building is known to have been
planned and executed by him, though by some contemporary writers
incidental allusion is made to his occupying himself with

architecture, and his famous letter to Lodovico il Moro,--which has

long been a well-known document,--in which he offers his service as
an architect to that prince, tends to confirm the belief that he was
something more than an amateur of the art. This hypothesis has
lately been confirmed by the publication of certain documents,
preserved at Milan, showing that Leonardo was not only employed in
preparing plans but that he took an active part, with much credit,
as member of a commission on public buildings; his name remains
linked with the history of the building of the Cathedral at Pavia
and that of the Cathedral at Milan._
_Leonardo's writings on Architecture are dispersed among a large

number of MSS., and it would be scarcely possible to master their
contents without the opportunity of arranging, sorting and comparing
the whole mass of materials, so as to have some comprehensive idea
of the whole. The sketches, when isolated and considered by
themselves, might appear to be of but little value; it is not till
we understand their general purport, from comparing them with each
other, that we can form any just estimate of their true worth._
_Leonardo seems to have had a project for writing a complete and

separate treatise on Architecture, such as his predecessors and
contemporaries had composed--Leon Battista Alberti, Filarete,
Francesco di Giorgio and perhaps also Bramante. But, on the other
hand, it cannot be denied that possibly no such scheme was connected
with the isolated notes and researches, treating on special
questions, which are given in this work; that he was merely working
at problems in which, for some reason or other he took a special
interest._
_A great number of important buildings were constructed in Lombardy

during the period between 1472 and 1499, and among them there are
several by unknown architects, of so high an artistic merit, that it
is certainly not improbable that either Bramante or Leonardo da
Vinci may have been, directly or indirectly, concerned in their
erection._
_Having been engaged, for now nearly twenty years, in a thorough

study of Bramante's life and labours, I have taken a particular
interest in detecting the distinguishing marks of his style as
compared with Leonardo's. In 1869 I made researches about the
architectural drawings of the latter in the Codex Atlanticus at
Milan, for the purpose of finding out, if possible the original

plans and sketches of the churches of Santa Maria delle Grazie at

Milan, and of the Cathedral at Pavia, which buildings have been
supposed to be the work both of Bramante and of Leonardo. Since 1876
I have repeatedly examined Leonardo's architectural studies in the
collection of his manuscripts in the Institut de France, and some of
these I have already given to the public in my work on_ "Les Projets
Primitifs pour la Basilique de St. Pierre de Rome", _P1. 43. In 1879
I had the opportunity of examining the manuscript in the Palazzo
Trivulzio at Milan, and in 1880 Dr Richter showed me in London the
manuscripts in the possession of Lord Ashburnham, and those in the
British Museum. I have thus had opportunities of seeing most of
Leonardo's architectural drawings in the original, but of the
manuscripts tliemselves I have deciphered only the notes which
accompany the sketches. It is to Dr Richter's exertions that we owe
the collected texts on Architecture which are now published, and
while he has undertaken to be responsible for the correct reading of
the original texts, he has also made it his task to extract the
whole of the materials from the various MSS. It has been my task to
arrange and elucidate the texts under the heads which have been
adopted in this work. MS. B. at Paris and the Codex Atlanticus at
Milan are the chief sources of our knowledge of Leonardo as an
architect, and I have recently subjected these to a thorough
re-investigation expressly with a view to this work._
_A complete reproduction of all Leonardo's architectural sketches

has not, indeed, been possible, but as far as the necessarily
restricted limits of the work have allowed, the utmost completeness
has been aimed at, and no efforts have been spared to include every
thing that can contribute to a knowledge of Leonardo's style. It
would have been very interesting, if it had been possible, to give
some general account at least of Leonardo's work and studies in
engineering, fortification, canal-making and the like, and it is
only on mature reflection that we have reluctantly abandoned this
idea. Leonardo's occupations in these departments have by no means
so close a relation to literary work, in the strict sense of the
word as we are fairly justified in attributing to his numerous notes
on Architecture._
_Leonardo's architectural studies fall naturally under two heads:_
_I. Those drawings and sketches, often accompanied by short remarks

and explanations, which may be regarded as designs for buildings or
monuments intended to be built. With these there are occasionally

explanatory texts._
_II. Theoretical investigations and treatises. A special interest

attaches to these because they discuss a variety of questions which
are of practical importance to this day. Leonardo's theory as to the
origin and progress of cracks in buildings is perhaps to be
considered as unique in its way in the literature of Architecture._
_HENRY DE GEYMULLER_
_XII._
_Architectural Designs._
_I. Plans for towns._
_A. Sketches for laying out a new town with a double system of high-
level and low-level road-ways._
_Pl. LXXVII, No. 1 (MS. B, 15b). A general view of a town, with the
roads outside it sloping up to the high-level ways within._
_Pl. LXXVII, No. 3 (MS. B, 16b. see No. 741; and MS. B. 15b, see No.
742) gives a partial view of the town, with its streets and houses,
with explanatory references._
_Pl. LXXVII, No. 2 (MS. B, 15b; see No. 743). View of a double
staircaise with two opposite flights of steps._
_Pl. LXXVIII, Nos. 2 and 3 (MS. B, 37a). Sketches illustrating the

connection of the two levels of roads by means of steps. The lower
galleries are lighted by openings in the upper roadway._
_B. Notes on removing houses (MS. Br. M., 270b, see No. 744)._
741.
The roads _m_ are 6 braccia higher than the roads _p s_, and each
road must be 20 braccia wide and have 1/2 braccio slope from the
sides towards the middle; and in the middle let there be at every
braccio an opening, one braccio long and one finger wide, where the
rain water may run off into hollows made on the same level as _p s_.
And on each side at the extremity of the width of the said road let

there be an arcade, 6 braccia broad, on columns; and understand that

he who would go through the whole place by the high level streets
can use them for this purpose, and he who would go by the low level
can do the same. By the high streets no vehicles and similar objects
should circulate, but they are exclusively for the use of gentlemen.
The carts and burdens for the use and convenience of the inhabitants
have to go by the low ones. One house must turn its back to the
other, leaving the lower streets between them. Provisions, such as
wood, wine and such things are carried in by the doors _n_, and
privies, stables and other fetid matter must be emptied away
underground. From one arch to the next
742.
must be 300 braccia, each street receiving its light through the
openings of the upper streets, and at each arch must be a winding
stair on a circular plan because the corners of square ones are
always fouled; they must be wide, and at the first vault there must
be a door entering into public privies and the said stairs lead from
the upper to the lower streets and the high level streets begin
outside the city gates and slope up till at these gates they have
attained the height of 6 braccia. Let such a city be built near the
sea or a large river in order that the dirt of the city may be
carried off by the water.
743.
The construction of the stairs: The stairs _c d_ go down to _f g_,

and in the same way _f g_ goes down to _h k_.
744.
ON MOVING HOUSES.
Let the houses be moved and arranged in order; and this will be done
with facility because such houses are at first made in pieces on the
open places, and can then be fitted together with their timbers in
the site where they are to be permanent.
[9] Let the men of the country [or the village] partly inhabit the
new houses when the court is absent [12].
[Footnote: On the same page we find notes referring to Romolontino

and Villafranca with a sketch-map of the course of the "Sodro" and

the "(Lo)cra" (both are given in the text farther on). There can
hardly be a doubt that the last sentence of the passage given above,
refers to the court of Francis I. King of France.--L.9-13 are
written inside the larger sketch, which, in the original, is on the
right hand side of the page by the side of lines 1-8. The three
smaller sketches are below. J. P. R.]
_II. Plans for canals and streets in a town.
Pl. LXXIX, 1. and 2, (MS. B, 37b, see No. 745, and MS. B. 36a, see
No. 746). A Plan for streets and canals inside a town, by which the
cellars of the houses are made accessible in boats.
The third text given under No. 747 refers to works executed by
Leonardo in France._
745.
The front _a m_ will give light to the rooms; _a e_ will be 6

braccia--_a b_ 8 braccia --_b e_ 30 braccia, in order that the rooms
under the porticoes may be lighted; _c d f_ is the place where the
boats come to the houses to be unloaded. In order to render this
arrangement practicable, and in order that the inundation of the
rivers may not penetrate into the cellars, it is necessary to chose
an appropriate situation, such as a spot near a river which can be
diverted into canals in which the level of the water will not vary
either by inundations or drought. The construction is shown below;
and make choice of a fine river, which the rains do not render
muddy, such as the Ticino, the Adda and many others. [Footnote 12:
_Tesino, Adda e molti altri, i.e._ rivers coming from the mountains
and flowing through lakes.] The construction to oblige the waters to
keep constantly at the same level will be a sort of dock, as shown
below, situated at the entrance of the town; or better still, some
way within, in order that the enemy may not destroy it [14].
[Footnote: L. 1-4 are on the left hand side and within the sketch
given on Pl. LXXIX, No. I. Then follows after line 14, the drawing
of a sluicegate--_conca_--of which the use is explained in the text
below it. On the page 38a, which comes next in the original MS. is
the sketch of an oval plan of a town over which is written "_modo di
canali per la citta_" and through the longer axis of it "_canale
magior_" is written with "_Tesino_" on the prolongation of the

canal. J. P. R.]
746.
Let the width of the streets be equal to the average height of the
houses.
747.
The main underground channel does not receive turbid water, but that
water runs in the ditches outside the town with four mills at the
entrance and four at the outlet; and this may be done by damming the
water above Romorantin.
[11]There should be fountains made in each piazza[13].
[Footnote: In the original this text comes immediately after the

passage given as No. 744. The remainder of the writing on the same
page refers to the construction of canals and is given later, in the
"Topographical Notes".
Lines 1-11 are written to the right of the plan lines 11-13
underneath it. J. P. R.]
[Footnote 10: _Romolontino_ is Romorantin, South of Orleans in

France.]
_III. Castles and Villas.
A. Castles.
Pl. LXXX, No. 1 (P. V. fol. 39b; No. d'ordre 2282). The fortified
place here represented is said by Vallardi to be the_ "castello" _at
Milan, but without any satisfactory reason. The high tower behind
the_ "rivellino" _ravelin--seems to be intended as a watch-tower.
Pl. LXXX, No. 2 (MS. B, 23b). A similarly constructed tower probably

intended for the same use.
Pl. LXXX, No. 3 (MS. B). Sketches for corner towers with steps for a
citadel.
Pl. LXXX, No. 4 (W. XVI). A cupola crowning a corner tower; an

interesting example of decorative fortification. In this

reproduction of the original pen and ink drawing it appears
reversed.
B. Projects for Palaces.
Pl. LXXXI, No. 2 (MS. C. A, 75b; 221a, see No. 748). Project for a
royal residence at Amboise in France.
Pl. LXXXII, No. 1 (C. A 308a; 939a). A plan for a somewhat extensive
residence, and various details; but there is no text to elucidate
it; in courts are written the three names:
Sam cosi giova

_(St. Mark)_ _(Cosmo)_ _(John)_,
arch mo nino
C. Plans for small castles or Villas.
The three following sketches greatly resemble each other. Pl.

LXXXII, No. 2 (MS. K3 36b; see No. 749)._
_Pl. LXXXII, No. 3 (MS. B 60a; See No. 750).
Pl. LXXXIII (W. XVII). The text on this sheet refers to Cyprus (see
Topographical Notes No. 1103), but seems to have no direct
connection with the sketches inserted between.
Pl. LXXXVIII, Nos. 6 and 7 (MS. B, 12a; see No. 751). A section of a
circular pavilion with the plan of a similar building by the side of
it. These two drawings have a special historical interest because
the text written below mentions the Duke and Duchess of Milan.
The sketch of a villa on a terrace at the end of a garden occurs in

C. A. 150; and in C. A. 77b; 225b is another sketch of a villa
somewhat resembling the_ Belvedere _of Pope Innocent VIII, at Rome.
In C. A. 62b; 193b there is a Loggia.
Pl. LXXXII, No. 4 (C. A. 387a; 1198a) is a tower-shaped_ Loggia

_above a fountain. The machinery is very ingeniously screened from
view._
748.

The Palace of the prince must have a piazza in front of it.
Houses intended for dancing or any kind of jumping or any other

movements with a multitude of people, must be on the ground- floor;
for I have already witnessed the destruction of some, causing death
to many persons, and above all let every wall, be it ever so thin,
rest on the ground or on arches with a good foundation.
Let the mezzanines of the dwellings be divided by walls made of very

thin bricks, and without wood on account of fire.
Let all the privies have ventilation [by shafts] in the thickness of
the walls, so as to exhale by the roofs.
The mezzanines should be vaulted, and the vaults will be stronger in

proportion as they are of small size.
The ties of oak must be enclosed in the walls in order to be

protected from fire.
[Footnote: The remarks accompanying the plan reproduced on Pl.

LXXXI, No. 2 are as follows: Above, to the left: "_in_ a _angholo
stia la guardia de la sstalla_" (in the angle _a_ may be the keeper
of the stable). Below are the words "_strada dabosa_" (road to
Amboise), parallel with this "_fossa br 40_" (the moat 40 braccia)
fixing the width of the moat. In the large court surrounded by a
portico "_in terre No.--Largha br.80 e lugha br 120_." To the right
of the castle is a large basin for aquatic sports with the words
"_Giostre colle nave cioe li giostra li stieno sopra le na_"
(Jousting in boats that is the men are to be in boats). J. P. R.]
The privies must be numerous and going one into the other in order
that the stench may not penetrate into the dwellings., and all their
doors must shut off themselves with counterpoises.
The main division of the facade of this palace is into two portions;
that is to say the width of the court-yard must be half the whole
facade; the 2nd ...
749.
30 braccia wide on each side; the lower entrance leads into a hall

10 braccia wide and 30 braccia long with 4 recesses each with a

chimney.
[Footnote: On each side of the castle, Pl. LXXXII. No. 2 there are
drawings of details, to the left "_Camino_" a chimney, to the right
the central lantern, sketched in red "_8 lati_" _i.e._ an octagon.]
750.
The firststorey [or terrace] must be entirely solid.
751.
The pavilion in the garden of the Duchess of Milan.
The plan of the pavilion which is in the middle of the labyrinth of

the Duke of Milan.
[Footnote: This passage was first published by AMORETTI in _Memorie

Storiche_ Cap. X: Una sua opera da riportarsi a quest' anno fu il
bagno fatto per la duchessa Beatrice nel parco o giardino del
Castello. Lionardo non solo ne disegno il piccolo edifizio a foggia
di padiglione, nel cod. segnato Q. 3, dandone anche separatamente la
pianta; ma sotto vi scrisse: Padiglione del giardino della duchessa;
e sotto la pianta: Fondamento del padiglione ch'e nel mezzo del
labirinto del duca di Milano; nessuna data e presso il padiglione,
disegnato nella pagina 12, ma poco sopra fra molti circoli
intrecciati vedesi = 10 Luglio 1492 = e nella pagina 2 presso ad
alcuni disegni di legumi qualcheduno ha letto Settembre 1482 in vece
di 1492, come dovea scriverevi, e probabilmente scrisse Lionardo.
The original text however hardly bears the interpretation put upon
it by AMORETTI. He is mistaken as to the mark on the MS. as well as
in his statements as to the date, for the MS. in question has no
date; the date he gives occurs, on the contrary, in another
note-book. Finally, it appears to me quite an open question whether
Leonardo was the architect who carried out the construction of the
dome-like Pavilion here shown in section, or of the ground plan of
the Pavilion drawn by the side of it. Must we, in fact, suppose that
"_il duca di Milano_" here mentioned was, as has been generally
assumed, Ludovico il Moro? He did not hold this title from the
Emperor before 1494; till that date he was only called _Governatore_
and Leonardo in speaking of him, mentions him generally as "_il

Moro_" even after 1494. On January 18, 1491, he married Beatrice

d'Este the daughter of Ercole I, Duke of Ferrara. She died on the
2nd January 1497, and for the reasons I have given it seems
improbable that it should be this princess who is here spoken of as
the "_Duchessa di Milano_". From the style of the handwriting it
appears to me to be beyond all doubt that the MS. B, from which this
passage is taken, is older than the dated MSS. of 1492 and 1493. In
that case the Duke of Milan here mentioned would be Gian Galeazzo
(1469-1494) and the Duchess would be his wife Isabella of Aragon, to
whom he was married on the second February 1489. J. P. R.]
752.
The earth that is dug out from the cellars must be raised on one
side so high as to make a terrace garden as high as the level of the
hall; but between the earth of the terrace and the wall of the
house, leave an interval in order that the damp may not spoil the
principal walls.
_IV. Ecclesiastical Architecture.
A. General Observations._
753.
A building should always be detached on all sides so that its form

may be seen.
[Footnote: The original text is reproduced on Pl. XCII, No. 1 to the

left hand at the bottom.]
754.
Here there cannot and ought not to be any _campanile_; on the

contrary it must stand apart like that of the Cathedral and of San
Giovanni at Florence, and of the Cathedral at Pisa, where the
campanile is quite detached as well as the dome. Thus each can
display its own perfection. If however you wish to join it to the
church, make the lantern serve for the campanile as in the church at
Chiaravalle.
[Footnote: This text is written by the side of the plan given on Pl.
XCI. No. 2.]

[Footnote 12: The Abbey of Chiaravalle, a few miles from Milan, has
a central tower on the intersection of the cross in the style of
that of the Certosa of Pavia, but the style is mediaeval (A. D.
1330). Leonardo seems here to mean, that in a building, in which the
circular form is strongly conspicuous, the campanile must either be
separated, or rise from the centre of the building and therefore
take the form of a lantern.]
755.
It never looks well to see the roofs of a church; they should rather
be flat and the water should run off by gutters made in the frieze.
[Footnote: This text is to the left of the domed church reproduced

on Pl. LXXXVII, No. 2.]
_B. The theory of Dome Architecture.
This subject has been more extensively treated by Leonardo in

drawings than in writing. Still we may fairly assume that it was his
purpose, ultimately to embody the results of his investigation in a_
"Trattato delle Cupole." _The amount of materials is remarkably
extensive. MS. B is particularly rich in plans and elevations of
churches with one or more domes--from the simplest form to the most
complicated that can be imagined. Considering the evident connexion
between a great number of these sketches, as well as the
impossibility of seeing in them designs or preparatory sketches for
any building intended to be erected, the conclusion is obvious that
they were not designed for any particular monument, but were
theoretical and ideal researches, made in order to obtain a clear
understanding of the laws which must govern the construction of a
great central dome, with smaller ones grouped round it; and with or
without the addition of spires, so that each of these parts by
itself and in its juxtaposition to the other parts should produce
the grandest possible effect.
In these sketches Leonardo seems to have exhausted every imaginable

combination. [Footnote 1: In MS. B, 32b (see Pl. C III, No. 2) we
find eight geometrical patterns, each drawn in a square; and in MS.
C.A., fol. 87 to 98 form a whole series of patterns done with the
same intention.] The results of some of these problems are perhaps
not quite satisfactory; still they cannot be considered to give

evidence of a want of taste or of any other defect in Leonardo s

architectural capacity. They were no doubt intended exclusively for
his own instruction, and, before all, as it seems, to illustrate the
features or consequences resulting from a given principle._
_I have already, in another place,_ [Footnote 1: Les Projets

Primitifs pour la Basilique de St. Pierre de Rome, par Bramante,
Raphael etc.,Vol. I, p. 2.] _pointed out the law of construction for
buildings crowned by a large dome: namely, that such a dome, to
produce the greatest effect possible, should rise either from the
centre of a Greek cross, or from the centre of a structure of which
the plan has some symmetrical affinity to a circle, this circle
being at the same time the centre of the whole plan of the building.
Leonardo's sketches show that he was fully aware, as was to be

expected, of this truth. Few of them exhibit the form of a Latin
cross, and when this is met with, it generally gives evidence of the
determination to assign as prominent a part as possible to the dome
in the general effect of the building.
While it is evident, on the one hand, that the greater number of

these domes had no particular purpose, not being designed for
execution, on the other hand several reasons may be found for
Leonardo's perseverance in his studies of the subject.
Besides the theoretical interest of the question for Leonardo and

his_ Trattato _and besides the taste for domes prevailing at that
time, it seems likely that the intended erection of some building of
the first importance like the Duomos of Pavia and Como, the church
of Sta. Maria delle Grazie at Milan, and the construction of a Dome
or central Tower_ (Tiburio) _on the cathedral of Milan, may have
stimulated Leonardo to undertake a general and thorough
investigation of the subject; whilst Leonardo's intercourse with
Bramante for ten years or more, can hardly have remained without
influence in this matter. In fact now that some of this great
Architect's studies for S. Peter's at Rome have at last become
known, he must be considered henceforth as the greatest master of
Dome-Architecture that ever existed. His influence, direct or
indirect even on a genius like Leonardo seems the more likely, since
Leonardo's sketches reveal a style most similar to that of Bramante,
whose name indeed, occurs twice in Leonardo's manuscript notes. It
must not be forgotten that Leonardo was a Florentine; the
characteristic form of the two principal domes of Florence, Sta.

Maria del Fiore and the Battisterio, constantly appear as leading

features in his sketches.
The church of San Lorenzo at Milan, was at that time still intact.
The dome is to this day one of the most wonderful cupolas ever
constructed, and with its two smaller domes might well attract the
attention and study of a never resting genius such as Leonardo. A
whole class of these sketches betray in fact the direct influence of
the church of S. Lorenzo, and this also seems to have suggested the
plan of Bramante's dome of St. Peter's at Rome.
In the following pages the various sketches for the construction of

domes have been classified and discussed from a general point of
view. On two sheets: Pl. LXXXIV (C.A. 354b; 118a) and Pl. LXXXV,
Nos. 1-11 (Ash. II, 6b) we see various dissimilar types, grouped
together; thus these two sheets may be regarded as a sort of
nomenclature of the different types, on which we shall now have to
treat._
_1. Churches formed on the plan of a Greek cross.
Group I.
Domes rising from a circular base.
The simplest type of central building is a circular edifice.
Pl. LXXXIV, No. 9. Plan of a circular building surrounded by a

colonnade.
Pl. LXXXIV, No. 8. Elevation of the former, with a conical roof.
Pl. XC. No. 5. A dodecagon, as most nearly approaching the circle.
Pl. LXXXVI, No. 1, 2, 3. Four round chapels are added at the

extremities of the two principal axes;--compare this plan with fig.
1 on p. 44 and fig. 3 on p. 47 (W. P. 5b) where the outer wall is
octagonal.
Group II.
Domes rising from a square base.

The plan is a square surrounded by a colonnade, and the dome seems

to be octagonal.
Pl. LXXXIV. The square plan below the circular building No. 8, and
its elevation to the left, above the plan: here the ground-plan is
square, the upper storey octagonal. A further development of this
type is shown in two sketches C. A. 3a (not reproduced here), and in
Pl. LXXXVI, No. 5 (which possibly belongs to No. 7 on Pl. LXXXIV).
Pl, LXXXV, No. 4, and p. 45, Fig. 3, a Greek cross, repeated p. 45,
Fig. 3, is another development of the square central plan.
The remainder of these studies show two different systems; in the

first the dome rises from a square plan,--in the second from an
octagonal base._
_Group III.
Domes rising from a square base and four pillars. [Footnote 1: The
ancient chapel San Satiro, via del Falcone, Milan, is a specimen of
this type.]_
a) First type. _A Dome resting on four pillars in the centre of a

square edifice, with an apse in the middle, of each of the four
sides. We have eleven variations of this type.
aa) Pl. LXXXVIII, No. 3.
bb) Pl. LXXX, No. 5.
cc) Pl. LXXXV, Nos. 2, 3, 5.
dd) Pl. LXXXIV, No. 1 and 4 beneath.
ee) Pl. LXXXV, Nos. 1, 7, 10, 11._
b) Second type. _This consists in adding aisles to the whole plan of

the first type; columns are placed between the apses and the aisles;
the plan thus obtained is very nearly identical with that of S.
Lorenzo at Milan.
Fig. 1 on p. 56. (MS. B, 75a) shows the result of this treatment

adapted to a peculiar purpose about which we shall have to say a few

words later on.
Pl. XCV, No. 1, shows the same plan but with the addition of a short
nave. This plan seems to have been suggested by the general
arrangement of S. Sepolcro at Milan.
MS. B. 57b (see the sketch reproduced on p.51). By adding towers in

the four outer angles to the last named plan, we obtain a plan which
bears the general features of Bramante's plans for S. Peter's at
Rome. [Footnote 2: See_ Les projets primitifs _etc., Pl. 9-12.] (See
p. 51 Fig. 1.)
Group IV.
Domes rising from an octagonal base.
This system, developed according to two different schemes, has given

rise to two classes with many varieties.
In a) On each side of the octagon chapels of equal form are added.
In b) The chapels are dissimilar; those which terminate the

principal axes being different in form from those which are added on
the diagonal sides of the octagon.
a. First Class.
The Chapel_ "degli Angeli," _at Florence, built only to a height of

about 20 feet by Brunellesco, may be considered as the prototype of
this group; and, indeed it probably suggested it. The fact that we
see in MS. B. 11b (Pl. XCIV, No. 3) by the side of Brunellesco's
plan for the Basilica of Sto. Spirito at Florence, a plan almost
identical with that of the_ Capella degli Angeli, _confirms this
supposition. Only two small differences, or we may say improvements,
have been introduced by Leonardo. Firstly the back of the chapels
contains a third niche, and each angle of the Octagon a folded
pilaster like those in Bramante's_ Sagrestia di S. M. presso San
Satiro _at Milan, instead of an interval between the two pilasters
as seen in the Battistero at Florence and in the Sacristy of Sto.
Spirito in the same town and also in the above named chapel by
Brunellesco.

The first set of sketches which come under consideration have at

first sight the appearance of mere geometrical studies. They seem to
have been suggested by the plan given on page 44 Fig. 2 (MS. B, 55a)
in the centre of which is written_ "Santa Maria in perticha da
Pavia", _at the place marked A on the reproduction.
a) (MS. B, 34b, page 44 Fig. 3). In the middle of each side a column
is added, and in the axes of the intercolumnar spaces a second row
of columns forms an aisle round the octagon. These are placed at the
intersection of a system of semicircles, of which the sixteen
columns on the sides of the octagon are the centres.
b) The preceding diagram is completed and becomes more monumental in

style in the sketch next to it (MS. B, 35a, see p. 45 Fig. 1). An
outer aisle is added by circles, having for radius the distance
between the columns in the middle sides of the octagon.
c) (MS. B. 96b, see p. 45 Fig. 2). Octagon with an aisle round it;
the angles of both are formed by columns. The outer sides are formed
by 8 niches forming chapels. The exterior is likewise octagonal,
with the angles corresponding to the centre of each of the interior
chapels.
Pl. XCII, No. 2 (MS. B. 96b). Detail and modification of the

preceding plan--half columns against piers--an arrangement by which
the chapels of the aisle have the same width of opening as the inner
arches between the half columns. Underneath this sketch the
following note occurs:_ questo vole - avere 12 facce - co 12
tabernaculi - come - _a_ - _b_. _(This will have twelve sides with
twelve tabernacles as_ a b._) In the remaining sketches of this
class the octagon is not formed by columns at the angles.
The simplest type shows a niche in the middle of each side and is
repeated on several sheets, viz: MS. B 3; MS. C.A. 354b (see Pl.
LXXXIV, No. 11) and MS. Ash II 6b; (see Pl. LXXXV, No. 9 and the
elevations No. 8; Pl. XCII, No. 3; MS. B. 4b [not reproduced here]
and Pl. LXXXIV, No. 2)._
_Pl. XCII, 3 (MS. B, 56b) corresponds to a plan like the one in MS.
B 35a, in which the niches would be visible outside or, as in the
following sketch, with the addition of a niche in the middle of each
chapel.

Pl. XC, No. 6. The niches themselves are surrounded by smaller

niches (see also No. 1 on the same plate).
Octagon expanded on each side.
A. by a square chapel:
MS. B. 34b (not reproduced here).
B. by a square with 3 niches:
MS. B. 11b (see Pl. XCIV, No. 3).
C. by octagonal chapels:
a) MS. B, 21a; Pl. LXXXVIII, No. 4.
b) No. 2 on the same plate. Underneath there is the remark:_

"quest'e come le 8 cappele ano a essere facte" _(this is how the
eight chapels are to be executed).
c) Pl. LXXXVIII, No. 5. Elevation to the plans on the same sheet, it

is accompanied by the note:_ "ciasscuno de' 9 tiburi no'uole -
passare l'alteza - di - 2 - quadri" _(neither of the 9 domes must
exceed the height of two squares).
d) Pl. LXXXVIII, No. 1. Inside of the same octagon. MS. B, 30a, and
34b; these are three repetitions of parts of the same plan with very
slight variations.
D. by a circular chapel:
MS. B, 18a (see Fig. 1 on page 47) gives the plan of this
arrangement in which the exterior is square on the ground floor with
only four of the chapels projecting, as is explained in the next
sketch.
Pl. LXXXIX, MS. B, 17b. Elevation to the preceding plan sketched on

the opposite side of the sheet, and also marked A. It is accompanied
by the following remark, indicating the theoretical character of
these studies:_ questo - edifitio - anchora - starebbe - bene
affarlo dalla linja - _a_ - _b_ - _c_ - _d_ - insu. _("This edifice
would also produce a good effect if only the part above the lines_ a

b, c d, _were executed").
Pl. LXXXIV, No. 11. The exterior has the form of an octagon, but the
chapels project partly beyond it. On the left side of the sketch
they appear larger than on the right side.
Pl. XC, No. 1, (MS. B, 25b); Repetition of Pl. LXXXIV, No. 11.
Pl. XC, No. 2. Elevation to the plan No. 1, and also to No. 6 of the
same sheet._
_E. By chapels formed by four niches:
Pl. LXXXIV, No. 7 (the circular plan on the left below) shows this
arrangement in which the central dome has become circular inside and
might therefore be classed after this group. [Footnote 1: This plan
and some others of this class remind us of the plan of the Mausoleum
of Augustus as it is represented for instance by Durand. See_ Cab.
des Estampes, Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, Topographie de Rome, V,
6, 82._]
The sketch on the right hand side gives most likely the elevation
for the last named plan.
F. By chapels of still richer combinations, which necessitate an

octagon of larger dimensions:
Pl. XCI, No. 2 (MS. Ash. 11. 8b) [Footnote 2: The note accompanying
this plan is given under No. 754.]; on this plan the chapels
themselves appear to be central buildings formed like the first type
of the third group. Pl. LXXXVIII, No. 3.
Pl. XCI, No. 2 above; the exterior of the preceding figure,

particularly interesting on account of the alternation of apses and
niches, the latter containing statues of a gigantic size, in
proportion to the dimension of the niches.
b. Second Class.
Composite plans of this class are generally obtained by combining

two types of the first class--the one worked out on the principal
axes, the other on the diagonal ones.

MS. B. 22 shows an elementary combination, without any additions on

the diagonal axes, but with the dimensions of the squares on the two
principal axes exceeding those of the sides of the octagon.
In the drawing W. P. 5b (see page 44 Fig. 1) the exterior only of

the edifice is octagonal, the interior being formed by a circular
colonnade; round chapels are placed against the four sides of the
principal axes.
The elevation, drawn on the same sheet (see page 47 Fig. 3), shows
the whole arrangement which is closely related with the one on Pl.
LXXXVI No. 1, 2.
MS. B. 21a shows:
a) four sides with rectangular chapels crowned by pediments Pl.

LXXXVII No. 3 (plan and elevation);
b) four sides with square chapels crowned by octagonal domes. Pl.

LXXXVII No. 4; the plan underneath.
MS. B. 18a shows a variation obtained by replacing the round chapels

in the principal axes of the sketch MS. B. l8a by square ones, with
an apse. Leonardo repeated both ideas for better comparison side by
side, see page 47. Fig. 2.
Pl. LXXXIX (MS. B. 17b). Elevation for the preceding figure. The
comparison of the drawing marked M with the plan on page 47 Fig. 2,
bearing the same mark, and of the elevation on Pl. LXXXIX below
(marked A) with the corresponding plan on page 47 is highly
instructive, as illustrating the spirit in which Leonardo pursued
these studies.
Pl. LXXXIV No. 12 shows the design Pl. LXXXVII No. 3 combined with
apses, with the addition of round chapels on the diagonal sides.
Pl. LXXXIV No. 13 is a variation of the preceding sketch.
Pl. XC No. 3. MS. B. 25b. The round chapels of the preceding sketch
are replaced by octagonal chapels, above which rise campaniles.
Pl. XC No. 4 is the elevation for the preceding plan.

Pl. XCII No. 1. (MS. B. 39b.); the plan below. On the principal as
well as on the diagonal axes are diagonal chapels, but the latter
are separated from the dome by semicircular recesses. The
communication between these eight chapels forms a square aisle round
the central dome.
Above this figure is the elevation, showing four campaniles on the

angles. [Footnote 1: The note accompanying this drawing is
reproduced under No. 753.]
Pl. LXXXIV No. 3. On the principal axes are square chapels with
three niches; on the diagonals octagonal chapels with niches. Cod.
Atl. 340b gives a somewhat similar arrangement.
MS. B. 30. The principal development is thrown on the diagonal axes

by square chapels with three niches; on the principal axes are inner
recesses communicating with outer ones.
The plan Pl. XCIII No. 2 (MS. B. 22) differs from this only in so
far as the outer semicircles have become circular chapels,
projecting from the external square as apses; one of them serves as
the entrance by a semicircular portico.
The elevation is drawn on the left side of the plan.
MS. B. 19. A further development of MS. B. 18, by employing for the

four principal chapels the type Pl. LXXXVIII No. 3, as we have
already seen in Pl. XCI No. 2; the exterior presents two varieties.
a) The outer contour follows the inner. [Footnote 2: These chapels

are here sketched in two different sizes; it is the smaller type
which is thus formed.]
b) It is semicircular.
Pl. LXXXVII No. 2 (MS. B. 18b) Elevation to the first variation MS.
B. 19. If we were not certain that this sketch was by Leonardo, we
might feel tempted to take it as a study by Bramante for St. Peter's
at Rome. [Footnote 3: See_ Les projets primitifs Pl. 43._]_
_MS. P. V. 39b. In the principal axes the chapels of MS. B. 19, and
semicircular niches on the diagonals. The exterior of the whole
edifice is also an octagon, concealing the form of the interior

chapels, but with its angles on their axes.
Group V.
Suggested by San Lorenzo at Milan.
In MS. C. A. 266 IIb, 8l2b there is a plan almost identical with

that of San Lorenzo. The diagonal sides of the irregular octagon are
not indicated.
If it could be proved that the arches which, in the actual church,

exist on these sides in the first story, were added in 1574 by
Martimo Bassi, then this plan and the following section would be
still nearer the original state of San Lorenzo than at present. A
reproduction of this slightly sketched plan has not been possible.
It may however be understood from Pl. LXXXVIII No. 3, by suppressing
the four pillars corresponding to the apses.
Pl. LXXXVII No. 1 shows the section in elevation corresponding with

the above-named plan. The recessed chapels are decorated with large
shells in the halfdomes like the arrangement in San Lorenzo, but
with proportions like those of Bramante's Sacristy of Santa Maria
presso S. Satiro.
MS. C. A. 266; a sheet containing three views of exteriors of Domes.

On the same sheet there is a plan similar to the one above-named but
with uninterrupted aisles and with the addition of round chapels in
the axes (compare Pl. XCVII No. 3 and page 44 Fig. 1), perhaps a
reminiscence of the two chapels annexed to San Lorenzo.--Leonardo
has here sketched the way of transforming this plan into a Latin
cross by means of a nave with side aisles.
Pl. XCI No. 1. Plan showing a type deprived of aisles and comprised
in a square building which is surrounded by a portico. It is
accompanied by the following text:_
756.
This edifice is inhabited [accessible] below and above, like San

Sepolcro, and it is the same above as below, except that the upper
story has the dome _c d_; and the [Footnote: The church of San
Sepolcro at Milan, founded in 1030 and repeatedly rebuilt after the
middle of the XVIth century, still stands over the crypt of the

original structure.] lower has the dome _a b_, and when you enter
into the crypt, you descend 10 steps, and when you mount into the
upper you ascend 20 steps, which, with 1/3 braccio for each, make 10
braccia, and this is the height between one floor of the church and
the other.
_Above the plan on the same sheet is a view of the exterior. By the
aid of these two figures and the description, sections of the
edifice may easily be reconstructed. But the section drawn on the
left side of the building seems not to be in keeping with the same
plan, notwithstanding the explanatory note written underneath it:
"dentro il difitio di sopra" (interior of the edifice
above)[Footnote 1: _The small inner dome corresponds to_ a b _on the
plan--it rises from the lower church into the upper-- above, and
larger, rises the dome_ c d. _The aisles above and below thus
correspond_ (e di sopra come di sotto, salvoche etc.). _The only
difference is, that in the section Leonardo has not taken the
trouble to make the form octagonal, but has merely sketched circular
lines in perspective._ J. P. R._].
_Before leaving this group, it is well to remark that the germ of it

seems already indicated by the diagonal lines in the plans Pl. LXXXV
No. 11 and No. 7. We shall find another application of the same type
to the Latin cross in Pl. XCVII No. 3.
_2. Churches formed on the plan of a Latin cross.
We find among Leonardo's studies several sketches for churches on

the plan of the Latin cross; we shall begin by describing them, and
shall add a few observations.
A. Studies after existing Monuments.
Pl. XCIV No. 2. (MS. B. 11b.) Plan of Santo Spirito at Florence, a

basilica built after the designs of Brunellesco.--Leonardo has added
the indication of a portico in front, either his own invention or
the reproduction of a now lost design.
Pl. XCV No. 2. Plan accompanied by the words: "A_ e santo sepolcro
di milano di sopra"(A _is the upper church of S. Sepolcro at Milan);
although since Leonardo's time considerably spoilt, it is still the
same in plan.

The second plan with its note: "B_ e la sua parte socto tera" (B _is
its subterranean part [the crypt]) still corresponds with the
present state of this part of the church as I have ascertained by
visiting the crypt with this plan. Excepting the addition of a few
insignificant walls, the state of this interesting part of the
church still conforms to Leonardo's sketch; but in the Vestibolo the
two columns near the entrance of the winding stairs are absent.
B. Designs or Studies.
PL. XCV No. 1. Plan of a church evidently suggested by that of San

Sepolcro at Milan. The central part has been added to on the
principle of the second type of Group III. Leonardo has placed the_
"coro" _(choir) in the centre._
_Pl. XCVI No. 2. In the plan the dome, as regards its interior,
belongs to the First Class of Group IV, and may be grouped with the
one in MS. B. 35a. The nave seems to be a development of the type
represented in Pl. XCV No. 2, B. by adding towers and two lateral
porticos[Footnote 1: Already published in Les projets primitifs Pl.
XLIII.].
On the left is a view of the exterior of the preceding plan. It is

accompanied by the following note:_
757.
This building is inhabited below and above; the way up is by the

campaniles, and in going up one has to use the platform, where the
drums of the four domes are, and this platform has a parapet in
front, and none of these domes communicate with the church, but they
are quite separate.
_Pl. XCVI No. 1 (MS. C. A. 16b; 65a). Perspective view of a church

seen from behind; this recalls the Duomo at Florence, but with two
campaniles[Footnote 2: Already published in the Saggio Pl. IX.].
Pl. XCVII No. 3 (MS. B. 52a). The central part is a development of

S. Lorenzo at Milan, such as was executed at the Duomo of Pavia.
There is sufficient analogy between the building actually executed
and this sketch to suggest a direct connection between them.
Leonardo accompanied Francesco di Giorgio[Footnote 3: See MALASPINA,
il Duomo di Pavia. Documents.] when the latter was consulted on June

21st, 1490 as to this church; the fact that the only word
accompanying the plan is:_ "sagrestia", _seems to confirm our
supposition, for the sacristies were added only in 1492, i. e. four
years after the beginning of the Cathedral, which at that time was
most likely still sufficiently unfinished to be capable of receiving
the form of the present sketch.
Pl. XCVII No. 2 shows the exterior of this design. Below is the
note:_ edifitio al proposito del fodameto figurato di socto
_(edifice proper for the ground plan figured below).
Here we may also mention the plan of a Latin cross drawn in MS. C.
A. fol. 266 (see p. 50).
Pl. XCIV No. 1 (MS. L. 15b). External side view of Brunellesco's

Florentine basilica San Lorenzo, seen from the North.
Pl. XCIV No. 4 (V. A. V, 1). Principal front of a nave, most likely
of a church on the plan of a Latin cross. We notice here not only
the principal features which were employed afterwards in Alberti's
front of S. Maria Novella, but even details of a more advanced
style, such as we are accustomed to meet with only after the year
1520.
In the background of Leonardo's unfinished picture of St. Jerome

(Vatican Gallery) a somewhat similar church front is indicated (see
the accompanying sketch).
[Illustration with caption: The view of the front of a temple,

apparently a dome in the centre of four corinthian porticos bearing
pediments (published by Amoretti Tav. II. B as being by Leonardo),
is taken from a drawing, now at the Ambrosian Gallery. We cannot
consider this to be by the hand of the master.]_
_C. Studies for a form of a Church most proper for preaching.
The problem as to what form of church might answer the requirements

of acoustics seems to have engaged Leonardo's very particular
attention. The designation of_ "teatro" _given to some of these
sketches, clearly shows which plan seemed to him most favourable for
hearing the preacher's voice.
Pl. XCVII, No. 1 (MS. B, 52). Rectangular edifice divided into three

naves with an apse on either side, terminated by a semicircular

theatre with rising seats, as in antique buildings. The pulpit is in
the centre. Leonardo has written on the left side of the sketch_:
"teatro da predicare" _(Theatre for preaching).
MS. B, 55a (see page 56, Fig. 1). A domed church after the type of
Pl. XCV, No. 1, shows four theatres occupying the apses and facing
the square_ "coro" _(choir), which is in the centre between the four
pillars of the dome.[Footnote 1: The note_ teatro de predicar, _on
the right side is, I believe, in the handwriting of Pompeo Leoni. J.
P. R.] The rising arrangement of the seats is shown in the sketch
above. At the place marked_ B _Leonardo wrote_ teatri per uldire
messa _(rows of seats to hear mass), at_ T teatri,_ and at_ C coro
_(choir).
In MS. C.A. 260, are slight sketches of two plans for rectangular
choirs and two elevations of the altar and pulpit which seem to be
in connection with these plans.
In MS. Ash II, 8a (see p. 56 and 57. Fig. 2 and 3)._ "Locho dove si
predica" _(Place for preaching). A most singular plan for a
building. The interior is a portion of a sphere, the centre of which
is the summit of a column destined to serve as the preacher's
pulpit. The inside is somewhat like a modern theatre, whilst the
exterior and the galleries and stairs recall the ancient
amphitheatres.
[Illustration with caption: Page 57, Fig. 4. A plan accompanying the

two preceding drawings. If this gives the complete form Leonardo
intended for the edifice, it would have comprised only about two
thirds of the circle. Leonardo wrote in the centre_ "fondamento", _a
word he often employed for plans, and on the left side of the view
of the exterior:_ locho dove si predicha _(a place for preaching
in)._]
_D. Design for a Mausoleum.
Pl. XCVIII (P. V., 182._ No. d'ordre 2386). In the midst of a hilly
landscape rises an artificial mountain in the form of a gigantic
cone, crowned by an imposing temple. At two thirds of the height a
terrace is cut out with six doorways forming entrances to galleries,
each leading to three sepulchral halls, so constructed as to contain
about five hundred funeral urns, disposed in the customary antique

style. From two opposite sides steps ascend to the terrace in a

single flight and beyond it to the temple above. A large circular
opening, like that in the Pantheon, is in the dome above what may be
the altar, or perhaps the central monument on the level of the
terrace below.
The section of a gallery given in the sketch to the right below

shows the roof to be constructed on the principle of superimposed
horizontal layers, projecting one beyond the other, and each
furnished with a sort of heel, which appears to be undercut, so as
to give the appearance of a beam from within. Granite alone would be
adequate to the dimensions here given to the key stone, as the
thickness of the layers can hardly be considered to be less than a
foot. In taking this as the basis of our calculation for the
dimensions of the whole construction, the width of the chamber would
be about 25 feet but, judging from the number of urns it
contains--and there is no reason to suppose that these urns were
larger than usual--it would seem to be no more than about 8 or 10
feet.
The construction of the vaults resembles those in the galleries of

some etruscan tumuli, for instance the Regulini Galeassi tomb at
Cervetri (lately discovered) and also that of the chamber and
passages of the pyramid of Cheops and of the treasury of Atreus at
Mycenae.
The upper cone displays not only analogies with the monuments
mentioned in the note, but also with Etruscan tumuli, such as the
Cocumella tomb at Vulci, and the Regulini Galeassi tomb_[Footnote 1:
_See_ FERSGUSON, _Handbook of Architecture, I,_ 291.]. _The whole
scheme is one of the most magnificent in the history of
Architecture.
It would be difficult to decide as to whether any monument he had

seen suggested this idea to Leonardo, but it is worth while to
enquire, if any monument, or group of monuments of an earlier date
may be supposed to have done so._[Footnote 2: _There are, in
Algiers, two Monuments, commonly called_ "Le Madracen" _and_ "Le
tombeau de la Chretienne," _which somewhat resemble Leonardo's
design. They are known to have served as the Mausolea of the Kings
of Mauritania. Pomponius Mela, the geographer of the time of the
Emperor Claudius, describes them as having been_ "Monumentum commune
regiae gentis." _See_ Le Madracen, Rapport fait par M. le Grand

Rabbin AB. CAHEN, Constantine 1873--Memoire sur les fouilles

executees au Madras'en .. par le Colonel BRUNON, Constantine
l873.--Deux Mausolees Africains, le Madracen et le tombeau de la
Chretienne par M. J. DE LAURIERE, Tours l874.--Le tombeau de la
Chretienne, Mausolee des rois Mauritaniens par M. BERBRUGGER, Alger
1867.--_I am indebted to M. LE BLANC, of the Institut, and M. LUD,
LALANNE, Bibliothecaire of the Institut for having first pointed out
to me the resemblance between these monuments; while M. ANT. HERON
DE VlLLEFOSSE of the Louvre was kind enough to place the
abovementioned rare works at my disposal. Leonardo's observations on
the coast of Africa are given later in this work. The Herodium near
Bethlehem in Palestine_ (Jebel el Fureidis, _the Frank Mountain)
was, according to the latest researches, constructed on a very
similar plan. See_ Der Frankenberg, von Baurath C. SCHICK in
Jerusalem, Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palastina-Vereins, _Leipzag_
1880, _Vol. III, pages_ 88-99 _and Plates IV and V._ J. P. R.]
_E. Studies for the Central Tower, or Tiburio of Milan Cathedral.
Towards the end of the fifteenth century the Fabbricceria del Duomo
had to settle on the choice of a model for the crowning and central
part of this vast building. We learn from a notice published by G.
L. Calvi [Footnote: G. L. CALVI, Notizie sulla vita e sulle opere
dei principali architetti scultori e pittori che fiorirono in
Milano, Part III, 20. See also: H. DE GEYMULLER, Les projets
primitifs etc. I, 37 and 116-119.--The Fabbricceria of the Duomo has
lately begun the publication of the archives, which may possibly
tell us more about the part taken by Leonardo, than has hitherto
been known.] that among the artists who presented models in the year
1488 were: Bramante, Pietro da Gorgonzola, Luca Paperio (Fancelli),
and Leonardo da Vinci.--
Several sketches by Leonardo refer to this important project:
Pl. XCIX, No. 2 (MS. S. K. III, No. 36a) a small plan of the whole
edifice.--The projecting chapels in the middle of the transept are
wanting here. The nave appears to be shortened and seems to be
approached by an inner "vestibolo".--
Pl. C, No. 2 (Tr. 21). Plan of the octagon tower, giving the
disposition of the buttresses; starting from the eight pillars
adjoining the four principal piers and intended to support the eight
angles of the Tiburio. These buttresses correspond exactly with

those described by Bramante as existing in the model presented by

Omodeo. [Footnote: Bramante's opinion was first published by G.
MONGERl, Arch. stor. Lomb. V, fasc. 3 and afterwards by me in the
publication mentioned in the preceding note.]
Pl. C, 3 (MS. Tr. 16). Two plans showing different arrangements of

the buttresses, which seem to be formed partly by the intersection
of a system of pointed arches such as that seen in **
Pl. C, No. 5 (MS. B, 27a) destined to give a broader base to the

drum. The text underneath is given under No. 788.
MS. B, 3--three slight sketches of plans in connexion with the

preceding ones._
_Pl. XCIX, No.1 (MS. Tr. 15) contains several small sketches of
sections and exterior views of the Dome; some of them show
buttress-walls shaped as inverted arches. Respecting these Leonardo
notes:_
758.
L'arco rivescio e migliore per fare spalla che l'ordinario, perche

il rovescio trova sotto se muro resistete alla sua debolezza, e
l'ordinario no trova nel suo debole se non aria
The inverted arch is better for giving a shoulder than the ordinary
one, because the former finds below it a wall resisting its
weakness, whilst the latter finds in its weak part nothing but air.
[Footnote: _Three slight sketches of sections on the same

leaf--above those reproduced here--are more closely connected with
the large drawing in the centre of Pl. C, No. 4 (M.S, Tr. 41) which
shows a section of a very elevated dome, with double vaults,
connected by ribs and buttresses ingeniously disposed, so as to
bring the weight of the lantern to bear on the base of the dome.
A sketch underneath it shows a round pillar on which is indicated

which part of its summit is to bear the weight: "il pilastro sara
charicho in . a . b." (The column will bear the weight at a b.)
Another note is above on the right side:_ Larcho regiera tanto sotto
asse chome di sopra se _(The arch supports as much below it [i. e. a
hanging weight] as above it).

Pl. C, No. 1 (C. A. 303a). Larger sketch of half section of the

Dome, with a very complicated system of arches, and a double vault.
Each stone is shaped so as to be knit or dovetailed to its
neighbours. Thus the inside of the Dome cannot be seen from below.
MS. C. A. 303b. A repetition of the preceding sketch with very

slight modifications._]
[Figs. 1. and Fig. 2. two sketeches of the dome]
MS. Tr. 9 (see Fig. 1 and 2). Section of the Dome with reverted
buttresses between the windows, above which iron anchors or chains
seem to be intended. Below is the sketch of the outside._
_PI. XCIX, No. 3 (C. A., 262a) four sketches of the exterior of the
Dome.
C. A. 12. Section, showing the points of rupture of a gothic vault,

in evident connection with the sketches described above.
It deserves to be noticed how easily and apparently without effort,

Leonardo manages to combine gothic details and structure with the
more modern shape of the Dome.
The following notes are on the same leaf,_ oni cosa poderosa, _and_
oni cosa poderosa desidera de(scendere); _farther below, several
multiplications most likely intended to calculate the weight of some
parts of the Dome, thus 16 x 47 = 720; 720 x 800 = 176000, next to
which is written:_ peso del pilastro di 9 teste _(weight of the
pillar 9 diameters high).
Below:_ 176000 x 8 = 1408000; _and below:_
Semjlio e se ce 80 (?) il peso del tiburio _(six millions six

hundred (?) 80 the weight of the Dome).
Bossi hazarded the theory that Leonardo might have been the
architect who built the church of Sta. Maria delle Grazie, but there
is no evidence to support this, either in documents or in the
materials supplied by Leonardos manuscripts and drawings. The sketch
given at the side shows the arrangement of the second and third
socle on the apses of the choir of that church; and it is remarkable

that those sketches, in MS. S. K. M. II2, 2a and Ib, occur with the
passage given in Volume I as No. 665 and 666 referring to the
composition of the Last Supper in the Refectory of that church._]
_F. The Project for lifting up the Battistero of Florence and

setting it on a basement._
_Among the very few details Vasari gives as to the architectural

studies of Leonardo, we read: "And among these models and designs
there was one by way of which he showed several times to many
ingenious citizens who then governed Florence, his readiness to lift
up without ruining it, the church of San Giovanni in Florence (the
Battistero, opposite the Duomo) in order to place under it the
missing basement with steps; he supported his assertions with
reasons so persuasive, that while he spoke the undertaking seemed
feasable, although every one of his hearers, when he had departed,
could see by himself the impossibility of so vast an undertaking."_
[Footnote: _This latter statement of Vasari's must be considered to

be exaggerated. I may refer here to some data given by_ LIBRI,
Histoire des sciences mathematiques en Italie (II, 216, 217): "On a
cru dans ces derniers temps faire un miracle en mecanique en
effectuant ce transport, et cependant des l'annee 1455, Gaspard Nadi
et Aristote de Fioravantio avaient transporte, a une distance
considerable, la tour de la Magione de Bologne, avec ses fondements,
qui avait presque quatre-vingts pieds de haut. Le continuateur de la
chronique de Pugliola dit que le trajet fut de 35 pieds et que
durant le transport auquel le chroniqueur affirme avoir assiste, il
arriva un accident grave qui fit pencher de trois pieds la tour
pendant qu'elle etait suspendue, mais que cet accident fut
promptement repare (Muratori, Scriptores rer. ital. Tom. XVIII, col.
717, 718). Alidosi a rapporte une note ou Nadi rend compte de ce
transport avec une rare simplicite. D'apres cette note, on voit que
les operations de ce genre n'etaient pas nouvelles. Celle-ci ne
couta que 150 livres (monnaie d'alors) y compris le cadeau que le
Legat fit aux deux mecaniciens. Dans la meme annee, Aristote
redressa le clocher de Cento, qui penchait de plus de cinq pieds
(Alidosi, instruttione p. 188-- Muratori, Scriptores rer. ital.,
tom. XXIII, col. 888.--Bossii, chronica Mediol., 1492, in-fol. ad
ann. 1455). On ne concoit pas comment les historiens des beaux-arts
ont pu negliger de tels hommes." J. P. R.]
_In the MS. C. A. fol. 293, there are two sketches which possibly

might have a bearing on this bold enterprise. We find there a plan

of a circular or polygonal edifice surrounded by semicircular arches
in an oblique position. These may be taken for the foundation of the
steps and of the new platform. In the perspective elevation the same
edifice, forming a polygon, is shown as lifted up and resting on a
circle of inverted arches which rest on an other circle of arches in
the ordinary position, but so placed that the inverted arches above
rest on the spandrels of the lower range._
_What seems to confirm the supposition that the lifting up of a

building is here in question, is the indication of engines for
winding up, such as jacks, and a rack and wheel. As the lifting
apparatus represented on this sheet does not seem particularly
applicable to an undertaking of such magnitude, we may consider it
to be a first sketch or scheme for the engines to be used._
_G. Description of an unknown Temple._
759.
Twelve flights of steps led up to the great temple, which was eight
hundred braccia in circumference and built on an octagonal plan. At
the eight corners were eight large plinths, one braccia and a half
high, and three wide, and six long at the bottom, with an angle in
the middle; on these were eight great pillars, standing on the
plinths as a foundation, and twenty four braccia high. And on the
top of these were eight capitals three braccia long and six wide,
above which were the architrave frieze and cornice, four braccia and
a half high, and this was carried on in a straight line from one
pillar to the next and so, continuing for eight hundred braccia,
surrounded the whole temple, from pillar to pillar. To support this
entablature there were ten large columns of the same height as the
pillars, three braccia thick above their bases which were one
braccia and a half high.
The ascent to this temple was by twelve flights of steps, and the
temple was on the twelfth, of an octagonal form, and at each angle
rose a large pillar; and between the pillars were placed ten columns
of the same height as the pillars, rising at once from the pavement
to a height of twenty eight braccia and a half; and at this height
the architrave, frieze and cornice were placed which surrounded the
temple having a length of eight hundred braccia. At the same height,
and within the temple at the same level, and all round the centre of

the temple at a distance of 24 braccia farther in, are pillars

corresponding to the eight pillars in the angles, and columns
corresponding to those placed in the outer spaces. These rise to the
same height as the former ones, and over these the continuous
architrave returns towards the outer row of pillars and columns.
[Footnote: Either this description is incomplete, or, as seems to me

highly probable, it refers to some ruin. The enormous dimensions
forbid our supposing this to be any temple in Italy or Greece. Syria
was the native land of colossal octagonal buildings, in the early
centuries A. D. The Temple of Baalbek, and others are even larger
than that here described. J. P. R.]
_V. Palace architecture.
But a small number of Leonardo's drawings refer to the architecture

of palaces, and our knowledge is small as to what style Leonardo
might have adopted for such buildings.
Pl. CII No. 1 (W. XVIII). A small portion of a facade of a palace

in two stories, somewhat resembling Alberti's Palazzo
Rucellai.--Compare with this Bramante's painted front of the Casa
Silvestri, and a painting by Montorfano in San Pietro in Gessate at
Milan, third chapel on the left hand side and also with Bramante's
palaces at Rome. The pilasters with arabesques, the rustica between
them, and the figures over the window may be painted or in
sgraffito. The original is drawn in red chalk.
Pl. LXXXI No. 1 (MS. Tr. 42). Sketch of a palace with battlements
and decorations, most likely graffiti; the details remind us of
those in the Castello at Vigevano._ [Footnote 1: _Count GIULIO
PORRO, in his valuable contribution to the_ Archivio Storico
Lombardo, Anno VIII, Fasc. IV (31 Dec. 1881): Leonardo da Vinci,
Libro di Annotazioni e Memorie, _refers to this in the following
note:_ "Alla pag. 41 vi e uno schizzo di volta ed accanto scrisse:
'il pilastro sara charicho in su 6' e potrebbe darsi che si
riferisse alla cupola della chiesa delle Grazie tanto piu che a
pag. 42 vi e un disegno che rassomiglia assai al basamento che oggi
si vede nella parte esterna del coro di quella chiesa." _This may
however be doubted. The drawing, here referred to, on page 41 of the
same manuscript, is reproduced on Pl. C No. 4 and described on page
61 as being a study for the cupola of the Duomo of Milan._ J. P. R.]

_MS. Mz. 0", contains a design for a palace or house with a loggia
in the middle of the first story, over which rises an attic with a
Pediment reproduced on page 67. The details drawn close by on the
left seem to indicate an arrangement of coupled columns against the
wall of a first story.
Pl. LXXXV No. 14 (MS. S. K. M. Ill 79a) contains a very slight

sketch in red chalk, which most probably is intended to represent
the facade of a palace. Inside is the short note 7 he 7 (7 and 7)._
_MS. J2 8a (see pages 68 Fig. 1 and 2) contains a view of an unknown

palace. Its plan is indicated at the side._
_In MS. Br. M. 126a(see Fig. 3 on page 68) there is a sketch of a

house, on which Leonardo notes; casa con tre terrazi (house with
three terraces)._
_Pl. CX, No. 4 (MS. L. 36b) represents the front of a fortified

building drawn at Cesena in 1502 (see No. 1040)._
_Here we may also mention the singular building in the allegorical

composition represented on Pl. LVIII in Vol. I. In front of it
appears the head of a sphinx or of a dragon which seems to be
carrying the palace away._
_The following texts refer to the construction of palaces and other

buildings destined for private use:_
760.
In the courtyard the walls must be half the height of its width,
that is if the court be 40 braccia, the house must be 20 high as
regards the walls of the said courtyard; and this courtyard must be
half as wide as the whole front.
[Footnote: See Pl. CI, no. 1, and compare the dimensions here given,
with No. 748 lines 26-29; and the drawing belonging to it Pl. LXXXI,
no. 2.]
On the dispositions of a stable.
761.

FOR MAKING A CLEAN STABLE.
The manner in which one must arrange a stable. You must first divide
its width in 3 parts, its depth matters not; and let these 3
divisions be equal and 6 braccia broad for each part and 10 high,
and the middle part shall be for the use of the stablemasters; the 2
side ones for the horses, each of which must be 6 braccia in width
and 6 in length, and be half a braccio higher at the head than
behind. Let the manger be at 2 braccia from the ground, to the
bottom of the rack, 3 braccia, and the top of it 4 braccia. Now, in
order to attain to what I promise, that is to make this place,
contrary to the general custom, clean and neat: as to the upper part
of the stable, i. e. where the hay is, that part must have at its
outer end a window 6 braccia high and 6 broad, through which by
simple means the hay is brought up to the loft, as is shown by the
machine _E_; and let this be erected in a place 6 braccia wide, and
as long as the stable, as seen at _k p_. The other two parts, which
are on either side of this, are again divided; those nearest to the
hay-loft are 4 braccia, _p s_, and only for the use and circulation
of the servants belonging to the stable; the other two which reach
to the outer walls are 2 braccia, as seen at _s k_, and these are
made for the purpose of giving hay to the mangers, by means of
funnels, narrow at the top and wide over the manger, in order that
the hay should not choke them. They must be well plastered and clean
and are represented at 4 _f s_. As to the giving the horses water,
the troughs must be of stone and above them [cisterns of] water. The
mangers may be opened as boxes are uncovered by raising the lids.
[Footnote: See Pl. LXXVIII, No.1.]
Decorations for feasts.
762.
THE WAY TO CONSTRUCT A FRAME-WORK FOR DECORATING BUILDINGS.
The way in which the poles ought to be placed for tying bunches of
juniper on to them. These poles must lie close to the framework of
the vaulting and tie the bunches on with osier withes, so as to clip
them even afterwards with shears.
Let the distance from one circle to another be half a braccia; and
the juniper [sprigs] must lie top downwards, beginning from below.

Round this column tie four poles to which willows about as thick as
a finger must be nailed and then begin from the bottom and work
upwards with bunches of juniper sprigs, the tops downwards, that is
upside down. [Footnote: See Pl. CII, No. 3. The words here given as
the title line, lines 1--4, are the last in the original MS.--Lines
5--16 are written under fig. 4.]
763.
The water should be allowed to fall from the whole circle _a b_.
[Footnote: Other drawings of fountains are given on Pl. CI (W. XX);
the original is a pen and ink drawing on blue paper; on Pl. CIII
(MS. B.) and Pl. LXXXII.]
_VI. Studies of architectural details._
_Several of Leonardo's drawings of architectural details prove that,

like other great masters of that period, he had devoted his
attention to the study of the proportion of such details. As every
organic being in nature has its law of construction and growth,
these masters endeavoured, each in his way, to discover and prove a
law of proportion in architecture. The following notes in Leonardo's
manuscripts refer to this subject._
_MS. S. K. M. Ill, 47b (see Fig. 1). A diagram, indicating the rules
as given by Vitruvius and by Leon Battista Alberti for the
proportions of the Attic base of a column._
_MS. S. K. M. Ill 55a (see Fig. 2). Diagram showing the same rules._
764.
B toro superiore . . . . . toro superiore

2B nestroli . . . . . . astragali quadre
3B orbiculo . . . . . . . . troclea
4B nestroli . . . . . . astragali quadre
5B toro iferiore . . . . . . toro iferiore
6B latastro . . . . . . . . plintho
[Footnote: No explanation can be offered of the meaning of the

letter B, which precedes each name. It may be meant for _basa_
(base). Perhaps it refers to some author on architecture or an
architect (Bramante?) who employed the designations, thus marked for

the mouldings. 3. _troclea._ Philander: _Trochlea sive trochalia aut

rechanum._ 6. _Laterculus_ or _latastrum_ is the Latin name for
_Plinthus_ (pi lambda Xiv) but Vitruvius adopted this Greek name
and "latastro" seems to have been little in use. It is to be found
besides the text given above, as far as I am aware, only two
drawings of the Uffizi Collection, where in one instance, it
indicates the _abacus_ of a Doric capital.]
765.
STEPS OF URRBINO.
The plinth must be as broad as the thickness of the wall against

which the plinth is built. [Footnote: See Pl. CX No. 3. The hasty
sketch on the right hand side illustrates the unsatisfactory effect
produced when the plinth is narrower than the wall.]
766.
The ancient architects ...... beginning with the Egyptians (?) who,
as Diodorus Siculus writes, were the first to build and construct
large cities and castles, public and private buildings of fine form,
large and well proportioned .....
The column, which has its thickness at the third part .... The one
which would be thinnest in the middle, would break ...; the one
which is of equal thickness and of equal strength, is better for the
edifice. The second best as to the usefulness will be the one whose
greatest thickness is where it joins with the base.
[Footnote: See Pl. CIII, No. 3, where the sketches belonging to

lines 10--16 are reproduced, but reversed. The sketch of columns,
here reproduced by a wood cut, stands in the original close to lines
5--8.]
The capital must be formed in this way. Divide its thickness at the
top into 8; at the foot make it 5/7, and let it be 5/7 high and you
will have a square; afterwards divide the height into 8 parts as you
did for the column, and then take 1/8 for the echinus and another
eighth for the thickness of the abacus on the top of the capital.
The horns of the abacus of the capital have to project beyond the
greatest width of the bell 2/7, i. e. sevenths of the top of the
bell, so 1/7 falls to the projection of each horn. The truncated

part of the horns must be as broad as it is high. I leave the rest,

that is the ornaments, to the taste of the sculptors. But to return
to the columns and in order to prove the reason of their strength or
weakness according to their shape, I say that when the lines
starting from the summit of the column and ending at its base and
their direction and length ..., their distance apart or width may be
equal; I say that this column ...
767.
The cylinder of a body columnar in shape and its two opposite ends
are two circles enclosed between parallel lines, and through the
centre of the cylinder is a straight line, ending at the centre of
these circles, and called by the ancients the axis.
[Footnote: Leonardo wrote these lines on the margin of a page of the

Trattato di Francesco di Giorgio, where there are several drawings
of columns, as well as a head drawn in profile inside an outline
sketch of a capital.]
768.
_a b_ is 1/3 of _n m_; _m o_ is 1/6 of _r o_. The ovolo projects 1/6

of _r o_; _s_ 7 1/5 of _r o_, _a b_ is divided into 9 1/2; the
abacus is 3/9 the ovolo 4/9, the bead-moulding and the fillet 2/9
and 1/2.
[Footnote: See Pl. LXXXV, No. 16. In the original the drawing and
writing are both in red chalk.]
_Pl. LXXXV No. 6 (MS. Ash. II 6b) contains a small sketch of a

capital with the following note, written in three lines:_ I chorni
del capitelo deono essere la quarta parte d'uno quadro _(The horns
of a capital must measure the fourth part of a square)._
_MS. S. K. M. III 72b contains two sketches of ornamentations of

windows._
_In MS. C. A. 308a; 938a (see Pl. LXXXII No. 1) there are several
sketches of columns. One of the two columns on the right is similar
to those employed by Bramante at the Canonica di S. Ambrogio. The
same columns appear in the sketch underneath the plan of a castle.
There they appear coupled, and in two stories one above the other.

The archivolls which seem to spring out of the columns, are shaped
like twisted cords, meant perhaps to be twisted branches. The walls
between the columns seem to be formed out of blocks of wood, the
pedestals are ornamented with a reticulated pattern. From all this
we may suppose that Leonardo here had in mind either some festive
decoration, or perhaps a pavilion for some hunting place or park.
The sketch of columns marked "35" gives an example of columns shaped
like candelabra, a form often employed at that time, particularly in
Milan, and the surrounding districts for instance in the Cortile di
Casa Castiglione now Silvestre, in the cathedral of Como, at Porta
della Rana &c._
769.
CONCERNING ARCHITRAVES OF ONE OR SEVERAL PIECES.
An architrave of several pieces is stronger than that of one single

piece, if those pieces are placed with their length in the direction
of the centre of the world. This is proved because stones have their
grain or fibre generated in the contrary direction i. e. in the
direction of the opposite horizons of the hemisphere, and this is
contrary to fibres of the plants which have ...
[Footnote: The text is incomplete in the original.]
_The Proportions of the stories of a building are indicated by a

sketch in MS. S. K. M. II2 11b (see Pl. LXXXV No. 15). The measures
are written on the left side, as follows: br 1 1/2--6 3/4--br
1/12--2 br--9 e 1/2--1 1/2--br 5--o 9--o 3 [br=braccia; o=oncie].
Pl. LXXXV No. 13 (MS. B. 62a) and Pl. XCIII No. 1. (MS. B. 15a) give
a few examples of arches supported on piers._
_XIII.
Theoretical writings on Architecture.
Leonardo's original writings on the theory of Architecture have come

down to us only in a fragmentary state; still, there seems to be no
doubt that he himself did not complete them. It would seem that
Leonardo entertained the idea of writing a large and connected book
on Architecture; and it is quite evident that the materials we
possess, which can be proved to have been written at different

periods, were noted down with a more or less definite aim and
purpose. They might all be collected under the one title: "Studies
on the Strength of Materials". Among them the investigations on the
subject of fissures in walls are particularly thorough, and very
fully reported; these passages are also especially interesting,
because Leonardo was certainly the first writer on architecture who
ever treated the subject at all. Here, as in all other cases
Leonardo carefully avoids all abstract argument. His data are not
derived from the principles of algebra, but from the laws of
mechanics, and his method throughout is strictly experimental.
Though the conclusions drawn from his investigations may not have
that precision which we are accustomed to find in Leonardo's
scientific labours, their interest is not lessened. They prove at
any rate his deep sagacity and wonderfully clear mind. No one
perhaps, who has studied these questions since Leonardo, has
combined with a scientific mind anything like the artistic delicacy
of perception which gives interest and lucidity to his observations.
I do not assert that the arrangement here adopted for the passages
in question is that originally intended by Leonardo; but their
distribution into five groups was suggested by the titles, or
headings, which Leonardo himself prefixed to most of these notes.
Some of the longer sections perhaps should not, to be in strict
agreement with this division, have been reproduced in their entirety
in the place where they occur. But the comparatively small amount of
the materials we possess will render them, even so, sufficiently
intelligible to the reader; it did not therefore seem necessary or
desirable to subdivide the passages merely for the sake of strict
classification._
_The small number of chapters given under the fifth class, treating
on the centre of gravity in roof-beams, bears no proportion to the
number of drawings and studies which refer to the same subject. Only
a small selection of these are reproduced in this work since the
majority have no explanatory text._
I.
ON FISSURES IN WALLS.
770.

First write the treatise on the causes of the giving way of walls
and then, separately, treat of the remedies.
Parallel fissures constantly occur in buildings which are erected on

a hill side, when the hill is composed of stratified rocks with an
oblique stratification, because water and other moisture often
penetrates these oblique seams carrying in greasy and slippery soil;
and as the strata are not continuous down to the bottom of the
valley, the rocks slide in the direction of the slope, and the
motion does not cease till they have reached the bottom of the
valley, carrying with them, as though in a boat, that portion of the
building which is separated by them from the rest. The remedy for
this is always to build thick piers under the wall which is
slipping, with arches from one to another, and with a good scarp and
let the piers have a firm foundation in the strata so that they may
not break away from them.
In order to find the solid part of these strata, it is necessary to

make a shaft at the foot of the wall of great depth through the
strata; and in this shaft, on the side from which the hill slopes,
smooth and flatten a space one palm wide from the top to the bottom;
and after some time this smooth portion made on the side of the
shaft, will show plainly which part of the hill is moving.
[Footnote: See Pl. CIV.]
771.
The cracks in walls will never be parallel unless the part of the
wall that separates from the remainder does not slip down.
WHAT IS THE LAW BY WHICH BUILDINGS HAVE STABILITY.
The stability of buildings is the result of the contrary law to the

two former cases. That is to say that the walls must be all built up
equally, and by degrees, to equal heights all round the building,
and the whole thickness at once, whatever kind of walls they may be.
And although a thin wall dries more quickly than a thick one it will
not necessarily give way under the added weight day by day and thus,
[16] although a thin wall dries more quickly than a thick one, it
will not give way under the weight which the latter may acquire from
day to day. Because if double the amount of it dries in one day, one
of double the thickness will dry in two days or thereabouts; thus

the small addition of weight will be balanced by the smaller

difference of time [18].
The adversary says that _a_ which projects, slips down.
And here the adversary says that _r_ slips and not _c_.
HOW TO PROGNOSTICATE THE CAUSES OF CRACKS IN ANY SORT OF WALL.
The part of the wall which does not slip is that in which the
obliquity projects and overhangs the portion which has parted from
it and slipped down.
ON THE SITUATION OF FOUNDATIONS AND IN WHAT PLACES THEY ARE A CAUSE

OF RUIN.
When the crevice in the wall is wider at the top than at the bottom,
it is a manifest sign, that the cause of the fissure in the wall is
remote from the perpendicular line through the crevice.
[Footnote: Lines 1-5 refer to Pl. CV, No. 2. Line 9 _alle due
anteciedete_, see on the same page.
Lines 16-18. The translation of this is doubtful, and the meaning in

any case very obscure.
Lines 19-23 are on the right hand margin close to the two sketches
on Pl. CII, No. 3.]
772.
OF CRACKS IN WALLS, WHICH ARE WIDE AT THE BOTTOM AND NARROW AT THE
TOP AND OF THEIR CAUSES.
That wall which does not dry uniformly in an equal time, always
cracks.
A wall though of equal thickness will not dry with equal quickness
if it is not everywhere in contact with the same medium. Thus, if
one side of a wall were in contact with a damp slope and the other
were in contact with the air, then this latter side would remain of
the same size as before; that side which dries in the air will
shrink or diminish and the side which is kept damp will not dry. And

the dry portion will break away readily from the damp portion
because the damp part not shrinking in the same proportion does not
cohere and follow the movement of the part which dries continuously.
OF ARCHED CRACKS, WIDE AT THE TOP, AND NARROW BELOW.
Arched cracks, wide at the top and narrow below are found in
walled-up doors, which shrink more in their height than in their
breadth, and in proportion as their height is greater than their
width, and as the joints of the mortar are more numerous in the
height than in the width.
The crack diminishes less in _r o_ than in _m n_, in proportion as

there is less material between _r_ and _o_ than between _n_ and _m_.
Any crack made in a concave wall is wide below and narrow at the
top; and this originates, as is here shown at _b c d_, in the side
figure.
1. That which gets wet increases in proportion to the moisture it

imbibes.
2. And a wet object shrinks, while drying, in proportion to the

amount of moisture which evaporates from it.
[Footnote: The text of this passage is reproduced in facsimile on

Pl. CVI to the left. L. 36-40 are written inside the sketch No. 2.
L. 41-46 are partly written over the sketch No. 3 to which they
refer.]
773.
OF THE CAUSES OF FISSURES IN [THE WALLS OF] PUBLIC AND PRIVATE

BUILDINGS.
The walls give way in cracks, some of which are more or less
vertical and others are oblique. The cracks which are in a vertical
direction are caused by the joining of new walls, with old walls,
whether straight or with indentations fitting on to those of the old
wall; for, as these indentations cannot bear the too great weight of
the wall added on to them, it is inevitable that they should break,
and give way to the settling of the new wall, which will shrink one
braccia in every ten, more or less, according to the greater or

smaller quantity of mortar used between the stones of the masonry,

and whether this mortar is more or less liquid. And observe, that
the walls should always be built first and then faced with the
stones intended to face them. For, if you do not proceed thus, since
the wall settles more than the stone facing, the projections left on
the sides of the wall must inevitably give way; because the stones
used for facing the wall being larger than those over which they are
laid, they will necessarily have less mortar laid between the
joints, and consequently they settle less; and this cannot happen if
the facing is added after the wall is dry.
_a b_ the new wall, _c_ the old wall, which has already settled; and
the part _a b_ settles afterwards, although _a_, being founded on
_c_, the old wall, cannot possibly break, having a stable foundation
on the old wall. But only the remainder _b_ of the new wall will
break away, because it is built from top to bottom of the building;
and the remainder of the new wall will overhang the gap above the
wall that has sunk.
774.
A new tower founded partly on old masonry.
775.
OF STONES WHICH DISJOIN THEMSELVES FROM THEIR MORTAR.
Stones laid in regular courses from bottom to top and built up with
an equal quantity of mortar settle equally throughout, when the
moisture that made the mortar soft evaporates.
By what is said above it is proved that the small extent of the new
wall between _A_ and _n_ will settle but little, in proportion to
the extent of the same wall between _c_ and _d_. The proportion will
in fact be that of the thinness of the mortar in relation to the
number of courses or to the quantity of mortar laid between the
stones above the different levels of the old wall.
[Footnote: See Pl. CV, No. 1. The top of the tower is wanting in
this reproduction, and with it the letter _n_ which, in the
original, stands above the letter _A_ over the top of the tower,
while _c_ stands perpendicularly over _d_.]

776.
This wall will break under the arch _e f_, because the seven whole
square bricks are not sufficient to sustain the spring of the arch
placed on them. And these seven bricks will give way in their middle
exactly as appears in _a b_. The reason is, that the brick _a_ has
above it only the weight _a k_, whilst the last brick under the arch
has above it the weight _c d x a_.
_c d_ seems to press on the arch towards the abutment at the point

_p_ but the weight _p o_ opposes resistence to it, whence the whole
pressure is transmitted to the root of the arch. Therefore the foot
of the arch acts like 7 6, which is more than double of _x z_.
II.
ON FISSURES IN NICHES.
777.
ON FISSURES IN NICHES.
An arch constructed on a semicircle and bearing weights on the two

opposite thirds of its curve will give way at five points of the
curve. To prove this let the weights be at _n m_ which will break
the arch _a_, _b_, _f_. I say that, by the foregoing, as the
extremities _c_ and _a_ are equally pressed upon by the thrust _n_,
it follows, by the 5th, that the arch will give way at the point
which is furthest from the two forces acting on them and that is the
middle _e_. The same is to be understood of the opposite curve, _d g
b_; hence the weights _n m_ must sink, but they cannot sink by the
7th, without coming closer together, and they cannot come together
unless the extremities of the arch between them come closer, and if
these draw together the crown of the arch must break; and thus the
arch will give way in two places as was at first said &c.
I ask, given a weight at _a_ what counteracts it in the direction

_n_ _f_ and by what weight must the weight at _f_ be counteracted.
778.
ON THE SHRINKING OF DAMP BODIES OF DIFFERENT THICKNESS AND WIDTH.

The window _a_ is the cause of the crack at _b_; and this crack is
increased by the pressure of _n_ and _m_ which sink or penetrate
into the soil in which foundations are built more than the lighter
portion at _b_. Besides, the old foundation under _b_ has already
settled, and this the piers _n_ and _m_ have not yet done. Hence the
part _b_ does not settle down perpendicularly; on the contrary, it
is thrown outwards obliquely, and it cannot on the contrary be
thrown inwards, because a portion like this, separated from the main
wall, is larger outside than inside and the main wall, where it is
broken, is of the same shape and is also larger outside than inside;
therefore, if this separate portion were to fall inwards the larger
would have to pass through the smaller--which is impossible. Hence
it is evident that the portion of the semicircular wall when
disunited from the main wall will be thrust outwards, and not
inwards as the adversary says.
When a dome or a half-dome is crushed from above by an excess of

weight the vault will give way, forming a crack which diminishes
towards the top and is wide below, narrow on the inner side and wide
outside; as is the case with the outer husk of a pomegranate,
divided into many parts lengthwise; for the more it is pressed in
the direction of its length, that part of the joints will open most,
which is most distant from the cause of the pressure; and for that
reason the arches of the vaults of any apse should never be more
loaded than the arches of the principal building. Because that which
weighs most, presses most on the parts below, and they sink into the
foundations; but this cannot happen to lighter structures like the
said apses.
[Footnote: The figure on Pl. CV, No. 4 belongs to the first

paragraph of this passage, lines 1-14; fig. 5 is sketched by the
side of lines l5--and following. The sketch below of a pomegranate
refers to line 22. The drawing fig. 6 is, in the original, over line
37 and fig. 7 over line 54.]
Which of these two cubes will shrink the more uniformly: the cube
_A_ resting on the pavement, or the cube _b_ suspended in the air,
when both cubes are equal in weight and bulk, and of clay mixed with
equal quantities of water?
The cube placed on the pavement diminishes more in height than in

breadth, which the cube above, hanging in the air, cannot do. Thus
it is proved. The cube shown above is better shown here below.

The final result of the two cylinders of damp clay that is _a_ and
_b_ will be the pyramidal figures below _c_ and _d_. This is proved
thus: The cylinder _a_ resting on block of stone being made of clay
mixed with a great deal of water will sink by its weight, which
presses on its base, and in proportion as it settles and spreads all
the parts will be somewhat nearer to the base because that is
charged with the whole weight.
III.
ON THE NATURE OF THE ARCH.
779.
WHAT IS AN ARCH?
The arch is nothing else than a force originated by two weaknesses,

for the arch in buildings is composed of two segments of a circle,
each of which being very weak in itself tends to fall; but as each
opposes this tendency in the other, the two weaknesses combine to
form one strength.
OF THE KIND OF PRESSURE IN ARCHES.
As the arch is a composite force it remains in equilibrium because

the thrust is equal from both sides; and if one of the segments
weighs more than the other the stability is lost, because the
greater pressure will outweigh the lesser.
OF DISTRIBUTING THE PRESSURE ABOVE AN ARCH.
Next to giving the segments of the circle equal weight it is

necessary to load them equally, or you will fall into the same
defect as before.
WHERE AN ARCH BREAKS.
An arch breaks at the part which lies below half way from the
centre.
SECOND RUPTURE OF THE ARCH.

If the excess of weight be placed in the middle of the arch at the

point _a_, that weight tends to fall towards _b_, and the arch
breaks at 2/3 of its height at _c e_; and _g e_ is as many times
stronger than _e a_, as _m o_ goes into _m n_.
ON ANOTHER CAUSE OF RUIN.
The arch will likewise give way under a transversal thrust, for when
the charge is not thrown directly on the foot of the arch, the arch
lasts but a short time.
780.
ON THE STRENGTH OF THE ARCH.
The way to give stability to the arch is to fill the spandrils with
good masonry up to the level of its summit.
ON THE LOADING OF ROUND ARCHES.
ON THE PROPER MANNER OF LOADING THE POINTED ARCH.
ON THE EVIL EFFECTS OF LOADING THE POINTED ARCH DIRECTLY ABOVE ITS
CROWN.
ON THE DAMAGE DONE TO THE POINTED ARCH BY THROWING THE PRESSURE ON

THE FLANKS.
An arch of small curve is safe in itself, but if it be heavily

charged, it is necessary to strengthen the flanks well. An arch of a
very large curve is weak in itself, and stronger if it be charged,
and will do little harm to its abutments, and its places of giving
way are _o p_.
[Footnote: Inside the large figure on the righi is the note: _Da
pesare la forza dell' archo_.]
781.
ON THE REMEDY FOR EARTHQUAKES.
The arch which throws its pressure perpendicularly on the abutments

will fulfil its function whatever be its direction, upside down,

sideways or upright.
The arch will not break if the chord of the outer arch does not
touch the inner arch. This is manifest by experience, because
whenever the chord _a o n_ of the outer arch _n r a_ approaches the
inner arch _x b y_ the arch will be weak, and it will be weaker in
proportion as the inner arch passes beyond that chord. When an arch
is loaded only on one side the thrust will press on the top of the
other side and be transmitted to the spring of the arch on that
side; and it will break at a point half way between its two
extremes, where it is farthest from the chord.
782.
A continuous body which has been forcibly bent into an arch, thrusts
in the direction of the straight line, which it tends to recover.
783.
In an arch judiciously weighted the thrust is oblique, so that the

triangle _c n b_ has no weight upon it.
784.
I here ask what weight will be needed to counterpoise and resist the
tendency of each of these arches to give way?
[Footnote: The two lower sketches are taken from the MS. S. K. M.
III, 10a; they have there no explanatory text.]
785.
ON THE STRENGTH OF THE ARCH IN ARCHITECTURE.
The stability of the arch built by an architect resides in the tie

and in the flanks.
ON THE POSITION OF THE TIE IN THE ABOVE NAMED ARCH.
The position of the tie is of the same importance at the beginning

of the arch and at the top of the perpendicular pier on which it
rests. This is proved by the 2nd "of supports" which says: that part
of a support has least resistance which is farthest from its solid

attachment; hence, as the top of the pier is farthest from the

middle of its true foundation and the same being the case at the
opposite extremities of the arch which are the points farthest from
the middle, which is really its [upper] attachment, we have
concluded that the tie _a b_ requires to be in such a position as
that its opposite ends are between the four above-mentioned
extremes.
The adversary says that this arch must be more than half a circle,
and that then it will not need a tie, because then the ends will not
thrust outwards but inwards, as is seen in the excess at _a c_, _b
d_. To this it must be answered that this would be a very poor
device, for three reasons. The first refers to the strength of the
arch, since it is proved that the circular parallel being composed
of two semicircles will only break where these semicircles cross
each other, as is seen in the figure _n m;_ besides this it follows
that there is a wider space between the extremes of the semicircle
than between the plane of the walls; the third reason is that the
weight placed to counterbalance the strength of the arch diminishes
in proportion as the piers of the arch are wider than the space
between the piers. Fourthly in proportion as the parts at _c a b d_
turn outwards, the piers are weaker to support the arch above them.
The 5th is that all the material and weight of the arch which are in
excess of the semicircle are useless and indeed mischievous; and
here it is to be noted that the weight placed above the arch will be
more likely to break the arch at _a b_, where the curve of the
excess begins that is added to the semicircle, than if the pier were
straight up to its junction with the semicircle [spring of the
arch].
AN ARCH LOADED OVER THE CROWN WILL GIVE WAY AT THE LEFT HAND AND
RIGHT HAND QUARTERS.
This is proved by the 7th of this which says: The opposite ends of
the support are equally pressed upon by the weight suspended to
them; hence the weight shown at _f_ is felt at _b c_, that is half
at each extremity; and by the third which says: in a support of
equal strength [throughout] that portion will give way soonest which
is farthest from its attachment; whence it follows that _d_ being
equally distant from _f, e_ .....
If the centering of the arch does not settle as the arch settles,
the mortar, as it dries, will shrink and detach itself from the

bricks between which it was laid to keep them together; and as it

thus leaves them disjoined the vault will remain loosely built, and
the rains will soon destroy it.
786.
ON THE STRENGTH AND NATURE OF ARCHES, AND WHERE THEY ARE STRONG OR
WEAK; AND THE SAME AS TO COLUMNS.
That part of the arch which is nearer to the horizontal offers least
resistance to the weight placed on it.
When the triangle _a z n_, by settling, drives backwards the 2/3 of

each 1/2 circle that is _a s_ and in the same way _z m_, the reason
is that _a_ is perpendicularly over _b_ and so likewise _z_ is above
_f_.
Either half of an arch, if overweighted, will break at 2/3 of its

height, the point which corresponds to the perpendicular line above
the middle of its bases, as is seen at _a b_; and this happens
because the weight tends to fall past the point _r_.--And if,
against its nature it should tend to fall towards the point _s_ the
arch _n s_ would break precisely in its middle. If the arch _n s_
were of a single piece of timber, if the weight placed at _n_ should
tend to fall in the line _n m_, the arch would break in the middle
of the arch _e m_, otherwise it will break at one third from the top
at the point a because from _a_ to _n_ the arch is nearer to the
horizontal than from _a_ to _o_ and from _o_ to _s_, in proportion
as _p t_ is greater than _t n_, _a o_ will be stronger than _a n_
and likewise in proportion as _s o_ is stronger than _o a_, _r p_
will be greater than _p t_.
The arch which is doubled to four times of its thickness will bear
four times the weight that the single arch could carry, and more in
proportion as the diameter of its thickness goes a smaller number of
times into its length. That is to say that if the thickness of the
single arch goes ten times into its length, the thickness of the
doubled arch will go five times into its length. Hence as the
thickness of the double arch goes only half as many times into its
length as that of the single arch does, it is reasonable that it
should carry half as much more weight as it would have to carry if
it were in direct proportion to the single arch. Hence as this
double arch has 4 times the thickness of the single arch, it would

seem that it ought to bear 4 times the weight; but by the above rule
it is shown that it will bear exactly 8 times as much.
THAT PIER, WHICH is CHARGED MOST UNEQUALLY, WILL SOONEST GIVE WAY.
The column _c b_, being charged with an equal weight, [on each side]
will be most durable, and the other two outward columns require on
the part outside of their centre as much pressure as there is inside
of their centre, that is, from the centre of the column, towards the
middle of the arch.
Arches which depend on chains for their support will not be very
durable.
THAT ARCH WILL BE OF LONGER DURATION WHICH HAS A GOOD ABUTMENT

OPPOSED TO ITS THRUST.
The arch itself tends to fall. If the arch be 30 braccia and the
interval between the walls which carry it be 20, we know that 30
cannot pass through the 20 unless 20 becomes likewise 30. Hence the
arch being crushed by the excess of weight, and the walls offering
insufficient resistance, part, and afford room between them, for the
fall of the arch.
But if you do not wish to strengthen the arch with an iron tie you
must give it such abutments as can resist the thrust; and you can do
this thus: fill up the spandrels _m n_ with stones, and direct the
lines of the joints between them to the centre of the circle of the
arch, and the reason why this makes the arch durable is this. We
know very well that if the arch is loaded with an excess of weight
above its quarter as _a b_, the wall _f g_ will be thrust outwards
because the arch would yield in that direction; if the other quarter
_b c_ were loaded, the wall _f g_ would be thrust inwards, if it
were not for the line of stones _x y_ which resists this.
787.
PLAN.
Here it is shown how the arches made in the side of the octagon
thrust the piers of the angles outwards, as is shown by the line _h
c_ and by the line _t d_ which thrust out the pier _m_; that is they
tend to force it away from the centre of such an octagon.

788.
An Experiment to show that a weight placed on an arch does not

discharge itself entirely on its columns; on the contrary the
greater the weight placed on the arches, the less the arch transmits
the weight to the columns. The experiment is the following. Let a
man be placed on a steel yard in the middle of the shaft of a well,
then let him spread out his hands and feet between the walls of the
well, and you will see him weigh much less on the steel yard; give
him a weight on the shoulders, you will see by experiment, that the
greater the weight you give him the greater effort he will make in
spreading his arms and legs, and in pressing against the wall and
the less weight will be thrown on the steel yard.
IV.
ON FOUNDATIONS, THE NATURE OF THE GROUND AND SUPPORTS.
789.
The first and most important thing is stability.
As to the foundations of the component parts of temples and other

public buildings, the depths of the foundations must bear the same
proportions to each other as the weight of material which is to be
placed upon them.
Every part of the depth of earth in a given space is composed of

layers, and each layer is composed of heavier or lighter materials,
the lowest being the heaviest. And this can be proved, because these
layers have been formed by the sediment from water carried down to
the sea, by the current of rivers which flow into it. The heaviest
part of this sediment was that which was first thrown down, and so
on by degrees; and this is the action of water when it becomes
stagnant, having first brought down the mud whence it first flowed.
And such layers of soil are seen in the banks of rivers, where their
constant flow has cut through them and divided one slope from the
other to a great depth; where in gravelly strata the waters have run
off, the materials have, in consequence, dried and been converted
into hard stone, and this happened most in what was the finest mud;
whence we conclude that every portion of the surface of the earth
was once at the centre of the earth, and _vice_versa_ &c.

790.
The heaviest part of the foundations of buildings settles most, and

leaves the lighter part above it separated from it.
And the soil which is most pressed, if it be porous yields most.
You should always make the foundations project equally beyond the
weight of the walls and piers, as shown at _m a b_. If you do as
many do, that is to say if you make a foundation of equal width from
the bottom up to the surface of the ground, and charge it above with
unequal weights, as shown at _b e_ and at _e o_, at the part of the
foundation at _b e_, the pier of the angle will weigh most and
thrust its foundation downwards, which the wall at _e o_ will not
do; since it does not cover the whole of its foundation, and
therefore thrusts less heavily and settles less. Hence, the pier _b
e_ in settling cracks and parts from the wall _e o_. This may be
seen in most buildings which are cracked round the piers.
791.
The window _a_ is well placed under the window _c_, and the window
_b_ is badly placed under the pier _d_, because this latter is
without support and foundation; mind therefore never to make a break
under the piers between the windows.
792.
OF THE SUPPORTS.
A pillar of which the thickness is increased will gain more than its
due strength, in direct proportion to what its loses in relative
height.
EXAMPLE.
If a pillar should be nine times as high as it is broad--that is to

say, if it is one braccio thick, according to rule it should be nine
braccia high--then, if you place 100 such pillars together in a mass
this will be ten braccia broad and 9 high; and if the first pillar
could carry 10000 pounds the second being only about as high as it
is wide, and thus lacking 8 parts of its proper length, it, that is

to say, each pillar thus united, will bear eight times more than
when disconnected; that is to say, that if at first it would carry
ten thousand pounds, it would now carry 90 thousand.
V.
ON THE RESISTANCE OF BEAMS.
793.
That angle will offer the greatest resistance which is most acute,
and the most obtuse will be the weakest.
[Footnote: The three smaller sketches accompany the text in the

original, but the larger one is not directly connected with it. It
is to be found on fol. 89a of the same Manuscript and there we read
in a note, written underneath, _coverchio della perdicha del
castello_ (roof of the flagstaff of the castle),--Compare also Pl.
XCIII, No. 1.]
794.
If the beams and the weight _o_ are 100 pounds, how much weight will
be wanted at _ae_ to resist such a weight, that it may not fall
down?
795.
ON THE LENGTH OF BEAMS.
That beam which is more than 20 times as long as its greatest

thickness will be of brief duration and will break in half; and
remember, that the part built into the wall should be steeped in hot
pitch and filleted with oak boards likewise so steeped. Each beam
must pass through its walls and be secured beyond the walls with
sufficient chaining, because in consequence of earthquakes the beams
are often seen to come out of the walls and bring down the walls and
floors; whilst if they are chained they will hold the walls strongly
together and the walls will hold the floors. Again I remind you
never to put plaster over timber. Since by expansion and shrinking
of the timber produced by damp and dryness such floors often crack,
and once cracked their divisions gradually produce dust and an ugly
effect. Again remember not to lay a floor on beams supported on

arches; for, in time the floor which is made on beams settles

somewhat in the middle while that part of the floor which rests on
the arches remains in its place; hence, floors laid over two kinds
of supports look, in time, as if they were made in hills [Footnote:
19 M. RAVAISSON, in his edition of MS. A gives a very different
rendering of this passage translating it thus: _Les planchers qui
sont soutenus par deux differentes natures de supports paraissent
avec le temps faits en voute a cholli_.]
Remarks on the style of Leonardo's architecture.
A few remarks may here be added on the style of Leonardo's

architectural studies. However incomplete, however small in scale,
they allow us to establish a certain number of facts and
probabilities, well worthy of consideration.
When Leonardo began his studies the great name of Brunellesco was
still the inspiration of all Florence, and we cannot doubt that
Leonardo was open to it, since we find among his sketches the plan
of the church of Santo Spirito[Footnote 1: See Pl. XCIV, No. 2. Then
only in course of erection after the designs of Brunellesco, though
he was already dead; finished in 1481.] and a lateral view of San
Lorenzo (Pl. XCIV No. 1), a plan almost identical with the chapel
Degli Angeli, only begun by him (Pl. XCIV, No. 3) while among
Leonardo's designs for domes several clearly betray the influence of
Brunellesco's Cupola and the lantern of Santa Maria del
Fiore[Footnote 2: A small sketch of the tower of the Palazzo della
Signoria (MS. C.A. 309) proves that he also studied mediaeval
monuments.]
The beginning of the second period of modern Italian architecture

falls during the first twenty years of Leonardo's life. However the
new impetus given by Leon Battista Alberti either was not generally
understood by his contemporaries, or those who appreciated it, had
no opportunity of showing that they did so. It was only when taken
up by Bramante and developed by him to the highest rank of modern
architecture that this new influence was generally felt. Now the
peculiar feature of Leonardo's sketches is that, like the works of
Bramante, they appear to be the development and continuation of
Alberti's.
_But a question here occurs which is difficult to answer. Did

Leonardo, till he quitted Florence, follow the direction given by

the dominant school of Brunellesco, which would then have given rise
to his "First manner", or had he, even before he left Florence, felt
Alberti's influence--either through his works (Palazzo Ruccellai,
and the front of Santa Maria Novella) or through personal
intercourse? Or was it not till he went to Milan that Alberti's work
began to impress him through Bramante, who probably had known
Alberti at Mantua about 1470 and who not only carried out Alberti's
views and ideas, but, by his designs for St. Peter's at Rome, proved
himself the greatest of modern architects. When Leonardo went to
Milan Bramante had already been living there for many years. One of
his earliest works in Milan was the church of Santa Maria presso San
Satiro, Via del Falcone[Footnote 1: Evidence of this I intend to
give later on in a Life of Bramante, which I have in preparation.].
Now we find among Leonardos studies of Cupolas on Plates LXXXIV and

LXXXV and in Pl. LXXX several sketches which seem to me to have been
suggested by Bramante's dome of this church.
The MSS. B and Ash. II contain the plans of S. Sepolcro, the

pavilion in the garden of the duke of Milan, and two churches,
evidently inspired by the church of San Lorenzo at Milan.
MS. B. contains besides two notes relating to Pavia, one of them a

design for the sacristy of the Cathedral at Pavia, which cannot be
supposed to be dated later than 1492, and it has probably some
relation to Leonardo's call to Pavia June 21, 1490[Footnote 2: The
sketch of the plan of Brunellesco's church of Santo Spirito at
Florence, which occurs in the same Manuscript, may have been done
from memory.]. These and other considerations justify us in
concluding, that Leonardo made his studies of cupolas at Milan,
probably between the years 1487 and 1492 in anticipation of the
erection of one of the grandest churches of Italy, the Cathedral of
Pavia. This may explain the decidedly Lombardo-Bramantesque tendency
in the style of these studies, among which only a few remind us of
the forms of the cupolas of S. Maria del Fiore and of the Baptistery
of Florence. Thus, although when compared with Bramante's work,
several of these sketches plainly reveal that master's influence, we
find, among the sketches of domes, some, which show already
Bramante's classic style, of which the Tempietto of San Pietro in
Montorio, his first building executed at Rome, is the foremost
example[Footnote 3: It may be mentioned here, that in 1494 Bramante
made a similar design for the lantern of the Cupola of the Church of
Santa Maria delle Grazie.].

On Plate LXXXIV is a sketch of the plan of a similar circular

building; and the Mausoleum on Pl. XCVIII, no less than one of the
pedestals for the statue of Francesco Sforza (Pl. LXV), is of the
same type.
The drawings Pl. LXXXIV No. 2, Pl. LXXXVI No. 1 and 2 and the ground
flour ("flour" sic but should be "floor" ?) of the building in the
drawing Pl. XCI No. 2, with the interesting decoration by gigantic
statues in large niches, are also, I believe, more in the style
Bramante adopted at Rome, than in the Lombard style. Are we to
conclude from this that Leonardo on his part influenced Bramante in
the sense of simplifying his style and rendering it more congenial
to antique art? The answer to this important question seems at first
difficult to give, for we are here in presence of Bramante, the
greatest of modern architects, and with Leonardo, the man comparable
with no other. We have no knowledge of any buildings erected by
Leonardo, and unless we admit personal intercourse--which seems
probable, but of which there is no proof--, it would be difficult to
understand how Leonardo could have affected Bramante's style. The
converse is more easily to be admitted, since Bramante, as we have
proved elsewhere, drew and built simultaneously in different
manners, and though in Lombardy there is no building by him in his
classic style, the use of brick for building, in that part of Italy,
may easily account for it._
_Bramante's name is incidentally mentioned in Leonardo's manuscripts

in two passages (Nos. 1414 and 1448). On each occasion it is only a
slight passing allusion, and the nature of the context gives us no
due information as to any close connection between the two artists._
_It might be supposed, on the ground of Leonardo's relations with

the East given in sections XVII and XXI of this volume, that some
evidence of oriental influence might be detected in his
architectural drawings. I do not however think that any such traces
can be pointed out with certainty unless perhaps the drawing for a
Mausoleum, Pl. XC VIII._
_Among several studies for the construction of cupolas above a Greek

cross there are some in which the forms are decidedly monotonous.
These, it is clear, were not designed as models of taste; they must
be regarded as the results of certain investigations into the laws
of proportion, harmony and contrast._

_The designs for churches, on the plan of a Latin cross are

evidently intended to depart as little as possible from the form of
a Greek cross; and they also show a preference for a nave surrounded
with outer porticos._
_The architectural forms preferred by Leonardo are pilasters coupled

(Pl. LXXXII No. 1; or grouped (Pl. LXXX No. 5 and XCIV No. 4), often
combined with niches. We often meet with orders superposed, one in
each story, or two small orders on one story, in combination with
one great order (Pl. XCVI No. 2)._
The drum (tamburo) of these cupolas is generally octagonal, as in

the cathedral of Florence, and with similar round windows in its
sides. In Pl. LXXXVII No. 2 it is circular like the model actually
carried out by Michael Angelo at St. Peter's.
The cupola itself is either hidden under a pyramidal roof, as in the

Baptistery of Florence, San Lorenzo of Milan and most of the Lombard
churches (Pl. XCI No. 1 and Pl. XCII No. 1); but it more generally
suggests the curve of Sta Maria del Fiore (Pl. LXXXVIII No. 5; Pl.
XC No. 2; Pl. LXXXIX, M; Pl XC No. 4, Pl. XCVI No. 2). In other
cases (Pl. LXXX No. 4; Pl. LXXXIX; Pl. XC No. 2) it shows the sides
of the octagon crowned by semicircular pediments, as in
Brunellesco's lantern of the Cathedral and in the model for the
Cathedral of Pavia.
Finally, in some sketches the cupola is either semicircular, or as

in Pl. LXXXVII No. 2, shows the beautiful line, adopted sixty years
later by Michael Angelo for the existing dome of St. Peter's.
It is worth noticing that for all these domes Leonardo is not

satisfied to decorate the exterior merely with ascending ribs or
mouldings, but employs also a system of horizontal parallels to
complete the architectural system. Not the least interesting are the
designs for the tiburio (cupola) of the Milan Cathedral. They show
some of the forms, just mentioned, adapted to the peculiar gothic
style of that monument.
The few examples of interiors of churches recall the style employed

in Lombardy by Bramante, for instance in S. Maria di Canepanuova at
Pavia, or by Dolcebuono in the Monastero Maggiore at Milan (see Pl.
CI No. 1 [C. A. 181b; 546b]; Pl. LXXXIV No. 10).

The few indications concerning palaces seem to prove that Leonardo

followed Alberti's example of decorating the walls with pilasters
and a flat rustica, either in stone or by graffitti (Pl. CII No. 1
and Pl. LXXXV No. 14).
By pointing out the analogies between Leonardo's architecture and

that of other masters we in no way pretend to depreciate his
individual and original inventive power. These are at all events
beyond dispute. The project for the Mausoleum (Pl. XCVIII) would
alone suffice to rank him among the greatest architects who ever
lived. The peculiar shape of the tower (Pl. LXXX), of the churches
for preaching (Pl. XCVII No. 1 and pages 56 and 57, Fig. 1-4), his
curious plan for a city with high and low level streets (Pl. LXXVII
and LXXVIII No. 2 and No. 3), his Loggia with fountains (Pl. LXXXII
No. 4) reveal an originality, a power and facility of invention for
almost any given problem, which are quite wonderful.
_In addition to all these qualities he propably stood alone in his

day in one department of architectural study,--his investigations,
namely, as to the resistance of vaults, foundations, walls and
arches._
_As an application of these studies the plan of a semicircular vault

(Pl. CIII No. 2) may be mentioned here, disposed so as to produce no
thrust on the columns on which it rests:_ volta i botte e non
ispignie ifori le colone. _Above the geometrical patterns on the
same sheet, close to a circle inscribed in a square is the note:_ la
ragio d'una volta cioe il terzo del diamitro della sua ... del
tedesco in domo.
_There are few data by which to judge of Leonardo's style in the

treatment of detail. On Pl. LXXXV No. 10 and Pl. CIII No. 3, we find
some details of pillars; on Pl. CI No. 3 slender pillars designed
for a fountain and on Pl. CIII No. 1 MS. B, is a pen and ink drawing
of a vase which also seems intended for a fountain. Three handles
seem to have been intended to connect the upper parts with the base.
There can be no doubt that Leonardo, like Bramante, but unlike
Michael Angelo, brought infinite delicacy of motive and execution to
bear on the details of his work._
_XIV._

_Anatomy, Zoology and Physiology._
_Leonardo's eminent place in the history of medicine, as a pioneer

in the sciences of Anatomy and Physiology, will never be appreciated
till it is possible to publish the mass of manuscripts in which he
largely treated of these two branches of learning. In the present
work I must necessarily limit myself to giving the reader a general
view of these labours, by publishing his introductory notes to the
various books on anatomical subjects. I have added some extracts,
and such observations as are scattered incidentally through these
treatises, as serving to throw a light on Leonardo's scientific
attitude, besides having an interest for a wider circle than that of
specialists only._
_VASARI expressly mentions Leonardo's anatomical studies, having had

occasion to examine the manuscript books which refer to them.
According to him Leonardo studied Anatomy in the companionship of
Marc Antonio della Torre_ "aiutato e scambievolmente
aiutando."_--This learned Anatomist taught the science in the
universities first of Padua and then of Pavia, and at Pavia he and
Leonardo may have worked and studied together. We have no clue to
any exact dates, but in the year 1506 Marc Antonio della Torre seems
to have not yet left Padua. He was scarcely thirty years old when he
died in 1512, and his writings on anatomy have not only never been
published, but no manuscript copy of them is known to exist._
_This is not the place to enlarge on the connection between Leonardo

and Marc Antonio della Torre. I may however observe that I have not
been able to discover in Leonardo's manuscripts on anatomy any
mention of his younger contemporary. The few quotations which occur
from writers on medicine--either of antiquity or of the middle ages
are printed in Section XXII. Here and there in the manuscripts
mention is made of an anonymous "adversary"_ (avversario) _whose
views are opposed and refuted by Leonardo, but there is no ground
for supposing that Marc Antonio della Torre should have been this
"adversary"._
_Only a very small selection from the mass of anatomical drawings

left by Leonardo have been published here in facsimile, but to form
any adequate idea of their scientific merit they should be compared
with the coarse and inadequate figures given in the published books
of the early part of the XVI. century.

William Hunter, the great surgeon--a competent judge--who had an

opportunity in the time of George III. of seeing the originals in
the King's Library, has thus recorded his opinion: "I expected to
see little more than such designs in Anatomy as might be useful to a
painter in his own profession. But I saw, and indeed with
astonishment, that Leonardo had been a general and deep student.
When I consider what pains he has taken upon every part of the body,
the superiority of his universal genius, his particular excellence
in mechanics and hydraulics, and the attention with which such a man
would examine and see objects which he has to draw, I am fully
persuaded that Leonardo was the best Anatomist, at that time, in the
world ... Leonardo was certainly the first man, we know of, who
introduced the practice of making anatomical drawings" (Two
introductory letters. London 1784, pages 37 and 39).
The illustrious German Naturalist Johan Friedrich Blumenback

esteemed them no less highly; he was one of the privileged few who,
after Hunter, had the chance of seeing these Manuscripts. He writes:
_Der Scharfblick dieses grossen Forschers und Darstellers der Natur
hat schon auf Dinge geachtet, die noch Jahrhunderte nachher
unbemerkt geblieben sind_" (see _Blumenbach's medicinische
Bibliothek_, Vol. 3, St. 4, 1795. page 728).
These opinions were founded on the drawings alone. Up to the present

day hardly anything has been made known of the text, and, for the
reasons I have given, it is my intention to reproduce here no more
than a selection of extracts which I have made from the originals at
Windsor Castle and elsewhere. In the Bibliography of the
Manuscripts, at the end of this volume a short review is given of
the valuable contents of these Anatomical note books which are at
present almost all in the possession of her Majesty the Queen of
England. It is, I believe, possible to assign the date with
approximate accuracy to almost all the fragments, and I am thus led
to conclude that the greater part of Leonardo's anatomical
investigations were carried out after the death of della Torre.
Merely in reading the introductory notes to his various books on

Anatomy which are here printed it is impossible to resist the
impression that the Master's anatomical studies bear to a very great
extent the stamp of originality and independent thought.
I.

ANATOMY.
796.
A general introduction
I wish to work miracles;--it may be that I shall possess less than

other men of more peaceful lives, or than those who want to grow
rich in a day. I may live for a long time in great poverty, as
always happens, and to all eternity will happen, to alchemists, the
would-be creators of gold and silver, and to engineers who would
have dead water stir itself into life and perpetual motion, and to
those supreme fools, the necromancer and the enchanter.
[Footnote 23: The following seems to be directed against students of

painting and young artists rather than against medical men and
anatomists.]
And you, who say that it would be better to watch an anatomist at

work than to see these drawings, you would be right, if it were
possible to observe all the things which are demonstrated in such
drawings in a single figure, in which you, with all your cleverness,
will not see nor obtain knowledge of more than some few veins, to
obtain a true and perfect knowledge of which I have dissected more
than ten human bodies, destroying all the other members, and
removing the very minutest particles of the flesh by which these
veins are surrounded, without causing them to bleed, excepting the
insensible bleeding of the capillary veins; and as one single body
would not last so long, since it was necessary to proceed with
several bodies by degrees, until I came to an end and had a complete
knowledge; this I repeated twice, to learn the differences [59].
[Footnote: Lines 1-59 and 60-89 are written in two parallel columns.
When we here find Leonardo putting himself in the same category as
the Alchemists and Necromancers, whom he elsewhere mocks at so
bitterly, it is evidently meant ironically. In the same way
Leonardo, in the introduction to the Books on Perspective sets
himself with transparent satire on a level with other writers on the
subject.]
And if you should have a love for such things you might be prevented
by loathing, and if that did not prevent you, you might be deterred
by the fear of living in the night hours in the company of those

corpses, quartered and flayed and horrible to see. And if this did
not prevent you, perhaps you might not be able to draw so well as is
necessary for such a demonstration; or, if you had the skill in
drawing, it might not be combined with knowledge of perspective; and
if it were so, you might not understand the methods of geometrical
demonstration and the method of the calculation of forces and of the
strength of the muscles; patience also may be wanting, so that you
lack perseverance. As to whether all these things were found in me
or not [Footnote 84: Leonardo frequently, and perhaps habitually,
wrote in note books of a very small size and only moderately thick;
in most of those which have been preserved undivided, each contains
less than fifty leaves. Thus a considerable number of such volumes
must have gone to make up a volume of the bulk of the '_Codex
Atlanticus_' which now contains nearly 1200 detached leaves. In the
passage under consideration, which was evidently written at a late
period of his life, Leonardo speaks of his Manuscript note-books as
numbering 12O; but we should hardly be justified in concluding from
this passage that the greater part of his Manuscripts were now
missing (see _Prolegomena_, Vol. I, pp. 5-7).], the hundred and
twenty books composed by me will give verdict Yes or No. In these I
have been hindered neither by avarice nor negligence, but simply by
want of time. Farewell [89].
Plans and suggestions for the arrangement of materials (797-802).
797.
OF THE ORDER OF THE BOOK.
This work must begin with the conception of man, and describe the
nature of the womb and how the foetus lives in it, up to what stage
it resides there, and in what way it quickens into life and feeds.
Also its growth and what interval there is between one stage of
growth and another. What it is that forces it out from the body of
the mother, and for what reasons it sometimes comes out of the
mother's womb before the due time.
Then I will describe which are the members, which, after the boy is
born, grow more than the others, and determine the proportions of a
boy of one year.
Then describe the fully grown man and woman, with their proportions,
and the nature of their complexions, colour, and physiognomy.

Then how they are composed of veins, tendons, muscles and bones.
This I shall do at the end of the book. Then, in four drawings,
represent four universal conditions of men. That is, Mirth, with
various acts of laughter, and describe the cause of laughter.
Weeping in various aspects with its causes. Contention, with various
acts of killing; flight, fear, ferocity, boldness, murder and every
thing pertaining to such cases. Then represent Labour, with pulling,
thrusting, carrying, stopping, supporting and such like things.
Further I would describe attitudes and movements. Then perspective,

concerning the functions and effects of the eye; and of
hearing--here I will speak of music--, and treat of the other
senses.
And then describe the nature of the senses.
This mechanism of man we will demonstrate in ... figures; of which

the three first will show the ramification of the bones; that is:
first one to show their height and position and shape: the second
will be seen in profile and will show the depth of the whole and of
the parts, and their position. The third figure will be a
demonstration of the bones of the backparts. Then I will make three
other figures from the same point of view, with the bones sawn
across, in which will be shown their thickness and hollowness. Three
other figures of the bones complete, and of the nerves which rise
from the nape of the neck, and in what limbs they ramify. And three
others of the bones and veins, and where they ramify. Then three
figures with the muscles and three with the skin, and their proper
proportions; and three of woman, to illustrate the womb and the
menstrual veins which go to the breasts.
[Footnote: The meaning of the word _nervo_ varies in different

passages, being sometimes used for _muscolo_ (muscle).]
798.
THE ORDER OF THE BOOK.
This depicting of mine of the human body will be as clear to you as

if you had the natural man before you; and the reason is that if you
wish thoroughly to know the parts of man, anatomically, you--or your
eye--require to see it from different aspects, considering it from

below and from above and from its sides, turning it about and
seeking the origin of each member; and in this way the natural
anatomy is sufficient for your comprehension. But you must
understand that this amount of knowledge will not continue to
satisfy you; seeing the very great confusion that must result from
the combination of tissues, with veins, arteries, nerves, sinews,
muscles, bones, and blood which, of itself, tinges every part the
same colour. And the veins, which discharge this blood, are not
discerned by reason of their smallness. Moreover integrity of the
tissues, in the process of the investigating the parts within them,
is inevitably destroyed, and their transparent substance being
tinged with blood does not allow you to recognise the parts covered
by them, from the similarity of their blood-stained hue; and you
cannot know everything of the one without confusing and destroying
the other. Hence, some further anatomy drawings become necessary. Of
which you want three to give full knowledge of the veins and
arteries, everything else being destroyed with the greatest care.
And three others to display the tissues; and three for the sinews
and muscles and ligaments; and three for the bones and cartilages;
and three for the anatomy of the bones, which have to be sawn to
show which are hollow and which are not, which have marrow and which
are spongy, and which are thick from the outside inwards, and which
are thin. And some are extremely thin in some parts and thick in
others, and in some parts hollow or filled up with bone, or full of
marrow, or spongy. And all these conditions are sometimes found in
one and the same bone, and in some bones none of them. And three you
must have for the woman, in which there is much that is mysterious
by reason of the womb and the foetus. Therefore by my drawings every
part will be known to you, and all by means of demonstrations from
three different points of view of each part; for when you have seen
a limb from the front, with any muscles, sinews, or veins which take
their rise from the opposite side, the same limb will be shown to
you in a side view or from behind, exactly as if you had that same
limb in your hand and were turning it from side to side until you
had acquired a full comprehension of all you wished to know. In the
same way there will be put before you three or four demonstrations
of each limb, from various points of view, so that you will be left
with a true and complete knowledge of all you wish to learn of the
human figure[Footnote 35: Compare Pl. CVII. The original drawing at
Windsor is 28 1/2 X 19 1/2 centimetres. The upper figures are
slightly washed with Indian ink. On the back of this drawing is the
text No. 1140.].

Thus, in twelve entire figures, you will have set before you the
cosmography of this lesser world on the same plan as, before me, was
adopted by Ptolemy in his cosmography; and so I will afterwards
divide them into limbs as he divided the whole world into provinces;
then I will speak of the function of each part in every direction,
putting before your eyes a description of the whole form and
substance of man, as regards his movements from place to place, by
means of his different parts. And thus, if it please our great
Author, I may demonstrate the nature of men, and their customs in
the way I describe his figure.
And remember that the anatomy of the nerves will not give the
position of their ramifications, nor show you which muscles they
branch into, by means of bodies dissected in running water or in
lime water; though indeed their origin and starting point may be
seen without such water as well as with it. But their ramifications,
when under running water, cling and unite--just like flat or hemp
carded for spinning--all into a skein, in a way which makes it
impossible to trace in which muscles or by what ramification the
nerves are distributed among those muscles.
799.
THE ARRANGEMENT OF ANATOMY
First draw the bones, let us say, of the arm, and put in the motor
muscle from the shoulder to the elbow with all its lines. Then
proceed in the same way from the elbow to the wrist. Then from the
wrist to the hand and from the hand to the fingers.
And in the arm you will put the motors of the fingers which open,
and these you will show separately in their demonstration. In the
second demonstration you will clothe these muscles with the
secondary motors of the fingers and so proceed by degrees to avoid
confusion. But first lay on the bones those muscles which lie close
to the said bones, without confusion of other muscles; and with
these you may put the nerves and veins which supply their
nourishment, after having first drawn the tree of veins and nerves
over the simple bones.
800.
Begin the anatomy at the head and finish at the sole of the foot.

801.
3 men complete, 3 with bones and nerves, 3 with the bones only. Here
we have 12 demonstrations of entire figures.
802.
When you have finished building up the man, you will make the statue
with all its superficial measurements.
[Footnote: _Cresciere l'omo_. The meaning of this expression appears

to be different here and in the passage C.A. 157a, 468a (see No.
526, Note 1. 2). Here it can hardly mean anything else than
modelling, since the sculptor forms the figure by degrees, by adding
wet clay and the figure consequently increases or grows. _Tu farai
la statua_ would then mean, you must work out the figure in marble.
If this interpretation is the correct one, this passage would have
no right to find a place in the series on anatomical studies. I may
say that it was originally inserted in this connection under the
impression that _di cresciere_ should be read _descrivere_.]
Plans for the representation of muscles by drawings (803-809).
803.
You must show all the motions of the bones with their joints to
follow the demonstration of the first three figures of the bones,
and this should be done in the first book.
804.
Remember that to be certain of the point of origin of any muscle,

you must pull the sinew from which the muscle springs in such a way
as to see that muscle move, and where it is attached to the
ligaments of the bones.
NOTE.
You will never get any thing but confusion in demonstrating the
muscles and their positions, origin, and termination, unless you
first make a demonstration of thin muscles after the manner of linen
threads; and thus you can represent them, one over another as nature

has placed them; and thus, too, you can name them according to the
limb they serve; for instance the motor of the point of the great
toe, of its middle bone, of its first bone, &c. And when you have
the knowledge you will draw, by the side of this, the true form and
size and position of each muscle. But remember to give the threads
which explain the situation of the muscles in the position which
corresponds to the central line of each muscle; and so these threads
will demonstrate the form of the leg and their distance in a plain
and clear manner.
I have removed the skin from a man who was so shrunk by illness that
the muscles were worn down and remained in a state like thin
membrane, in such a way that the sinews instead of merging in
muscles ended in wide membrane; and where the bones were covered by
the skin they had very little over their natural size.
[Footnote: The photograph No. 41 of Grosvenor Gallery Publications:

a drawing of the muscles of the foot, includes a complete facsimile
of the text of this passage.]
805.
Which nerve causes the motion of the eye so that the motion of one
eye moves the other?
Of frowning the brows, of raising the brows, of lowering the

brows,--of closing the eyes, of opening the eyes,--of raising the
nostrils, of opening the lips, with the teeth shut, of pouting with
the lips, of smiling, of astonishment.--
Describe the beginning of man when it is caused in the womb and why
an eight months child does not live. What sneezing is. What yawning
is. Falling sickness, spasms, paralysis, shivering with cold,
sweating, fatigue, hunger, sleepiness, thirst, lust.
Of the nerve which is the cause of movement from the shoulder to the
elbow, of the movement from the elbow to the hand, from the joint of
the hand to the springing of the fingers. From the springing of the
fingers to the middle joints, and from the middle joints to the
last.
Of the nerve which causes the movement of the thigh, and from the
knee to the foot, and from the joint of the foot to the toes, and

then to the middle of the toes and of the rotary motion of the leg.
806.
ANATOMY.
Which nerves or sinews of the hand are those which close and part
the fingers and toes latteraly?
807.
Remove by degrees all the parts of the front of a man in making your
dissection, till you come to the bones. Description of the parts of
the bust and of their motions.
808.
Give the anatomy of the leg up to the hip, in all views and in every
action and in every state; veins, arteries, nerves, sinews and
muscles, skin and bones; then the bones in sections to show the
thickness of the bones.
[Footnote: A straightened leg in profile is sketched by the side of

this text.]
On corpulency and leanness (809-811).
809.
Make the rule and give the measurement of each muscle, and give the
reasons of all their functions, and in which way they work and what
makes them work &c.
[4] First draw the spine of the back; then clothe it by degrees, one
after the other, with each of its muscles and put in the nerves and
arteries and veins to each muscle by itself; and besides these note
the vertebrae to which they are attached; which of the intestines
come in contact with them; and which bones and other organs &c.
The most prominent parts of lean people are most prominent in the
muscular, and equally so in fat persons. But concerning the
difference in the forms of the muscles in fat persons as compared
with muscular persons, it shall be described below.

[Footnote: The two drawings given on Pl. CVIII no. 1 come between
lines 3 and 4. A good and very early copy of this drawing without
the written text exists in the collection of drawings belonging to
Christ's College Oxford, where it is attributed to Leonardo.]
810.
Describe which muscles disappear in growing fat, and which become

visible in growing lean.
And observe that that part which on the surface of a fat person is
most concave, when he grows lean becomes more prominent.
Where the muscles separate one from another you must give profiles
and where they coalesce ...
811.
OF THE HUMAN FIGURE.
Which is the part in man, which, as he grows fatter, never gains

flesh?
Or what part which as a man grows lean never falls away with a too
perceptible diminution? And among the parts which grow fat which is
that which grows fattest?
Among those which grow lean which is that which grows leanest?
In very strong men which are the muscles which are thickest and most
prominent?
In your anatomy you must represent all the stages of the limbs from
man's creation to his death, and then till the death of the bone;
and which part of him is first decayed and which is preserved the
longest.
And in the same way of extreme leanness and extreme fatness.
The divisions of the head (812. 813).
812.

ANATOMY.
There are eleven elementary tissues:-- Cartilage, bones, nerves,

veins, arteries, fascia, ligament and sinews, skin, muscle and fat.
OF THE HEAD.
The divisions of the head are 10, viz. 5 external and 5 internal,
the external are the hair, skin, muscle, fascia and the skull; the
internal are the dura mater, the pia mater, [which enclose] the
brain. The pia mater and the dura mater come again underneath and
enclose the brain; then the rete mirabile, and the occipital bone,
which supports the brain from which the nerves spring.
813.
_a_. hair
_n_. skin
_c_. muscle
_m_. fascia
_o_. skull _i.e._ bone
_b_. dura mater
_d_. pia mater
_f_. brain
_r_. pia mater, below
_t_. dura mater
_l_. rete mirablile
_s_. the occipitul bone.
[Footnote: See Pl. CVIII, No. 3.]

Physiological problems (814. 815).
814.
Of the cause of breathing, of the cause of the motion of the heart,

of the cause of vomiting, of the cause of the descent of food from
the stomach, of the cause of emptying the intestines.
Of the cause of the movement of the superfluous matter through the

intestines.
Of the cause of swallowing, of the cause of coughing, of the cause

of yawning, of the cause of sneezing, of the cause of limbs getting
asleep.
Of the cause of losing sensibility in any limb.
Of the cause of tickling.
Of the cause of lust and other appetites of the body, of the cause
of urine and also of all the natural excretions of the body.
[Footnote: By the side of this text stands the pen and ink drawing
reproduced on Pl. CVIII, No. 4; a skull with indications of the
veins in the fleshy covering.]
815.
The tears come from the heart and not from the brain.
Define all the parts, of which the body is composed, beginning with
the skin with its outer cuticle which is often chapped by the
influence of the sun.
II.
ZOOLOGY AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
The divisions of the animal kingdom (816. 817).
816.
_Man_. The description of man, which includes that of such creatures

as are of almost the same species, as Apes, Monkeys and the like,
which are many,
_The Lion_ and its kindred, as Panthers. [Footnote 3: _Leonza_--wild

cat? "_Secondo alcuni, lo stesso che Leonessa; e secondo altri con
piu certezza, lo stesso che Pantera_" FANFANI, _Vocabolario_ page
858.] Wildcats (?) Tigers, Leopards, Wolfs, Lynxes, Spanish cats,
common cats and the like.
_The Horse_ and its kindred, as Mule, Ass and the like, with incisor
teeth above and below.
_The Bull_ and its allies with horns and without upper incisors as
the Buffalo, Stag Fallow Deer, Wild Goat, Swine, Goat, wild Goats
Muskdeers, Chamois, Giraffe.
817.
Describe the various forms of the intestines of the human species,

of apes and such like. Then, in what way the leonine species differ,
and then the bovine, and finally birds; and arrange this description
after the manner of a disquisition.
Miscellaneous notes on the study of Zoology (818-821).
818.
Procure the placenta of a calf when it is born and observe the form
of the cotyledons, if their cotyledons are male or female.
819.
Describe the tongue of the woodpecker and the jaw of the crocodile.
820.
Of the flight of the 4th kind of butterflies that consume winged

ants. Of the three principal positions of the wings of birds in
downward flight.
[Footnote: A passing allusion is all I can here permit myself to

Leonardo's elaborate researches into the flight of birds. Compare
the observations on this subject in the Introduction to section

XVIII and in the Bibliography of Manuscripts at the end of the

work.]
821.
Of the way in which the tail of a fish acts in propelling the fish;
as in the eel, snake and leech.
[Footnote: A sketch of a fish, swimming upwards is in the original,

inserted above this text.--Compare No. 1114.]
Comparative study of the structure of bones and of the action of

muscles (822-826).
822.
OF THE PALM OF THE HAND.
Then I will discourse of the hands of each animal to show in what

they vary; as in the bear, which has the ligatures of the sinews of
the toes joined above the instep.
823.
A second demonstration inserted between anatomy and [the treatise

on] the living being.
You will represent here for a comparison, the legs of a frog, which
have a great resemblance to the legs of man, both in the bones and
in the muscles. Then, in continuation, the hind legs of the hare,
which are very muscular, with strong active muscles, because they
are not encumbered with fat.
[Footnote: This text is written by the side of a drawing in black

chalk of a nude male figure, but there is no connection between the
sketch and the text.]
824.
Here I make a note to demonstrate the difference there is between

man and the horse and in the same way with other animals. And first
I will begin with the bones, and then will go on to all the muscles
which spring from the bones without tendons and end in them in the

same way, and then go on to those which start with a single tendon
at one end.
[Footnote: See Pl. CVIII, No. 2.]
825.
Note on the bendings of joints and in what way the flesh grows upon
them in their flexions or extensions; and of this most important
study write a separate treatise: in the description of the movements
of animals with four feet; among which is man, who likewise in his
infancy crawls on all fours.
826.
OF THE WAY OF WALKING IN MAN.
The walking of man is always after the universal manner of walking

in animals with 4 legs, inasmuch as just as they move their feet
crosswise after the manner of a horse in trotting, so man moves his
4 limbs crosswise; that is, if he puts forward his right foot in
walking he puts forward, with it, his left arm and vice versa,
invariably.
III.
PHYSIOLOGY.
Comparative study of the organs of sense in men and animals.
827.
I have found that in the composition of the human body as compared

with the bodies of animals the organs of sense are duller and
coarser. Thus it is composed of less ingenious instruments, and of
spaces less capacious for receiving the faculties of sense. I have
seen in the Lion tribe that the sense of smell is connected with
part of the substance of the brain which comes down the nostrils,
which form a spacious receptacle for the sense of smell, which
enters by a great number of cartilaginous vesicles with several
passages leading up to where the brain, as before said, comes down.
The eyes in the Lion tribe have a large part of the head for their

sockets and the optic nerves communicate at once with the brain; but
the contrary is to be seen in man, for the sockets of the eyes are
but a small part of the head, and the optic nerves are very fine and
long and weak, and by the weakness of their action we see by day but
badly at night, while these animals can see as well at night as by
day. The proof that they can see is that they prowl for prey at
night and sleep by day, as nocturnal birds do also.
Advantages in the structure of the eye in certain animals (828-831).
828.
Every object we see will appear larger at midnight than at midday,

and larger in the morning than at midday.
This happens because the pupil of the eye is much smaller at midday
than at any other time.
In proportion as the eye or the pupil of the owl is larger in

proportion to the animal than that of man, so much the more light
can it see at night than man can; hence at midday it can see nothing
if its pupil does not diminish; and, in the same way, at night
things look larger to it than by day.
829.
OF THE EYES IN ANIMALS.
The eyes of all animals have their pupils adapted to dilate and
diminish of their own accord in proportion to the greater or less
light of the sun or other luminary. But in birds the variation is
much greater; and particularly in nocturnal birds, such as horned
owls, and in the eyes of one species of owl; in these the pupil
dilates in such away as to occupy nearly the whole eye, or
diminishes to the size of a grain of millet, and always preserves
the circular form. But in the Lion tribe, as panthers, pards,
ounces, tigers, lynxes, Spanish cats and other similar animals the
pupil diminishes from the perfect circle to the figure of a pointed
oval such as is shown in the margin. But man having a weaker sight
than any other animal is less hurt by a very strong light and his
pupil increases but little in dark places; but in the eyes of these
nocturnal animals, the horned owl--a bird which is the largest of
all nocturnal birds--the power of vision increases so much that in

the faintest nocturnal light (which we call darkness) it sees with

much more distinctness than we do in the splendour of noon day, at
which time these birds remain hidden in dark holes; or if indeed
they are compelled to come out into the open air lighted up by the
sun, they contract their pupils so much that their power of sight
diminishes together with the quantity of light admitted.
Study the anatomy of various eyes and see which are the muscles
which open and close the said pupils of the eyes of animals.
[Footnote: Compare No. 24, lines 8 and fol.]
830.
_a b n_ is the membrane which closes the eye from below, upwards,

with an opaque film, _c n b_ encloses the eye in front and behind
with a transparent membrane.
It closes from below, upwards, because it [the eye] comes downwards.
When the eye of a bird closes with its two lids, the first to close
is the nictitating membrane which closes from the lacrymal duct over
to the outer corner of the eye; and the outer lid closes from below
upwards, and these two intersecting motions begin first from the
lacrymatory duct, because we have already seen that in front and
below birds are protected and use only the upper portion of the eye
from fear of birds of prey which come down from above and behind;
and they uncover first the membrane from the outer corner, because
if the enemy comes from behind, they have the power of escaping to
the front; and again the muscle called the nictitating membrane is
transparent, because, if the eye had not such a screen, they could
not keep it open against the wind which strikes against the eye in
the rush of their rapid flight. And the pupil of the eye dilates and
contracts as it sees a less or greater light, that is to say intense
brilliancy.
831.
If at night your eye is placed between the light and the eye of a
cat, it will see the eye look like fire.
Remarks on the organs of speech

(832. 833).
832.
_a e i o u
ba be bi bo bu
ca ce ci co cu
da de di do du
fa fe fi fo fu
ga ge gi go gu
la le li lo lu
ma me mi mo mu
na ne ni no nu
pa pe pi po pu
qa qe qi qo qu
ra re ri ro ru
sa se si so su
ta te ti to tu_
The tongue is found to have 24 muscles which correspond to the six

muscles which compose the portion of the tongue which moves in the
mouth.
And when _a o u_ are spoken with a clear and rapid pronunciation, it

is necessary, in order to pronounce continuously, without any pause
between, that the opening of the lips should close by degrees; that
is, they are wide apart in saying _a_, closer in saying _o_, and
much closer still to pronounce _u_.
It may be shown how all the vowels are pronounced with the farthest
portion of the false palate which is above the epiglottis.
833.
If you draw in breath by the nose and send it out by the mouth you
will hear the sound made by the division that is the membrane in
[Footnote 5: The text here breaks off.]...
On the conditions of sight (834. 835).
834.
OF THE NATURE OF SIGHT.

I say that sight is exercised by all animals, by the medium of

light; and if any one adduces, as against this, the sight of
nocturnal animals, I must say that this in the same way is subject
to the very same natural laws. For it will easily be understood that
the senses which receive the images of things do not project from
themselves any visual virtue [Footnote 4: Compare No. 68.]. On the
contrary the atmospheric medium which exists between the object and
the sense incorporates in itself the figure of things, and by its
contact with the sense transmits the object to it. If the
object--whether by sound or by odour--presents its spiritual force
to the ear or the nose, then light is not required and does not act.
The forms of objects do not send their images into the air if they
are not illuminated [8]; and the eye being thus constituted cannot
receive that from the air, which the air does not possess, although
it touches its surface. If you choose to say that there are many
animals that prey at night, I answer that when the little light
which suffices the nature of their eyes is wanting, they direct
themselves by their strong sense of hearing and of smell, which are
not impeded by the darkness, and in which they are very far superior
to man. If you make a cat leap, by daylight, among a quantity of
jars and crocks you will see them remain unbroken, but if you do the
same at night, many will be broken. Night birds do not fly about
unless the moon shines full or in part; rather do they feed between
sun-down and the total darkness of the night.
[Footnote 8: See No. 58-67.]
No body can be apprehended without light and shade, and light and
shade are caused by light.
835.
WHY MEN ADVANCED IN AGE SEE BETTER AT A DISTANCE.
Sight is better from a distance than near in those men who are
advancing in age, because the same object transmits a smaller
impression of itself to the eye when it is distant than when it is
near.
The seat of the common sense.
836.

The Common Sense, is that which judges of things offered to it by

the other senses. The ancient speculators have concluded that that
part of man which constitutes his judgment is caused by a central
organ to which the other five senses refer everything by means of
impressibility; and to this centre they have given the name Common
Sense. And they say that this Sense is situated in the centre of the
head between Sensation and Memory. And this name of Common Sense is
given to it solely because it is the common judge of all the other
five senses _i.e._ Seeing, Hearing, Touch, Taste and Smell. This
Common Sense is acted upon by means of Sensation which is placed as
a medium between it and the senses. Sensation is acted upon by means
of the images of things presented to it by the external instruments,
that is to say the senses which are the medium between external
things and Sensation. In the same way the senses are acted upon by
objects. Surrounding things transmit their images to the senses and
the senses transfer them to the Sensation. Sensation sends them to
the Common Sense, and by it they are stamped upon the memory and are
there more or less retained according to the importance or force of
the impression. That sense is most rapid in its function which is
nearest to the sensitive medium and the eye, being the highest is
the chief of the others. Of this then only we will speak, and the
others we will leave in order not to make our matter too long.
Experience tells us that the eye apprehends ten different natures of
things, that is: Light and Darkness, one being the cause of the
perception of the nine others, and the other its absence:-- Colour
and substance, form and place, distance and nearness, motion and
stillness [Footnote 15: Compare No. 23.].
On the origin of the soul.
837.
Though human ingenuity may make various inventions which, by the

help of various machines answering the same end, it will never
devise any inventions more beautiful, nor more simple, nor more to
the purpose than Nature does; because in her inventions nothing is
wanting, and nothing is superfluous, and she needs no counterpoise
when she makes limbs proper for motion in the bodies of animals. But
she puts into them the soul of the body, which forms them that is
the soul of the mother which first constructs in the womb the form
of the man and in due time awakens the soul that is to inhabit it.
And this at first lies dormant and under the tutelage of the soul of

the mother, who nourishes and vivifies it by the umbilical vein,

with all its spiritual parts, and this happens because this
umbilicus is joined to the placenta and the cotyledons, by which the
child is attached to the mother. And these are the reason why a
wish, a strong craving or a fright or any other mental suffering in
the mother, has more influence on the child than on the mother; for
there are many cases when the child loses its life from them, &c.
This discourse is not in its place here, but will be wanted for the
one on the composition of animated bodies--and the rest of the
definition of the soul I leave to the imaginations of friars, those
fathers of the people who know all secrets by inspiration.
[Footnote 57: _lettere incoronate_. By this term Leonardo probably

understands not the Bible only, but the works of the early Fathers,
and all the books recognised as sacred by the Roman Church.] I leave
alone the sacred books; for they are supreme truth.
On the relations of the soul to the organs of sense.
838.
HOW THE FIVE SENSES ARE THE MINISTERS OF THE SOUL.
The soul seems to reside in the judgment, and the judgment would
seem to be seated in that part where all the senses meet; and this
is called the Common Sense and is not all-pervading throughout the
body, as many have thought. Rather is it entirely in one part.
Because, if it were all-pervading and the same in every part, there
would have been no need to make the instruments of the senses meet
in one centre and in one single spot; on the contrary it would have
sufficed that the eye should fulfil the function of its sensation on
its surface only, and not transmit the image of the things seen, to
the sense, by means of the optic nerves, so that the soul--for the
reason given above-- may perceive it in the surface of the eye. In
the same way as to the sense of hearing, it would have sufficed if
the voice had merely sounded in the porous cavity of the indurated
portion of the temporal bone which lies within the ear, without
making any farther transit from this bone to the common sense, where
the voice confers with and discourses to the common judgment. The
sense of smell, again, is compelled by necessity to refer itself to
that same judgment. Feeling passes through the perforated cords and
is conveyed to this common sense. These cords diverge with infinite

ramifications into the skin which encloses the members of the body
and the viscera. The perforated cords convey volition and sensation
to the subordinate limbs. These cords and the nerves direct the
motions of the muscles and sinews, between which they are placed;
these obey, and this obedience takes effect by reducing their
thickness; for in swelling, their length is reduced, and the nerves
shrink which are interwoven among the particles of the limbs; being
extended to the tips of the fingers, they transmit to the sense the
object which they touch.
The nerves with their muscles obey the tendons as soldiers obey the
officers, and the tendons obey the Common [central] Sense as the
officers obey the general. [27] Thus the joint of the bones obeys
the nerve, and the nerve the muscle, and the muscle the tendon and
the tendon the Common Sense. And the Common Sense is the seat of the
soul [28], and memory is its ammunition, and the impressibility is
its referendary since the sense waits on the soul and not the soul
on the sense. And where the sense that ministers to the soul is not
at the service of the soul, all the functions of that sense are also
wanting in that man's life, as is seen in those born mute and blind.
[Footnote: The peculiar use of the words _nervo_, _muscolo_,

_corda_, _senso comune_, which are here literally rendered by nerve,
muscle cord or tendon and Common Sense may be understood from lines
27 and 28.]
On involuntary muscular action.
839.
HOW THE NERVES SOMETIMES ACT OF THEMSELVES WITHOUT ANY COMMANDS FROM
THE OTHER FUNCTIONS OF THE SOUL.
This is most plainly seen; for you will see palsied and shivering
persons move, and their trembling limbs, as their head and hands,
quake without leave from their soul and their soul with all its
power cannot prevent their members from trembling. The same thing
happens in falling sickness, or in parts that have been cut off, as
in the tails of lizards. The idea or imagination is the helm and
guiding-rein of the senses, because the thing conceived of moves the
sense. Pre-imagining, is imagining the things that are to be.
Post-imagining, is imagining the things that are past.

Miscellaneous physiological observations (840-842).
840.
There are four Powers: memory and intellect, desire and

covetousness. The two first are mental and the others sensual. The
three senses: sight, hearing and smell cannot well be prevented;
touch and taste not at all. Smell is connected with taste in dogs
and other gluttonous animals.
841.
I reveal to men the origin of the first, or perhaps second cause of

their existence.
842.
Lust is the cause of generation.
Appetite is the support of life. Fear or timidity is the

prolongation of life and preservation of its instruments.
The laws of nutrition and the support of life (843-848).
843.
HOW THE BODY OF ANIMALS IS CONSTANTLY DYING AND BEING RENEWED.
The body of any thing whatever that takes nourishment constantly

dies and is constantly renewed; because nourishment can only enter
into places where the former nourishment has expired, and if it has
expired it no longer has life. And if you do not supply nourishment
equal to the nourishment which is gone, life will fail in vigour,
and if you take away this nourishment, the life is entirely
destroyed. But if you restore as much is destroyed day by day, then
as much of the life is renewed as is consumed, just as the flame of
the candle is fed by the nourishment afforded by the liquid of this
candle, which flame continually with a rapid supply restores to it
from below as much as is consumed in dying above: and from a
brilliant light is converted in dying into murky smoke; and this
death is continuous, as the smoke is continuous; and the continuance
of the smoke is equal to the continuance of the nourishment, and in
the same instant all the flame is dead and all regenerated,

simultaneously with the movement of its own nourishment.
844.
King of the animals--as thou hast described him--I should rather say
king of the beasts, thou being the greatest--because thou hast
spared slaying them, in order that they may give thee their children
for the benefit of the gullet, of which thou hast attempted to make
a sepulchre for all animals; and I would say still more, if it were
allowed me to speak the entire truth [5]. But we do not go outside
human matters in telling of one supreme wickedness, which does not
happen among the animals of the earth, inasmuch as among them are
found none who eat their own kind, unless through want of sense (few
indeed among them, and those being mothers, as with men, albeit they
be not many in number); and this happens only among the rapacious
animals, as with the leonine species, and leopards, panthers lynxes,
cats and the like, who sometimes eat their children; but thou,
besides thy children devourest father, mother, brothers and friends;
nor is this enough for thee, but thou goest to the chase on the
islands of others, taking other men and these half-naked, the ...
and the ... thou fattenest, and chasest them down thy own
throat[18]; now does not nature produce enough simples, for thee to
satisfy thyself? and if thou art not content with simples, canst
thou not by the mixture of them make infinite compounds, as Platina
wrote[Footnote 21: _Come scrisse il Platina_ (Bartolomeo Sacchi, a
famous humanist). The Italian edition of his treatise _De arte
coquinaria_, was published under the title _De la honestra
voluptate, e valetudine, Venezia_ 1487.], and other authors on
feeding?
[Footnote: We are led to believe that Leonardo himself was a

vegetarian from the following interesting passage in the first of
Andrea Corsali's letters to Giuliano de'Medici: _Alcuni gentili
chiamati Guzzarati non si cibano di cosa, alcuna che tenga sangue,
ne fra essi loro consentono che si noccia ad alcuna cosa animata,
come il nostro Leonardo da Vinci_.
5-18. Amerigo Vespucci, with whom Leonardo was personally

acquainted, writes in his second letter to Pietro Soderini, about
the inhabitants of the Canary Islands after having stayed there in
1503: "_Hanno una scelerata liberta di viuere; ... si cibano di
carne humana, di maniera che il padre magia il figliuolo, et
all'incontro il figliuolo il padre secondo che a caso e per sorte

auiene. Io viddi un certo huomo sceleratissimo che si vantaua, et si

teneua a non piccola gloria di hauer mangiato piu di trecento
huomini. Viddi anche vna certa citta, nella quale io dimorai forse
ventisette giorni, doue le carni humane, hauendole salate, eran
appicate alli traui, si come noi alli traui di cucina_ _appicchiamo
le carni di cinghali secche al sole o al fumo, et massimamente
salsiccie, et altre simil cose: anzi si marauigliauano gradem ete
che noi non magiaissimo della carne de nemici, le quali dicono
muouere appetito, et essere di marauiglioso sapore, et le lodano
come cibi soaui et delicati (Lettere due di Amerigo Vespucci
Fiorentino drizzate al magnifico Pietro Soderini, Gonfaloniere della
eccelsa Republica di Firenze_; various editions).]
845.
Our life is made by the death of others.
In dead matter insensible life remains, which, reunited to the

stomachs of living beings, resumes life, both sensual and
intellectual.
846.
Here nature appears with many animals to have been rather a cruel
stepmother than a mother, and with others not a stepmother, but a
most tender mother.
847.
Man and animals are really the passage and the conduit of food, the
sepulchre of animals and resting place of the dead, one causing the
death of the other, making themselves the covering for the
corruption of other dead [bodies].
On the circulation of the blood (848-850).
848.
Death in old men, when not from fever, is caused by the veins which
go from the spleen to the valve of the liver, and which thicken so
much in the walls that they become closed up and leave no passage
for the blood that nourishes it.

[6]The incessant current of the blood through the veins makes these
veins thicken and become callous, so that at last they close up and
prevent the passage of the blood.
849.
The waters return with constant motion from the lowest depths of the
sea to the utmost height of the mountains, not obeying the nature of
heavier bodies; and in this they resemble the blood of animated
beings which always moves from the sea of the heart and flows
towards the top of the head; and here it may burst a vein, as may be
seen when a vein bursts in the nose; all the blood rises from below
to the level of the burst vein. When the water rushes out from the
burst vein in the earth, it obeys the law of other bodies that are
heavier than the air since it always seeks low places.
[Footnote: From this passage it is quite plain that Leonardo had not
merely a general suspicion of the circulation of the blood but a
very clear conception of it. Leonardo's studies on the muscles of
the heart are to be found in the MS. W. An. III. but no information
about them has hitherto been made public. The limits of my plan in
this work exclude all purely anatomical writings, therefore only a
very brief excerpt from this note book can be given here. WILLIAM
HARVEY (born 1578 and Professor of Anatomy at Cambridge from 1615)
is always considered to have been the discoverer of the circulation
of the blood. He studied medicine at Padua in 1598, and in 1628
brought out his memorable and important work: _De motu cordis et
sanguinis_.]
850.
That the blood which returns when the heart opens again is not the
same as that which closes the valves of the heart.
Some notes on medicine (851-855).
851.
Make them give you the definition and remedies for the case ... and
you will see that men are selected to be doctors for diseases they
do not know.
852.

A remedy for scratches taught me by the Herald to the King of

France. 4 ounces of virgin wax, 4 ounces of colophony, 2 ounces of
incense. Keep each thing separate; and melt the wax, and then put in
the incense and then the colophony, make a mixture of it and put it
on the sore place.
853.
Medicine is the restoration of discordant elements; sickness is the

discord of the elements infused into the living body.
854.
Those who are annoyed by sickness at sea should drink extract of

wormwood.
855.
To keep in health, this rule is wise: Eat only when you want and
relish food. Chew thoroughly that it may do you good. Have it well
cooked, unspiced and undisguised. He who takes medicine is ill
advised.
[Footnote: This appears to be a sketch for a poem.]
856.
I teach you to preserve your health; and in this you will succed
better in proportion as you shun physicians, because their medicines
are the work of alchemists.
[Footnote: This passage is written on the back of the drawing Pl.

CVIII. Compare also No. 1184.]
_XV_.
_Astronomy_.
_Ever since the publication by Venturi in_ 1797 _and Libri in_ 1840
_of some few passages of Leonardo's astronomical notes, scientific
astronomers have frequently expressed the opinion, that they must
have been based on very important discoveries, and that the great

painter also deserved a conspicuous place in the history of this

science. In the passages here printed, a connected view is given of
his astronomical studies as they lie scattered through the
manuscripts, which have come down to us. Unlike his other purely
scientific labours, Leonardo devotes here a good deal of attention
to the opinions of the ancients, though he does not follow the
practice universal in his day of relying on them as authorities; he
only quotes them, as we shall see, in order to refute their
arguments. His researches throughout have the stamp of independent
thought. There is nothing in these writings to lead us to suppose
that they were merely an epitome of the general learning common to
the astronomers of the period. As early as in the XIVth century
there were chairs of astronomy in the universities of Padua and
Bologna, but so late as during the entire XVIth century Astronomy
and Astrology were still closely allied._
_It is impossible now to decide whether Leonardo, when living in

Florence, became acquainted in his youth with the doctrines of Paolo
Toscanelli the great astronomer and mathematician (died_ 1482_), of
whose influence and teaching but little is now known, beyond the
fact that he advised and encouraged Columbus to carry out his
project of sailing round the world. His name is nowhere mentioned by
Leonardo, and from the dates of the manuscripts from which the texts
on astronomy are taken, it seems highly probable that Leonardo
devoted his attention to astronomical studies less in his youth than
in his later years. It was evidently his purpose to treat of
Astronomy in a connected form and in a separate work (see the
beginning of Nos._ 866 _and_ 892_; compare also No._ 1167_). It is
quite in accordance with his general scientific thoroughness that he
should propose to write a special treatise on Optics as an
introduction to Astronomy (see Nos._ 867 _and_ 877_). Some of the
chapters belonging to this Section bear the title "Prospettiva"
_(see Nos._ 869 _and_ 870_), this being the term universally applied
at the time to Optics as well as Perspective (see Vol. I, p._ 10,
_note to No._ 13, _l._ 10_)_.
_At the beginning of the XVIth century the Ptolemaic theory of the
universe was still universally accepted as the true one, and
Leonardo conceives of the earth as fixed, with the moon and sun
revolving round it, as they are represented in the diagram to No._
897. _He does not go into any theory of the motions of the planets;
with regard to these and the fixed stars he only investigates the
phenomena of their luminosity. The spherical form of the earth he

takes for granted as an axiom from the first, and he anticipates

Newton by pointing out the universality of Gravitation not merely in
the earth, but even in the moon. Although his acute research into
the nature of the moon's light and the spots on the moon did not
bring to light many results of lasting importance beyond making it
evident that they were a refutation of the errors of his
contemporaries, they contain various explanations of facts which
modern science need not modify in any essential point, and
discoveries which history has hitherto assigned to a very much later
date_.
_The ingenious theory by which he tries to explain the nature of

what is known as earth shine, the reflection of the sun's rays by
the earth towards the moon, saying that it is a peculiar refraction,
originating in the innumerable curved surfaces of the waves of the
sea may be regarded as absurd; but it must not be forgotten that he
had no means of detecting the fundamental error on which he based
it, namely: the assumption that the moon was at a relatively short
distance from the earth. So long as the motion of the earth round
the sun remained unknown, it was of course impossible to form any
estimate of the moon's distance from the earth by a calculation of
its parallax_.
_Before the discovery of the telescope accurate astronomical

observations were only possible to a very limited extent. It would
appear however from certain passages in the notes here printed for
the first time, that Leonardo was in a position to study the spots
in the moon more closely than he could have done with the unaided
eye. So far as can be gathered from the mysterious language in which
the description of his instrument is wrapped, he made use of
magnifying glasses; these do not however seem to have been
constructed like a telescope--telescopes were first made about_
1600. _As LIBRI pointed out_ (Histoire des Sciences mathematiques
III, 101) _Fracastoro of Verona_ (1473-1553) _succeeded in
magnifying the moon's face by an arrangement of lenses (compare No._
910, _note), and this gives probability to Leonardo's invention at a
not much earlier date._
I.
THE EARTH AS A PLANET.
The earth's place in the universe (857. 858).

857.
The equator, the line of the horizon, the ecliptic, the meridian:
These lines are those which in all their parts are equidistant from
the centre of the globe.
858.
The earth is not in the centre of the Sun's orbit nor at the centre
of the universe, but in the centre of its companion elements, and
united with them. And any one standing on the moon, when it and the
sun are both beneath us, would see this our earth and the element of
water upon it just as we see the moon, and the earth would light it
as it lights us.
The fundamental laws of the solar system (859-864).
859.
Force arises from dearth or abundance; it is the child of physical

motion, and the grand-child of spiritual motion, and the mother and
origin of gravity. Gravity is limited to the elements of water and
earth; but this force is unlimited, and by it infinite worlds might
be moved if instruments could be made by which the force could be
generated.
Force, with physical motion, and gravity, with resistance are the
four external powers on which all actions of mortals depend.
Force has its origin in spiritual motion; and this motion, flowing
through the limbs of sentient animals, enlarges their muscles. Being
enlarged by this current the muscles are shrunk in length and
contract the tendons which are connected with them, and this is the
cause of the force of the limbs in man.
The quality and quantity of the force of a man are able to give
birth to other forces, which will be proportionally greater as the
motions produced by them last longer.
[Footnote: Only part of this passage belongs, strictly speaking, to

this section. The principle laid down in the second paragraph is

more directly connected with the notes given in the preceding

section on Physiology.]
860.
Why does not the weight _o_ remain in its place? It does not remain
because it has no resistance. Where will it move to? It will move
towards the centre [of gravity]. And why by no other line? Because a
weight which has no support falls by the shortest road to the lowest
point which is the centre of the world. And why does the weight know
how to find it by so short a line? Because it is not independant and
does not move about in various directions.
[Footnote: This text and the sketch belonging to it, are reproduced
on Pl. CXXI.]
861.
Let the earth turn on which side it may the surface of the waters
will never move from its spherical form, but will always remain
equidistant from the centre of the globe.
Granting that the earth might be removed from the centre of the
globe, what would happen to the water?
It would remain in a sphere round that centre equally thick, but the
sphere would have a smaller diameter than when it enclosed the
earth.
[Footnote: Compare No. 896, lines 48-64; and No. 936.]
862.
Supposing the earth at our antipodes which supports the ocean were
to rise and stand uncovered, far out of the sea, but remaining
almost level, by what means afterwards, in the course of time, would
mountains and vallies be formed?
And the rocks with their various strata?
863.
Each man is always in the middle of the surface of the earth and

under the zenith of his own hemisphere, and over the centre of the
earth.
864.
Mem.: That I must first show the distance of the sun from the earth;
and, by means of a ray passing through a small hole into a dark
chamber, detect its real size; and besides this, by means of the
aqueous sphere calculate the size of the globe ...
Here it will be shown, that when the sun is in the meridian of our
hemisphere [Footnote 10: _Antipodi orientali cogli occidentali_. The
word _Antipodes_ does not here bear its literal sense, but--as we
may infer from the simultaneous reference to inhabitants of the
North and South-- is used as meaning men living at a distance of 90
degrees from the zenith of the rational horizon of each observer.],
the antipodes to the East and to the West, alike, and at the same
time, see the sun mirrored in their waters; and the same is equally
true of the arctic and antarctic poles, if indeed they are
inhabited.
How to prove that the earth is a planet (865-867).
865.
That the earth is a star.
866.
In your discourse you must prove that the earth is a star much like
the moon, and the glory of our universe; and then you must treat of
the size of various stars, according to the authors.
867.
THE METHOD OF PROVING THAT THE EARTH IS A STAR.
First describe the eye; then show how the twinkling of a star is
really in the eye and why one star should twinkle more than another,
and how the rays from the stars originate in the eye; and add, that
if the twinkling of the stars were really in the stars --as it seems
to be--that this twinkling appears to be an extension as great as
the diameter of the body of the star; therefore, the star being

larger than the earth, this motion effected in an instant would be a

rapid doubling of the size of the star. Then prove that the surface
of the air where it lies contiguous to fire, and the surface of the
fire where it ends are those into which the solar rays penetrate,
and transmit the images of the heavenly bodies, large when they
rise, and small, when they are on the meridian. Let _a_ be the earth
and _n d m_ the surface of the air in contact with the sphere of
fire; _h f g_ is the orbit of the moon or, if you please, of the
sun; then I say that when the sun appears on the horizon _g_, its
rays are seen passing through the surface of the air at a slanting
angle, that is _o m_; this is not the case at _d k_. And so it
passes through a greater mass of air; all of _e m_ is a denser
atmosphere.
868.
Beyond the sun and us there is darkness and so the air appears blue.
[Footnote: Compare Vol. I, No. 301.]
869.
PERSPECTIVE.
It is possible to find means by which the eye shall not see remote
objects as much diminished as in natural perspective, which
diminishes them by reason of the convexity of the eye which
necessarily intersects, at its surface, the pyramid of every image
conveyed to the eye at a right angle on its spherical surface. But
by the method I here teach in the margin [9] these pyramids are
intersected at right angles close to the surface of the pupil. The
convex pupil of the eye can take in the whole of our hemisphere,
while this will show only a single star; but where many small stars
transmit their images to the surface of the pupil those stars are
extremely small; here only one star is seen but it will be large.
And so the moon will be seen larger and its spots of a more defined
form [Footnote 20 and fol.: Telescopes were not in use till a century
later. Compare No. 910 and page 136.]. You must place close to the
eye a glass filled with the water of which mention is made in number
4 of Book 113 "On natural substances" [Footnote 23: _libro_ 113.
This is perhaps the number of a book in some library catalogue. But
it may refer, on the other hand, to one of the 120 Books mentioned
in No. 796. l. 84.]; for this water makes objects which are enclosed

in balls of crystalline glass appear free from the glass.
OF THE EYE.
Among the smaller objects presented to the pupil of the eye, that
which is closest to it, will be least appreciable to the eye. And at
the same time, the experiments here made with the power of sight,
show that it is not reduced to speck if the &c. [32][Footnote 32:
Compare with this the passage in Vol. I, No. 52, written about
twenty years earlier.].
Read in the margin.
[34]Those objects are seen largest which come to the eye at the
largest angles.
But the images of the objects conveyed to the pupil of the eye are
distributed to the pupil exactly as they are distributed in the air:
and the proof of this is in what follows; that when we look at the
starry sky, without gazing more fixedly at one star than another,
the sky appears all strewn with stars; and their proportions to the
eye are the same as in the sky and likewise the spaces between them
[61].
[Footnote: 9. 32. _in margine:_ lines 34-61 are, in the original,

written on the margin and above them is the diagram to which
Leonardo seems to refer here.]
870.
PERSPECTIVE.
Among objects moved from the eye at equal distance, that undergoes
least diminution which at first was most remote.
When various objects are removed at equal distances farther from

their original position, that which was at first the farthest from
the eye will diminish least. And the proportion of the diminution
will be in proportion to the relative distance of the objects from
the eye before they were removed.
That is to say in the object _t_ and the object _e_ the proportion
of their distances from the eye _a_ is quintuple. I remove each from

its place and set it farther from the eye by one of the 5 parts into
which the proposition is divided. Hence it happens that the nearest
to the eye has doubled the distance and according to the last
proposition but one of this, is diminished by the half of its whole
size; and the body _e_, by the same motion, is diminished 1/5 of its
whole size. Therefore, by that same last proposition but one, that
which is said in this last proposition is true; and this I say of
the motions of the celestial bodies which are more distant by 3500
miles when setting than when overhead, and yet do not increase or
diminish in any sensible degree.
871.
_a b_ is the aperture through which the sun passes, and if you could
measure the size of the solar rays at _n m_, you could accurately
trace the real lines of the convergence of the solar rays, the
mirror being at _a b_, and then show the reflected rays at equal
angles to _n m_; but, as you want to have them at _n m_, take them
at the. inner side of the aperture at cd, where they maybe measured
at the spot where the solar rays fall. Then place your mirror at the
distance _a b_, making the rays _d b_, _c a_ fall and then be
reflected at equal angles towards _c d_; and this is the best
method, but you must use this mirror always in the same month, and
the same day, and hour and instant, and this will be better than at
no fixed time because when the sun is at a certain distance it
produces a certain pyramid of rays.
872.
_a_, the side of the body in light and shade _b_, faces the whole
portion of the hemisphere bed _e f_, and does not face any part of
the darkness of the earth. And the same occurs at the point _o_;
therefore the space a _o_ is throughout of one and the same
brightness, and s faces only four degrees of the hemisphere _d e f g
h_, and also the whole of the earth _s h_, which will render it
darker; and how much must be demonstrated by calculation. [Footnote:
This passage, which has perhaps a doubtful right to its place in
this connection, stands in the Manuscript between those given in
Vol. I as No. 117 and No. 427.]
873.
THE REASON OF THE INCREASED SIZE OF THE SUN IN THE WEST.

Some mathematicians explain that the sun looks larger as it sets,

because the eye always sees it through a denser atmosphere, alleging
that objects seen through mist or through water appear larger. To
these I reply: No; because objects seen through a mist are similar
in colour to those at a distance; but not being similarly diminished
they appear larger. Again, nothing increases in size in smooth
water; and the proof of this may be seen by throwing a light on a
board placed half under water. But the reason why the sun looks
larger is that every luminous body appears larger in proportion as
it is more remote. [Footnote: Lines 5 and 6 are thus rendered by M.
RAVAISSON in his edition of MS. A. "_De meme, aucune chose ne croit
dans l'eau plane, et tu en feras l'experience_ en calquant un ais
sous l'eau."--Compare the diagrams in Vol. I, p. 114.]
On the luminosity of the Earth in the universal space (874-878).
874.
In my book I propose to show, how the ocean and the other seas must,
by means of the sun, make our world shine with the appearance of a
moon, and to the remoter worlds it looks like a star; and this I
shall prove.
Show, first that every light at a distance from the eye throws out
rays which appear to increase the size of the luminous body; and
from this it follows that 2 ...[Footnote 10: Here the text breaks
off; lines 11 and fol. are written in the margin.].
[11]The moon is cold and moist. Water is cold and moist. Thus our
seas must appear to the moon as the moon does to us.
875.
The waves in water magnify the image of an object reflected in it.
Let _a_ be the sun, and _n m_ the ruffled water, _b_ the image of
the sun when the water is smooth. Let _f_ be the eye which sees the
image in all the waves included within the base of the triangle _c e
f_. Now the sun reflected in the unruffled surface occupied the
space _c d_, while in the ruffled surface it covers all the watery
space _c e_ (as is proved in the 4th of my "Perspective") [Footnote
9: _Nel quarto della mia prospettiva_. If this reference is to the

diagrams accompanying the text--as is usual with Leonardo--and not

to some particular work, the largest of the diagrams here given must
be meant. It is the lowest and actually the fifth, but he would have
called it the fourth, for the text here given is preceded on the
same page of the manuscript by a passage on whirlpools, with the
diagram belonging to it also reproduced here. The words _della mia
prospettiva_ may therefore indicate that the diagram to the
preceding chapter treating on a heterogeneal subject is to be
excluded. It is a further difficulty that this diagram belongs
properly to lines 9-10 and not to the preceding sentence. The
reflection of the sun in water is also discussed in the Theoretical
part of the Book on Painting; see Vol. I, No. 206, 207.] and it will
cover more of the water in proportion as the reflected image is
remote from the eye [10].
[Footnote: In the original sketch, inside the circle in the first

diagram, is written _Sole_ (sun), and to the right of it _luna_
(moon). Thus either of these heavenly bodies may be supposed to fill
that space. Within the lower circle is written _simulacro_ (image).
In the two next diagrams at the spot here marked _L_ the word _Luna_
is written, and in the last _sole_ is written in the top circle at
_a_.]
The image of the sun will be more brightly shown in small waves than
in large ones--and this is because the reflections or images of the
sun are more numerous in the small waves than in large ones, and the
more numerous reflections of its radiance give a larger light than
the fewer.
Waves which intersect like the scales of a fir cone reflect the
image of the sun with the greatest splendour; and this is the case
because the images are as many as the ridges of the waves on which
the sun shines, and the shadows between these waves are small and
not very dark; and the radiance of so many reflections together
becomes united in the image which is transmitted to the eye, so that
these shadows are imperceptible.
That reflection of the sun will cover most space on the surface of
the water which is most remote from the eye which sees it.
Let _a_ be the sun, _p q_ the reflection of the sun; _a b_ is the

surface of the water, in which the sun is mirrored, and _r_ the eye
which sees this reflection on the surface of the water occupying the

space _o m_. _c_ is the eye at a greater distance from the surface
of the water and also from the reflection; hence this reflection
covers a larger space of water, by the distance between _n_ and _o_.
876.
It is impossible that the side of a spherical mirror, illuminated by

the sun, should reflect its radiance unless this mirror were
undulating or filled with bubbles.
You see here the sun which lights up the moon, a spherical mirror,
and all of its surface, which faces the sun is rendered radiant.
Whence it may be concluded that what shines in the moon is water

like that of our seas, and in waves as that is; and that portion
which does not shine consists of islands and terra firma.
This diagram, of several spherical bodies interposed between the eye

and the sun, is given to show that, just as the reflection of the
sun is seen in each of these bodies, in the same way that image may
be seen in each curve of the waves of the sea; and as in these many
spheres many reflections of the sun are seen, so in many waves there
are many images, each of which at a great distance is much magnified
to the eye. And, as this happens with each wave, the spaces
interposed between the waves are concealed; and, for this reason, it
looks as though the many suns mirrored in the many waves were but
one continuous sun; and the shadows,, mixed up with the luminous
images, render this radiance less brilliant than that of the sun
mirrored in these waves.
[Footnote: In the original, at letter _A_ in the diagram "_Sole_"

(the sun) is written, and at _o_ "_occhio_" (the eye).]
877.
This will have before it the treatise on light and shade.
The edges in the moon will be most strongly lighted and reflect most
light, because, there, nothing will be visible but the tops of the
waves of the water [Footnote 5: I have thought it unnecessary to
reproduce the detailed explanation of the theory of reflection on
waves contained in the passage which follows this.].

878.
The sun will appear larger in moving water or on waves than in still
water; an example is the light reflected on the strings of a
monochord.
II.
THE SUN.
The question of the true and of the apparent size of the sun
(879-884).
879.
IN PRAISE OF THE SUN.
If you look at the stars, cutting off the rays (as may be done by
looking through a very small hole made with the extreme point of a
very fine needle, placed so as almost to touch the eye), you will
see those stars so minute that it would seem as though nothing could
be smaller; it is in fact their great distance which is the reason
of their diminution, for many of them are very many times larger
than the star which is the earth with water. Now reflect what this
our star must look like at such a distance, and then consider how
many stars might be added--both in longitude and latitude--between
those stars which are scattered over the darkened sky. But I cannot
forbear to condemn many of the ancients, who said that the sun was
no larger than it appears; among these was Epicurus, and I believe
that he founded his reason on the effects of a light placed in our
atmosphere equidistant from the centre of the earth. Any one looking
at it never sees it diminished in size at whatever distance; and the
rea-
[Footnote 879-882: What Leonardo says of Epicurus-- who according to

LEWIS, _The Astronomy of the ancients_, and MADLER, _Geschichte der
Himmelskunde_, did not devote much attention to the study of
celestial phenomena--, he probably derived from Book X of Diogenes
Laertius, whose _Vitae Philosophorum_ was not printed in Greek till
1533, but the Latin translation appeared in 1475.]
880.

sons of its size and power I shall reserve for Book 4. But I wonder
greatly that Socrates
[Footnote 2: _Socrates;_ I have little light to throw on this

reference. Plato's Socrates himself declares on more than one
occasion that in his youth he had turned his mind to the study of
celestial phenomena (METEWPA) but not in his later years (see G. C.
LEWIS, _The Astronomy of the ancients_, page 109; MADLER,
_Geschichte der Himmelskunde_, page 41). Here and there in Plato's
writings we find incidental notes on the sun and other heavenly
bodies. Leonardo may very well have known of these, since the Latin
version by Ficinus was printed as early as 1491; indeed an undated
edition exists which may very likely have appeared between 1480--90.
There is but one passage in Plato, Epinomis (p. 983) where he speaks
of the physical properties of the sun and says that it is larger
than the earth.
Aristotle who goes very fully into the subject says the same. A
complete edition of Aristotele's works was first printed in Venice
1495-98, but a Latin version of the Books _De Coelo et Mundo_ and
_De Physica_ had been printed in Venice as early as in 1483 (H.
MULLER-STRUBING).]
should have depreciated that solar body, saying that it was of the
nature of incandescent stone, and the one who opposed him as to that
error was not far wrong. But I only wish I had words to serve me to
blame those who are fain to extol the worship of men more than that
of the sun; for in the whole universe there is nowhere to be seen a
body of greater magnitude and power than the sun. Its light gives
light to all the celestial bodies which are distributed throughout
the universe; and from it descends all vital force, for the heat
that is in living beings comes from the soul [vital spark]; and
there is no other centre of heat and light in the universe as will
be shown in Book 4; and certainly those who have chosen to worship
men as gods--as Jove, Saturn, Mars and the like--have fallen into
the gravest error, seeing that even if a man were as large as our
earth, he would look no bigger than a little star which appears but
as a speck in the universe; and seeing again that these men are
mortal, and putrid and corrupt in their sepulchres.
Marcellus [Footnote 23: I have no means of identifying _Marcello_

who is named in the margin. It may be Nonius Marcellus, an obscure

Roman Grammarian of uncertain date (between the IInd and Vth

centuries A. C.) the author of the treatise _De compendiosa doctrina
per litteras ad filium_ in which he treats _de rebus omnibus et
quibusdam aliis_. This was much read in the middle ages. The _editto
princeps_ is dated 1470 (H. MULLER-STRUBING).] and many others
praise the sun.
881.
Epicurus perhaps saw the shadows cast by columns on the walls in

front of them equal in diameter to the columns from which the
shadows were cast; and the breadth of the shadows being parallel
from beginning to end, he thought he might infer that the sun also
was directly opposite to this parallel and that consequently its
breadth was not greater than that of the column; not perceiving that
the diminution in the shadow was insensibly slight by reason of the
remoteness of the sun. If the sun were smaller than the earth, the
stars on a great portion of our hemisphere would have no light,
which is evidence against Epicurus who says the sun is only as large
as it appears.
[Footnote: In the original the writing is across the diagram.]
882.
Epicurus says the sun is the size it looks. Hence as it looks about
a foot across we must consider that to be its size; it would follow
that when the moon eclipses the sun, the sun ought not to appear the
larger, as it does. Then, the moon being smaller than the sun, the
moon must be less than a foot, and consequently when our world
eclipses the moon, it must be less than a foot by a finger's
breadth; inasmuch as if the sun is a foot across, and our earth
casts a conical shadow on the moon, it is inevitable that the
luminous cause of the cone of shadow must be larger than the opaque
body which casts the cone of shadow.
883.
To measure how many times the diameter of the sun will go into its
course in 24 hours.
Make a circle and place it to face the south, after the manner of a
sundial, and place a rod in the middle in such a way as that its

length points to the centre of this circle, and mark the shadow cast
in the sunshine by this rod on the circumference of the circle, and
this shadow will be--let us say-- as broad as from _a_ to _n_. Now
measure how many times this shadow will go into this circumference
of a circle, and that will give you the number of times that the
solar body will go into its orbit in 24 hours. Thus you may see
whether Epicurus was [right in] saying that the sun was only as
large as it looked; for, as the apparent diameter of the sun is
about a foot, and as that sun would go a thousand times into the
length of its course in 24 hours, it would have gone a thousand
feet, that is 300 braccia, which is the sixth of a mile. Whence it
would follow that the course of the sun during the day would be the
sixth part of a mile and that this venerable snail, the sun will
have travelled 25 braccia an hour.
884.
Posidonius composed books on the size of the sun. [Footnote:

Poseidonius of Apamea, commonly called the Rhodian, because he
taught in Rhodes, was a Stoic philosopher, a contemporary and friend
of Cicero's, and the author of numerous works on natural science,
among them.
Strabo quotes no doubt from one of his works, when he says that
Poseidonius explained how it was that the sun looked larger when it
was rising or setting than during the rest of its course (III, p.
135). Kleomedes, a later Greek Naturalist also mentions this
observation of Poseidonius' without naming the title of his work;
however, as Kleomedes' Cyclia Theorica was not printed till 1535,
Leonardo must have derived his quotation from Strabo. He probably
wrote this note in 1508, and as the original Greek was first printed
in Venice in 1516, we must suppose him to quote here from the
translation by Guarinus Veronensis, which was printed as early as
1471, also at Venice (H. MULLER-STRUBING).]
Of the nature of Sunlight.
885.
OF THE PROOF THAT THE SUN IS HOT BY NATURE AND NOT BY VIRTUE.
Of the nature of Sunlight.

That the heat of the sun resides in its nature and not in its virtue
[or mode of action] is abundantly proved by the radiance of the
solar body on which the human eye cannot dwell and besides this no
less manifestly by the rays reflected from a concave mirror,
which--when they strike the eye with such splendour that the eye
cannot bear them--have a brilliancy equal to the sun in its own
place. And that this is true I prove by the fact that if the mirror
has its concavity formed exactly as is requisite for the collecting
and reflecting of these rays, no created being could endure the
heat that strikes from the reflected rays of such a mirror. And if
you argue that the mirror itself is cold and yet send forth hot
rays, I should reply that those rays come really from the sun and
that it is the ray of the concave mirror after having passed through
the window.
Considerations as to the size of the sun (886-891).
886.
The sun does not move. [Footnote: This sentence occurs incidentally
among mathematical notes, and is written in unusually large
letters.]
887.
PROOF THAT THE NEARER YOU ARE TO THE SOURCE OF THE SOLAR RAYS, THE
LARGER WILL THE REFLECTION OF THE SUN FROM THE SEA APPEAR TO YOU.
[Footnote: Lines 4 and fol. Compare Vol. I, Nos. 130, 131.] If it is

from the centre that the sun employs its radiance to intensify the
power of its whole mass, it is evident that the farther its rays
extend, the more widely they will be divided; and this being so,
you, whose eye is near the water that mirrors the sun, see but a
small portion of the rays of the sun strike the surface of the
water, and reflecting the form of the sun. But if you were near to
the sun--as would be the case when the sun is on the meridian and
the sea to the westward--you would see the sun, mirrored in the sea,
of a very great size; because, as you are nearer to the sun, your
eye taking in the rays nearer to the point of radiation takes more
of them in, and a great splendour is the result. And in this way it
can be proved that the moon must have seas which reflect the sun,
and that the parts which do not shine are land.

888.
Take the measure of the sun at the solstice in mid-June.
889.
WHY THE SUN APPEARS LARGER WHEN SETTING THAN AT NOON, WHEN IT IS
NEAR TO US.
Every object seen through a curved medium seems to be of larger size

than it is.
[Footnote: At A is written _sole_ (the sun), at B _terra_ (the

earth).]
890.
Because the eye is small it can only see the image of the sun as of
a small size. If the eye were as large as the sun it would see the
image of the sun in water of the same size as the real body of the
sun, so long as the water is smooth.
891.
A METHOD OF SEEING THE SUN ECLIPSED WITHOUT PAIN TO THE EYE.
Take a piece of paper and pierce holes in it with a needle, and look
at the sun through these holes.
III.
THE MOON.
On the luminousity of the moon (892-901).
892.
OF THE MOON.
As I propose to treat of the nature of the moon, it is necessary

that first I should describe the perspective of mirrors, whether
plane, concave or convex; and first what is meant by a luminous ray,
and how it is refracted by various kinds of media; then, when a

reflected ray is most powerful, whether when the angle of incidence

is acute, right, or obtuse, or from a convex, a plane, or a concave
surface; or from an opaque or a transparent body. Besides this, how
it is that the solar rays which fall on the waves of the sea, are
seen by the eye of the same width at the angle nearest to the eye,
as at the highest line of the waves on the horizon; but
notwithstanding this the solar rays reflected from the waves of the
sea assume the pyramidal form and consequently, at each degree of
distance increase proportionally in size, although to our sight,
they appear as parallel.
1st. Nothing that has very little weight is opaque.
2dly. Nothing that is excessively weighty can remain beneath that

which is heavier.
3dly. As to whether the moon is situated in the centre of its

elements or not.
And, if it has no proper place of its own, like the earth, in the
midst of its elements, why does it not fall to the centre of our
elements? [Footnote 26: The problem here propounded by Leonardo was
not satisfactorily answered till Newton in 1682 formulated the law
of universal attraction and gravitation. Compare No. 902, lines
5-15.]
And, if the moon is not in the centre of its own elements and yet
does not fall, it must then be lighter than any other element.
And, if the moon is lighter than the other elements why is it opaque
and not transparent?
When objects of various sizes, being placed at various distances,

look of equal size, there must be the same relative proportion in
the distances as in the magnitudes of the objects.
[Footnote: In the diagram Leonardo wrote _sole_ at the place marked

_A_.]
893.
OF THE MOON AND WHETHER IT IS POLISHED AND SPHERICAL.

The image of the sun in the moon is powerfully luminous, and is only
on a small portion of its surface. And the proof may be seen by
taking a ball of burnished gold and placing it in the dark with a
light at some distance from it; and then, although it will
illuminate about half of the ball, the eye will perceive its
reflection only in a small part of its surface, and all the rest of
the surface reflects the darkness which surrounds it; so that it is
only in that spot that the image of the light is seen, and all the
rest remains invisible, the eye being at a distance from the ball.
The same thing would happen on the surface of the moon if it were
polished, lustrous and opaque, like all bodies with a reflecting
surface.
Show how, if you were standing on the moon or on a star, our earth
would seem to reflect the sun as the moon does.
And show that the image of the sun in the sea cannot appear one and
undivided, as it appears in a perfectly plane mirror.
894.
How shadows are lost at great distances, as is shown by the shadow

side of the moon which is never seen. [Footnote: Compare also Vol.
I, Nos. 175-179.]
895.
Either the moon has intrinsic luminosity or not. If it has, why does
it not shine without the aid of the sun? But if it has not any light
in itself it must of necessity be a spherical mirror; and if it is a
mirror, is it not proved in Perspective that the image of a luminous
object will never be equal to the extent of surface of the
reflecting body that it illuminates? And if it be thus [Footnote 13:
At A, in the diagram, Leonardo wrote "_sole_" (the sun), and at B
"_luna o noi terra_" (the moon or our earth). Compare also the text
of No. 876.], as is here shown at _r s_ in the figure, whence comes
so great an extent of radiance as that of the full moon as we see
it, at the fifteenth day of the moon?
896.
OF THE MOON.

The moon has no light in itself; but so much of it as faces the sun
is illuminated, and of that illumined portion we see so much as
faces the earth. And the moon's night receives just as much light as
is lent it by our waters as they reflect the image of the sun, which
is mirrored in all those waters which are on the side towards the
sun. The outside or surface of the waters forming the seas of the
moon and of the seas of our globe is always ruffled little or much,
or more or less--and this roughness causes an extension of the
numberless images of the sun which are repeated in the ridges and
hollows, the sides and fronts of the innumerable waves; that is to
say in as many different spots on each wave as our eyes find
different positions to view them from. This could not happen, if the
aqueous sphere which covers a great part of the moon were uniformly
spherical, for then the images of the sun would be one to each
spectator, and its reflections would be separate and independent and
its radiance would always appear circular; as is plainly to be seen
in the gilt balls placed on the tops of high buildings. But if those
gilt balls were rugged or composed of several little balls, like
mulberries, which are a black fruit composed of minute round
globules, then each portion of these little balls, when seen in the
sun, would display to the eye the lustre resulting from the
reflection of the sun, and thus, in one and the same body many tiny
suns would be seen; and these often combine at a long distance and
appear as one. The lustre of the new moon is brighter and stronger,
than when the moon is full; and the reason of this is that the angle
of incidence is more obtuse in the new than in the full moon, in
which the angles [of incidence and reflection] are highly acute. The
waves of the moon therefore mirror the sun in the hollows of the
waves as well as on the ridges, and the sides remain in shadow. But
at the sides of the moon the hollows of the waves do not catch the
sunlight, but only their crests; and thus the images are fewer and
more mixed up with the shadows in the hollows; and this
intermingling of the shaded and illuminated spots comes to the eye
with a mitigated splendour, so that the edges will be darker,
because the curves of the sides of the waves are insufficient to
reflect to the eye the rays that fall upon them. Now the new moon
naturally reflects the solar rays more directly towards the eye from
the crests of the waves than from any other part, as is shown by the
form of the moon, whose rays a strike the waves _b_ and are
reflected in the line _b d_, the eye being situated at _d_. This
cannot happen at the full moon, when the solar rays, being in the
west, fall on the extreme waters of the moon to the East from _n_ to
_m_, and are not reflected to the eye in the West, but are thrown

back eastwards, with but slight deflection from the straight course
of the solar ray; and thus the angle of incidence is very wide
indeed.
The moon is an opaque and solid body and if, on the contrary, it
were transparent, it would not receive the light of the sun.
The yellow or yolk of an egg remains in the middle of the albumen,

without moving on either side; now it is either lighter or heavier
than this albumen, or equal to it; if it is lighter, it ought to
rise above all the albumen and stop in contact with the shell of the
egg; and if it is heavier, it ought to sink, and if it is equal, it
might just as well be at one of the ends, as in the middle or below
[54].
[Footnote 48-64: Compare No. 861.]
The innumerable images of the solar rays reflected from the

innumerable waves of the sea, as they fall upon those waves, are
what cause us to see the very broad and continuous radiance on the
surface of the sea.
897.
That the sun could not be mirrored in the body of the moon, which is
a convex mirror, in such a way as that so much of its surface as is
illuminated by the sun, should reflect the sun unless the moon had a
surface adapted to reflect it--in waves and ridges, like the surface
of the sea when its surface is moved by the wind.
[Footnote: In the original diagrams _sole_ is written at the place

marked _A; luna_ at _C,_ and _terra_ at the two spots marked _B_.]
The waves in water multiply the image of the object reflected in it.
These waves reflect light, each by its own line, as the surface of
the fir cone does [Footnote 14: See the diagram p. 145.]
These are 2 figures one different from the other; one with
undulating water and the other with smooth water.
It is impossible that at any distance the image of the sun cast on

the surface of a spherical body should occupy the half of the

sphere.
Here you must prove that the earth produces all the same effects
with regard to the moon, as the moon with regard to the earth.
The moon, with its reflected light, does not shine like the sun,
because the light of the moon is not a continuous reflection of that
of the sun on its whole surface, but only on the crests and hollows
of the waves of its waters; and thus the sun being confusedly
reflected, from the admixture of the shadows that lie between the
lustrous waves, its light is not pure and clear as the sun is.
[Footnote 38: This refers to the small diagram placed between _B_
and _B_.--]. The earth between the moon on the fifteenth day and the
sun. [Footnote 39: See the diagram below the one referred to in the
preceding note.] Here the sun is in the East and the moon on the
fifteenth day in the West. [Footnote 40.41: Refers to the diagram
below the others.] The moon on the fifteenth [day] between the earth
and the sun. [41]Here it is the moon which has the sun to the West
and the earth to the East.
898.
WHAT SORT OF THING THE MOON IS.
The moon is not of itself luminous, but is highly fitted to

assimilate the character of light after the manner of a mirror, or
of water, or of any other reflecting body; and it grows larger in
the East and in the West, like the sun and the other planets. And
the reason is that every luminous body looks larger in proportion as
it is remote. It is easy to understand that every planet and star is
farther from us when in the West than when it is overhead, by about
3500 miles, as is proved on the margin [Footnote 7: refers to the
first diagram.--A = _sole_ (the sun), B = _terra_ (the earth), C =
_luna_ (the moon).], and if you see the sun or moon mirrored in the
water near to you, it looks to you of the same size in the water as
in the sky. But if you recede to the distance of a mile, it will
look 100 times larger; and if you see the sun reflected in the sea
at sunset, its image would look to you more than 10 miles long;
because that reflected image extends over more than 10 miles of sea.
And if you could stand where the moon is, the sun would look to you,
as if it were reflected from all the sea that it illuminates by day;
and the land amid the water would appear just like the dark spots

that are on the moon, which, when looked at from our earth, appears
to men the same as our earth would appear to any men who might dwell
in the moon.
[Footnote: This text has already been published by LIBRI: _Histoire

des Sciences,_ III, pp. 224, 225.]
OF THE NATURE OF THE MOON.
When the moon is entirely lighted up to our sight, we see its full
daylight; and at that time, owing to the reflection of the solar
rays which fall on it and are thrown off towards us, its ocean casts
off less moisture towards us; and the less light it gives the more
injurious it is.
899.
OF THE MOON.
I say that as the moon has no light in itself and yet is luminous,
it is inevitable but that its light is caused by some other body.
900.
OF THE MOON.
All my opponent's arguments to say that there is no water in the

moon. [Footnote: The objections are very minutely noted down in the
manuscript, but they hardly seem to have a place here.]
901.
Answer to Maestro Andrea da Imola, who said that the solar rays
reflected from a convex mirror are mingled and lost at a short
distance; whereby it is altogether denied that the luminous side of
the moon is of the nature of a mirror, and that consequently the
light is not produced by the innumerable multitude of the waves of
that sea, which I declared to be the portion of the moon which is
illuminated by the solar rays.
Let _o p_ be the body of the sun, _c n s_ the moon, and _b_ the eye
which, above the base _c n_ of the cathetus _c n m_, sees the body
of the sun reflected at equal angles _c n_; and the same again on

moving the eye from _b_ to _a_. [Footnote: The large diagram on the
margin of page 161 belongs to this chapter.]
Explanation of the lumen cinereum in the moon.
902.
OF THE MOON.
No solid body is less heavy than the atmosphere.
[Footnote: 1. On the margin are the words _tola romantina,

tola--ferro stagnato_ (tinned iron); _romantina_ is some special
kind of sheet-iron no longer known by that name.]
Having proved that the part of the moon that shines consists of
water, which mirrors the body of the sun and reflects the radiance
it receives from it; and that, if these waters were devoid of waves,
it would appear small, but of a radiance almost like the sun; --[5]
It must now be shown whether the moon is a heavy or a light body:
for, if it were a heavy body--admitting that at every grade of
distance from the earth greater levity must prevail, so that water
is lighter than the earth, and air than water, and fire than air and
so on successively--it would seem that if the moon had density as it
really has, it would have weight, and having weight, that it could
not be sustained in the space where it is, and consequently that it
would fall towards the centre of the universe and become united to
the earth; or if not the moon itself, at least its waters would fall
away and be lost from it, and descend towards the centre, leaving
the moon without any and so devoid of lustre. But as this does not
happen, as might in reason be expected, it is a manifest sign that
the moon is surrounded by its own elements: that is to say water,
air and fire; and thus is, of itself and by itself, suspended in
that part of space, as our earth with its element is in this part of
space; and that heavy bodies act in the midst of its elements just
as other heavy bodies do in ours [Footnote 15: This passage would
certainly seem to establish Leonardo's claim to be regarded as the
original discoverer of the cause of the ashy colour of the new moon
(_lumen cinereum_). His observations however, having hitherto
remained unknown to astronomers, Moestlin and Kepler have been
credited with the discoveries which they made independently a
century later.

Some disconnected notes treat of the same subject in MS. C. A. 239b;

718b and 719b; "_Perche la luna cinta della parte alluminata dal
sole in ponente, tra maggior splendore in mezzo a tal cerchio, che
quando essa eclissava il sole. Questo accade perche nell' eclissare
il sole ella ombrava il nostro oceano, il qual caso non accade
essendo in ponente, quando il sole alluma esso oceano_." The editors
of the "_Saggio_" who first published this passage (page 12) add
another short one about the seasons in the moon which I confess not
to have seen in the original manuscript: "_La luna ha ogni mese un
verno e una state, e ha maggiori freddi e maggiori caldi, e i suoi
equinozii son piu freddi de' nostri._"]
When the eye is in the East and sees the moon in the West near to
the setting sun, it sees it with its shaded portion surrounded by
luminous portions; and the lateral and upper portion of this light
is derived from the sun, and the lower portion from the ocean in the
West, which receives the solar rays and reflects them on the lower
waters of the moon, and indeed affords the part of the moon that is
in shadow as much radiance as the moon gives the earth at midnight.
Therefore it is not totally dark, and hence some have believed that
the moon must in parts have a light of its own besides that which is
given it by the sun; and this light is due, as has been said, to the
above- mentioned cause,--that our seas are illuminated by the sun.
Again, it might be said that the circle of radiance shown by the

moon when it and the sun are both in the West is wholly borrowed
from the sun, when it, and the sun, and the eye are situated as is
shown above.
[Footnote 23. 24: The larger of the two diagrams reproduced above
stands between these two lines, and the smaller one is sketched in
the margin. At the spot marked _A_ Leonardo wrote _corpo solare_
(solar body) in the larger diagram and _Sole_ (sun) in the smaller
one. At _C luna_ (moon) is written and at _B terra_ (the earth).]
Some might say that the air surrounding the moon as an element,
catches the light of the sun as our atmosphere does, and that it is
this which completes the luminous circle on the body of the moon.
Some have thought that the moon has a light of its own, but this
opinion is false, because they have founded it on that dim light
seen between the hornes of the new moon, which looks dark where it
is close to the bright part, while against the darkness of the

background it looks so light that many have taken it to be a ring of

new radiance completing the circle where the tips of the horns
illuminated by the sun cease to shine [Footnote 34: See Pl. CVIII,
No. 5.]. And this difference of background arises from the fact that
the portion of that background which is conterminous with the bright
part of the moon, by comparison with that brightness looks darker
than it is; while at the upper part, where a portion of the luminous
circle is to be seen of uniform width, the result is that the moon,
being brighter there than the medium or background on which it is
seen by comparison with that darkness it looks more luminous at that
edge than it is. And that brightness at such a time itself is
derived from our ocean and other inland-seas. These are, at that
time, illuminated by the sun which is already setting in such a way
as that the sea then fulfils the same function to the dark side of
the moon as the moon at its fifteenth day does to us when the sun is
set. And the small amount of light which the dark side of the moon
receives bears the same proportion to the light of that side which
is illuminated, as that... [Footnote 42: Here the text breaks off;
lines 43-52 are written on the margin.].
If you want to see how much brighter the shaded portion of the moon
is than the background on which it is seen, conceal the luminous
portion of the moon with your hand or with some other more distant
object.
On the spots in the moon (903-907).
903.
THE SPOTS ON THE MOON.
Some have said that vapours rise from the moon, after the manner of
clouds and are interposed between the moon and our eyes. But, if
this were the case, these spots would never be permanent, either as
to position or form; and, seeing the moon from various aspects, even
if these spots did not move they would change in form, as objects do
which are seen from different sides.
904.
OF THE SPOTS ON THE MOON.
Others say that the moon is composed of more or less transparent

parts; as though one part were something like alabaster and others
like crystal or glass. It would follow from this that the sun
casting its rays on the less transparent portions, the light would
remain on the surface, and so the denser part would be illuminated,
and the transparent portions would display the shadow of their
darker depths; and this is their account of the structure and nature
of the moon. And this opinion has found favour with many
philosophers, and particularly with Aristotle, and yet it is a false
view--for, in the various phases and frequent changes of the moon
and sun to our eyes, we should see these spots vary, at one time
looking dark and at another light: they would be dark when the sun
is in the West and the moon in the middle of the sky; for then the
transparent hollows would be in shadow as far as the tops of the
edges of those transparent hollows, because the sun could not then
fling his rays into the mouth of the hollows, which however, at full
moon, would be seen in bright light, at which time the moon is in
the East and faces the sun in the West; then the sun would
illuminate even the lowest depths of these transparent places and
thus, as there would be no shadows cast, the moon at these times
would not show us the spots in question; and so it would be, now
more and now less, according to the changes in the position of the
sun to the moon, and of the moon to our eyes, as I have said above.
905.
OF THE SPOTS ON THE MOON.
It has been asserted, that the spots on the moon result from the
moon being of varying thinness or density; but if this were so, when
there is an eclipse of the moon the solar rays would pierce through
the portions which were thin as is alleged [Footnote 3-5: _Eclissi_.
This word, as it seems to me, here means eclipses of the sun; and
the sense of the passage, as I understand it, is that by the
foregoing hypothesis the moon, when it comes between the sun and the
earth must appear as if pierced,--we may say like a sieve.]. But as
we do not see this effect the opinion must be false.
Others say that the surface of the moon is smooth and polished and
that, like a mirror, it reflects in itself the image of our earth.
This view is also false, inasmuch as the land, where it is not
covered with water, presents various aspects and forms. Hence when
the moon is in the East it would reflect different spots from those
it would show when it is above us or in the West; now the spots on

the moon, as they are seen at full moon, never vary in the course of
its motion over our hemisphere. A second reason is that an object
reflected in a convex body takes up but a small portion of that
body, as is proved in perspective [Footnote 18: _come e provato_.
This alludes to the accompanying diagram.]. The third reason is that
when the moon is full, it only faces half the hemisphere of the
illuminated earth, on which only the ocean and other waters reflect
bright light, while the land makes spots on that brightness; thus
half of our earth would be seen girt round with the brightness of
the sea lighted up by the sun, and in the moon this reflection would
be the smallest part of that moon. Fourthly, a radiant body cannot
be reflected from another equally radiant; therefore the sea, since
it borrows its brightness from the sun,--as the moon does--, could
not cause the earth to be reflected in it, nor indeed could the body
of the sun be seen reflected in it, nor indeed any star opposite to
it.
906.
If you keep the details of the spots of the moon under observation
you will often find great variation in them, and this I myself have
proved by drawing them. And this is caused by the clouds that rise
from the waters in the moon, which come between the sun and those
waters, and by their shadow deprive these waters of the sun's rays.
Thus those waters remain dark, not being able to reflect the solar
body.
907.
How the spots on the moon must have varied from what they formerly
were, by reason of the course of its waters.
On the moon's halo.
908.
OF HALOS ROUND THE MOON.
I have found, that the circles which at night seem to surround the
moon, of various sizes, and degrees of density are caused by various
gradations in the densities of the vapours which exist at different
altitudes between the moon and our eyes. And of these halos the
largest and least red is caused by the lowest of these vapours; the

second, smaller one, is higher up, and looks redder because it is

seen through two vapours. And so on, as they are higher they will
appear smaller and redder, because, between the eye and them, there
is thicker vapour. Whence it is proved that where they are seen to
be reddest, the vapours are most dense.
On instruments for observing the moon (909. 910).
909.
If you want to prove why the moon appears larger than it is, when it
reaches the horizon; take a lens which is highly convex on one
surface and concave on the opposite, and place the concave side next
the eye, and look at the object beyond the convex surface; by this
means you will have produced an exact imitation of the atmosphere
included beneath the sphere of fire and outside that of water; for
this atmosphere is concave on the side next the earth, and convex
towards the fire.
910.
Construct glasses to see the moon magnified.
[Footnote: See the Introduction, p. 136, Fracastoro says in his work

Homocentres: "_Per dua specilla ocularla si quis perspiciat, alteri
altero superposito, majora multo et propinquiora videbit
omnia.--Quin imo quaedam specilla ocularia fiunt tantae densitatis,
ut si per ea quis aut lunam, aut aliud siderum spectet, adeo
propinqua illa iudicet, ut ne turres ipsas excedant_" (sect. II c. 8
and sect. III, c. 23).]
I.
THE STARS.
On the light of the stars (911-913).
911.
The stars are visible by night and not by day, because we are
eneath the dense atmosphere, which is full of innumerable
articles of moisture, each of which independently, when the
ays of the sun fall upon it, reflects a radiance, and so these
umberless bright particles conceal the stars; and if it were not
or this atmosphere the sky would always display the stars against
ts darkness.
[Footnote: See No. 296, which also refers to starlight.]

912.
Whether the stars have their light from the sun or in themselves.
Some say that they shine of themselves, alledging that if Venus
nd Mercury had not a light of their own, when they come between
ur eye and the sun they would darken so much of the sun as they
ould cover from our eye. But this is false, for it is proved that
dark object against a luminous body is enveloped and entirely
oncealed by the lateral rays of the rest of that luminous body
nd so remains invisible. As may be seen when the sun is seen
hrough the boughs of trees bare of their leaves, at some distance
he branches do not conceal any portion of the sun from our eye.
he same thing happens with the above mentioned planets which,
hough they have no light of their own, do not--as has been said--
onceal any part of the sun from our eye
[18].
SECOND ARGUMENT.
Some say that the stars appear most brilliant at night in proportion
as they are higher up; and that if they had no light of their own,
the shadow of the earth which comes between them and the sun, would
darken them, since they would not face nor be faced by the solar
body. But those persons have not considered that the conical shadow
of the earth cannot reach many of the stars; and even as to those it
does reach, the cone is so much diminished that it covers very
little of the star's mass, and all the rest is illuminated by the
sun.
Footnote: From this and other remarks (see No. 902) it is clear
hat Leonardo was familiar with the phenomena of Irradiation.]
13.
Why the planets appear larger in the East than they do overhead,
whereas the contrary should be the case, as they are 3500 miles
nearer to us when in mid sky than when on the horizon.
All the degrees of the elements, through which the images of the
celestial bodies pass to reach the eye, are equal curves and the
angles by which the central line of those images passes through
them, are unequal angles [Footnote 13: _inequali_, here and
elsewhere does not mean unequal in the sense of not being equal to
each other, but angles which are not right angles.]; and the

distance is greater, as is shown by the excess of _a b_ beyond _a

d_; and the enlargement of these celestial bodies on the horizon is
shown by the 9th of the 7th.
Observations on the stars.
914.
To see the real nature of the planets open the covering and note at
the base [Footnote 4: _basa_. This probably alludes to some
instrument, perhaps the Camera obscura.] one single planet, and the
reflected movement of this base will show the nature of the said
planet; but arrange that the base may face only one at the time.
On history of astronomy.
915.
Cicero says in [his book] De Divinatione that Astrology has been

practised five hundred seventy thousand years before the Trojan war.
57000.
[Footnote: The statement that CICERO, _De Divin._ ascribes the

discovery of astrology to a period 57000 years before the Trojan war
I believe to be quite erroneous. According to ERNESTI, _Clavis
Ciceroniana,_ CH. G. SCHULZ (_Lexic. Cicer._) and the edition of _De
Divin._ by GIESE the word Astrologia occurs only twice in CICERO:
_De Divin. II_, 42. _Ad Chaldaeorum monstra veniamus, de quibus
Eudoxus, Platonis auditor, in astrologia judicio doctissimorum
hominum facile princeps, sic opinatur (id quod scriptum reliquit):
Chaldaeis in praedictione et in notatione cujusque vitae ex natali
die minime esse credendum._" He then quotes the condemnatory verdict
of other philosophers as to the teaching of the Chaldaeans but says
nothing as to the antiquity and origin of astronomy. CICERO further
notes _De oratore_ I, 16 that Aratus was "_ignarus astrologiae_" but
that is all. So far as I know the word occurs nowhere else in
CICERO; and the word _Astronomia_ he does not seem to have used at
all. (H. MULLER-STRUBING.)]
Of time and its divisions (916-918).
916.

Although time is included in the class of Continuous Quantities,

being indivisible and immaterial, it does not come entirely under
the head of Geometry, which represents its divisions by means of
figures and bodies of infinite variety, such as are seen to be
continuous in their visible and material properties. But only with
its first principles does it agree, that is with the Point and the
Line; the point may be compared to an instant of time, and the line
may be likened to the length of a certain quantity of time, and just
as a line begins and terminates in a point, so such a space of time.
begins and terminates in an instant. And whereas a line is
infinitely divisible, the divisibility of a space of time is of the
same nature; and as the divisions of the line may bear a certain
proportion to each other, so may the divisions of time.
[Footnote: This passage is repeated word for word on page 190b of

the same manuscript and this is accounted for by the text in Vol. I,
No. 4. Compare also No. 1216.]
917.
Describe the nature of Time as distinguished from the Geometrical

definitions.
918.
Divide an hour into 3000 parts, and this you can do with a clock by
making the pendulum lighter or heavier.
_XVI.
Physical Geography.
Leonardo's researches as to the structure of the earth and sea were

made at a time, when the extended voyages of the Spaniards and
Portuguese had also excited a special interest in geographical
questions in Italy, and particularly in Tuscany. Still, it need
scarcely surprise us to find that in deeper questions, as to the
structure of the globe, the primitive state of the earth's surface,
and the like, he was far in advance of his time.
The number of passages which treat of such matters is relatively

considerable; like almost all Leonardo's scientific notes they deal

partly with theoretical and partly with practical questions. Some of

his theoretical views of the motion of water were collected in a
copied manuscript volume by an early transcriber, but without any
acknowledgment of the source whence they were derived. This copy is
now in the Library of the Barberini palace at Rome and was published
under the title: "De moto e misura dell'acqua," by FRANCESCO
CARDINALI, Bologna_ 1828. _In this work the texts are arranged under
the following titles:_ Libr. I. Della spera dell'acqua; Libr. II.
Del moto dell'acqua; Libr. III. Dell'onda dell'acqua; Libr. IV. Dei
retrosi d'acqua; Libr. V. Dell'acqua cadente; Libr. VI. Delle
rotture fatte dall'acqua; Libr. VII Delle cose portate dall'acqua;
Libr. VIII. Dell'oncia dell'acqua e delle canne; Libr. IX. De molini
e d'altri ordigni d'acqua.
_The large number of isolated observations scattered through the

manuscripts, accounts for our so frequently finding notes of new
schemes for the arrangement of those relating to water and its
motions, particularly in the Codex Atlanticus: I have printed
several of these plans as an introduction to the Physical Geography,
and I have actually arranged the texts in accordance with the clue
afforded by one of them which is undoubtedly one of the latest notes
referring to the subject (No._ 920_). The text given as No._ 930
_which is also taken from a late note-book of Leonardo's, served as
a basis for the arrangement of the first of the seven books--or
sections--, bearing the title: Of the Nature of Water_ (Dell'acque
in se).
_As I have not made it any part of this undertaking to print the
passages which refer to purely physical principles, it has also been
necessary to exclude those practical researches which, in accordance
with indications given in_ 920, _ought to come in as Books_ 13, 14
_and_ 15. _I can only incidentally mention here that Leonardo--as it
seems to me, especially in his youth--devoted a great deal of
attention to the construction of mills. This is proved by a number
of drawings of very careful and minute execution, which are to be
found in the Codex Atlanticus. Nor was it possible to include his
considerations on the regulation of rivers, the making of canals and
so forth (No._ 920, _Books_ 10, 11 _and_ 12_); but those passages in
which the structure of a canal is directly connected with notices of
particular places will be found duly inserted under section XVII
(Topographical notes). In Vol. I, No._ 5 _the text refers to
canal-making in general._

_On one point only can the collection of passages included under the
general heading of Physical Geography claim to be complete. When
comparing and sorting the materials for this work I took particular
care not to exclude or omit any text in which a geographical name
was mentioned even incidentally, since in all such researches the
chief interest, as it appeared to me, attached to the question
whether these acute observations on the various local
characteristics of mountains, rivers or seas, had been made by
Leonardo himself, and on the spot. It is self-evident that the few
general and somewhat superficial observations on the Rhine and the
Danube, on England and Flanders, must have been obtained from maps
or from some informants, and in the case of Flanders Leonardo
himself acknowledges this (see No._ 1008_). But that most of the
other and more exact observations were made, on the spot, by
Leonardo himself, may be safely assumed from their method and the
style in which he writes of them; and we should bear it in mind that
in all investigations, of whatever kind, experience is always spoken
of as the only basis on which he relies. Incidentally, as in No._
984, _he thinks it necessary to allude to the total absence of all
recorded observations._
I.
INTRODUCTION.
Schemes for the arrangement of the materials (919-928).
919.
These books contain in the beginning: Of the nature of water itself

in its motions; the others treat of the effects of its currents,
which change the world in its centre and its shape.
920.
DIVISIONS OF THE BOOK.
Book 1 of water in itself.
Book 2 of the sea.
Book 3 of subterranean rivers.

Book 4 of rivers.
Book 5 of the nature of the abyss.
Book 6 of the obstacles.
Book 7 of gravels.
Book 8 of the surface of water.
Book 9 of the things placed therein.
Book 10 of the repairing of rivers.
Book 11 of conduits.
Book 12 of canals.
Book 13 of machines turned by water.
Book 14 of raising water.
Book 15 of matters worn away by water.
921.
First you shall make a book treating of places occupied by fresh

waters, and the second by salt waters, and the third, how by the
disappearance of these, our parts of the world were made lighter and
in consequence more remote from the centre of the world.
922.
First write of all water, in each of its motions; then describe all
its bottoms and their various materials, always referring to the
propositions concerning the said waters; and let the order be good,
for otherwise the work will be confused.
Describe all the forms taken by water from its greatest to its
smallest wave, and their causes.
923.

Book 9, of accidental risings of water.
924.
THE ORDER OF THE BOOK.
Place at the beginning what a river can effect.
925.
A book of driving back armies by the force of a flood made by

releasing waters.
A book showing how the waters safely bring down timber cut in the
mountains.
A book of boats driven against the impetus of rivers.
A book of raising large bridges higher. Simply by the swelling of

the waters.
A book of guarding against the impetus of rivers so that towns may

not be damaged by them.
926.
A book of the ordering of rivers so as to preserve their banks.
A book of the mountains, which would stand forth and become land, if
our hemisphere were to be uncovered by the water.
A book of the earth carried down by the waters to fill up the great
abyss of the seas.
A book of the ways in which a tempest may of itself clear out filled
up sea-ports.
A book of the shores of rivers and of their permanency.
A book of how to deal with rivers, so that they may keep their
bottom scoured by their own flow near the cities they pass.
A book of how to make or to repair the foundations for bridges over

the rivers.
A book of the repairs which ought to be made in walls and banks of

rivers where the water strikes them.
A book of the formation of hills of sand or gravel at great depths

in water.
927.
Water gives the first impetus to its motion.
A book of the levelling of waters by various means,
A book of diverting rivers from places where they do mischief.
A book of guiding rivers which occupy too much ground.
A book of parting rivers into several branches and making them

fordable.
A book of the waters which with various currents pass through seas.
A book of deepening the beds of rivers by means of currents of

water.
A book of controlling rivers so that the little beginnings of

mischief, caused by them, may not increase.
A book of the various movements of waters passing through channels

of different forms.
A book of preventing small rivers from diverting the larger one into
which their waters run.
A book of the lowest level which can be found in the current of the
surface of rivers.
A book of the origin of rivers which flow from the high tops of
mountains.
A book of the various motions of waters in their rivers.

928.
[1] Of inequality in the concavity of a ship. [Footnote 1: The first

line of this passage was added subsequently, evidently as a
correction of the following line.]
[1] A book of the inequality in the curve of the sides of ships.
[1] A book of the inequality in the position of the tiller.
[1] A book of the inequality in the keel of ships.
[2] A book of various forms of apertures by which water flows out.
[3] A book of water contained in vessels with air, and of its

movements.
[4] A book of the motion of water through a syphon. [Footnote 7:

_cicognole_, see No. 966, 11, 17.]
[5] A book of the meetings and union of waters coming from different
directions.
[6] A book of the various forms of the banks through which rivers
pass.
[7] A book of the various forms of shoals formed under the sluices
of rivers.
[8] A book of the windings and meanderings of the currents of

rivers.
[9] A book of the various places whence the waters of rivers are
derived.
[10] A book of the configuration of the shores of rivers and of

their permanency.
[11] A book of the perpendicular fall of water on various objects.
[12] Abook of the course of water when it is impeded in various

places.

[12] A book of the various forms of the obstacles which impede the
course of waters.
[13] A book of the concavity and globosity formed round various

objects at the bottom.
[14] Abook of conducting navigable canals above or beneath the

rivers which intersect them.
[15] A book of the soils which absorb water in canals and of

repairing them.
[16] Abook of creating currents for rivers, which quit their beds,
[and] for rivers choked with soil.
General introduction.
929.
THE BEGINNING OF THE TREATISE ON WATER.
By the ancients man has been called the world in miniature; and
certainly this name is well bestowed, because, inasmuch as man is
composed of earth, water, air and fire, his body resembles that of
the earth; and as man has in him bones the supports and framework of
his flesh, the world has its rocks the supports of the earth; as man
has in him a pool of blood in which the lungs rise and fall in
breathing, so the body of the earth has its ocean tide which
likewise rises and falls every six hours, as if the world breathed;
as in that pool of blood veins have their origin, which ramify all
over the human body, so likewise the ocean sea fills the body of the
earth with infinite springs of water. The body of the earth lacks
sinews and this is, because the sinews are made expressely for
movements and, the world being perpetually stable, no movement takes
place, and no movement taking place, muscles are not necessary.
--But in all other points they are much alike.
I.
OF THE NATURE OF WATER.
The arrangement of Book I.

930.
THE ORDER OF THE FIRST BOOK ON WATER.
Define first what is meant by height and depth; also how the
elements are situated one inside another. Then, what is meant by
solid weight and by liquid weight; but first what weight and
lightness are in themselves. Then describe why water moves, and why
its motion ceases; then why it becomes slower or more rapid; besides
this, how it always falls, being in contact with the air but lower
than the air. And how water rises in the air by means of the heat of
the sun, and then falls again in rain; again, why water springs
forth from the tops of mountains; and if the water of any spring
higher than the ocean can pour forth water higher than the surface
of that ocean. And how all the water that returns to the ocean is
higher than the sphere of waters. And how the waters of the
equatorial seas are higher than the waters of the North, and higher
beneath the body of the sun than in any part of the equatorial
circle; for experiment shows that under the heat of a burning brand
the water near the brand boils, and the water surrounding this
ebullition always sinks with a circular eddy. And how the waters of
the North are lower than the other seas, and more so as they become
colder, until they are converted into ice.
Definitions (931. 932).
931.
OF WHAT IS WATER.
Among the four elements water is the second both in weight and in
instability.
932.
THE BEGINNING OF THE BOOK ON WATER.
Sea is the name given to that water which is wide and deep, in which
the waters have not much motion.
[Footnote: Only the beginning of this passage is here given, the

remainder consists of definitions which have no direct bearing on
the subject.]

Of the surface of the water in relation to the globe (933-936).
933.
The centres of the sphere of water are two, one universal and common
to all water, the other particular. The universal one is that which
is common to all waters not in motion, which exist in great
quantities. As canals, ditches, ponds, fountains, wells, dead
rivers, lakes, stagnant pools and seas, which, although they are at
various levels, have each in itself the limits of their superficies
equally distant from the centre of the earth, such as lakes placed
at the tops of high mountains; as the lake near Pietra Pana and the
lake of the Sybil near Norcia; and all the lakes that give rise to
great rivers, as the Ticino from Lago Maggiore, the Adda from the
lake of Como, the Mincio from the lake of Garda, the Rhine from the
lakes of Constance and of Chur, and from the lake of Lucerne, like
the Tigris which passes through Asia Minor carrying with it the
waters of three lakes, one above the other at different heights of
which the highest is Munace, the middle one Pallas, and the lowest
Triton; the Nile again flows from three very high lakes in Ethiopia.
[Footnote 5: _Pietra Pana_, a mountain near Florence. If for Norcia,

we may read Norchia, the remains of the Etruscan city near Viterbo,
there can be no doubt that by '_Lago della Sibilla_'--a name not
known elsewhere, so far as I can learn--Leonardo meant _Lago di
Vico_ (Lacus Ciminus, Aen. 7).]
934.
OF THE CENTRE OF THE OCEAN.
The centre of the sphere of waters is the true centre of the globe
of our world, which is composed of water and earth, having the shape
of a sphere. But, if you want to find the centre of the element of
the earth, this is placed at a point equidistant from the surface of
the ocean, and not equidistant from the surface of the earth; for it
is evident that this globe of earth has nowhere any perfect
rotundity, excepting in places where the sea is, or marshes or other
still waters. And every part of the earth that rises above the water
is farther from the centre.
935.

OF THE SEA WHICH CHANGES THE WEIGHT OF THE EARTH.
The shells, oysters, and other similar animals, which originate in

sea-mud, bear witness to the changes of the earth round the centre
of our elements. This is proved thus: Great rivers always run
turbid, being coloured by the earth, which is stirred by the
friction of their waters at the bottom and on their shores; and this
wearing disturbs the face of the strata made by the layers of
shells, which lie on the surface of the marine mud, and which were
produced there when the salt waters covered them; and these strata
were covered over again from time to time, with mud of various
thickness, or carried down to the sea by the rivers and floods of
more or less extent; and thus these layers of mud became raised to
such a height, that they came up from the bottom to the air. At the
present time these bottoms are so high that they form hills or high
mountains, and the rivers, which wear away the sides of these
mountains, uncover the strata of these shells, and thus the softened
side of the earth continually rises and the antipodes sink closer to
the centre of the earth, and the ancient bottoms of the seas have
become mountain ridges.
936.
Let the earth make whatever changes it may in its weight, the
surface of the sphere of waters can never vary in its equal distance
from the centre of the world.
Of the proportion of the mass of water to that of the earth (937.

938).
937.
WHETHER THE EARTH IS LESS THAN THE WATER.
Some assert that it is true that the earth, which is not covered by
water is much less than that covered by water. But considering the
size of 7000 miles in diameter which is that of this earth, we may
conclude the water to be of small depth.
938.
OF THE EARTH.

The great elevations of the peaks of the mountains above the sphere
of the water may have resulted from this that: a very large portion
of the earth which was filled with water that is to say the vast
cavern inside the earth may have fallen in a vast part of its vault
towards the centre of the earth, being pierced by means of the
course of the springs which continually wear away the place where
they pass.
Sinking in of countries like the Dead Sea in Syria, that is Sodom

and Gomorrah.
It is of necessity that there should be more water than land, and

the visible portion of the sea does not show this; so that there
must be a great deal of water inside the earth, besides that which
rises into the lower air and which flows through rivers and springs.
[Footnote: The small sketch below on the left, is placed in the

original close to the text referring to the Dead Sea.]
The theory of Plato.
939.
THE FIGURES OF THE ELEMENTS.
Of the figures of the elements; and first as against those who deny
the opinions of Plato, and who say that if the elements include one
another in the forms attributed to them by Plato they would cause a
vacuum one within the other. I say it is not true, and I here prove
it, but first I desire to propound some conclusions. It is not
necessary that the elements which include each other should be of
corresponding magnitude in all the parts, of that which includes and
of that which is included. We see that the sphere of the waters
varies conspicuously in mass from the surface to the bottom, and
that, far from investing the earth when that was in the form of a
cube that is of 8 angles as Plato will have it, that it invests the
earth which has innumerable angles of rock covered by the water and
various prominences and concavities, and yet no vacuum is generated
between the earth and water; again, the air invests the sphere of
waters together with the mountains and valleys, which rise above
that sphere, and no vacuum remains between the earth and the air, so
that any one who says a vacuum is generated, speaks foolishly.

But to Plato I would reply that the surface of the figures which
according to him the elements would have, could not exist.
That the flow of rivers proves the slope of the land.
940.
PROVES HOW THE EARTH IS NOT GLOBULAR AND NOT BEING GLOBULAR CANNOT
HAVE A COMMON CENTRE.
We see the Nile come from Southern regions and traverse various
provinces, running towards the North for a distance of 3000 miles
and flow into the Mediterranean by the shores of Egypt; and if we
will give to this a fall of ten braccia a mile, as is usually
allowed to the course of rivers in general, we shall find that the
Nile must have its mouth ten miles lower than its source. Again, we
see the Rhine, the Rhone and the Danube starting from the German
parts, almost the centre of Europe, and having a course one to the
East, the other to the North, and the last to Southern seas. And if
you consider all this you will see that the plains of Europe in
their aggregate are much higher than the high peaks of the maritime
mountains; think then how much their tops must be above the sea
shores.
Theory of the elevation of water within the mountains.
941.
OF THE HEAT THAT IS IN THE WORLD.
Where there is life there is heat, and where vital heat is, there is
movement of vapour. This is proved, inasmuch as we see that the
element of fire by its heat always draws to itself damp vapours and
thick mists as opaque clouds, which it raises from seas as well as
lakes and rivers and damp valleys; and these being drawn by degrees
as far as the cold region, the first portion stops, because heat and
moisture cannot exist with cold and dryness; and where the first
portion stops the rest settle, and thus one portion after another
being added, thick and dark clouds are formed. They are often wafted
about and borne by the winds from one region to another, where by
their density they become so heavy that they fall in thick rain; and
if the heat of the sun is added to the power of the element of fire,

the clouds are drawn up higher still and find a greater degree of
cold, in which they form ice and fall in storms of hail. Now the
same heat which holds up so great a weight of water as is seen to
rain from the clouds, draws them from below upwards, from the foot
of the mountains, and leads and holds them within the summits of the
mountains, and these, finding some fissure, issue continuously and
cause rivers.
The relative height of the surface of the sea to that of the land
(942-945).
942.
OF THE SEA, WHICH TO MANY FOOLS APPEARS TO BE HIGHER THAN THE EARTH
WHICH FORMS ITS SHORE.
_b d_ is a plain through which a river flows to the sea; this plain

ends at the sea, and since in fact the dry land that is uncovered is
not perfectly level--for, if it were, the river would have no
motion--as the river does move, this place is a slope rather than a
plain; hence this plain _d b_ so ends where the sphere of water
begins that if it were extended in a continuous line to _b a_ it
would go down beneath the sea, whence it follows that the sea _a c
b_ looks higher than the dry land.
Obviously no portions of dry land left uncovered by water can ever

be lower than the surface of the watery sphere.
943.
OF CERTAIN PERSONS WHO SAY THE WATERS WERE HIGHER THAN THE DRY LAND.
Certainly I wonder not a little at the common opinion which is

contrary to truth, but held by the universal consent of the judgment
of men. And this is that all are agreed that the surface of the sea
is higher than the highest peaks of the mountains; and they allege
many vain and childish reasons, against which I will allege only one
simple and short reason; We see plainly that if we could remove the
shores of the sea, it would invest the whole earth and make it a
perfect sphere. Now, consider how much earth would be carried away
to enable the waves of the sea to cover the world; therefore that
which would be carried away must be higher than the sea-shore.

944.
THE OPINION OF SOME PERSONS WHO SAY THAT THE WATER OF SOME SEAS IS
HIGHER THAN THE HIGHEST SUMMITS OF MOUNTAINS; AND NEVERTHELESS THE
WATER WAS FORCED UP TO THESE SUMMITS.
Water would not move from place to place if it were not that it
seeks the lowest level and by a natural consequence it never can
return to a height like that of the place where it first on issuing
from the mountain came to light. And that portion of the sea which,
in your vain imagining, you say was so high that it flowed over the
summits of the high mountains, for so many centuries would be
swallowed up and poured out again through the issue from these
mountains. You can well imagine that all the time that Tigris and
Euphrates
945.
have flowed from the summits of the mountains of Armenia, it must be

believed that all the water of the ocean has passed very many times
through these mouths. And do you not believe that the Nile must have
sent more water into the sea than at present exists of all the
element of water? Undoubtedly, yes. And if all this water had fallen
away from this body of the earth, this terrestrial machine would
long since have been without water. Whence we may conclude that the
water goes from the rivers to the sea, and from the sea to the
rivers, thus constantly circulating and returning, and that all the
sea and the rivers have passed through the mouth of the Nile an
infinite number of times [Footnote: _Moti Armeni, Ermini_ in the
original, in M. RAVAISSON'S transcript _"monti ernini [le loro
ruine?]"_. He renders this _"Le Tigre et l'Euphrate se sont deverses
par les sommets des montagnes [avec leurs eaux destructives?] on
pent cro're" &c. Leonardo always writes _Ermini, Erminia_, for
_Armeni, Armenia_ (Arabic: _Irminiah_). M. RAVAISSON also deviates
from the original in his translation of the following passage: "_Or
tu ne crois pas que le Nil ait mis plus d'eau dans la mer qu'il n'y
en a a present dans tout l'element de l'eau. Il est certain que si
cette eau etait tombee_" &c.]
II.
ON THE OCEAN.

Refutation of Pliny's theory as to the saltness of the sea (946.

947).
946.
WHY WATER IS SALT.
Pliny says in his second book, chapter 103, that the water of the
sea is salt because the heat of the sun dries up the moisture and
drinks it up; and this gives to the wide stretching sea the savour
of salt. But this cannot be admitted, because if the saltness of the
sea were caused by the heat of the sun, there can be no doubt that
lakes, pools and marshes would be so much the more salt, as their
waters have less motion and are of less depth; but experience shows
us, on the contrary, that these lakes have their waters quite free
from salt. Again it is stated by Pliny in the same chapter that this
saltness might originate, because all the sweet and subtle portions
which the heat attracts easily being taken away, the more bitter and
coarser part will remain, and thus the water on the surface is
fresher than at the bottom [Footnote 22: Compare No. 948.]; but this
is contradicted by the same reason given above, which is, that the
same thing would happen in marshes and other waters, which are dried
up by the heat. Again, it has been said that the saltness of the sea
is the sweat of the earth; to this it may be answered that all the
springs of water which penetrate through the earth, would then be
salt. But the conclusion is, that the saltness of the sea must
proceed from the many springs of water which, as they penetrate into
the earth, find mines of salt and these they dissolve in part, and
carry with them to the ocean and the other seas, whence the clouds,
the begetters of rivers, never carry it up. And the sea would be
salter in our times than ever it was at any time; and if the
adversary were to say that in infinite time the sea would dry up or
congeal into salt, to this I answer that this salt is restored to
the earth by the setting free of that part of the earth which rises
out of the sea with the salt it has acquired, and the rivers return
it to the earth under the sea.
[Footnote: See PLINY, Hist. Nat. II, CIII [C]. _Itaque Solis ardore
siccatur liquor: et hoc esse masculum sidus accepimus, torrens
cuncta sorbensque._ (cp. CIV.) _Sic mari late patenti saporem
incoqui salis, aut quia exhausto inde dulci tenuique, quod facillime
trahat vis ignea, omne asperius crassiusque linquatur: ideo summa
aequorum aqua dulciorem profundam; hanc esse veriorem causam, quam

quod mare terrae sudor sit aeternus: aut quia plurimum ex arido
misceatur illi vapore: aut quia terrae natura sicut medicatas aquas
inficiat_ ... (cp. CV): _altissimum mare XV. stadiorum Fabianus
tradit. Alii n Ponto coadverso Coraxorum gentis (vocant B Ponti)
trecentis fere a continenti stadiis immensam altitudinem maris
tradunt, vadis nunquam repertis._ (cp. CVI [CIII]) _Mirabilius id
faciunt aquae dulces, juxta mare, ut fistulis emicantes. Nam nec
aquarum natura a miraculis cessat. Dulces mari invehuntur, leviores
haud dubie. Ideo et marinae, quarum natura gravior, magis invecta
sustinent. Quaedam vero et dulces inter se supermeant alias._]
947.
For the third and last reason we will say that salt is in all
created things; and this we learn from water passed over the ashes
and cinders of burnt things; and the urine of every animal, and the
superfluities issuing from their bodies, and the earth into which
all things are converted by corruption.
But,--to put it better,--given that the world is everlasting, it

must be admitted that its population will also be eternal; hence the
human species has eternally been and would be consumers of salt; and
if all the mass of the earth were to be turned into salt, it would
not suffice for all human food [Footnote 27: That is, on the
supposition that salt, once consumed, disappears for ever.]; whence
we are forced to admit, either that the species of salt must be
everlasting like the world, or that it dies and is born again like
the men who devour it. But as experience teaches us that it does not
die, as is evident by fire, which does not consume it, and by water
which becomes salt in proportion to the quantity dissolved in
it,--and when it is evaporated the salt always remains in the
original quantity--it must pass through the bodies of men either in
the urine or the sweat or other excretions where it is found again;
and as much salt is thus got rid of as is carried every year into
towns; therefore salt is dug in places where there is urine.-- Sea
hogs and sea winds are salt.
We will say that the rains which penetrate the earth are what is
under the foundations of cities with their inhabitants, and are what
restore through the internal passages of the earth the saltness
taken from the sea; and that the change in the place of the sea,
which has been over all the mountains, caused it to be left there in
the mines found in those mountains, &c.

The characteristics of sea water (948. 949).
948.
The waters of the salt sea are fresh at the greatest depths.
949.
THAT THE OCEAN DOES NOT PENETRATE UNDER THE EARTH.
The ocean does not penetrate under the earth, and this we learn from
the many and various springs of fresh water which, in many parts of
the ocean make their way up from the bottom to the surface. The same
thing is farther proved by wells dug beyond the distance of a mile
from the said ocean, which fill with fresh water; and this happens
because the fresh water is lighter than salt water and consequently
more penetrating.
Which weighs most, water when frozen or when not frozen?
FRESH WATER PENETRATES MORE AGAINST SALT WATER THAN SALT WATER
AGAINST FRESH WATER.
That fresh water penetrates more against salt water, than salt water
against fresh is proved by a thin cloth dry and old, hanging with
the two opposite ends equally low in the two different waters, the
surfaces of which are at an equal level; and it will then be seen
how much higher the fresh water will rise in this piece of linen
than the salt; by so much is the fresh lighter than the salt.
On the formation of Gulfs (950. 951).
950.
All inland seas and the gulfs of those seas, are made by rivers
which flow into the sea.
951.
HERE THE REASON IS GIVEN OF THE EFFECTS PRODUCED BY THE WATERS IN

THE ABOVE MENTIONED PLACE.

All the lakes and all the gulfs of the sea and all inland seas are
due to rivers which distribute their waters into them, and from
impediments in their downfall into the Mediterranean --which divides
Africa from Europe and Europe from Asia by means of the Nile and the
Don which pour their waters into it. It is asked what impediment is
great enough to stop the course of the waters which do not reach the
ocean.
On the encroachments of the sea on the land and vice versa

(952-954).
952.
OF WAVES.
A wave of the sea always breaks in front of its base, and that
portion of the crest will then be lowest which before was highest.
[Footnote: The page of FRANCESCO DI GIORGIO'S _Trattato_, on which

Leonardo has written this remark, contains some notes on the
construction of dams, harbours &c.]
953.
That the shores of the sea constantly acquire more soil towards the
middle of the sea; that the rocks and promontories of the sea are
constantly being ruined and worn away; that the Mediterranean seas
will in time discover their bottom to the air, and all that will be
left will be the channel of the greatest river that enters it; and
this will run to the ocean and pour its waters into that with those
of all the rivers that are its tributaries.
954.
How the river Po, in a short time might dry up the Adriatic sea in
the same way as it has dried up a large part of Lombardy.
The ebb and flow of the tide (955-960).
955.
Where there is a larger quantity of water, there is a greater flow

and ebb, but the contrary in narrow waters.

Look whether the sea is at its greatest flow when the moon is half
way over our hemisphere [on the meridian].
956.
Whether the flow and ebb are caused by the moon or the sun, or are
the breathing of this terrestrial machine. That the flow and ebb are
different in different countries and seas.
[Footnote: 1. Allusion may here be made to the mythological

explanation of the ebb and flow given in the Edda. Utgardloki says
to Thor (Gylfaginning 48): "When thou wert drinking out of the horn,
and it seemed to thee that it was slow in emptying a wonder befell,
which I should not have believed possible: the other end of the horn
lay in the sea, which thou sawest not; but when thou shalt go to the
sea, thou shalt see how much thou hast drunk out of it. And that men
now call the ebb tide."
Several passages in various manuscripts treat of the ebb and flow.

In collecting them I have been guided by the rule only to transcribe
those which named some particular spot.]
957.
Book 9 of the meeting of rivers and their flow and ebb. The cause is
the same in the sea, where it is caused by the straits of Gibraltar.
And again it is caused by whirlpools.
958.
OF THE FLOW AND EBB.
All seas have their flow and ebb in the same period, but they seem
to vary because the days do not begin at the same time throughout
the universe; in such wise as that when it is midday in our
hemisphere, it is midnight in the opposite hemisphere; and at the
Eastern boundary of the two hemispheres the night begins which
follows on the day, and at the Western boundary of these hemispheres
begins the day, which follows the night from the opposite side.
Hence it is to be inferred that the above mentioned swelling and
diminution in the height of the seas, although they take place in
one and the same space of time, are seen to vary from the above

mentioned causes. The waters are then withdrawn into the fissures
which start from the depths of the sea and which ramify inside the
body of the earth, corresponding to the sources of rivers, which are
constantly taking from the bottom of the sea the water which has
flowed into it. A sea of water is incessantly being drawn off from
the surface of the sea. And if you should think that the moon,
rising at the Eastern end of the Mediterranean sea must there begin
to attract to herself the waters of the sea, it would follow that we
must at once see the effect of it at the Eastern end of that sea.
Again, as the Mediterranean sea is about the eighth part of the
circumference of the aqueous sphere, being 3000 miles long, while
the flow and ebb only occur 4 times in 24 hours, these results would
not agree with the time of 24 hours, unless this Mediterranean sea
were six thousand miles in length; because if such a superabundance
of water had to pass through the straits of Gibraltar in running
behind the moon, the rush of the water through that strait would be
so great, and would rise to such a height, that beyond the straits
it would for many miles rush so violently into the ocean as to cause
floods and tremendous seething, so that it would be impossible to
pass through. This agitated ocean would afterwards return the waters
it had received with equal fury to the place they had come from, so
that no one ever could pass through those straits. Now experience
shows that at every hour they are passed in safety, but when the
wind sets in the same direction as the current, the strong ebb
increases [Footnote 23: In attempting to get out of the
Mediterranean, vessels are sometimes detained for a considerable
time; not merely by the causes mentioned by Leonardo but by the
constant current flowing eastwards through the middle of the straits
of Gibraltar.]. The sea does not raise the water that has issued
from the straits, but it checks them and this retards the tide; then
it makes up with furious haste for the time it has lost until the
end of the ebb movement.
959.
That the flow and ebb are not general; for on the shore at Genoa
there is none, at Venice two braccia, between England and Flanders
18 braccia. That in the straits of Sicily the current is very strong
because all the waters from the rivers that flow into the Adriatic
pass there.
[Footnote: A few more recent data may be given here to facilitate

comparison. In the Adriatic the tide rises 2 and 1/2 feet, at

Terracina 1 1/4. In the English channel between Calais and Kent it

rises from 18 to 20 feet. In the straits of Messina it rises no more
than 2 1/2 feet, and that only in stormy weather, but the current is
all the stronger. When Leonardo accounts for this by the southward
flow of all the Italian rivers along the coasts, the explanation is
at least based on a correct observation; namely that a steady
current flows southwards along the coast of Calabria and another
northwards, along the shores of Sicily; he seems to infer, from the
direction of the fust, that the tide in the Adriatic is caused by
it.]
960.
In the West, near to Flanders, the sea rises and decreases every 6
hours about 20 braccia, and 22 when the moon is in its favour; but
20 braccia is the general rule, and this rule, as it is evident,
cannot have the moon for its cause. This variation in the increase
and decrease of the sea every 6 hours may arise from the damming up
of the waters, which are poured into the Mediterranean by the
quantity of rivers from Africa, Asia and Europe, which flow into
that sea, and the waters which are given to it by those rivers; it
pours them to the ocean through the straits of Gibraltar, between
Abila and Calpe [Footnote 5: _Abila_, Lat. _Abyla_, Gr. , now
Sierra _Ximiera_ near Ceuta; _Calpe_, Lat. _Calpe_. Gr., now
Gibraltar. Leonardo here uses the ancient names of the rocks, which
were known as the Pillars of Hercules.]. That ocean extends to the
island of England and others farther North, and it becomes dammed up
and kept high in various gulfs. These, being seas of which the
surface is remote from the centre of the earth, have acquired a
weight, which as it is greater than the force of the incoming waters
which cause it, gives this water an impetus in the contrary
direction to that in which it came and it is borne back to meet the
waters coming out of the straits; and this it does most against the
straits of Gibraltar; these, so long as this goes on, remain dammed
up and all the water which is poured out meanwhile by the
aforementioned rivers, is pent up [in the Mediterranean]; and this
might be assigned as the cause of its flow and ebb, as is shown in
the 21st of the 4th of my theory.
III.
SUBTERRANEAN WATER COURSES.

Theory of the circulation of the waters (961. 962).
961.
Very large rivers flow under ground.
962.
This is meant to represent the earth cut through in the middle,

showing the depths of the sea and of the earth; the waters start
from the bottom of the seas, and ramifying through the earth they
rise to the summits of the mountains, flowing back by the rivers and
returning to the sea.
Observations in support of the hypothesis (963-969).
963.
The waters circulate with constant motion from the utmost depths of
the sea to the highest summits of the mountains, not obeying the
nature of heavy matter; and in this case it acts as does the blood
of animals which is always moving from the sea of the heart and
flows to the top of their heads; and here it is that veins burst--as
one may see when a vein bursts in the nose, that all the blood from
below rises to the level of the burst vein. When the water rushes
out of a burst vein in the earth it obeys the nature of other things
heavier than the air, whence it always seeks the lowest places. [7]
These waters traverse the body of the earth with infinite
ramifications.
[Footnote: The greater part of this passage has been given as No.
849 in the section on Anatomy.]
964.
The same cause which stirs the humours in every species of animal
body and by which every injury is repaired, also moves the waters
from the utmost depth of the sea to the greatest heights.
965.
It is the property of water that it constitutes the vital human of

this arid earth; and the cause which moves it through its ramified

veins, against the natural course of heavy matters, is the same

property which moves the humours in every species of animal body.
But that which crowns our wonder in contemplating it is, that it
rises from the utmost depths of the sea to the highest tops of the
mountains, and flowing from the opened veins returns to the low
seas; then once more, and with extreme swiftness, it mounts again
and returns by the same descent, thus rising from the inside to the
outside, and going round from the lowest to the highest, from whence
it rushes down in a natural course. Thus by these two movements
combined in a constant circulation, it travels through the veins of
the earth.
966.
WHETHER WATER RISES FROM THE SEA TO THE TOPS OF MOUNTAINS.
The water of the ocean cannot make its way from the bases to the
tops of the mountains which bound it, but only so much rises as the
dryness of the mountain attracts. And if, on the contrary, the rain,
which penetrates from the summit of the mountain to the base, which
is the boundary of the sea, descends and softens the slope opposite
to the said mountain and constantly draws the water, like a syphon
[Footnote 11: Cicognola, Syphon. See Vol. I, Pl. XXIV, No. 1.] which
pours through its longest side, it must be this which draws up the
water of the sea; thus if _s n_ were the surface of the sea, and the
rain descends from the top of the mountain _a_ to _n_ on one side,
and on the other sides it descends from _a_ to _m_, without a doubt
this would occur after the manner of distilling through felt, or as
happens through the tubes called syphons [Footnote 17: Cicognola,
Syphon. See Vol. I, Pl. XXIV, No. 1.]. And at all times the water
which has softened the mountain, by the great rain which runs down
the two opposite sides, would constantly attract the rain _a n_, on
its longest side together with the water from the sea, if that side
of the mountain _a m_ were longer than the other _a n_; but this
cannot be, because no part of the earth which is not submerged by
the ocean can be lower than that ocean.
967.
OF SPRINGS OF WATER ON THE TOPS OF MOUNTAINS.
It is quite evident that the whole surface of the ocean--when there

is no storm--is at an equal distance from the centre of the earth,

and that the tops of the mountains are farther from this centre in
proportion as they rise above the surface of that sea; therefore if
the body of the earth were not like that of man, it would be
impossible that the waters of the sea--being so much lower than the
mountains--could by their nature rise up to the summits of these
mountains. Hence it is to be believed that the same cause which
keeps the blood at the top of the head in man keeps the water at the
summits of the mountains.
[Footnote: This conception of the rising of the blood, which has

given rise to the comparison, was recognised as erroneous by
Leonardo himself at a later period. It must be remembered that the
MS. A, from which these passages are taken, was written about twenty
years earlier than the MS. Leic. (Nos. 963 and 849) and twenty-five
years before the MS. W. An. IV.
There is, in the original a sketch with No. 968 which is not
reproduced. It represents a hill of the same shape as that shown at
No. 982. There are veins, or branched streams, on the side of the
hill, like those on the skull Pl. CVIII, No. 4]
968.
IN CONFIRMATION OF WHY THE WATER GOES TO THE TOPS OF MOUNTAINS.
I say that just as the natural heat of the blood in the veins keeps
it in the head of man,--for when the man is dead the cold blood
sinks to the lower parts--and when the sun is hot on the head of a
man the blood increases and rises so much, with other humours, that
by pressure in the veins pains in the head are often caused; in the
same way veins ramify through the body of the earth, and by the
natural heat which is distributed throughout the containing body,
the water is raised through the veins to the tops of mountains. And
this water, which passes through a closed conduit inside the body of
the mountain like a dead thing, cannot come forth from its low place
unless it is warmed by the vital heat of the spring time. Again, the
heat of the element of fire and, by day, the heat of the sun, have
power to draw forth the moisture of the low parts of the mountains
and to draw them up, in the same way as it draws the clouds and
collects their moisture from the bed of the sea.
969.

That many springs of salt water are found at great distances from
the sea; this might happen because such springs pass through some
mine of salt, like that in Hungary where salt is hewn out of vast
caverns, just as stone is hewn.
[Footnote: The great mine of Wieliczka in Galicia, out of which a

million cwt. of rock-salt are annually dug out, extends for 3000
metres from West to East, and 1150 metres from North to South.]
IV.
OF RIVERS.
On the way in which the sources of rivers are fed.
970.
OF THE ORIGIN OF RIVERS.
The body of the earth, like the bodies of animals, is intersected

with ramifications of waters which are all in connection and are
constituted to give nutriment and life to the earth and to its
creatures. These come from the depth of the sea and, after many
revolutions, have to return to it by the rivers created by the
bursting of these springs; and if you chose to say that the rains of
the winter or the melting of the snows in summer were the cause of
the birth of rivers, I could mention the rivers which originate in
the torrid countries of Africa, where it never rains--and still less
snows--because the intense heat always melts into air all the clouds
which are borne thither by the winds. And if you chose to say that
such rivers, as increase in July and August, come from the snows
which melt in May and June from the sun's approach to the snows on
the mountains of Scythia [Footnote 9: Scythia means here, as in
Ancient Geography, the whole of the Northern part of Asia as far as
India.], and that such meltings come down into certain valleys and
form lakes, into which they enter by springs and subterranean caves
to issue forth again at the sources of the Nile, this is false;
because Scythia is lower than the sources of the Nile, and, besides,
Scythia is only 400 miles from the Black sea and the sources of the
Nile are 3000 miles distant from the sea of Egypt into which its
waters flow.
The tide in estuaries.

971.
Book 9, of the meeting of rivers and of their ebb and flow. The
cause is the same in the sea, where it is caused by the straits of
Gibraltar; and again it is caused by whirlpools.
[3] If two rivers meet together to form a straight line, and then
below two right angles take their course together, the flow and ebb
will happen now in one river and now in the other above their
confluence, and principally if the outlet for their united volume is
no swifter than when they were separate. Here occur 4 instances.
[Footnote: The first two lines of this passage have already been
given as No. 957. In the margin, near line 3 of this passage, the
text given as No. 919 is written.]
On the alterations, caused in the courses of rivers by their

confluence (972-974).
972.
When a smaller river pours its waters into a larger one, and that
larger one flows from the opposite direction, the course of the
smaller river will bend up against the approach of the larger river;
and this happens because, when the larger river fills up all its bed
with water, it makes an eddy in front of the mouth of the other
river, and so carries the water poured in by the smaller river with
its own. When the smaller river pours its waters into the larger
one, which runs across the current at the mouth of the smaller
river, its waters will bend with the downward movement of the larger
river. [Footnote: In the original sketches the word _Arno_ is
written at the spot here marked _A_, at _R. Rifredi_, and at _M.
Mugnone_.]
973.
When the fulness of rivers is diminished, then the acute angles

formed at the junction of their branches become shorter at the sides
and wider at the point; like the current _a n_ and the current _d
n_, which unite in _n_ when the river is at its greatest fulness. I
say, that when it is in this condition if, before the fullest time,
_d n_ was lower than _a n_, at the time of fulness _d n_ will be

full of sand and mud. When the water _d n_ falls, it will carry away
the mud and remain with a lower bottom, and the channel _a n_
finding itself the higher, will fling its waters into the lower, _d
n_, and will wash away all the point of the sand-spit _b n c_, and
thus the angle _a c d_ will remain larger than the angle _a n d_ and
the sides shorter, as I said before.
[Footnote: Above the first sketch we find, in the original, this

note: "_Sopra il pote rubaconte alla torricella_"; and by the
second, which represents a pier of a bridge, "_Sotto l'ospedal del
ceppo._"]
974.
WATER.
OF THE MOVEMENT OF A SUDDEN RUSH MADE BY A RIVER IN ITS BED

PREVIOUSLY DRY.
In proportion as the current of the water given forth by the

draining of the lake is slow or rapid in the dry river bed, so will
this river be wider or narrower, or shallower or deeper in one place
than another, according to this proposition: the flow and ebb of the
sea which enters the Mediterranean from the ocean, and of the rivers
which meet and struggle with it, will raise their waters more or
less in proportion as the sea is wider or narrower.
[Footnote: In the margin is a sketch of a river which winds so as to

form islands.]
Whirlpools.
975.
Whirlpools, that is to say caverns; that is to say places left by

precipitated waters.
On the alterations in the channels of rivers.
976.
OF THE VIBRATION OF THE EARTH.

The subterranean channels of waters, like those which exist between

the air and the earth, are those which unceasingly wear away and
deepen the beds of their currents.
The origin of the sand in rivers (977. 978).
977.
A river that flows from mountains deposits a great quantity of large

stones in its bed, which still have some of their angles and sides,
and in the course of its flow it carries down smaller stones with
the angles more worn; that is to say the large stones become
smaller. And farther on it deposits coarse gravel and then smaller,
and as it proceeds this becomes coarse sand and then finer, and
going on thus the water, turbid with sand and gravel, joins the sea;
and the sand settles on the sea-shores, being cast up by the salt
waves; and there results the sand of so fine a nature as to seem
almost like water, and it will not stop on the shores of the sea but
returns by reason of its lightness, because it was originally formed
of rotten leaves and other very light things. Still, being
almost--as was said--of the nature of water itself, it afterwards,
when the weather is calm, settles and becomes solid at the bottom of
the sea, where by its fineness it becomes compact and by its
smoothness resists the waves which glide over it; and in this shells
are found; and this is white earth, fit for pottery.
978.
All the torrents of water flowing from the mountains to the sea
carry with them the stones from the hills to the sea, and by the
influx of the sea-water towards the mountains; these stones were
thrown back towards the mountains, and as the waters rose and
retired, the stones were tossed about by it and in rolling, their
angles hit together; then as the parts, which least resisted the
blows, were worn off, the stones ceased to be angular and became
round in form, as may be seen on the banks of the Elsa. And those
remained larger which were less removed from their native spot; and
they became smaller, the farther they were carried from that place,
so that in the process they were converted into small pebbles and
then into sand and at last into mud. After the sea had receded from
the mountains the brine left by the sea with other humours of the
earth made a concretion of these pebbles and this sand, so that the
pebbles were converted into rock and the sand into tufa. And of this

we see an example in the Adda where it issues from the mountains of

Como and in the Ticino, the Adige and the Oglio coming from the
German Alps, and in the Arno at Monte Albano [Footnote 13: At the
foot of _Monte Albano_ lies Vinci, the birth place of Leonardo.
Opposite, on the other bank of the Arno, is _Monte Lupo_.], near
Monte Lupo and Capraia where the rocks, which are very large, are
all of conglomerated pebbles of various kinds and colours.
V.
ON MOUNTAINS.
The formation of mountains (979-983).
979.
Mountains are made by the currents of rivers.
Mountains are destroyed by the currents of rivers.
[Footnote: Compare 789.]
980.
That the Northern bases of some Alps are not yet petrified. And this
is plainly to be seen where the rivers, which cut through them, flow
towards the North; where they cut through the strata in the living
stone in the higher parts of the mountains; and, where they join the
plains, these strata are all of potter's clay; as is to be seen in
the valley of Lamona where the river Lamona, as it issues from the
Appenines, does these things on its banks.
That the rivers have all cut and divided the mountains of the great
Alps one from the other. This is visible in the order of the
stratified rocks, because from the summits of the banks, down to the
river the correspondence of the strata in the rocks is visible on
either side of the river. That the stratified stones of the
mountains are all layers of clay, deposited one above the other by
the various floods of the rivers. That the different size of the
strata is caused by the difference in the floods--that is to say
greater or lesser floods.
981.

The summits of mountains for a long time rise constantly.
The opposite sides of the mountains always approach each other

below; the depths of the valleys which are above the sphere of the
waters are in the course of time constantly getting nearer to the
centre of the world.
In an equal period, the valleys sink much more than the mountains
rise.
The bases of the mountains always come closer together.
In proportion as the valleys become deeper, the more quickly are

their sides worn away.
982.
In every concavity at the summit of the mountains we shall always

find the divisions of the strata in the rocks.
983.
OF THE SEA WHICH ENCIRCLES THE EARTH.
I find that of old, the state of the earth was that its plains were
all covered up and hidden by salt water. [Footnote: This passage has
already been published by Dr. M. JORDAN: _Das Malerbuch des L. da
Vinci, Leipzig_ 1873, p. 86. However, his reading of the text
differs from mine.]
The authorities for the study of the structure of the earth.
984.
Since things are much more ancient than letters, it is no marvel if,
in our day, no records exist of these seas having covered so many
countries; and if, moreover, some records had existed, war and
conflagrations, the deluge of waters, the changes of languages and
of laws have consumed every thing ancient. But sufficient for us is
the testimony of things created in the salt waters, and found again
in high mountains far from the seas.

VI.
GEOLOGICAL PROBLEMS.
985.
In this work you have first to prove that the shells at a thousand
braccia of elevation were not carried there by the deluge, because
they are seen to be all at one level, and many mountains are seen to
be above that level; and to inquire whether the deluge was caused by
rain or by the swelling of the sea; and then you must show how,
neither by rain nor by swelling of the rivers, nor by the overflow
of this sea, could the shells--being heavy objects--be floated up
the mountains by the sea, nor have carried there by the rivers
against the course of their waters.
Doubts about the deluge.
986.
A DOUBTFUL POINT.
Here a doubt arises, and that is: whether the deluge, which happened
at the time of Noah, was universal or not. And it would seem not,
for the reasons now to be given: We have it in the Bible that this
deluge lasted 40 days and 40 nights of incessant and universal rain,
and that this rain rose to ten cubits above the highest mountains in
the world. And if it had been that the rain was universal, it would
have covered our globe which is spherical in form. And this
spherical surface is equally distant in every part, from the centre
of its sphere; hence the sphere of the waters being under the same
conditions, it is impossible that the water upon it should move,
because water, in itself, does not move unless it falls; therefore
how could the waters of such a deluge depart, if it is proved that
it has no motion? and if it departed how could it move unless it
went upwards? Here, then, natural reasons are wanting; hence to
remove this doubt it is necessary to call in a miracle to aid us, or
else to say that all this water was evaporated by the heat of the
sun.
[Footnote: The passages, here given from the MS. Leic., have
hitherto remained unknown. Some preliminary notes on the subject are
to be found in MS. F 8oa and 8ob; but as compared with the fuller

treatment here given, they are, it seems to me, of secondary

interest. They contain nothing that is not repeated here more
clearly and fully. LIBRI, _Histoire des Sciences mathematiques III_,
pages 218--221, has printed the text of F 80a and 80b, therefore it
seemed desirable to give my reasons for not inserting it in this
work.]
That marine shells could not go up the mountains.
987.
OF THE DELUGE AND OF MARINE SHELLS.
If you were to say that the shells which are to be seen within the
confines of Italy now, in our days, far from the sea and at such
heights, had been brought there by the deluge which left them there,
I should answer that if you believe that this deluge rose 7 cubits
above the highest mountains-- as he who measured it has
written--these shells, which always live near the sea-shore, should
have been left on the mountains; and not such a little way from the
foot of the mountains; nor all at one level, nor in layers upon
layers. And if you were to say that these shells are desirous of
remaining near to the margin of the sea, and that, as it rose in
height, the shells quitted their first home, and followed the
increase of the waters up to their highest level; to this I answer,
that the cockle is an animal of not more rapid movement than the
snail is out of water, or even somewhat slower; because it does not
swim, on the contrary it makes a furrow in the sand by means of its
sides, and in this furrow it will travel each day from 3 to 4
braccia; therefore this creature, with so slow a motion, could not
have travelled from the Adriatic sea as far as Monferrato in
Lombardy [Footnote: _Monferrato di Lombardia_. The range of hills of
Monferrato is in Piedmont, and Casale di Monferrato belonged, in
Leonardo's time, to the Marchese di Mantova.], which is 250 miles
distance, in 40 days; which he has said who took account of the
time. And if you say that the waves carried them there, by their
gravity they could not move, excepting at the bottom. And if you
will not grant me this, confess at least that they would have to
stay at the summits of the highest mountains, in the lakes which are
enclosed among the mountains, like the lakes of Lario, or of Como
and il Maggiore [Footnote: _Lago di Lario._ Lacus Larius was the
name given by the Romans to the lake of Como. It is evident that it
is here a slip of the pen since the the words in the MS. are: _"Come

Lago di Lario o'l Magare e di Como,"_ In the MS. after line 16 we

come upon a digression treating of the weight of water; this has
here been omitted. It is 11 lines long.] and of Fiesole, and of
Perugia, and others.
And if you should say that the shells were carried by the waves,
being empty and dead, I say that where the dead went they were not
far removed from the living; for in these mountains living ones are
found, which are recognisable by the shells being in pairs; and they
are in a layer where there are no dead ones; and a little higher up
they are found, where they were thrown by the waves, all the dead
ones with their shells separated, near to where the rivers fell into
the sea, to a great depth; like the Arno which fell from the
Gonfolina near to Monte Lupo [Footnote: _Monte Lupo_, compare 970,
13; it is between Empoli and Florence.], where it left a deposit of
gravel which may still be seen, and which has agglomerated; and of
stones of various districts, natures, and colours and hardness,
making one single conglomerate. And a little beyond the sandstone
conglomerate a tufa has been formed, where it turned towards Castel
Florentino; farther on, the mud was deposited in which the shells
lived, and which rose in layers according to the levels at which the
turbid Arno flowed into that sea. And from time to time the bottom
of the sea was raised, depositing these shells in layers, as may be
seen in the cutting at Colle Gonzoli, laid open by the Arno which is
wearing away the base of it; in which cutting the said layers of
shells are very plainly to be seen in clay of a bluish colour, and
various marine objects are found there. And if the earth of our
hemisphere is indeed raised by so much higher than it used to be, it
must have become by so much lighter by the waters which it lost
through the rift between Gibraltar and Ceuta; and all the more the
higher it rose, because the weight of the waters which were thus
lost would be added to the earth in the other hemisphere. And if the
shells had been carried by the muddy deluge they would have been
mixed up, and separated from each other amidst the mud, and not in
regular steps and layers-- as we see them now in our time.
The marine shells were not produced away from the sea.
988.
As to those who say that shells existed for a long time and were
born at a distance from the sea, from the nature of the place and of
the cycles, which can influence a place to produce such

creatures--to them it may be answered: such an influence could not

place the animals all on one line, except those of the same sort and
age; and not the old with the young, nor some with an operculum and
others without their operculum, nor some broken and others whole,
nor some filled with sea-sand and large and small fragments of other
shells inside the whole shells which remained open; nor the claws of
crabs without the rest of their bodies; nor the shells of other
species stuck on to them like animals which have moved about on
them; since the traces of their track still remain, on the outside,
after the manner of worms in the wood which they ate into. Nor would
there be found among them the bones and teeth of fish which some
call arrows and others serpents' tongues, nor would so many
[Footnote: I. Scilla argued against this hypothesis, which was still
accepted in his days; see: _La vana Speculazione, Napoli_ 1670.]
portions of various animals be found all together if they had not
been thrown on the sea shore. And the deluge cannot have carried
them there, because things that are heavier than water do not float
on the water. But these things could not be at so great a height if
they had not been carried there by the water, such a thing being
impossible from their weight. In places where the valleys have not
been filled with salt sea water shells are never to be seen; as is
plainly visible in the great valley of the Arno above Gonfolina; a
rock formerly united to Monte Albano, in the form of a very high
bank which kept the river pent up, in such a way that before it
could flow into the sea, which was afterwards at its foot, it formed
two great lakes; of which the first was where we now see the city of
Florence together with Prato and Pistoia, and Monte Albano. It
followed the rest of its bank as far as where Serravalle now stands.
>From the Val d'Arno upwards, as far as Arezzo, another lake was
formed, which discharged its waters into the former lake. It was
closed at about the spot where now we see Girone, and occupied the
whole of that valley above for a distance of 40 miles in length.
This valley received on its bottom all the soil brought down by the
turbid waters. And this is still to be seen at the foot of Prato
Magno; it there lies very high where the rivers have not worn it
away. Across this land are to be seen the deep cuts of the rivers
that have passed there, falling from the great mountain of Prato
Magno; in these cuts there are no vestiges of any shells or of
marine soil. This lake was joined with that of Perugia [Footnote:
See PI. CXIII.]
A great quantity of shells are to be seen where the rivers flow into
the sea, because on such shores the waters are not so salt owing to

the admixture of the fresh water, which is poured into it. Evidence
of this is to be seen where, of old, the Appenines poured their
rivers into the Adriatic sea; for there in most places great
quantities of shells are to be found, among the mountains, together
with bluish marine clay; and all the rocks which are torn off in
such places are full of shells. The same may be observed to have
been done by the Arno when it fell from the rock of Gonfolina into
the sea, which was not so very far below; for at that time it was
higher than the top of San Miniato al Tedesco, since at the highest
summit of this the shores may be seen full of shells and oysters
within its flanks. The shells did not extend towards Val di Nievole,
because the fresh waters of the Arno did not extend so far.
That the shells were not carried away from the sea by the deluge,
because the waters which came from the earth although they drew the
sea towards the earth, were those which struck its depths; because
the water which goes down from the earth, has a stronger current
than that of the sea, and in consequence is more powerful, and it
enters beneath the sea water and stirs the depths and carries with
it all sorts of movable objects which are to be found in the earth,
such as the above-mentioned shells and other similar things. And in
proportion as the water which comes from the land is muddier than
sea water it is stronger and heavier than this; therefore I see no
way of getting the said shells so far in land, unless they had been
born there. If you were to tell me that the river Loire [Footnote:
Leonardo has written Era instead of Loera or Loira--perhaps under
the mistaken idea that _Lo_ was an article.],which traverses France
covers when the sea rises more than eighty miles of country, because
it is a district of vast plains, and the sea rises about 20 braccia,
and shells are found in this plain at the distance of 80 miles from
the sea; here I answer that the flow and ebb in our Mediterranean
Sea does not vary so much; for at Genoa it does not rise at all, and
at Venice but little, and very little in Africa; and where it varies
little it covers but little of the country.
The course of the water of a river always rises higher in a place

where the current is impeded; it behaves as it does where it is
reduced in width to pass under the arches of a bridge.
Further researches (989-991).
989.

A CONFUTATION OF THOSE WHO SAY THAT SHELLS MAY HAVE BEEN CARRIED TO
A DISTANCE OF MANY DAYS' JOURNEY FROM THE SEA BY THE DELUGE, WHICH
WAS SO HIGH AS TO BE ABOVE THOSE HEIGHTS.
I say that the deluge could not carry objects, native to the sea, up
to the mountains, unless the sea had already increased so as to
create inundations as high up as those places; and this increase
could not have occurred because it would cause a vacuum; and if you
were to say that the air would rush in there, we have already
concluded that what is heavy cannot remain above what is light,
whence of necessity we must conclude that this deluge was caused by
rain water, so that all these waters ran to the sea, and the sea did
not run up the mountains; and as they ran to the sea, they thrust
the shells from the shore of the sea and did not draw them to wards
themselves. And if you were then to say that the sea, raised by the
rain water, had carried these shells to such a height, we have
already said that things heavier than water cannot rise upon it, but
remain at the bottom of it, and do not move unless by the impact of
the waves. And if you were to say that the waves had carried them to
such high spots, we have proved that the waves in a great depth move
in a contrary direction at the bottom to the motion at the top, and
this is shown by the turbidity of the sea from the earth washed down
near its shores. Anything which is lighter than the water moves with
the waves, and is left on the highest level of the highest margin of
the waves. Anything which is heavier than the water moves, suspended
in it, between the surface and the bottom; and from these two
conclusions, which will be amply proved in their place, we infer
that the waves of the surface cannot convey shells, since they are
heavier than water.
If the deluge had to carry shells three hundred and four hundred
miles from the sea, it would have carried them mixed with various
other natural objects heaped together; and we see at such distances
oysters all together, and sea-snails, and cuttlefish, and all the
other shells which congregate together, all to be found together and
dead; and the solitary shells are found wide apart from each other,
as we may see them on sea-shores every day. And if we find oysters
of very large shells joined together and among them very many which
still have the covering attached, indicating that they were left
here by the sea, and still living when the strait of Gibraltar was
cut through; there are to be seen, in the mountains of Parma and
Piacenza, a multitude of shells and corals, full of holes, and still
sticking to the rocks there. When I was making the great horse for

Milan, a large sack full was brought to me in my workshop by certain

peasants; these were found in that place and among them were many
preserved in their first freshness.
Under ground, and under the foundations of buildings, timbers are

found of wrought beams and already black. Such were found in my time
in those diggings at Castel Fiorentino. And these had been in that
deep place before the sand carried by the Arno into the sea, then
covering the plain, had heen raised to such a height; and before the
plains of Casentino had been so much lowered, by the earth being
constantly carried down from them.
[Footnote: These lines are written in the margin.]
And if you were to say that these shells were created, and were
continually being created in such places by the nature of the spot,
and of the heavens which might have some influence there, such an
opinion cannot exist in a brain of much reason; because here are the
years of their growth, numbered on their shells, and there are large
and small ones to be seen which could not have grown without food,
and could not have fed without motion--and here they could not move
[Footnote: These lines are written in the margin.]
990.
That in the drifts, among one and another, there are still to be
found the traces of the worms which crawled upon them when they were
not yet dry. And all marine clays still contain shells, and the
shells are petrified together with the clay. From their firmness and
unity some persons will have it that these animals were carried up
to places remote from the sea by the deluge. Another sect of
ignorant persons declare that Nature or Heaven created them in these
places by celestial influences, as if in these places we did not
also find the bones of fishes which have taken a long time to grow;
and as if, we could not count, in the shells of cockles and snails,
the years and months of their life, as we do in the horns of bulls
and oxen, and in the branches of plants that have never been cut in
any part. Besides, having proved by these signs the length of their
lives, it is evident, and it must be admitted, that these animals
could not live without moving to fetch their food; and we find in
them no instrument for penetrating the earth or the rock where we
find them enclosed. But how could we find in a large snail shell the
fragments and portions of many other sorts of shells, of various

sorts, if they had not been thrown there, when dead, by the waves of
the sea like the other light objects which it throws on the earth?
Why do we find so many fragments and whole shells between layer and
layer of stone, if this had not formerly been covered on the shore
by a layer of earth thrown up by the sea, and which was afterwards
petrified? And if the deluge before mentioned had carried them to
these parts of the sea, you might find these shells at the boundary
of one drift but not at the boundary between many drifts. We must
also account for the winters of the years during which the sea
multiplied the drifts of sand and mud brought down by the
neighbouring rivers, by washing down the shores; and if you chose to
say that there were several deluges to produce these rifts and the
shells among them, you would also have to affirm that such a deluge
took place every year. Again, among the fragments of these shells,
it must be presumed that in those places there were sea coasts,
where all the shells were thrown up, broken, and divided, and never
in pairs, since they are found alive in the sea, with two valves,
each serving as a lid to the other; and in the drifts of rivers and
on the shores of the sea they are found in fragments. And within the
limits of the separate strata of rocks they are found, few in number
and in pairs like those which were left by the sea, buried alive in
the mud, which subsequently dried up and, in time, was petrified.
991.
And if you choose to say that it was the deluge which carried these
shells away from the sea for hundreds of miles, this cannot have
happened, since that deluge was caused by rain; because rain
naturally forces the rivers to rush towards the sea with all the
things they carry with them, and not to bear the dead things of the
sea shores to the mountains. And if you choose to say that the
deluge afterwards rose with its waters above the mountains, the
movement of the sea must have been so sluggish in its rise against
the currents of the rivers, that it could not have carried, floating
upon it, things heavier than itself; and even if it had supported
them, in its receding it would have left them strewn about, in
various spots. But how are we to account for the corals which are
found every day towards Monte Ferrato in Lombardy, with the holes of
the worms in them, sticking to rocks left uncovered by the currents
of rivers? These rocks are all covered with stocks and families of
oysters, which as we know, never move, but always remain with one of
their halves stuck to a rock, and the other they open to feed
themselves on the animalcules that swim in the water, which, hoping

to find good feeding ground, become the food of these shells. We do

not find that the sand mixed with seaweed has been petrified,
because the weed which was mingled with it has shrunk away, and this
the Po shows us every day in the debris of its banks.
Other problems (992-994).
992.
Why do we find the bones of great fishes and oysters and corals and
various other shells and sea-snails on the high summits of mountains
by the sea, just as we find them in low seas?
993.
You now have to prove that the shells cannot have originated if not
in salt water, almost all being of that sort; and that the shells in
Lombardy are at four levels, and thus it is everywhere, having been
made at various times. And they all occur in valleys that open
towards the seas.
994.
>From the two lines of shells we are forced to say that the earth
indignantly submerged under the sea and so the first layer was made;
and then the deluge made the second.
[Footnote: This note is in the early writing of about 1470--1480. On

the same sheet are the passages No. 1217 and 1219. Compare also No.
1339. All the foregoing chapters are from Manuscripts of about 1510.
This explains the want of connection and the contradiction between
this and the foregoing texts.]
VII.
ON THE ATMOSPHERE.
Constituents of the atmosphere.
995.
That the brightness of the air is occasioned by the water which has
dissolved itself in it into imperceptible molecules. These, being

lighted by the sun from the opposite side, reflect the brightness
which is visible in the air; and the azure which is seen in it is
caused by the darkness that is hidden beyond the air. [Footnote:
Compare Vol. I, No. 300.]
On the motion of air (996--999).
996.
That the return eddies of wind at the mouth of certain valleys

strike upon the waters and scoop them out in a great hollow, whirl
the water into the air in the form of a column, and of the colour of
a cloud. And I saw this thing happen on a sand bank in the Arno,
where the sand was hollowed out to a greater depth than the stature
of a man; and with it the gravel was whirled round and flung about
for a great space; it appeared in the air in the form of a great
bell-tower; and the top spread like the branches of a pine tree, and
then it bent at the contact of the direct wind, which passed over
from the mountains.
997.
The element of fire acts upon a wave of air in the same way as the
air does on water, or as water does on a mass of sand --that is
earth; and their motions are in the same proportions as those of the
motors acting upon them.
998.
OF MOTION.
I ask whether the true motion of the clouds can be known by the
motion of their shadows; and in like manner of the motion of the
sun.
999.
To know better the direction of the winds. [Footnote: In connection

with this text I may here mention a hygrometer, drawn and probably
invented by Leonardo. A facsimile of this is given in Vol. I, p. 297
with the note: _'Modi di pesare l'arie eddi sapere quando s'a
arrompere il tepo'_ (Mode of weighing the air and of knowing when
the weather will change); by the sponge _"Spugnea"_ is written.]

The globe an organism.
1000.
Nothing originates in a spot where there is no sentient, vegetable

and rational life; feathers grow upon birds and are changed every
year; hairs grow upon animals and are changed every year, excepting
some parts, like the hairs of the beard in lions, cats and their
like. The grass grows in the fields, and the leaves on the trees,
and every year they are, in great part, renewed. So that we might
say that the earth has a spirit of growth; that its flesh is the
soil, its bones the arrangement and connection of the rocks of which
the mountains are composed, its cartilage the tufa, and its blood
the springs of water. The pool of blood which lies round the heart
is the ocean, and its breathing, and the increase and decrease of
the blood in the pulses, is represented in the earth by the flow and
ebb of the sea; and the heat of the spirit of the world is the fire
which pervades the earth, and the seat of the vegetative soul is in
the fires, which in many parts of the earth find vent in baths and
mines of sulphur, and in volcanoes, as at Mount Aetna in Sicily, and
in many other places.
[Footnote: Compare No. 929.]
_XVII._
_Topographical Notes._
_A large part of the texts published in this section might perhaps

have found their proper place in connection with the foregoing
chapters on Physical Geography. But these observations on Physical
Geography, of whatever kind they may be, as soon as they are
localised acquire a special interest and importance and particularly
as bearing on the question whether Leonardo himself made the
observations recorded at the places mentioned or merely noted the
statements from hearsay. In a few instances he himself tells us that
he writes at second hand. In some cases again, although the style
and expressions used make it seem highly probable that he has
derived his information from others-- though, as it seems to me,
these cases are not very numerous--we find, on the other hand, among
these topographical notes a great number of observations, about
which it is extremely difficult to form a decided opinion. Of what

the Master's life and travels may have been throughout his
sixty-seven years of life we know comparatively little; for a long
course of time, and particularly from about 1482 to 1486, we do not
even know with certainty that he was living in Italy. Thus, from a
biographical point of view a very great interest attaches to some of
the topographical notes, and for this reason it seemed that it would
add to their value to arrange them in a group by themselves.
Leonardo's intimate knowledge with places, some of which were
certainly remote from his native home, are of importance as
contributing to decide the still open question as to the extent of
Leonardo's travels. We shall find in these notes a confirmation of
the view, that the MSS. in which the Topographical Notes occur are
in only a very few instances such diaries as may have been in use
during a journey. These notes are mostly found in the MSS. books of
his later and quieter years, and it is certainly remarkable that
Leonardo is very reticent as to the authorities from whom he quotes
his facts and observations: For instance, as to the Straits of
Gibraltar, the Nile, the Taurus Mountains and the Tigris and
Euphrates. Is it likely that he, who declared that in all scientific
research, his own experience should be the foundation of his
statements (see XIX Philosophy No. 987--991,) should here have made
an exception to this rule without mentioning it?_
_As for instance in the discussion as to the equilibrium of the mass

of water in the Mediterranean Sea--a subject which, it may be
observed, had at that time attracted the interest and study of
hardly any other observer. The acute remarks, in Nos. 985--993, on
the presence of shells at the tops of mountains, suffice to
prove--as it seems to me--that it was not in his nature to allow
himself to be betrayed into wide generalisations, extending beyond
the limits of his own investigations, even by such brilliant results
of personal study._
_Most of these Topographical Notes, though suggesting very careful

and thorough research, do not however, as has been said, afford
necessarily indisputable evidence that that research was Leonardo's
own. But it must be granted that in more than one instance
probability is in favour of this idea._
_Among the passages which treat somewhat fully of the topography of

Eastern places by far the most interesting is a description of the
Taurus Mountains; but as this text is written in the style of a
formal report and, in the original, is associated with certain

letters which give us the history of its origin, I have thought it

best not to sever it from that connection. It will be found under
No. XXI (Letters)._
_That Florence, and its neighbourhood, where Leonardo spent his

early years, should be nowhere mentioned except in connection with
the projects for canals, which occupied his attention for some short
time during the first ten years of the XVIth century, need not
surprise us. The various passages relating to the construction of
canals in Tuscany, which are put together at the beginning, are
immediately followed by those which deal with schemes for canals in
Lombardy; and after these come notes on the city and vicinity of
Milan as well as on the lakes of North Italy._
_The notes on some towns of Central Italy which Leonardo visited in

1502, when in the service of Cesare Borgia, are reproduced here in
the same order as in the note book used during these travels (MS.
L., Institut de France). These notes have but little interest in
themselves excepting as suggesting his itinerary. The maps of the
districts drawn by Leonardo at the time are more valuable (see No.
1054 note). The names on these maps are not written from right to
left, but in the usual manner, and we are permitted to infer that
they were made in obedience to some command, possibly for the use of
Cesare Borgia himself; the fact that they remained nevertheless in
Leonardo's hands is not surprising when we remember the sudden
political changes and warlike events of the period. There can be no
doubt that these maps, which are here published for the first time,
are original in the strictest sense of the word, that is to say
drawn from observations of the places themselves; this is proved by
the fact--among others--that we find among his manuscripts not only
the finished maps themselves but the rough sketches and studies for
them. And it would perhaps be difficult to point out among the
abundant contributions to geographical knowledge published during
the XVIth century, any maps at all approaching these in accuracy and
finish._
_The interesting map of the world, so far as it was then known,

which is among the Leonardo MSS. at Windsor (published in the_
'Archaeologia' _Vol. XI) cannot be attributed to the Master, as the
Marchese Girolamo d'Adda has sufficiently proved; it has not
therefore been reproduced here._
_Such of Leonardo's observations on places in Italy as were made

before or after his official travels as military engineer to Cesare

Borgia, have been arranged in alphabetical order, under Nos.
1034-1054. The most interesting are those which relate to the Alps
and the Appenines, Nos. 1057-1068._
_Most of the passages in which France is mentioned have hitherto

remained unknown, as well as those which treat of the countries
bordering on the Mediterranean, which come at the end of this
section. Though these may be regarded as of a more questionable
importance in their bearing on the biography of the Master than
those which mention places in France, it must be allowed that they
are interesting as showing the prominent place which the countries
of the East held in his geographical studies. He never once alludes
to the discovery of America._
I.
ITALY.
Canals in connection with the Arno (1001-1008).
1001.
CANAL OF FLORENCE.
Sluices should be made in the valley of la Chiana at Arezzo, so that

when, in the summer, the Arno lacks water, the canal may not remain
dry: and let this canal be 20 braccia wide at the bottom, and at the
top 30, and 2 braccia deep, or 4, so that two of these braccia may
flow to the mills and the meadows, which will benefit the country;
and Prato, Pistoia and Pisa, as well as Florence, will gain two
hundred thousand ducats a year, and will lend a hand and money to
this useful work; and the Lucchese the same, for the lake of Sesto
will be navigable; I shall direct it to Prato and Pistoia, and cut
through Serravalle and make an issue into the lake; for there will
be no need of locks or supports, which are not lasting and so will
always be giving trouble in working at them and keeping them up.
And know that in digging this canal where it is 4 braccia deep, it

will cost 4 dinari the square braccio; for twice the depth 6 dinari,
if you are making 4 braccia [Footnote: This passage is illustrated
by a slightly sketched map, on which these places are indicated from
West to East: Pisa, Luccha, Lago, Seravalle, Pistoja, Prato,

Firenze.] and there are but 2 banks; that is to say one from the
bottom of the trench to the surface of the edges of it, and the
other from these edges to the top of the ridge of earth which will
be raised on the margin of the bank. And if this bank were of double
the depth only the first bank will be increased, that is 4 braccia
increased by half the first cost; that is to say that if at first 4
dinari were paid for 2 banks, for 3 it would come to 6, at 2 dinari
the bank, if the trench measured 16 braccia at the bottom; again, if
the trench were 16 braccia wide and 4 deep, coming to 4 lire for the
work, 4 Milan dinari the square braccio; a trench which was 32
braccia at the bottom would come to 8 dinari the square braccio.
1002.
>From the wall of the Arno at [the gate of] la Giustizia to the bank
of the Arno at Sardigna where the walls are, to the mills, is 7400
braccia, that is 2 miles and 1400 braccia and beyond the Arno is
5500 braccia.
[Footnote: 2. _Giustizia_. By this the Porta della Giustizia seems

to be meant; from the XVth to the XVIth centuries it was also
commonly known as Porta Guelfa, Porta San Francesco del Renaio,
Porta Nuova, and Porta Reale. It was close to the Arno opposite to
the Porta San Niccolo, which still exists.]
1003.
By guiding the Arno above and below a treasure will be found in each
acre of ground by whomsoever will.
1004.
The wall of the old houses runs towards the gate of San Nicolo.
[Footnote: By the side of this text there is an indistinct sketch,

resembling that given under No.973. On the bank is written the word
_Casace_. There then follows in the original a passage of 12 lines
in which the consequences of the windings of the river are
discussed. A larger but equally hasty diagram on the same page
represents the shores of the Arno inside Florence as in two parallel
lines. Four horizontal lines indicate the bridges. By the side these
measures are stated in figures: I. (at the Ponte alla Carraja):
_230--largho br. 12 e 2 di spoda e 14 di pile e a 4 pilastri;_ 2.

(at the Ponte S. Trinita); _l88--largho br. 15 e 2 di spode he 28

di pilastri for delle spode e pilastri so 2;_ 3. (at the Ponte
vecchio); _pote lung br. 152 e largo;_ 4. (at the Ponte alle
Grazie): _290 ellargo 12 e 2 di spode e 6 di pili._
There is, in MS. W. L. 2l2b, a sketched plan of Florence, with the

following names of gates:
_Nicholo--Saminiato--Giorgo--Ghanolini--Porta San Fredian
--Prato--Faenza--Ghallo--Pinti--Giustitia_.]
1005.
The ruined wall is 640 braccia; 130 is the wall remaining with the
mill; 300 braccia were broken in 4 years by Bisarno.
1006.
They do not know why the Arno will never remain in a channel. It is
because the rivers which flow into it deposit earth where they
enter, and wear it away on the opposite side, bending the river in
that direction. The Arno flows for 6 miles between la Caprona and
Leghorn; and for 12 through the marshes, which extend 32 miles, and
16 from La Caprona up the river, which makes 48; by the Arno from
Florence beyond 16 miles; to Vico 16 miles, and the canal is 5; from
Florence to Fucechio it is 40 miles by the river Arno.
56 miles by the Arno from Florence to Vico; by the Pistoia canal it

is 44 miles. Thus it is 12 miles shorter by the canal than by the
Arno.
[Footnote: This passage is written by the side of a map washed in

Indian ink, of the course of the Arno; it is evidently a sketch for
a completer map.
These investigations may possibly be connected with the following

documents. _Francesco Guiducci alla Balia di Firenze. Dal Campo
contro Pisa_ 24 _Luglio_ 1503 (_Archivio di Stato, Firenze, Lettere
alla Balia_; published by J. GAYE, _Carteggio inedito d'Artisti,
Firenze_ 1840, _Tom. II_, p. 62): _Ex Castris, Franciscus
Ghuiduccius,_ 24. _Jul._ 1503. _Appresso fu qui hieri con una di V.
Signoria Alexandro degli Albizi insieme con Leonardo da Vinci et
certi altri, et veduto el disegno insieme con el ghovernatore, doppo
molte discussioni et dubii conclusesi che l'opera fussi molto al

proposito, o si veramente Arno volgersi qui, o restarvi con un

canale, che almeno vieterebbe che le colline da nemici non
potrebbono essere offese; come tucto referiranno loro a bocha V. S._
And, _Archivio di Stato, Firenze, Libro d'Entrata e Uscita di cassa

de' Magnifici Signori di luglio e agosto_
1503 _a_ 51 _T.: Andata di Leonardo al Campo sotto Pisa. Spese

extraordinarie dieno dare a di XXVI di luglio L. LVI sol. XII per
loro a Giovanni Piffero; e sono per tanti, asegnia avere spexi in
vetture di sei chavalli a spese di vitto per andare chon Lionardo da
Vinci a livellare Arno in quello di Pisa per levallo del lilo suo._
(Published by MILANESI, _Archivio Storico Italiano, Serie III, Tom.
XVI._} VASARI asserts: _(Leonardo) fu il primo ancora, che
giovanetto discorresse sopra il fiume d'Arno per metterlo in canale
da Pisa a Fiorenza_ (ed. SANSONI, IV, 20).
The passage above is in some degree illustrated by the map on Pl.

CXII, where the course of the Arno westward from Empoli is shown.]
1007.
The eddy made by the Mensola, when the Arno is low and the Mensola
full.
[Footnote: _Mensola_ is a mountain stream which falls into the Arno

about a mile and a half above Florence.
A=Arno, I=Isola, M=Mvgone, P=Pesa, N=Mesola.]
1008.
That the river which is to be turned from one place to another must
be coaxed and not treated roughly or with violence; and to do this a
sort of floodgate should be made in the river, and then lower down
one in front of it and in like manner a third, fourth and fifth, so
that the river may discharge itself into the channel given to it, or
that by this means it may be diverted from the place it has damaged,
as was done in Flanders--as I was told by Niccolo di Forsore.
How to protect and repair the banks washed by the water, as below
the island of Cocomeri.

Ponte Rubaconte (Fig. 1); below [the palaces] Bisticci and Canigiani
(Fig. 2). Above the flood gate of la Giustizia (Fig. 3); _a b_ is a
sand bank opposite the end of the island of the Cocomeri in the
middle of the Arno (Fig. 4). [Footnote: The course of the river Arno
is also discussed in Nos. 987 and 988.]
Canals in the Milanese (1009-1013).
1009.
The canal of San Cristofano at Milan made May 3rd 1509. [Footnote:
This observation is written above a washed pen and ink drawing which
has been published as Tav. VI in the _,,Saggio."_ The editors of
that work explain the drawing as _"uno Studio di bocche per
estrazione d'acqua."_]
1010.
OF THE CANAL OF MARTESANA.
By making the canal of Martesana the water of the Adda is greatly

diminished by its distribution over many districts for the
irrigation of the fields. A remedy for this would be to make several
little channels, since the water drunk up by the earth is of no more
use to any one, nor mischief neither, because it is taken from no
one; and by making these channels the water which before was lost
returns again and is once more serviceable and useful to men.
[Footnote: _"el navilio di Martagano"_ is also mentioned in a note

written in red chalk, MS. H2 17a Leonardo has, as it seems, little
to do with Lodovico il Moro's scheme to render this canal navigable.
The canal had been made in 1460 by Bertonino da Novara. Il Moro
issued his degree in 1493, but Leonardo's notes about this canal
were, with the exception of one (No. 1343), written about sixteen
years later.]
1011.
No canal which is fed by a river can be permanent if the river

whence it originates is not wholly closed up, like the canal of
Martesana which is fed by the Ticino.
1012.

>From the beginning of the canal to the mill.
>From the beginning of the canal of Brivio to the mill of Travaglia

is 2794 trabochi, that is 11176 braccia, which is more than 3 miles
and two thirds; and here the canal is 57 braccia higher than the
surface of the water of the Adda, giving a fall of two inches in
every hundred trabochi; and at that spot we propose to take the
opening of our canal.
[Footnote: The following are written on the sketches: At the place

marked _N: navilio da dacquiue_ (canal of running water); at _M:
molin del Travaglia_ (Mill of Travaglia); at _R: rochetta ssanta
maria_ (small rock of Santa Maria); at _A: Adda;_ at _L: Lagho di
Lecho ringorgato alli 3 corni in Adda,--Concha perpetua_ (lake of
Lecco overflowing at Tre Corni, in Adda,-- a permanent sluice). Near
the second sketch, referring to the sluice near _Q: qui la chatena
ttalie d'u peso_ (here the chain is in one piece). At _M_ in the
lower sketch: _mol del travaglia, nel cavare la concha il tereno
ara chotrapero co cassa d'acqua._ (Mill of Travaglia, in digging
out the sluice the soil will have as a counterpoise a vessel of
water).]
1013.
If it be not reported there that this is to be a public canal, it

will be necessary to pay for the land; [Footnote 3: _il re_. Louis
XII or Francis I of France. It is hardly possible to doubt that the
canals here spoken of were intended to be in the Milanese. Compare
with this passage the rough copy of a letter by Leonardo, to the
_"Presidente dell' Ufficio regolatore dell' acqua"_ on No. 1350. See
also the note to No. 745, 1. 12.] and the king will pay it by
remitting the taxes for a year.
Estimates and preparatory studies for canals (1014. 1015).
1014.
CANAL.
The canal which may be 16 braccia wide at the bottom and 20 at the
top, we may say is on the average 18 braccia wide, and if it is 4
braccia deep, at 4 dinari the square braccia; it will only cost 900

ducats, to excavate by the mile, if the square braccio is calculated

in ordinary braccia; but if the braccia are those used in measuring
land, of which every 4 are equal to 4 1/2 and if by the mile we
understand three thousand ordinary braccia; turned into land
braccia, these 3000 braccia will lack 1/4; there remain 2250
braccia, which at 4 dinari the braccio will amount to 675 ducats a
mile. At 3 dinari the square braccio, the mile will amount to 506
1/4 ducats so that the excavation of 30 miles of the canal will
amount to 15187 1/2 ducats.
1015.
To make the great canal, first make the smaller one and conduct into
it the waters which by a wheel will help to fill the great one.
Notes on buildings in Milan (1016-1019)
1016.
Indicate the centre of Milan.
Moforte--porta resa--porta nova--strada nova--navilio--porta

cumana--barco--porta giovia--porta vercellina--porta sco
Anbrogio--porta Tesinese--torre dell' Imperatore-- porta
Lodovica--acqua.
[Footnote: See Pl. CIX. The original sketch is here reduced to about
half its size. The gates of the town are here named, beginning at
the right hand and following the curved line. In the bird's eye view
of Milan below, the cathedral is plainly recognisable in the middle;
to the right is the tower of San Gottardo. The square, above the
number 9147, is the Lazzaretto, which was begun in 1488. On the left
the group of buildings of the _'Castello'_ will be noticed. On the
sketched Plan of Florence (see No. 1004 note) Leonardo has written
on the margin the following names of gates of Milan: Vercellina
--Ticinese--Ludovica--Romana--Orientale--
Nova--Beatrice--Cumana--Compare too No. 1448, 11. 5, 12.]
1017.
The moat of Milan.
Canal 2 braccia wide.

The castle with the moats full.
The filling of the moats of the Castle of Milan.
1018.
THE BATH.
To heat the water for the stove of the Duchess take four parts of
cold water to three parts of hot water.
[Footnote: _Duchessa di Milano_, Beatrice d'Este, wife of Ludovico

il Moro to whom she was married, in 1491. She died in June 1497.]
1019.
In the Cathedral at the pulley of the nail of the cross.
Item.
To place the mass _v r_ in the...
[Footnote: On this passage AMORETTI remarks _(Memorie Storiche_

chap. IX): _Nell'anno stesso lo veggiamo formare un congegno di
carucole e di corde, con cui trasportare in piu venerabile e piu
sicuro luogo, cioe nell'ultima arcata della nave di mezzo della
metropolitana, la sacra reliquia del Santo Chiodo, che ivi ancor si
venera. Al fol. 15 del codice segnato Q. R. in 16, egli ci ha
lasciata di tal congegno una doppia figura, cioe una di quattro
carucole, e una di tre colle rispettive corde, soggiugnandovi: in
Domo alla carucola del Chiodo della Croce._
AMORETTI'S views as to the mark on the MS, and the date when it was
written are, it may be observed, wholly unfounded. The MS. L, in
which it occurs, is of the year 1502, and it is very unlikely that
Leonardo was in Milan at that time; this however would not prevent
the remark, which is somewhat obscure, from applying to the
Cathedral at Milan.]
1020.
OF THE FORCE OF THE VACUUM FORMED IN A MOMENT.

I saw, at Milan, a thunderbolt fall on the tower della Credenza on

its Northern side, and it descended with a slow motion down that
side, and then at once parted from that tower and carried with it
and tore away from that wall a space of 3 braccia wide and two deep;
and this wall was 4 braccia thick and was built of thin and small
old bricks; and this was dragged out by the vacuum which the flame
of the thunderbolt had caused, &c.
[Footnote: With reference to buildings at Milan see also Nos. 751

and 756, and Pl. XCV, No. 2 (explained on p. 52), Pl. C (explained
on pages 60-62). See also pages 25, 39 and 40.]
Remarks on natural phenomena in and near Milan (1021. 1022).
1021.
I have already been to see a great variety (of atmospheric effects).

And lately over Milan towards Lago Maggiore I saw a cloud in the
form of an immense mountain full of rifts of glowing light, because
the rays of the sun, which was already close to the horizon and red,
tinged the cloud with its own hue. And this cloud attracted to it
all the little clouds that were near while the large one did not
move from its place; thus it retained on its summit the reflection
of the sunlight till an hour and a half after sunset, so immensely
large was it; and about two hours after sunset such a violent wind
arose, that it was really tremendous and unheard of.
[Footnote: _di arie_ is wanting in the original but may safely be

inserted in the context, as the formation of clouds is under
discussion before this text.]
1022.
On the 10th day of December at 9 o'clock a. m. fire was set to the

place.
On the l8th day of December 1511 at 9 o'clock a. m. this second fire

was kindled by the Swiss at Milan at the place called DCXC.
[Footnote: With these two texts, (l. 1--2 and l. 3--5 are in the
original side by side) there are sketches of smoke wreaths in red
chalk.]

Note on Pavia.
1023.
The chimneys of the castle of Pavia have 6 rows of openings and from
each to the other is one braccio.
[Footnote: Other notes relating to Pavia occur on p. 43 and p. 53

(Pl. XCVIII, No. 3). Compare No. 1448, 26.]
Notes on the Sforzesca near Vigevano (1024-1028).
1024.
On the 2nd day of February 1494. At Sforzesca I drew twenty five

steps, 2/3 braccia to each, and 8 braccia wide.
[Footnote: See Pl. CX, No. 2. The rest of the notes on this page
refer to the motion of water. On the lower sketch we read: 4 _br._
(four braccia) and _giara_ (for _ghiaja_, sand, gravel).]
1025.
The vineyards of Vigevano on the 20th day of March 1494.
[Footnote: On one side there is an effaced sketch in red chalk.]
1026.
To lock up a butteris at Vigevano.
1027.
Again if the lowest part of the bank which lies across the current
of the waters is made in deep and wide steps, after the manner of
stairs, the waters which, in their course usually fall
perpendicularly from the top of such a place to the bottom, and wear
away the foundations of this bank can no longer descend with a blow
of too great a force; and I find the example of this in the stairs
down which the water falls in the fields at Sforzesca at Vigevano
over which the running water falls for a height of 50 braccia.
1028.

Stair of Vigevano below La Sforzesca, 130 steps, 1/4 braccio high

and 1/2 braccio wide, down which the water falls, so as not to wear
away anything at the end of its fall; by these steps so much soil
has come down that it has dried up a pool; that is to say it has
filled it up and a pool of great depth has been turned into meadows.
Notes on the North Italian lake. (1029-1033)
1029.
In many places there are streams of water which swell for six hours
and ebb for six hours; and I, for my part, have seen one above the
lake of Como called Fonte Pliniana, which increases and ebbs, as I
have said, in such a way as to turn the stones of two mills; and
when it fails it falls so low that it is like looking at water in a
deep pit.
[Footnote: The fountain is known by this name to this day: it is

near Torno, on the Eastern shore of Como. The waters still rise and
fall with the flow and ebb of the tide as Pliny described it (Epist.
IV, 30; Hist. Nat. II, 206).]
1030.
LAKE OF COMO. VALLEY OF CHIAVENNA.
Above the lake of Como towards Germany is the valley of Chiavenna

where the river Mera flows into this lake. Here are barren and very
high mountains, with huge rocks. Among these mountains are to be
found the water-birds called gulls. Here grow fir trees, larches and
pines. Deer, wildgoats, chamois, and terrible bears. It is
impossible to climb them without using hands and feet. The peasants
go there at the time of the snows with great snares to make the
bears fall down these rocks. These mountains which very closely
approach each other are parted by the river. They are to the right
and left for the distance of 20 miles throughout of the same nature.
>From mile to mile there are good inns. Above on the said river there
are waterfalls of 400 braccia in height, which are fine to see; and
there is good living at 4 soldi the reckoning. This river brings
down a great deal of timber.
VAL SASINA.

Val Sasina runs down towards Italy; this is almost the same form and
character. There grow here many _mappello_ and there are great ruins
and falls of water [Footnote 14: The meaning of _mappello_ is
unknown.].
VALLEY OF INTROZZO.
This valley produces a great quantity of firs, pines and larches;

and from here Ambrogio Fereri has his timber brought down; at the
head of the Valtellina are the mountains of Bormio, terrible and
always covered with snow; marmots (?) are found there.
BELLAGGIO.
Opposite the castle Bellaggio there is the river Latte, which falls
from a height of more than 100 braccia from the source whence it
springs, perpendicularly, into the lake with an inconceivable roar
and noise. This spring flows only in August and September.
VALTELLINA.
Valtellina, as it is called, is a valley enclosed in high and

terrible mountains; it produces much strong wine, and there is so
much cattle that the natives conclude that more milk than wine grows
there. This is the valley through which the Adda passes, which first
runs more than 40 miles through Germany; this river breeds the fish
_temolo_ which live on silver, of which much is to be found in its
sands. In this country every one can sell bread and wine, and the
wine is worth at most one soldo the bottle and a pound of veal one
soldo, and salt ten dinari and butter the same and their pound is 30
ounces, and eggs are one soldo the lot.
1031.
At BORMIO.
At Bormio are the baths;--About eight miles above Como is the

Pliniana, which increases and ebbs every six hours, and its swell
supplies water for two mills; and its ebbing makes the spring dry
up; two miles higher up there is Nesso, a place where a river falls
with great violence into a vast rift in the mountain. These
excursions are to be made in the month of May. And the largest bare

rocks that are to be found in this part of the country are the
mountains of Mandello near to those of Lecco, and of Gravidona
towards Bellinzona, 30 miles from Lecco, and those of the valley of
Chiavenna; but the greatest of all is that of Mandello, which has at
its base an opening towards the lake, which goes down 200 steps, and
there at all times is ice and wind.
IN VAL SASINA.
In Val Sasina, between Vimognio and Introbbio, to the right hand,

going in by the road to Lecco, is the river Troggia which falls from
a very high rock, and as it falls it goes underground and the river
ends there. 3 miles farther we find the buildings of the mines of
copper and silver near a place called Pra' Santo Pietro, and mines
of iron and curious things. La Grigna is the highest mountain there
is in this part, and it is quite bare.
[Footnote: 1030 and 1031. From the character of the handwriting we

may conclude that these observations were made in Leonardo's youth;
and I should infer from their contents, that they were notes made in
anticipation of a visit to the places here described, and derived
from some person (unknown to us) who had given him an account of
them.]
1032.
The lake of Pusiano flows into the lake of Segrino [Footnote 3: The
statement about the lake Segrino is incorrect; it is situated in the
Valle Assina, above the lake of Pusiano.] and of Annone and of Sala.
The lake of Annone is 22 braccia higher at the surface of its water
than the surface of the water of the lake of Lecco, and the lake of
Pusiano is 20 braccia higher than the lake of Annone, which added to
the afore said 22 braccia make 42 braccia and this is the greatest
height of the surface of the lake of Pusiano above the surface of
the lake of Lecco.
[Footnote: This text has in the original a slight sketch to

illustrate it.]
1033.
At Santa Maria in the Valley of Ravagnate [Footnote 2: _Ravagnate_

(Leonardo writes _Ravagna_) in the Brianza is between Oggiono and

Brivio, South of the lake of Como. M. Ravaisson avails himself of

this note to prove his hypothesis that Leonardo paid two visits to
France. See Gazette des Beaux Arts, 1881 pag. 528:
_Au recto du meme feuillet, on lit encore une note relative a une
vallee "nemonti brigatia"; il me semble qu'il s'agit bien des monts
de Briancon, le Brigantio des anciens. Briancon est sur la route de
Lyon en Italie. Ce fut par le mont Viso que passerent, en aout 1515,
les troupes francaises qui allaient remporter la victoire de
Marignan.
Leonard de Vinci, ingenieur de Francois Ier, comme il l'avait ete de

Louis XII, aurait-il ete pour quelque chose dans le plan du celebre
passage des Alpes, qui eut lieu en aout 1515, et a la suite duquel
on le vit accompagner partout le chevaleresque vainqueur? Auraitil
ete appele par le jeune roi, de Rome ou l'artiste etait alors, des
son avenement au trone?_] in the mountains of Brianza are the rods
of chestnuts of 9 braccia and one out of an average of 100 will be
14 braccia.
At Varallo di Ponbia near to Sesto on the Ticino the quinces are

white, large and hard.
[Footnote 5: Varallo di Ponbia, about ten miles South of Arona is

distinct from Varallo the chief town in the Val di Sesia.]
Notes on places in Central Italy, visited in 1502 (1034-1054).
1034.
Pigeon-house at Urbino, the 30th day of July 1502. [Footnote: An

indistinct sketch is introduced with this text, in the original, in
which the word _Scolatoro_ (conduit) is written.]
1035.
Made by the sea at Piombino. [Footnote: Below the sketch there are
eleven lines of text referring to the motion of waves.]
1036.
Acquapendente is near Orvieto. [Footnote: _Acquapendente_ is about

10 miles West of Orvieto, and is to the right in the map on Pl.

CXIII, near the lake of Bolsena.]
1037.
The rock of Cesena. [Footnote: See Pl. XCIV No. 1, the lower sketch.
The explanation of the upper sketch is given on p. 29.]
1038.
Siena, _a b_ 4 braccia, _a c_ 10 braccia. Steps at [the castle of]

Urbino. [Footnote: See Pl. CX No. 3; compare also No. 765.]
1039.
The bell of Siena, that is the manner of its movement, and the place
of the attachment of the clapper. [Footnote: The text is accompanied
by an indistinct sketch.]
1040.
On St. Mary's day in the middle of August, at Cesena, 1502.

[Footnote: See Pl. CX, No. 4.]
1041.
Stairs of the [palace of the] Count of Urbino,--rough. [Footnote:

The text is accompanied by a slight sketch.]
1042.
At the fair of San Lorenzo at Cesena. 1502.
1043.
Windows at Cesena. [Footnote: There are four more lines of text

which refer to a slightly sketched diagram.]
1044.
At Porto Cesenatico, on the 6th of September 1502 at 9 o'clock a. m.
The way in which bastions ought to project beyond the walls of the
towers to defend the outer talus; so that they may not be taken by

artillery.
[Footnote: An indistinct sketch, accompanies this passage.]
1045.
The rock of the harbour of Cesena is four points towards the South
West from Cesena.
1046.
In Romagna, the realm of all stupidity, vehicles with four wheels

are used, of which O the two in front are small and two high ones
are behind; an arrangement which is very unfavourable to the motion,
because on the fore wheels more weight is laid than on those behind,
as I showed in the first of the 5th on "Elements".
1047.
Thus grapes are carried at Cesena. The number of the diggers of the
ditches is [arranged] pyramidically. [Footnote: A sketch,
representing a hook to which two bunches of grapes are hanging,
refers to these first two lines. Cesena is mentioned again Fol. 82a:
_Carro da Cesena_ (a cart from Cesena).]
1048.
There might be a harmony of the different falls of water as you saw

them at the fountain of Rimini on the 8th day of August, 1502.
1049.
The fortress at Urbino. [Footnote: 1049. In the original the text is

written inside the sketch in the place here marked _n_.]
1050.
Imola, as regards Bologna, is five points from the West, towards the
North West, at a distance of 20 miles.
Castel San Piero is seen from Imola at four points from the West
towards the North West, at a distance of 7 miles.

Faenza stands with regard to Imola between East and South East at a
distance of ten miles. Forli stands with regard to Faenza between
South East and East at a distance of 20 miles from Imola and ten
from Faenza.
Forlimpopoli lies in the same direction at 25 miles from Imola.
Bertinoro, as regards Imola, is five points from the East to wards

the South East, at 27 miles.
1051.
Imola as regards Bologna is five points from the West towards the
North West at a distance of 20 miles.
Castel San Pietro lies exactly North West of Imola, at a distance of

7 miles.
Faenza, as regards Imola lies exactly half way between the East and
South East at a distance of 10 miles; and Forli lies in the same
direction from Imola at a distance of 20 miles; and Forlimpopolo
lies in the same direction from Forli at a distance of 25 miles.
Bertinoro is seen from Imola two points from the East towards the
South East at a distance of 27 miles.
[Footnote: Leonardo inserted this passage on the margin of the

circular plan, in water colour, of Imola--see Pl. CXI No. 1.--In the
original the fields surrounding the town are light green; the moat,
which surrounds the fortifications and the windings of the river
Santerno, are light blue. The parts, which have come out blackish
close to the river are yellow ochre in the original. The dark groups
of houses inside the town are red. At the four points of the compass
drawn in the middle of the town Leonardo has written (from right to
left): _Mezzodi_ (South) at the top; to the left _Scirocho_ (South
east), _levante_ (East), _Greco_ (North East), _Septantrione_
(North), _Maesstro_ (North West), _ponente_ (West) _Libecco_ (South
West). The arch in which the plan is drawn is, in the original, 42
centimetres across.
At the beginning of October 1502 Cesare Borgia was shut up in Imola

by a sudden revolt of the Condottieri, and it was some weeks before
he could release himself from this state of siege (see Gregorovius,

_Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter_, Vol. VII, Book XIII, 5,

5).
Besides this incident Imola plays no important part in the history

of the time. I therefore think myself fully justified in connecting
this map, which is at Windsor, with the siege of 1502 and with
Leonardo's engagements in the service of Cesare Borgia, because a
comparison of these texts, Nos. 1050 and 1051, raise, I believe, the
hypothesis to a certainty.]
1052.
>From Bonconventi to Casa Nova are 10 miles, from Casa Nova to Chiusi
9 miles, from Chiusi to Perugia, from, Perugia to Santa Maria degli
Angeli, and then to Fuligno. [Footnote: Most of the places here
described lie within the district shown in the maps on Pl. CXIII.]
1053.
On the first of August 1502, the library at Pesaro.
1054.
OF PAINTING.
On the tops and sides of hills foreshorten the shape of the ground
and its divisions, but give its proper shape to what is turned
towards you. [Footnote: This passage evidently refers to the making
of maps, such as Pl. CXII, CXIII, and CXIV. There is no mention of
such works, it is true, excepting in this one passage of MS. L. But
this can scarcely be taken as evidence against my view that Leonardo
busied himself very extensively at that time in the construction of
maps; and all the less since the foregoing chapters clearly prove
that at a time so full of events Leonardo would only now and then
commit his observations to paper, in the MS. L.
By the side of this text we find, in the original, a very indistinct

sketch, perhaps a plan of a position. Instead of this drawing I have
here inserted a much clearer sketch of a position from the same MS.,
L. 82b and 83a. They are the only drawings of landscape, it may be
noted, which occur at all in that MS.]
Alessandria in Piedmont (1055. 1056).

1055.
At Candia in Lombardy, near Alessandria della Paglia, in making a

well for Messer Gualtieri [Footnote 2: Messer Gualtieri, the same
probably as is mentioned in Nos. 672 and 1344.] of Candia, the
skeleton of a very large boat was found about 10 braccia
underground; and as the timber was black and fine, it seemed good to
the said Messer Gualtieri to have the mouth of the well lengthened
in such a way as that the ends of the boat should be uncovered.
1056.
At Alessandria della Paglia in Lombardy there are no stones for

making lime of, but such as are mixed up with an infinite variety of
things native to the sea, which is now more than 200 miles away.
The Alps (1057-1062).
1057.
At Monbracco, above Saluzzo,--a mile above the Certosa, at the foot

of Monte Viso, there is a quarry of flakey stone, which is as white
as Carrara marble, without a spot, and as hard as porphyry or even
harder; of which my worthy gossip, Master Benedetto the sculptor,
has promised to give me a small slab, for the colours, the second
day of January 1511.
[Footnote: Saluzzo at the foot of the Alps South of Turin.]
[Footnote 9. 10.: _Maestro Benedetto scultore_; probably some native

of Northern Italy acquainted with the place here described. Hardly
the Florentine sculptor Benedetto da Majano. Amoretti had published
this passage, and M. Ravaisson who gave a French translation of it
in the _Gazette des Beaux Arts_ (1881, pag. 528), remarks as
follows: _Le maitre sculpteur que Leonard appelle son "compare" ne
serait-il pas Benedetto da Majano, un de ceux qui jugerent avec lui
de la place a donner au David de Michel-Ange, et de qui le Louvre a
acquis recemment un buste d'apres Philippe Strozzi?_ To this it may
be objected that Benedetto da Majano had already lain in his grave
fourteen years, in the year 1511, when he is supposed to have given
the promise to Leonardo. The colours may have been given to the
sculptor Benedetto and the stone may have been in payment for them.

>From the description of the stone here given we may conclude that it
is repeated from hearsay of the sculptor's account of it. I do not
understand how, from this observation, it is possible to conclude
that Leonardo was on the spot.]
1058.
That there are springs which suddenly break forth in earthquakes or

other convulsions and suddenly fail; and this happened in a mountain
in Savoy where certain forests sank in and left a very deep gap, and
about four miles from here the earth opened itself like a gulf in
the mountain, and threw out a sudden and immense flood of water
which scoured the whole of a little valley of the tilled soil,
vineyards and houses, and did the greatest mischief, wherever it
overflowed.
1059.
The river Arve, a quarter of a mile from Geneva in Savoy, where the
fair is held on midsummerday in the village of Saint Gervais.
[Footnote: An indistinct sketch is to be seen by the text.]
1060.
And this may be seen, as I saw it, by any one going up Monbroso
[Footnote: I have vainly enquired of every available authority for a
solution of the mystery as to what mountain is intended by the name
Monboso (Comp. Vol. I Nos. 300 and 301). It seems most obvious to
refer it to Monte Rosa. ROSA derived from the Keltic ROS which
survives in Breton and in Gaelic, meaning, in its first sense, a
mountain spur, but which also--like HORN--means a very high peak;
thus Monte Rosa would mean literally the High Peak.], a peak of the
Alps which divide France from Italy. The base of this mountain gives
birth to the 4 rivers which flow in four different directions
through the whole of Europe. And no mountain has its base at so
great a height as this, which lifts itself above almost all the
clouds; and snow seldom falls there, but only hail in the summer,
when the clouds are highest. And this hail lies [unmelted] there, so
that if it were not for the absorption of the rising and falling
clouds, which does not happen more than twice in an age, an enormous
mass of ice would be piled up there by the layers of hail, and in
the middle of July I found it very considerable; and I saw the sky

above me quite dark, and the sun as it fell on the mountain was far
brighter here than in the plains below, because a smaller extent of
atmosphere lay between the summit of the mountain and the sun.
[Footnote 6: _in una eta._ This is perhaps a slip of the pen on
Leonardo's part and should be read _estate_ (summer).]
Leic. 9b]
1061.
In the mountains of Verona the red marble is found all mixed with
cockle shells turned into stone; some of them have been filled at
the mouth with the cement which is the substance of the stone; and
in some parts they have remained separate from the mass of the rock
which enclosed them, because the outer covering of the shell had
interposed and had not allowed them to unite with it; while in other
places this cement had petrified those which were old and almost
stripped the outer skin.
1062.
Bridge of Goertz-Wilbach (?).
[Footnote: There is a slight sketch with this text, Leonardo seems

to have intended to suggest, with a few pen-strokes, the course of
the Isonzo and of the Wipbach in the vicinity of Gorizia (Goerz). He
himself says in another place that he had been in Friuli (see No.
1077 1. 19).]
The Appenins (1063-1068).
1063.
That part of the earth which was lightest remained farthest from the
centre of the world; and that part of the earth became the lightest
over which the greatest quantity of water flowed. And therefore that
part became lightest where the greatest number of rivers flow; like
the Alps which divide Germany and France from Italy; whence issue
the Rhone flowing Southwards, and the Rhine to the North. The Danube
or Tanoia towards the North East, and the Po to the East, with
innumerable rivers which join them, and which always run turbid with
the soil carried by them to the sea.

The shores of the sea are constantly moving towards the middle of
the sea and displace it from its original position. The lowest
portion of the Mediterranean will be reserved for the bed and
current of the Nile, the largest river that flows into that sea. And
with it are grouped all its tributaries, which at first fell into
the sea; as may be seen with the Po and its tributaries, which first
fell into that sea, which between the Appenines and the German Alps
was united to the Adriatic sea.
That the Gallic Alps are the highest part of Europe.
1064.
And of these I found some in the rocks of the high Appenines and
mostly at the rock of La Vernia. [Footnote 6: _Sasso della Vernia._
The frowning rock between the sources of the Arno and the Tiber, as
Dante describes this mountain, which is 1269 metres in height.
This note is written by the side of that given as No. 1020; but
their connection does not make it clear what Leonardo's purpose was
in writing it.]
1065.
At Parma, at 'La Campana' on the twenty-fifth of October 1514.

[Footnote 2: _Capano_, an Inn.]
A note on the petrifactions, or fossils near Parma will be found

under No. 989.]
1066.
A method for drying the marsh of Piombino. [Footnote: There is a

slight sketch with this text in the original.--Piombino is also
mentioned in Nos. 609, l. 55-58 (compare Pl. XXXV, 3, below). Also
in No. 1035.]
1067.
The shepherds in the Romagna at the foot of the Apennines make

peculiar large cavities in the mountains in the form of a horn, and
on one side they fasten a horn. This little horn becomes one and the
same with the said cavity and thus they produce by blowing into it a

very loud noise. [Footnote: As to the Romagna see also No. 1046.]
1068.
A spring may be seen to rise in Sicily which at certain times of the

year throws out chesnut leaves in quantities; but in Sicily chesnuts
do not grow, hence it is evident that that spring must issue from
some abyss in Italy and then flow beneath the sea to break forth in
Sicily. [Footnote: The chesnut tree is very common in Sicily. In
writing _cicilia_ Leonardo meant perhaps Cilicia.]
II.
FRANCE.
1069.
GERMANY. FRANCE.
a. Austria, a. Picardy.
b. Saxony. b. Normandy.
c. Nuremberg. c. Dauphine.
d. Flanders.
SPAIN.
a. Biscay.
b. Castille.
c. Galicia.
d. Portugal.
e. Taragona.
f. Granada.
[Footnote: Two slightly sketched maps, one of Europe the other of

Spain, are at the side of these notes.]
1070.
Perpignan. Roanne. Lyons. Paris. Ghent. Bruges. Holland.
[Footnote: _Roana_ does not seem to mean here Rouen in Normandy, but
is probably Roanne (Rodumna) on the upper Loire, Lyonnais (Dep. du
Loire). This town is now unimportant, but in Leonardo's time was

still a place of some consequence.]
1071.
At Bordeaux in Gascony the sea rises about 40 braccia before its

ebb, and the river there is filled with salt water for more than a
hundred and fifty miles; and the vessels which are repaired there
rest high and dry on a high hill above the sea at low tide.
[Footnote 2: This is obviously an exaggeration founded on inaccurate
information. Half of 150 miles would be nearer the mark.]
1072.
The Rhone issues from the lake of Geneva and flows first to the West
and then to the South, with a course of 400 miles and pours its
waters into the Mediterranean.
1073.
_c d_ is the garden at Blois; _a b_ is the conduit of Blois, made in

France by Fra Giocondo, _b c_ is what is wanting in the height of
that conduit, _c d_ is the height of the garden at Blois, _e f_ is
the siphon of the conduit, _b c_, _e f_, _f g_ is where the siphon
discharges into the river. [Footnote: The tenor of this note (see
lines 2 and 3) seems to me to indicate that this passage was not
written in France, but was written from oral information. We have no
evidence as to when this note may have been written beyond the
circumstance that Fra Giocondo the Veronese Architect left France
not before the year 1505. The greater part of the magnificent
Chateau of Blois has now disappeared. Whether this note was made for
a special purpose is uncertain. The original form and extent of the
Chateau is shown in Androvet, _Les plus excellents Bastiments de
France, Paris MDCVII,_ and it may be observed that there is in the
middle of the garden a Pavilion somewhat similar to that shown on
Pl. LXXXVIII No. 7.
See S. DE LA SAUSSAYE, _Histoire du Chateau de Blois 4eme edition

Blois et Paris_ p. 175: _En mariant sa fille ainee a Francois, comte
d'Angouleme, Louis XII lui avait constitue en dot les comtes de
Blois, d'Asti, de Coucy, de Montfort, d'Etampes et de Vertus. Une
ordonnance de Francois I. lui laissa en_ 1516 _l'administration du
comte de Blois.

Le roi fit commencer, dans la meme annee, les travaux de celle belle
partie du chateau, connue sous le nom d'aile de Francois I, et dont
nous avons donne la description au commencement de ce livre. Nous
trouvons en effet, dans les archives du Baron de Foursanvault, une
piece qui en fixe parfaitement la date. On y lit: "Je, Baymon
Philippeaux, commis par le Roy a tenir le compte et fair le payement
des bastiments, ediffices et reparacions que le dit seigneur fait
faire en son chastu de Blois, confesse avoir eu et receu ... la
somme de trois mille livres tournois ... le cinquieme jour de
juillet, l'an mil cinq cent et seize._ P. 24: _Les jardins avaient
ete decores avec beaucoup de luxe par les differents possesseurs du
chateau. Il ne reste de tous les batiments qu'ils y eleverent que
ceux des officiers charges de l'ad_ministration et de la culture des
jardins, et un pavilion carre en pierre et en brique flanque de
terrasses a chacun de ses angles. Quoique defigure par des mesures
elevees sur les terrasses, cet edifice est tris-digne d'interet par
l'originalite du plan, la decoration architecturale et le souvenir
d'Anne de Bretagne qui le fit construire._ Felibien describes the
garden as follows: _Le jardin haut etait fort bien dresse par grands
compartimens de toutes sortes de figures, avec des allees de
meuriers blancs et des palissades de coudriers. Deux grands berceaux
de charpenterie separoient toute la longueur et la largeur du
jardin, et dans les quatres angles des allees, ou ces berceaux se
croissent, il y auoit 4 cabinets, de mesme charpenterie ... Il y a
pas longtemps qu'il y auoit dans ce mesme jardin, a l'endroit ou se
croissent les allees du milieu, un edifice de figure octogone, de
plus de 7 thoises de diametre et de plus de neuf thoises de haut;
avec 4 enfoncements en forme de niches dans les 4 angles des allies.
Ce bastiment.... esloit de charpente mais d'un extraordinairement
bien travaille. On y voyait particulierement la cordiliere qui
regnati tout autour en forme de cordon. Car la Reyne affectait de la
mettre nonseulement a ses armes et a ses chiffres mais de la faire
representer en divers manieres dans tous les ouvrages qu'on lui
faisait pour elle ... le bastiment estati couvert en forme de dome
qui dans son milieu avait encore un plus petit dome, ou lanterne
vitree au-dessus de laquelle estait une figure doree representant
Saint Michel. Les deux domes estoient proprement couvert d'ardoise
et de plomb dore par dehors; par dedans ils esloient lambrissez
d'une menuiserie tres delicate. Au milieu de ce Salon il y avait un
grand bassin octogone de marbre blanc, dont toutes les faces
estoient enrichies de differentes sculptures, avec les armes et les
chiffres du Roy Louis XII et de la Reine Anne, Dans ce bassin il y
en avait un autre pose sur un piedestal lequel auoit sept piedz de

diametre. Il estait de figure ronde a godrons, avec des masques et

d'autres ornements tres scauamment taillez. Du milieu de ce
deuxiesme bassin s'y levoit un autre petit piedestal qui portait un
troisiesme bassin de trois pieds de diametre, aussy parfaitement
bien taille; c'estoit de ce dernier bassin que jallissoit l'eau qui
se rependoit en suitte dans les deux autres bassins. Les beaux
ouvrages faits d'un marbre esgalement blanc et poli, furent brisez
par la pesanteur de tout l'edifice, que les injures de l'air
renverserent de fond en comble.]
1074.
The river Loire at Amboise.
The river is higher within the bank _b d_ than outside that bank.
The island where there is a part of Amboise.
This is the river that passes through Amboise; it passes at _a b c

d_, and when it has passed the bridge it turns back, against the
original current, by the channel _d e_, _b f_ in contact with the
bank which lies between the two contrary currents of the said river,
_a b_, _c d_, and _d e_, _b f_. It then turns down again by the
channel _f l_, _g h_, _n m_, and reunites with the river from which
it was at first separated, which passes by _k n_, which makes _k m_,
_r t_. But when the river is very full it flows all in one channel
passing over the bank _b d_. [Footnote: See Pl. CXV. Lines 1-7 are
above, lines 8-10 in the middle of the large island and the word
_Isola_ is written above _d_ in the smaller island; _a_ is written
on the margin on the bank of the river above 1. I; in the
reproduction it is not visible. As may be seen from the last
sentence, the observation was made after long study of the river's
course, when Leonardo had resided for some time at, or near,
Amboise.]
1075.
The water may be dammed up above the level of Romorantin to such a

height, that in its fall it may be used for numerous mills.
1075.
The river at Villefranche may be conducted to Romorantin which may

be done by the inhabitants; and the timber of which their houses are
built may be carried in boats to Romorantin [Footnote: Compare No.
744.]. The river may be dammed up at such a height that the waters
may be brought back to Romorantin with a convenient fall.
1076.
As to whether it is better that the water should all be raised in a

single turn or in two?
The answer is that in one single turn the wheel could not support
all the water that it can raise in two turns, because at the half
turn of the wheel it would be raising 100 pounds and no more; and if
it had to raise the whole, 200 pounds in one turn, it could not
raise them unless the wheel were of double the diameter and if the
diameter were doubled, the time of its revolution would be doubled;
therefore it is better and a greater advantage in expense to make
such a wheel of half the size (?) the land which it would water and
would render the country fertile to supply food to the inhabitants,
and would make navigable canals for mercantile purposes.
The way in which the river in its flow should scour its own channel.
By the ninth of the third; the more rapid it is, the more it wears
away its channel; and, by the converse proposition, the slower the
water the more it deposits that which renders it turbid.
And let the sluice be movable like the one I arranged in Friuli
[Footnote 19: This passage reveals to us the fact that Leonardo had
visited the country of Friuli and that he had stayed there for some
time. Nothing whatever was known of this previously.], where when
one sluice was opened the water which passed through it dug out the
bottom. Therefore when the rivers are flooded, the sluices of the
mills ought to be opened in order that the whole course of the river
may pass through falls to each mill; there should be many in order
to give a greater impetus, and so all the river will be scoured. And
below the site of each of the two mills there may be one of the said
sluice falls; one of them may be placed below each mill.
1078.
A trabocco is four braccia, and one mile is three thousand of the

said braccia. Each braccio is divided into 12 inches; and the water

in the canals has a fall in every hundred trabocchi of two of these

inches; therefore 14 inches of fall are necessary in two thousand
eight hundred braccia of flow in these canals; it follows that 15
inches of fall give the required momentum to the currents of the
waters in the said canals, that is one braccio and a half in the
mile. And from this it may be concluded that the water taken from
the river of Ville-franche and lent to the river of Romorantin
will..... Where one river by reason of its low level cannot flow
into the other, it will be necessary to dam it up, so that it may
acquire a fall into the other, which was previously the higher.
The eve of Saint Antony I returned from Romorantin to Amboise, and

the King went away two days before from Romorantin.
>From Romorantin as far as the bridge at Saudre it is called the

Saudre, and from that bridge as far as Tours it is called the Cher.
I would test the level of that channel which is to lead from the
Loire to Romorantin, with a channel one braccio wide and one braccio
deep.
[Footnote: Lines 6-18 are partly reproduced in the facsimile on p.

254, and the whole of lines 19-25.
The following names are written along the rivers on the larger
sketch, _era f_ (the Loire) _scier f_ (the Cher) three times. _Pote
Sodro_ (bridge of the Soudre). _Villa francha_ (Villefranche)
_banco_ (sandbank) _Sodro_ (Soudre). The circle below shows the
position of Romorantin. The words '_orologio del sole_' written
below do not belong to the map of the rivers. The following names
are written by the side of the smaller sketch-map:--_tors_ (Tours),
_Abosa_ (Amboise) _bres_--for Bles (Blois) _mo rica_ (Montrichard).
_Lione_ (Lyons). This map was also published in the 'Saggio'
(Milano, 1872) Pl. XXII, and the editors remark: _Forse la linia
retta che va da Amboise a Romorantin segna l'andamento proposto d'un
Canale, che poi rembra prolungarsi in giu fin dove sta scritto
Lione._
M. Ravaisson has enlarged on this idea in the Gazette des Beaux Arts
(1881 p. 530): _Les traces de Leonard permettent d'entrevoir que le
canal commencant soit aupres de Tours, soit aupres de Blois et
passant par Romorantin, avec port d'embarquement a Villefranche,
devait, au dela de Bourges, traverser l'Allier au-dessous des

affluents de la Dore et de la Sioule, aller par Moulins jusqu' a

Digoin; enfin, sur l'autre rive de la Loire, depasser les monts du
Charolais et rejoindre la Saone aupres de Macon._ It seems to me
rash, however, to found so elaborate an hypothesis on these sketches
of rivers. The slight stroke going to _Lione_ is perhaps only an
indication of the direction.--With regard to the Loire compare also
No. 988. l. 38.]
1079.
THE ROAD TO ORLEANS
At 1/4 from the South to the South East. At 1/3 from the South to
the South East. At 1/4 from the South to the South East. At 1/5 from
the South to the South East. Between the South West and South, to
the East bearing to the South; from the South towards the East 1/8;
thence to the West, between the South and South West; at the South.
[Footnote: The meaning is obscure; a more important passage

referring to France is to be found under No. 744]
On the Germans (1080. 1081).
1080.
The way in which the Germans closing up together cross and

interweave their broad leather shields against the enemy, stooping
down and putting one of the ends on the ground while they hold the
rest in their hand. [Footnote: Above the text is a sketch of a few
lines crossing each other and the words _de ponderibus_. The meaning
of the passage is obscure.]
1081.
The Germans are wont to annoy a garrison with the smoke of feathers,
sulphur and realgar, and they make this smoke last 7 or 8 hours.
Likewise the husks of wheat make a great and lasting smoke; and also
dry dung; but this must be mixed with olive husks, that is olives
pressed for oil and from which the oil has been extracted.
[Footnote: There is with this passage a sketch of a round tower
shrouded in smoke.]
The Danube.

1082.
That the valleys were formerly in great part covered by lakes the
soil of which always forms the banks of rivers,--and by seas, which
afterwards, by the persistent wearing of the rivers, cut through the
mountains and the wandering courses of the rivers carried away the
other plains enclosed by the mountains; and the cutting away of the
mountains is evident from the strata in the rocks, which correspond
in their sections as made by the courses of the rivers [Footnote 4:
_Emus_, the Balkan; _Dardania_, now Servia.], The Haemus mountains
which go along Thrace and Dardania and join the Sardonius mountains
which, going on to the westward change their name from Sardus to
Rebi, as they come near Dalmatia; then turning to the West cross
Illyria, now called Sclavonia, changing the name of Rebi to Albanus,
and going on still to the West, they change to Mount Ocra in the
North; and to the South above Istria they are named Caruancas; and
to the West above Italy they join the Adula, where the Danube rises
[8], which stretches to the East and has a course of 1500 miles; its
shortest line is about l000 miles, and the same or about the same is
that branch of the Adula mountains changed as to their name, as
before mentioned. To the North are the Carpathians, closing in the
breadth of the valley of the Danube, which, as I have said extends
eastward, a length of about 1000 miles, and is sometimes 200 and in
some places 300 miles wide; and in the midst flows the Danube, the
principal river of Europe as to size. The said Danube runs through
the middle of Austria and Albania and northwards through Bavaria,
Poland, Hungary, Wallachia and Bosnia and then the Danube or Donau
flows into the Black Sea, which formerly extended almost to Austria
and occupied the plains through which the Danube now courses; and
the evidence of this is in the oysters and cockle shells and
scollops and bones of great fishes which are still to be found in
many places on the sides of those mountains; and this sea was formed
by the filling up of the spurs of the Adula mountains which then
extended to the East joining the spurs of the Taurus which extend to
the West. And near Bithynia the waters of this Black Sea poured into
the Propontis [Marmora] falling into the Aegean Sea, that is the
Mediterranean, where, after a long course, the spurs of the Adula
mountains became separated from those of the Taurus. The Black Sea
sank lower and laid bare the valley of the Danube with the above
named countries, and the whole of Asia Minor beyond the Taurus range
to the North, and the plains from mount Caucasus to the Black Sea to
the West, and the plains of the Don this side--that is to say, at

the foot of the Ural mountains. And thus the Black Sea must have
sunk about 1000 braccia to uncover such vast plains.
[Footnote 8: _Danubio_, in the original _Reno_; evidently a mistake

as we may infer from _come dissi_ l. 10 &c.]
III.
THE COUNTRIES OF THE WESTERN END OF THE MEDITERRANEAN.
The straits of Gibraltar (1083-1085).
1083.
WHY THE SEA MAKES A STRONGER CURRENT IN THE STRAITS OF SPAIN THAN
ELSEWHERE.
A river of equal depth runs with greater speed in a narrow space

than in a wide one, in proportion to the difference between the
wider and the narrower one.
This proposition is clearly proved by reason confirmed by

experiment. Supposing that through a channel one mile wide there
flows one mile in length of water; where the river is five miles
wide each of the 5 square miles will require 1/5 of itself to be
equal to the square mile of water required in the sea, and where the
river is 3 miles wide each of these square miles will require the
third of its volume to make up the amount of the square mile of the
narrow part; as is demonstrated in _f g h_ at the mile marked _n_.
[Footnote: In the place marked A in the diagram _Mare Mediterano_

(Mediterranean Sea) is written in the original. And at B, _stretto
di Spugna_ (straits of Spain, _i.e._ Gibraltar). Compare No. 960.]
1084.
WHY THE CURRENT OF GIBRALTAR IS ALWAYS GREATER TO THE WEST THAN TO

THE EAST.
The reason is that if you put together the mouths of the rivers
which discharge into the Mediterranean sea, you would find the sum
of water to be larger than that which this sea pours through the
straits into the ocean. You see Africa discharging its rivers that

run northwards into this sea, and among them the Nile which runs
through 3000 miles of Africa; there is also the Bagrada river and
the Schelif and others. [Footnote 5: _Bagrada_ (Leonardo writes
Bragada) in Tunis, now Medscherda; _Mavretano_, now Schelif.]
Likewise Europe pours into it the Don and the Danube, the Po, the
Rhone, the Arno, and the Tiber, so that evidently these rivers, with
an infinite number of others of less fame, make its great breadth
and depth and current; and the sea is not wider than 18 miles at the
most westerly point of land where it divides Europe from Africa.
1085.
The gulf of the Mediterranean, as an inland sea, received the

principal waters of Africa, Asia and Europe that flowed towards it;
and its waters came up to the foot of the mountains that surrounded
it and made its shores. And the summits of the Apennines stood up
out of this sea like islands, surrounded by salt water. Africa
again, behind its Atlas mountains did not expose uncovered to the
sky the surface of its vast plains about 3000 miles in length, and
Memphis [Footnote 6: _Mefi._ Leonardo can only mean here the citadel
of Cairo on the Mokattam hills.] was on the shores of this sea, and
above the plains of Italy, where now birds fly in flocks, fish were
wont to wander in large shoals.
1086.
Tunis.
The greatest ebb made anywhere by the Mediterranean is above Tunis,

being about two and a half braccia and at Venice it falls two
braccia. In all the rest of the Mediterranean sea the fall is little
or none.
1087.
Libya.
Describe the mountains of shifting deserts; that is to say the

formation of waves of sand borne by the wind, and of its mountains
and hills, such as occur in Libya. Examples may be seen on the wide
sands of the Po and the Ticino, and other large rivers.
1088.

Majorca.
Circumfulgore is a naval machine. It was an invention of the men of

Majorca. [Footnote: The machine is fully described in the MS. and
shown in a sketch.]
1089.
The Tyrrhene Sea.
Some at the Tyrrhene sea employ this method; that is to say they
fastened an anchor to one end of the yard, and to the other a cord,
of which the lower end was fastened to an anchor; and in battle they
flung this anchor on to the oars of the opponent's boat and by the
use of a capstan drew it to the side; and threw soft soap and tow,
daubed with pitch and set ablaze, on to that side where the anchor
hung; so that in order to escape that fire, the defenders of that
ship had to fly to the opposite side; and in doing this they aided
to the attack, because the galley was more easily drawn to the side
by reason of the counterpoise. [Footnote: This text is illustrated
in the original by a pen and ink sketch.]
IV.
THE LEVANT.
The Levantine Sea.
1090.
On the shores of the Mediterranean 300 rivers flow, and 40, 200
ports. And this sea is 3000 miles long. Many times has the increase
of its waters, heaped up by their backward flow and the blowing of
the West winds, caused the overflow of the Nile and of the rivers
which flow out through the Black Sea, and have so much raised the
seas that they have spread with vast floods over many countries. And
these floods take place at the time when the sun melts the snows on
the high mountains of Ethiopia that rise up into the cold regions of
the air; and in the same way the approach of the sun acts on the
mountains of Sarmatia in Asia and on those in Europe; so that the
gathering together of these three things are, and always have been,
the cause of tremendous floods: that is, the return flow of the sea

with the West wind and the melting of the snows. So every river will
overflow in Syria, in Samaria, in Judea between Sinai and the
Lebanon, and in the rest of Syria between the Lebanon and the Taurus
mountains, and in Cilicia, in the Armenian mountains, and in
Pamphilia and in Lycia within the hills, and in Egypt as far as the
Atlas mountains. The gulf of Persia which was formerly a vast lake
of the Tigris and discharged into the Indian Sea, has now worn away
the mountains which formed its banks and laid them even with the
level of the Indian ocean. And if the Mediterranean had continued
its flow through the gulf of Arabia, it would have done the same,
that is to say, would have reduced the level of the Mediterranean to
that of the Indian Sea.
The Red Sea. (1091. 1092).
1091.
For a long time the water of the Mediterranean flowed out through
the Red Sea, which is 100 miles wide and 1500 long, and full of
reefs; and it has worn away the sides of Mount Sinai, a fact which
testifies, not to an inundation from the Indian sea beating on these
coasts, but to a deluge of water which carried with it all the
rivers which abound round the Mediterranean, and besides this there
is the reflux of the sea; and then, a cutting being made to the West
3000 miles away from this place, Gibraltar was separated from Ceuta,
which had been joined to it. And this passage was cut very low down,
in the plains between Gibraltar and the ocean at the foot of the
mountain, in the low part, aided by the hollowing out of some
valleys made by certain rivers, which might have flowed here.
Hercules [Footnote 9: Leonardo seems here to mention Hercules half
jestingly and only in order to suggest to the reader an allusion to
the legend of the pillars of Hercules.] came to open the sea to the
westward and then the sea waters began to pour into the Western
Ocean; and in consequence of this great fall, the Red Sea remained
the higher; whence the water, abandoning its course here, ever after
poured away through the Straits of Spain.
1092.
The surface of the Red Sea is on a level with the ocean.
A mountain may have fallen and closed the mouth of the Red Sea and
prevented the outlet of the Mediterranean, and the Mediterranean Sea

thus overfilled had for outlet the passage below the mountains of
Gades; for, in our own times a similar thing has been seen [Footnote
6: Compare also No. 1336, ll. 30, 35 and 36.-- Paolo Giovio, the
celebrated historian (born at Como in 1483) reports that in 1513 at
the foot of the Alps, above Bellinzona, on the road to Switzerland,
a mountain fell with a very great noise, in consequence of an
earthquake, and that the mass of rocks, which fell on the left
(Western) side blocked the river Breno (T. I p. 218 and 345 of D.
Sauvage's French edition, quoted in ALEXIS PERCY, _Memoire des
tremblements de terre de la peninsule italique; Academie Royale de
Belgique._ T. XXII).--]; a mountain fell seven miles across a valley
and closed it up and made a lake. And thus most lakes have been made
by mountains, as the lake of Garda, the lakes of Como and Lugano,
and the Lago Maggiore. The Mediterranean fell but little on the
confines of Syria, in consequence of the Gaditanean passage, but a
great deal in this passage, because before this cutting was made the
Mediterranean sea flowed to the South East, and then the fall had to
be made by its run through the Straits of Gades.
At _a_ the water of the Mediterranean fell into the ocean.
All the plains which lie between the sea and mountains were formerly
covered with salt water.
Every valley has been made by its own river; and the proportion
between valleys is the same as that between river and river.
The greatest river in our world is the Mediterranean river, which

moves from the sources of the Nile to the Western ocean.
And its greatest height is in Outer Mauritania and it has a course

of ten thousand miles before it reunites with its ocean, the father
of the waters.
That is 3000 miles for the Mediterranean, 3000 for the Nile, as far
as discovered and 3000 for the Nile which flows to the East, &c.
[Footnote: See Pl. CXI 2, a sketch of the shores of the

Mediterranean Sea, where lines 11 to 16 may be seen. The large
figures 158 are not in Leonardo's writing. The character of the
writing leads us to conclude that this text was written later than
the foregoing. A slight sketch of the Mediterranean is also to be
found in MS. I', 47a.]

The Nile (1093-1098).
1093.
Therefore we must conclude those mountains to be of the greatest

height, above which the clouds falling in snow give rise to the
Nile.
1094.
The Egyptians, the Ethiopians, and the Arabs, in crossing the Nile
with camels, are accustomed to attach two bags on the sides of the
camel's bodies that is skins in the form shown underneath.
In these four meshes of the net the camels for baggage place their
feet.
[Footnote: Unfortunately both the sketches which accompany this

passage are too much effaced to be reproduced. The upper represents
the two sacks joined by ropes, as here described, the other shows
four camels with riders swimming through a river.]
1095.
The Tigris passes through Asia Minor and brings with it the water of
three lakes, one after the other of various elevations; the first
being Munace and the middle Pallas and the lowest Triton. And the
Nile again springs from three very high lakes in Ethiopia, and runs
northwards towards the sea of Egypt with a course of 4000 miles, and
by the shortest and straightest line it is 3000 miles. It is said
that it issues from the Mountains of the Moon, and has various
unknown sources. The said lakes are about 4000 braccia above the
surface of the sphere of water, that is 1 mile and 1/3, giving to
the Nile a fall of 1 braccia in every mile.
[Footnote 5: _Incogniti principio._ The affluents of the lakes are

probably here intended. Compare, as to the Nile, Nos. 970, 1063 and
1084.]
1096.
Very many times the Nile and other very large rivers have poured out

their whole element of water and restored it to the sea.
1097.
Why does the inundation of the Nile occur in the summer, coming from
torrid countries?
1098.
It is not denied that the Nile is constantly muddy in entering the

Egyptian sea and that its turbidity is caused by soil that this
river is continually bringing from the places it passes; which soil
never returns in the sea which receives it, unless it throws it on
its shores. You see the sandy desert beyond Mount Atlas where
formerly it was covered with salt water.
Customs of Asiatic Nations (1099. 1100).
1099.
The Assyrians and the people of Euboea accustom their horses to

carry sacks which they can at pleasure fill with air, and which in
case of need they carry instead of the girth of the saddle above and
at the side, and they are well covered with plates of cuir bouilli,
in order that they may not be perforated by flights of arrows. Thus
they have not on their minds their security in flight, when the
victory is uncertain; a horse thus equipped enables four or five men
to cross over at need.
1100.
SMALL BOATS.
The small boats used by the Assyrians were made of thin laths of
willow plaited over rods also of willow, and bent into the form of a
boat. They were daubed with fine mud soaked with oil or with
turpentine, and reduced to a kind of mud which resisted the water
and because pine would split; and always remained fresh; and they
covered this sort of boats with the skins of oxen in safely crossing
the river Sicuris of Spain, as is reported by Lucant; [Footnote 7:
See Lucan's Pharsalia IV, 130: _Utque habuit ripas Sicoris camposque
reliquit, Primum cana salix madefacto vimine parvam Texitur in
puppim, calsoque inducto juvenco Vectoris patiens tumidum supernatat

amnem. Sic Venetus stagnante Pado, fusoque Britannus Navigat oceano,

sic cum tenet omnia Nilus, Conseritur bibula Memphitis cymbo papyro.
His ratibus transjecta manus festinat utrimque Succisam cavare nemus
]
The Spaniards, the Scythians and the Arabs, when they want to make a
bridge in haste, fix hurdlework made of willows on bags of ox-hide,
and so cross in safety.
Rhodes (1101. 1102).
1101.
In [fourteen hundred and] eighty nine there was an earthquake in the

sea of Atalia near Rhodes, which opened the sea--that is its
bottom--and into this opening such a torrent of water poured that
for more than three hours the bottom of the sea was uncovered by
reason of the water which was lost in it, and then it closed to the
former level.
[Footnote: _Nello ottanto_ 9. It is scarcely likely that Leonardo

should here mean 89 AD. Dr. H. MULLER- STRUBING writes to me as
follows on this subject: "With reference to Rhodes Ross says (_Reise
auf den Griechischen Inseln, III_ 70 _ff_. 1840), that ancient
history affords instances of severe earthquakes at Rhodes, among
others one in the second year of the 138th Olympiad=270 B. C.; a
remarkably violent one under Antoninus Pius (A. D. 138-161) and
again under Constantine and later. But Leonardo expressly speaks of
an earthquake "_nel mar di Atalia presso a Rodi_", which is
singular. The town of Attalia, founded by Attalus, which is what he
no doubt means, was in Pamphylia and more than 150 English miles
East of Rhodes in a straight line. Leake and most other geographers
identify it with the present town of Adalia. Attalia is rarely
mentioned by the ancients, indeed only by Strabo and Pliny and no
earthquake is spoken of. I think therefore you are justified in
assuming that Leonardo means 1489". In the elaborate catalogue of
earthquakes in the East by Sciale Dshelal eddin Sayouthy (an
unpublished Arabic MS. in the possession of Prof. SCHEFER, (Membre
de l'Institut, Paris) mention is made of a terrible earthquake in
the year 867 of the Mohamedan Era corresponding to the year 1489,
and it is there stated that a hundred persons were killed by it in
the fortress of Kerak. There are three places of this name. Kerak on
the sea of Tiberias, Kerak near Tahle on the Libanon, which I

visited in the summer of l876--but neither of these is the place

alluded to. Possibly it may be the strongly fortified town of
Kerak=Kir Moab, to the West of the Dead Sea. There is no notice
about this in ALEXIS PERCY, _Memoire sur les tremblements de terres
ressentis dans la peninsule turco- hellenique et en Syrie (Memoires
couronnes et memoires des savants etrangers, Academie Royale de
Belgique, Tome XXIII)._]
1102.
Rhodes has in it 5000 houses.
Cyprus (1103. 1104).
1103.
SITE FOR [A TEMPLE OF] VENUS.
You must make steps on four sides, by which to mount to a meadow

formed by nature at the top of a rock which may be hollowed out and
supported in front by pilasters and open underneath in a large
portico,
[Footnote: See Pl. LXXXIII. Compare also p. 33 of this Vol. The

standing male figure at the side is evidently suggested by Michael
Angelo's David. On the same place a slight sketch of horses seems to
have been drawn first; there is no reason for assuming that the text
and this sketch, which have no connection with each other, are of
the same date.
_Sito di Venere._ By this heading Leonardo appears to mean Cyprus,

which was always considered by the ancients to be the home and birth
place of Aphrodite (Kirpic in Homer).]
in which the water may fall into various vases of granite,

porphyryand serpentine, within semi-circular recesses; and the water
may overflow from these. And round this portico towards the North
there should be a lake with a little island in the midst of which
should be a thick and shady wood; the waters at the top of the
pilasters should pour into vases at their base, from whence they
should flow in little channels.
Starting from the shore of Cilicia towards the South you discover

the beauties of the island of Cyprus.
The Caspian Sea (1105. 1106).
1104.
>From the shore of the Southern coast of Cilicia may be seen to the
South the beautiful island of Cyprus, which was the realm of the
goddess Venus, and many navigators being attracted by her beauty,
had their ships and rigging broken amidst the reefs, surrounded by
the whirling waters. Here the beauty of delightful hills tempts
wandering mariners to refresh themselves amidst their flowery
verdure, where the winds are tempered and fill the island and the
surrounding seas with fragrant odours. Ah! how many a ship has here
been sunk. Ah! how many a vessel broken on these rocks. Here might
be seen barks without number, some wrecked and half covered by the
sand; others showing the poop and another the prow, here a keel and
there the ribs; and it seems like a day of judgment when there
should be a resurrection of dead ships, so great is the number of
them covering all the Northern shore; and while the North gale makes
various and fearful noises there.
1105.
Write to Bartolomeo the Turk as to the flow and ebb of the Black
sea, and whether he is aware if there be such a flow and ebb in the
Hyrcanean or Caspian sea. [Footnote: The handwriting of this note
points to a late date.]
1106.
WHY WATER IS FOUND AT THE TOP OF MOUNTAINS.
>From the straits of Gibraltar to the Don is 3500 miles, that is one
mile and 1/6, giving a fall of one braccio in a mile to any water
that moves gently. The Caspian sea is a great deal higher; and none
of the mountains of Europe rise a mile above the surface of our
seas; therefore it might be said that the water which is on the
summits of our mountains might come from the height of those seas,
and of the rivers which flow into them, and which are still higher.
The sea of Azov.

1107.
Hence it follows that the sea of Azov is the highest part of the
Mediterranean sea, being at a distance of 3500 miles from the
Straits of Gibraltar, as is shown by the map for navigation; and it
has 3500 braccia of descent, that is, one mile and 1/6; therefore it
is higher than any mountains which exist in the West.
[Footnote: The passage before this, in the original, treats of the

exit of the waters from Lakes in general.]
The Dardanelles.
1108.
In the Bosphorus the Black Sea flows always into the Egean sea, and
the Egean sea never flows into it. And this is because the Caspian,
which is 400 miles to the East, with the rivers which pour into it,
always flows through subterranean caves into this sea of Pontus; and
the Don does the same as well as the Danube, so that the waters of
Pontus are always higher than those of the Egean; for the higher
always fall towards the lower, and never the lower towards the
higher.
Constantinople.
1109.
The bridge of Pera at Constantinople, 40 braccia wide, 70 braccia

high above the water, 600 braccia long; that is 400 over the sea and
200 on the land, thus making its own abutments.
[Footnote: See Pl. CX No. 1. In 1453 by order of Sultan Mohamed II.

the Golden Horn was crossed by a pontoon bridge laid on barrels (see
Joh. Dukas' History of the Byzantine Empire XXXVIII p. 279). --The
biographers of Michelangelo, Vasari as well as Condivi, relate that
at the time when Michelangelo suddenly left Rome, in 1506, he
entertained some intention of going to Constantinople, there to
serve the Sultan, who sought to engage him, by means of certain
Franciscan Monks, for the purpose of constructing a bridge to
connect Constantinople with Pera. See VASARI, _Vite_ (ed. Sansoni
VII, 168): _Michelangelo, veduto questa furia del papa, dubitando di
lui, ebbe, secondo che si dice, voglia di andarsene in

Gostantinopoli a servire il Turco, per mezzo di certi frati di San

Francesco, che desiderava averlo per fare un ponte che passassi da
Gostantinopoli a Pera._ And CONDIVI, _Vita di M. Buonaroti chap._
30_; Michelangelo allora vedendosi condotto a questo, temendo
dell'ira del papa, penso d'andarsene in Levante; massimamente
essendo stato dal Turco ricercato con grandissime promesse per mezzo
di certi frati di San Francesco, per volersene servire in fare un
ponte da Costantinopoli a Pera ed in altri affari._ Leonardo's plan
for this bridge was made in 1502. We may therefore conclude that at
about that time the Sultan Bajazet II. had either announced a
competition in this matter, or that through his agents Leonardo had
first been called upon to carry out the scheme.]
The Euphrates.
1110.
If the river will turn to the rift farther on it will never return
to its bed, as the Euphrates does, and this may do at Bologna the
one who is disappointed for his rivers.
Centrae Asia.
1111.
Mounts Caucasus, Comedorum, and Paropemisidae are joined together

between Bactria and India, and give birth to the river Oxus which
takes its rise in these mountains and flows 500 miles towards the
North and as many towards the West, and discharges its waters into
the Caspian sea; and is accompanied by the Oxus, Dargados, Arthamis,
Xariaspes, Dargamaim, Ocus and Margus, all very large rivers. From
the opposite side towards the South rises the great river Indus
which sends its waters for 600 miles Southwards and receives as
tributaries in this course the rivers Xaradrus, Hyphasis, Vadris,
Vandabal Bislaspus to the East, Suastes and Coe to the West, uniting
with these rivers, and with their waters it flows 800 miles to the
West; then, turning back by the Arbiti mountains makes an elbow and
turns Southwards, where after a course of about 100 miles it finds
the Indian Sea, in which it pours itself by seven branches. On the
side of the same mountains rises the great Ganges, which river flows
Southwards for 500 miles and to the Southwest a thousand ... and
Sarabas, Diarnuna, Soas and Scilo, Condranunda are its tributaries.
It flows into the Indian sea by many mouths.

On the natives of hot countries.
1112.
Men born in hot countries love the night because it refreshes them
and have a horror of light because it burns them; and therefore they
are of the colour of night, that is black. And in cold countries it
is just the contrary.
[Footnote: The sketch here inserted is in MS. H3 55b.]
_XVIII._
_Naval Warfare.--Mechanical Appliances.--Music._
_Such theoretical questions, as have been laid before the reader in

Sections XVI and XVII, though they were the chief subjects of
Leonardo's studies of the sea, did not exclusively claim his
attention. A few passages have been collected at the beginning of
this section, which prove that he had turned his mind to the
practical problems of navigation, and more especially of naval
warfare. What we know for certain of his life gives us no data, it
is true, as to when or where these matters came under his
consideration; but the fact remains certain both from these notes in
his manuscripts, and from the well known letter to Ludovico il Moro
(No._ 1340_), in which he expressly states that he is as capable as
any man, in this very department._
_The numerous notes as to the laws and rationale of the flight of

birds, are scattered through several note-books. An account of these
is given in the Bibliography of the manuscripts at the end of this
work. It seems probable that the idea which led him to these
investigations was his desire to construct a flying or aerial
machine for man. At the same time it must be admitted that the notes
on the two subjects are quite unconnected in the manuscripts, and
that those on the flight of birds are by far the most numerous and
extensive. The two most important passages that treat of the
construction of a flying machine are those already published as Tav.
XVI, No._ 1 _and Tav. XVIII in the_ "Saggio delle opere di Leonardo
da Vinci" _(Milan_ 1872_). The passages--Nos._ 1120-1125--_here
printed for the first time and hitherto unknown--refer to the same
subject and, with the exception of one already published in the

Saggio-- No._ 1126--_they are, so far as I know, the only notes,

among the numerous observations on the flight of birds, in which the
phenomena are incidentally and expressly connected with the idea of
a flying machine._
_The notes on machines of war, the construction of fortifications,

and similar matters which fall within the department of the
Engineer, have not been included in this work, for the reasons given
on page_ 26 _of this Vol. An exception has been made in favour of
the passages Nos._ 1127 _and_ 1128, _because they have a more
general interest, as bearing on the important question: whence the
Master derived his knowledge of these matters. Though it would be
rash to assert that Leonardo was the first to introduce the science
of mining into Italy, it may be confidently said that he is one of
the earliest writers who can be proved to have known and understood
it; while, on the other hand, it is almost beyond doubt that in the
East at that time, the whole science of besieging towns and mining
in particular, was far more advanced than in Europe. This gives a
peculiar value to the expressions used in No._ 1127.
_I have been unable to find in the manuscripts any passage whatever

which throws any light on Leonardo's great reputation as a musician.
Nothing therein illustrates VASARPS well-known statement:_ Avvenne
che morto Giovan Galeazze duca di Milano, e creato Lodovico Sforza
nel grado medesimo anno 1494, fu condotto a Milano con gran
riputazione Lionardo al duca, il quale molto si dilettava del suono
della lira, perche sonasse; e Lionardo porto quello strumento
ch'egli aveva di sua mano fabbricato d'argento gran parte, in forma
d'un teschio di cavallo, cosa bizzarra e nuova, acciocche l'armonia
fosse con maggior tuba e piu sonora di voce; laonde supero tutti i
musici che quivi erano concorsi a sonare.
_The only notes on musical matters are those given as Nos._ 1129
_and_ 1130, _which explain certain arrangements in instruments._
The ship's logs of Vitruvius, of Alberti and of Leonardo
1113.
ON MOVEMENTS;--TO KNOW HOW MUCH A SHIP ADVANCES IN AN HOUR.
The ancients used various devices to ascertain the distance gone by

a ship each hour, among which Vitruvius [Footnote 6: See VITRUVIUS,

_De Architectura lib. X._ C. 14 (p. 264 in the edition of Rose and
Muller- Strubing). The German edition published at Bale in 1543 has,
on fol. 596, an illustration of the contrivance, as described by
Vitruvius.] gives one in his work on Architecture which is just as
fallacious as all the others; and this is a mill wheel which touches
the waves of the sea at one end and in each complete revolution
describes a straight line which represents the circumference of the
wheel extended to a straightness. But this invention is of no worth
excepting on the smooth and motionless surface of lakes. But if the
water moves together with the ship at an equal rate, then the wheel
remains motionless; and if the motion of the water is more or less
rapid than that of the ship, then neither has the wheel the same
motion as the ship so that this invention is of but little use.
There is another method tried by experiment with a known distance
between one island and another; and this is done by a board or under
the pressure of wind which strikes on it with more or less
swiftness. This is in Battista Alberti [Footnote 25: LEON BATTISTA
ALBERTI, _De Architectura lib. V._, c. 12 treats '_de le navi e
parti loro_', but there is no reference to the machine, mentioned by
Leonardo. Alberti says here: _Noi abbiamo trattato lungamente in
altro luogo de' modi de le navi, ma in questo luogo ne abbiamo detto
quel tanto che si bisogna_. To this the following note is added in
the most recent Italian edition: _Questo libro e tuttora inedito e
porta il titolo, secondo Gesnero di_ '_Liber navis_'.].
Battista Alberti's method which is made by experiment on a known

distance between one island and another. But such an invention does
not succeed excepting on a ship like the one on which the experiment
was made, and it must be of the same burden and have the same sails,
and the sails in the same places, and the size of the waves must be
the same. But my method will serve for any ship, whether with oars
or sails; and whether it be small or large, broad or long, or high
or low, it always serves [Footnote 52: Leonardo does not reveal the
method invented by him.].
Methods of staying and moving in water
1114.
How an army ought to cross rivers by swimming with air-bags ... How
fishes swim [Footnote 2: Compare No. 821.]; of the way in which they
jump out of the water, as may be seen with dolphins; and it seems a
wonderful thing to make a leap from a thing which does not resist

but slips away. Of the swimming of animals of a long form, such as

eels and the like. Of the mode of swimming against currents and in
the rapid falls of rivers. Of the mode of swimming of fishes of a
round form. How it is that animals which have not long hind quartres
cannot swim. How it is that all other animals which have feet with
toes, know by nature how to swim, excepting man. In what way man
ought to learn to swim. Of the way in which man may rest on the
water. How man may protect himself against whirlpools or eddies in
the water, which drag him down. How a man dragged to the bottom must
seek the reflux which will throw him up from the depths. How he
ought to move his arms. How to swim on his back. How he can and how
he cannot stay under water unless he can hold his breath [13]. How
by means of a certain machine many people may stay some time under
water. How and why I do not describe my method of remaining under
water, or how long I can stay without eating; and I do not publish
nor divulge these by reason of the evil nature of men who would use
them as means of destruction at the bottom of the sea, by sending
ships to the bottom, and sinking them together with the men in them.
And although I will impart others, there is no danger in them;
because the mouth of the tube, by which you breathe, is above the
water supported on bags or corks [19].
[Footnote: L. 13-19 will also be found in Vol. I No. 1.]
On naval warfare (1115. 1116).
1115.
Supposing in a battle between ships and galleys that the ships are
victorious by reason of the high of heir tops, you must haul the
yard up almost to the top of the mast, and at the extremity of the
yard, that is the end which is turned towards the enemy, have a
small cage fastened, wrapped up below and all round in a great
mattress full of cotton so that it may not be injured by the bombs;
then, with the capstan, haul down the opposite end of this yard and
the top on the opposite side will go up so high, that it will be far
above the round-top of the ship, and you will easily drive out the
men that are in it. But it is necessary that the men who are in the
galley should go to the opposite side of it so as to afford a
counterpoise to the weight of the men placed inside the cage on the
yard.
1116.

If you want to build an armada for the sea employ these ships to ram
in the enemy's ships. That is, make ships 100 feet long and 8 feet
wide, but arranged so that the left hand rowers may have their oars
to the right side of the ship, and the right hand ones to the left
side, as is shown at M, so that the leverage of the oars may be
longer. And the said ship may be one foot and a half thick, that is
made with cross beams within and without, with planks in contrary
directions. And this ship must have attached to it, a foot below the
water, an iron-shod spike of about the weight and size of an anvil;
and this, by force of oars may, after it has given the first blow,
be drawn back, and driven forward again with fury give a second
blow, and then a third, and so many as to destroy the other ship.
The use of swimming belts.
1117.
A METHOD OF ESCAPING IN A TEMPEST AND SHIPWRECK AT SEA.
Have a coat made of leather, which must be double across the breast,
that is having a hem on each side of about a finger breadth. Thus it
will be double from the waist to the knee; and the leather must be
quite air-tight. When you want to leap into the sea, blow out the
skirt of your coat through the double hems of the breast; and jump
into the sea, and allow yourself to be carried by the waves; when
you see no shore near, give your attention to the sea you are in,
and always keep in your mouth the air-tube which leads down into the
coat; and if now and again you require to take a breath of fresh
air, and the foam prevents you, you may draw a breath of the air
within the coat.
[Footnote: AMORETTI, _Memorie Storiche_, Tav. II. B. Fig. 5, gives

the same figure, somewhat altered. 6. _La canna dell' aria_. Compare
Vol. I. No. I. Note]
On the gravity of water.
1118.
If the weight of the sea bears on its bottom, a man, lying on that
bottom and having l000 braccia of water on his back, would have
enough to crush him.

Diving apparatus and Skating (1119-1121).
1119.
Of walking under water. Method of walking on water.
[Footnote: The two sketches belonging to this passage are given by

AMORETTI, _Memorie Storiche_. Tav. II, Fig. 3 and 4.]
1120.
Just as on a frozen river a man may run without moving his feet, so
a car might be made that would slide by itself.
[Footnote: The drawings of carts by the side of this text have no

direct connection with the problem as stated in words.--Compare No.
1448, l. 17.]
1121.
A definition as to why a man who slides on ice does not fall.

[Footnote: An indistinct sketch accompanies the passage, in the
original.]
On Flying machines (1122-1126).
1122.
Man when flying must stand free from the waist upwards so as to be
able to balance himself as he does in a boat so that the centre of
gravity in himself and in the machine may counterbalance each other,
and be shifted as necessity demands for the changes of its centre of
resistance.
1123.
Remember that your flying machine must imitate no other than the
bat, because the web is what by its union gives the armour, or
strength to the wings.
If you imitate the wings of feathered birds, you will find a much
stronger structure, because they are pervious; that is, their

feathers are separate and the air passes through them. But the bat
is aided by the web that connects the whole and is not pervious.
1124.
TO ESCAPE THE PERIL OF DESTRUCTION.
Destruction to such a machine may occur in two ways; of which the

first is the breaking of the machine. The second would be when the
machine should turn on its edge or nearly on its edge, because it
ought always to descend in a highly oblique direction, and almost
exactly balanced on its centre. As regards the first--the breaking
of the machine--, that may be prevented by making it as strong as
possible; and in whichever direction it may tend to turn over, one
centre must be very far from the other; that is, in a machine 30
braccia long the centres must be 4 braccia one from the other.
1125.
Bags by which a man falling from a height of 6 braccia may avoid

hurting himself, by a fall whether into water or on the ground; and
these bags, strung together like a rosary, are to be fixed on one's
back.
1126.
An object offers as much resistance to the air as the air does to

the object. You may see that the beating of its wings against the
air supports a heavy eagle in the highest and rarest atmosphere,
close to the sphere of elemental fire. Again you may see the air in
motion over the sea, fill the swelling sails and drive heavily laden
ships. From these instances, and the reasons given, a man with wings
large enough and duly connected might learn to overcome the
resistance of the air, and by conquering it, succeed in subjugating
it and rising above it. [Footnote: A parachute is here sketched,
with an explanatory remark. It is reproduced on Tav. XVI in the
Saggio, and in: _Leonardo da Vinci als Ingenieur etc., Ein Beitrag
zur Geschichte der Technik und der induktiven Wissenschaften, von
Dr. Hermann Grothe, Berlin_ 1874, p. 50.]
Of mining.

1127.
If you want to know where a mine runs, place a drum over all the
places where you suspect that it is being made, and upon this drum
put a couple of dice, and when you are over the spot where they are
mining, the dice will jump a little on the drum at every blow which
is given underground in the mining.
There are persons who, having the convenience of a river or a lake

in their lands, have made, close to the place where they suspect
that a mine is being made, a great reservoir of water, and have
countermined the enemy, and having found them, have turned the water
upon them and destroyed a great number in the mine.
Of Greek fire.
1128.
GREEK FIRE.
Take charcoal of willow, and saltpetre, and sulphuric acid, and

sulphur, and pitch, with frankincense and camphor, and Ethiopian
wool, and boil them all together. This fire is so ready to burn that
it clings to the timbers even under water. And add to this
composition liquid varnish, and bituminous oil, and turpentine and
strong vinegar, and mix all together and dry it in the sun, or in an
oven when the bread is taken out; and then stick it round hempen or
other tow, moulding it into a round form, and studding it all over
with very sharp nails. You must leave in this ball an opening to
serve as a fusee, and cover it with rosin and sulphur.
Again, this fire, stuck at the top of a long plank which has one
braccio length of the end pointed with iron that it may not be burnt
by the said fire, is good for avoiding and keeping off the ships, so
as not to be overwhelmed by their onset.
Again throw vessels of glass full of pitch on to the enemy's ships

when the men in them are intent on the battle; and then by throwing
similar burning balls upon them you have it in your power to burn
all their ships.
[Footnote: Venturi has given another short text about the Greek fire

in a French translation (Essai Section XIV). He adds that the

original text is to be found in MS. B. 30 (?). Libri speaks of it in
a note as follows (_Histoire des sciences mathematiques en Italie
Vol. II_ p. 129): _La composition du feu gregeois est une des chases
qui ont ete les plus cherchees et qui sont encore les plus
douteuses. On dit qu'il fut invente au septieme siecle de l'ere
chretienne par l'architecte Callinique (Constantini Porphyrogenetae
opera, Lugd. Batav._ 1617,-- _in-_8vo; p. 172, _de admin, imper.
exp._ 48_), et il se trouve souvent mentionne par les Historiens
Byzantins. Tantot on le langait avec des machines, comme on
lancerait une banche, tantot on le soufflait avec de longs tubes,
comme on soufflerait un gaz ou un liquide enflamme (Annae Comnenae
Alexias_, p. 335, _lib. XI.--Aeliani et Leonis, imperatoris tactica,
Lugd.-Bat._ 1613, _in_-4. part. 2 a, p. 322, _Leonis tact. cap._
l9.--_Joinville, histoire du Saint Louis collect. Petitot tom. II,_
p. 235). _Les ecrivains contemporains disent que l'eau ne pouvait
pas eteindre ce feu, mais qu'avec du vinaigre et du sable on y
parvenait. Suivant quelques historiens le feu gregeois etait compose
de soufre et de resine. Marcus Graecus (Liber ignium, Paris,_ 1804,
_in_-40_) donne plusieurs manieres de le faire qui ne sont pas tres
intelligibles, mais parmi lesquelles on trouve la composition de la
poudre a canon. Leonard de Vinci (MSS. de Leonard de Vinci, vol. B.
f. 30,) dit qu'on le faisait avec du charbon de saule, du salpetre,
de l'eau de vie, de la resine, du soufre, de la poix et du camphre.
Mais il est probable que nous ne savons pas qu'elle etait sa
composition, surtout a cause du secret qu'en faisaient les Grecs. En
effet, l'empereur Constantin Porphyrogenete recommende a son fils de
ne jamais en donner aux Barbares, et de leur repondre, s'ils en
demandaient, qu'il avait ete apporti du ciel par un ange et que le
secret en avait ete confie aux Chretiens (Constantini
Porphyrogennetae opera,_ p. 26-27, _de admin. imper., cap. _12_)._]
Of Music (1129. 1130).
1129.
A drum with cogs working by wheels with springs [2].
[Footnote: This chapter consists of explanations of the sketches

shown on Pl. CXXI. Lines 1 and 2 of the text are to be seen at the
top at the left hand side of the first sketch of a drum. Lines 3-5
refer to the sketch immediately below this. Line 6 is written as the
side of the seventh sketch, and lines 7 and 8 at the side of the

eighth. Lines 9-16 are at the bottom in the middle. The remainder of
the text is at the side of the drawing at the bottom.]
A square drum of which the parchment may be drawn tight or slackened

by the lever _a b_ [5].
A drum for harmony [6].
[7] A clapper for harmony; that is, three clappers together.
[9] Just as one and the same drum makes a deep or acute sound
according as the parchments are more or less tightened, so these
parchments variously tightened on one and the same drum will make
various sounds [16].
Keys narrow and close together; (bicchi) far apart; these will be
right for the trumpet shown above.
_a_ must enter in the place of the ordinary keys which have the ...
in the openings of a flute.
1130.
Tymbals to be played like the monochord, or the soft flute.
[6] Here there is to be a cylinder of cane after the manner of

clappers with a musical round called a Canon, which is sung in four
parts; each singer singing the whole round. Therefore I here make a
wheel with 4 teeth so that each tooth takes by itself the part of a
singer.
[Footnote: In the original there are some more sketches, to which

the text, from line 6, refers. They are studies for a contrivance
exactly like the cylinder in our musical boxes.]
1131.
Of decorations.
White and sky-blue cloths, woven in checks to make a decoration.
Cloths with the threads drawn at _a b c d e f g h i k_, to go round

the decoration.

_XIX._
_Philosophical Maxims. Morals. Polemics and Speculations_.
_Vasari indulges in severe strictures on Leonardo's religious views.

He speaks, among other things, of his_ "capricci nel filosofar delle
cose naturali" _and says on this point:_ "Per il che fece nell'animo
un concetto si eretico che e' non si accostava a qualsi voglia
religione, stimando per avventura assai piu lo esser filosofo che
cristiano" _(see the first edition of_ 'Le Vite'_). But this
accusation on the part of a writer in the days of the Inquisition is
not a very serious one--and the less so, since, throughout the
manuscripts, we find nothing to support it._
_Under the heading of "Philosophical Maxims" I have collected all

the passages which can give us a clear comprehension of Leonardo's
ideas of the world at large. It is scarcely necessary to observe
that there is absolutely nothing in them to lead to the inference
that he was an atheist. His views of nature and its laws are no
doubt very unlike those of his contemporaries, and have a much
closer affinity to those which find general acceptance at the
present day. On the other hand, it is obvious from Leonardo's will
(see No._ 1566_) that, in the year before his death, he had
professed to adhere to the fundamental doctrines of the Roman
Catholic faith, and this evidently from his own personal desire and
impulse._
_The incredible and demonstrably fictitious legend of Leonardo's

death in the arms of Francis the First, is given, with others, by
Vasari and further embellished by this odious comment:_ "Mostrava
tuttavia quanto avea offeso Dio e gli uomini del mondo, non avendo
operato nell'arte come si conveniva." _This last accusation, it may
be remarked, is above all evidence of the superficial character of
the information which Vasari was in a position to give about
Leonardo. It seems to imply that Leonardo was disdainful of diligent
labour. With regard to the second, referring to Leonardo's morality
and dealings with his fellow men, Vasari himself nullifies it by
asserting the very contrary in several passages. A further
refutation may be found in the following sentence from the letter in
which Melsi, the young Milanese nobleman, announces the Master's
death to Leonardo's brothers:_ Credo siate certificati della morte
di Maestro Lionardo fratello vostro, e mio quanto optimo padre, per

la cui morte sarebbe impossibile che io potesse esprimere il dolore

che io ho preso; e in mentre che queste mia membra si sosterranno
insieme, io possedero una perpetua infelicita, e meritamente perche
sviscerato et ardentissimo amore mi portava giornalmente. E dolto ad
ognuno la perdita di tal uomo, quale non e piu in podesta della
natura, ecc.
_It is true that, in April_ 1476, _we find the names of Leonardo and
Verrocchio entered in the_ "Libro degli Uffiziali di notte e de'
Monasteri" _as breaking the laws; but we immediately after find the
note_ "Absoluti cum condizione ut retamburentur" (Tamburini _was the
name given to the warrant cases of the night police). The acquittal
therefore did not exclude the possibility of a repetition of the
charge. It was in fact repeated, two months later, and on this
occasion the Master and his pupil were again fully acquitted.
Verrocchio was at this time forty and Leonardo four-and-twenty. The
documents referring to this affair are in the State Archives of
Florence; they have been withheld from publication, but it seemed to
me desirable to give the reader this brief account of the leading
facts of the story, as the vague hints of it, which have recently
been made public, may have given to the incident an aspect which it
had not in reality, and which it does not deserve._
_The passages here classed under the head "Morals" reveal Leonardo
to us as a man whose life and conduct were unfailingly governed by
lofty principles and aims. He could scarcely have recorded his stern
reprobation and unmeasured contempt for men who do nothing useful
and strive only for riches, if his own life and ambitions had been
such as they have so often been misrepresented._
_At a period like that, when superstition still exercised unlimited

dominion over the minds not merely of the illiterate crowd, but of
the cultivated and learned classes, it was very natural that
Leonardo's views as to Alchemy, Ghosts, Magicians, and the like
should be met with stern reprobation whenever and wherever he may
have expressed them; this accounts for the argumentative tone of all
his utterances on such subjects which I have collected in
Subdivision III of this section. To these I have added some passages
which throw light on Leonardo's personal views on the Universe. They
are, without exception, characterised by a broad spirit of
naturalism of which the principles are more strictly applied in his
essays on Astronomy, and still more on Physical Geography._

_To avoid repetition, only such notes on Philosophy, Morals and

Polemics, have been included in this section as occur as independent
texts in the original MSS. Several moral reflections have already
been given in Vol. I, in section "Allegorical representations,
Mottoes and Emblems". Others will be found in the following section.
Nos._ 9 _to_ 12, _Vol. I, are also passages of an argumentative
character. It did not seem requisite to repeat here these and
similar passages, since their direct connection with the context is
far closer in places where they have appeared already, than it would
be here._
I.
PHILOSOPHICAL MAXIMS.
Prayers to God (1132. 1133).
1132.
I obey Thee Lord, first for the love I ought, in all reason to bear
Thee; secondly for that Thou canst shorten or prolong the lives of
men.
1133.
A PRAYER.
Thou, O God, dost sell us all good things at the price of labour.
The powers of Nature (1134-1139).
1134.
O admirable impartiality of Thine, Thou first Mover; Thou hast not

permitted that any force should fail of the order or quality of its
necessary results.
1135.
Necessity is the mistress and guide of nature.
Necessity is the theme and the inventress, the eternal curb and law
of nature.

1136.
In many cases one and the same thing is attracted by two strong
forces, namely Necessity and Potency. Water falls in rain; the earth
absorbs it from the necessity for moisture; and the sun evaporates
it, not from necessity, but by its power.
1137.
Weight, force and casual impulse, together with resistance, are the
four external powers in which all the visible actions of mortals
have their being and their end.
1138.
Our body is dependant on heaven and heaven on the Spirit.
1139.
The motive power is the cause of all life.
Psychology (1140-1147).
1140.
And you, O Man, who will discern in this work of mine the wonderful
works of Nature, if you think it would be a criminal thing to
destroy it, reflect how much more criminal it is to take the life of
a man; and if this, his external form, appears to thee marvellously
constructed, remember that it is nothing as compared with the soul
that dwells in that structure; for that indeed, be it what it may,
is a thing divine. Leave it then to dwell in His work at His good
will and pleasure, and let not your rage or malice destroy a
life--for indeed, he who does not value it, does not himself deserve
it [Footnote 19: In MS. II 15a is the note: _chi no stima la vita,
non la merita._].
[Footnote: This text is on the back of the drawings reproduced on

Pl. CVII. Compare No. 798, 35 note on p. 111: Compare also No. 837
and 838.]
1141.

The soul can never be corrupted with the corruption of the body,,
but is in the body as it were the air which causes the sound of the
organ, where when a pipe bursts, the wind would cease to have any
good effect. [Footnote: Compare No. 845.]
1142.
The part always has a tendency to reunite with its whole in order to
escape from its imperfection.
The spirit desires to remain with its body, because, without the
organic instruments of that body, it can neither act, nor feel
anything.
1143.
If any one wishes to see how the soul dwells in its body, let him
observe how this body uses its daily habitation; that is to say, if
this is devoid of order and confused, the body will be kept in
disorder and confusion by its soul.
1144.
Why does the eye see a thing more clearly in dreams than with the
imagination being awake?
1145.
The senses are of the earth; Reason, stands apart in contemplation.
1146.
Every action needs to be prompted by a motive.
To know and to will are two operations of the human mind.
Discerning, judging, deliberating are acts of the human mind.
1147.

All our knowledge has its origin in our preceptions.
Science, its principles and rules (1148--1161)
1148.
Science is the observation of things possible, whether present or

past; prescience is the knowledge of things which may come to pass,
though but slowly.
1149.
Experience, the interpreter between formative nature and the human

race, teaches how that nature acts among mortals; and being
constrained by necessity cannot act otherwise than as reason, which
is its helm, requires her to act.
1150.
Wisdom is the daughter of experience.
1151.
Nature is full of infinite causes that have never occured in

experience.
1152.
Truth was the only daughter of Time.
1153.
Experience never errs; it is only your judgments that err by

promising themselves effects such as are not caused by your
experiments.
Experience does not err; only your judgments err by expecting from
her what is not in her power. Men wrongly complain of Experience;
with great abuse they accuse her of leading them astray but they set
Experience aside, turning from it with complaints as to our
ignorance causing us to be carried away by vain and foolish desires
to promise ourselves, in her name, things that are not in her power;
saying that she is fallacious. Men are unjust in complaining of

innocent Experience, constantly accusing her of error and of false

evidence.
1154.
Instrumental or mechanical science is of all the noblest and the

most useful, seeing that by means of this all animated bodies that
have movement perform all their actions; and these movements are
based on the centre of gravity which is placed in the middle
dividing unequal weights, and it has dearth and wealth of muscles
and also lever and counterlever.
1155.
OF MECHANICS.
Mechanics are the Paradise of mathematical science, because here we

come to the fruits of mathematics. [Footnote: Compare No. 660, 11.
19--22 (Vol. I., p. 332). 1156.
Every instrument requires to be made by experience.
1157.
The man who blames the supreme certainty of mathematics feeds on

confusion, and can never silence the contradictions of sophistical
sciences which lead to an eternal quackery.
1158.
There is no certainty in sciences where one of the mathematical

sciences cannot be applied, or which are not in relation with these
mathematics.
1159.
Any one who in discussion relies upon authority uses, not his
understanding, but rather his memory. Good culture is born of a good
disposition; and since the cause is more to be praised than the
effect, I will rather praise a good disposition without culture,
than good culture without the disposition.
1160.

Science is the captain, and practice the soldiers.
1161.
OF THE ERRORS OF THOSE WHO DEPEND ON PRACTICE WITHOUT SCIENCE.
Those who fall in love with practice without science are like a
sailor who enters a ship without a helm or a compass, and who never
can be certain whither he is going.
II.
MORALS.
What is life? (1162. 1163).
1162.
Now you see that the hope and the desire of returning home and to
one's former state is like the moth to the light, and that the man
who with constant longing awaits with joy each new spring time, each
new summer, each new month and new year--deeming that the things he
longs for are ever too late in coming--does not perceive that he is
longing for his own destruction. But this desire is the very
quintessence, the spirit of the elements, which finding itself
imprisoned with the soul is ever longing to return from the human
body to its giver. And you must know that this same longing is that
quintessence, inseparable from nature, and that man is the image of
the world.
1163.
O Time! consumer of all things; O envious age! thou dost destroy all
things and devour all things with the relentless teeth of years,
little by little in a slow death. Helen, when she looked in her
mirror, seeing the withered wrinkles made in her face by old age,
wept and wondered why she had twice been carried away.
O Time! consumer of all things, and O envious age! by which all

things are all devoured.
Death.

1164.
Every evil leaves behind a grief in our memory, except the supreme
evil, that is death, which destroys this memory together with life.
How to spend life (1165-1170).
1165.
0 sleepers! what a thing is slumber! Sleep resembles death. Ah, why

then dost thou not work in such wise as that after death thou mayst
retain a resemblance to perfect life, when, during life, thou art in
sleep so like to the hapless dead? [Footnote: Compare No. 676, Vol.
I. p. 353.]
1166.
One pushes down the other.
By these square-blocks are meant the life and the studies of men.
1167.
The knowledge of past times and of the places on the earth is both
an ornament and nutriment to the human mind.
1168.
To lie is so vile, that even if it were in speaking well of godly

things it would take off something from God's grace; and Truth is so
excellent, that if it praises but small things they become noble.
Beyond a doubt truth bears the same relation to falsehood as light

to darkness; and this truth is in itself so excellent that, even
when it dwells on humble and lowly matters, it is still infinitely
above uncertainty and lies, disguised in high and lofty discourses;
because in our minds, even if lying should be their fifth element,
this does not prevent that the truth of things is the chief
nutriment of superior intellects, though not of wandering wits.
But you who live in dreams are better pleased by the sophistical
reasons and frauds of wits in great and uncertain things, than by

those reasons which are certain and natural and not so far above us.
1169.
Avoid studies of which the result dies with the worker.
1170.
Men are in error when they lament the flight of time, accusing it of
being too swift, and not perceiving that it is sufficient as it
passes; but good memory, with which nature has endowed us, causes
things long past to seem present.
1171.
Learning acquired in youth arrests the evil of old age; and if you
understand that old age has wisdom for its food, you will so conduct
yourself in youth that your old age will not lack for nourishment.
1172.
The acquisition of any knowledge is always of use to the intellect,

because it may thus drive out useless things and retain the good.
For nothing can be loved or hated unless it is first known.
1173.
As a day well spent procures a happy sleep, so a life well employed

procures a happy death.
1174.
The water you touch in a river is the last of that which has passed,
and the first of that which is coming. Thus it is with time present.
Life if well spent, is long.
1175.
Just as food eaten without caring for it is turned into loathsome

nourishment, so study without a taste for it spoils memory, by
retaining nothing which it has taken in.

1176.
Just as eating against one's will is injurious to health, so study

without a liking for it spoils the memory, and it retains nothing it
takes in.
1177.
On Mount Etna the words freeze in your mouth and you may make ice of
them.[Footnote 2: There is no clue to explain this strange
sentence.]
Just as iron rusts unless it is used, and water putrifies or, in

cold, turns to ice, so our intellect spoils unless it is kept in
use.
You do ill if you praise, and still worse if you reprove in a matter
you do not understand.
When Fortune comes, seize her in front with a sure hand, because
behind she is bald.
1178.
It seems to me that men of coarse and clumsy habits and of small

knowledge do not deserve such fine instruments nor so great a
variety of natural mechanism as men of speculation and of great
knowledge; but merely a sack in which their food may be stowed and
whence it may issue, since they cannot be judged to be any thing
else than vehicles for food; for it seems to me they have nothing
about them of the human species but the voice and the figure, and
for all the rest are much below beasts.
1179.
Some there are who are nothing else than a passage for food and
augmentors of excrement and fillers of privies, because through them
no other things in the world, nor any good effects are produced,
since nothing but full privies results from them.
On foolishness and ignorance (1180--1182).

1180.
The greatest deception men suffer is from their own opinions.
1181.
Folly is the shield of shame, as unreadiness is that of poverty

glorified.
1182.
Blind ignorance misleads us thus and delights with the results of

lascivious joys.
Because it does not know the true light. Because it does not know
what is the true light.
Vain splendour takes from us the power of being .... behold! for its
vain splendour we go into the fire, thus blind ignorance does
mislead us. That is, blind ignorance so misleads us that ...
O! wretched mortals, open your eyes.
On riches (1183--1187).
1183.
That is not riches, which may be lost; virtue is our true good and
the true reward of its possessor. That cannot be lost; that never
deserts us, but when life leaves us. As to property and external
riches, hold them with trembling; they often leave their possessor
in contempt, and mocked at for having lost them.
1184.
Every man wishes to make money to give it to the doctors, destroyers

of life; they then ought to be rich. [Footnote 2: Compare No. 856.]
Man has much power of discourse which for the most part is vain and
false; animals have but little, but it is useful and true, and a
small truth is better than a great lie.
1185.

He who possesses most must be most afraid of loss.
1186.
He who wishes to be rich in a day will be hanged in a year.
1187.
That man is of supreme folly who always wants for fear of wanting;
and his life flies away while he is still hoping to enjoy the good
things which he has with extreme labour acquired.
Rules of Life (1188-1202).
1188.
If you governed your body by the rules of virtue you would not walk
on all fours in this world.
You grow in reputation like bread in the hands of a child.

[Footnote: The first sentence is obscure. Compare Nos. 825, 826.]
1189.
Savage he is who saves himself.
1190.
We ought not to desire the impossible. [Footnote: The writing of

this note, which is exceedingly minute, is reproduced in facsimile
on Pl. XLI No. 5 above the first diagram.
1191.
Ask counsel of him who rules himself well.
Justice requires power, insight, and will; and it resembles the

queen-bee.
He who does not punish evil commands it to be done.
He who takes the snake by the tail will presently be bitten by it.

The grave will fall in upon him who digs it.
1192.
The man who does not restrain wantonness, allies himself with
beasts.
You can have no dominion greater or less than that over yourself.
He who thinks little, errs much.
It is easier to contend with evil at the first than at the last.
No counsel is more loyal than that given on ships which are in

peril: He may expect loss who acts on the advice of an inexperienced
youth.
1193.
Where there is most feeling, there is the greatest martyrdom;--a

great martyr.
1194.
The memory of benefits is a frail defence against ingratitude.
Reprove your friend in secret and praise him openly.
Be not false about the past.
1195.
A SIMILE FOR PATIENCE.
Patience serves us against insults precisely as clothes do against

the cold. For if you multiply your garments as the cold increases,
that cold cannot hurt you; in the same way increase your patience
under great offences, and they cannot hurt your feelings.
1196.
To speak well of a base man is much the same as speaking ill of a

good man.
1197.
Envy wounds with false accusations, that is with detraction, a thing

which scares virtue.
1198.
We are deceived by promises and time disappoints us ... [Footnote 2:

The rest of this passage may be rendered in various ways, but none
of them give a satisfactory meaning.]
1199.
Fear arises sooner than any thing else.
1200.
Just as courage imperils life, fear protects it.
Threats alone are the weapons of the threatened man.
Wherever good fortune enters, envy lays siege to the place and
attacks it; and when it departs, sorrow and repentance remain
behind.
He who walks straight rarely falls.
It is bad if you praise, and worse if you reprove a thing, I mean,

if you do not understand the matter well.
It is ill to praise, and worse to reprimand in matters that you do

not understand.
1201.
Words which do not satisfy the ear of the hearer weary him or vex
him, and the symptoms of this you will often see in such hearers in
their frequent yawns; you therefore, who speak before men whose good
will you desire, when you see such an excess of fatigue, abridge
your speech, or change your discourse; and if you do otherwise, then
instead of the favour you desire, you will get dislike and

hostility.
And if you would see in what a man takes pleasure, without hearing
him speak, change the subject of your discourse in talking to him,
and when you presently see him intent, without yawning or wrinkling
his brow or other actions of various kinds, you may be certain that
the matter of which you are speaking is such as is agreeable to him
&c.
1202.
The lover is moved by the beloved object as the senses are by

sensible objects; and they unite and become one and the same thing.
The work is the first thing born of this union; if the thing loved
is base the lover becomes base.
When the thing taken into union is perfectly adapted to that which
receives it, the result is delight and pleasure and satisfaction.
When that which loves is united to the thing beloved it can rest
there; when the burden is laid down it finds rest there.
Politics (1203. 1204).
1203.
There will be eternal fame also for the inhabitants of that town,
constructed and enlarged by him.
All communities obey and are led by their magnates, and these
magnates ally themselves with the lords and subjugate them in two
ways: either by consanguinity, or by fortune; by consanguinity, when
their children are, as it were, hostages, and a security and pledge
of their suspected fidelity; by property, when you make each of
these build a house or two inside your city which may yield some
revenue and he shall have...; 10 towns, five thousand houses with
thirty thousand inhabitants, and you will disperse this great
congregation of people which stand like goats one behind the other,
filling every place with fetid smells and sowing seeds of pestilence
and death;
And the city will gain beauty worthy of its name and to you it will
be useful by its revenues, and the eternal fame of its

aggrandizement.
[Footnote: These notes were possibly written in preparation for a

letter. The meaning is obscure.]
1204.
To preserve Nature's chiefest boon, that is freedom, I can find

means of offence and defence, when it is assailed by ambitious
tyrants, and first I will speak of the situation of the walls, and
also I shall show how communities can maintain their good and just
Lords.
III.
POLEMICS.--SPECULATION.
Against Speculators (1205. 1206).
1205.
Oh! speculators on things, boast not of knowing the things that

nature ordinarily brings about; but rejoice if you know the end of
those things which you yourself devise.
1206.
Oh! speculators on perpetual motion how many vain projects of the

like character you have created! Go and be the companions of the
searchers for gold. [Footnote: Another short passage in MS. I,
referring also to speculators, is given by LIBRI (_Hist, des
Sciences math._ III, 228): _Sicche voi speculatori non vi fidate
delli autori che anno sol col immaginatione voluto farsi interpreti
tra la natura e l'omo, ma sol di quelli che non coi cienni della
natura, ma cogli effetti delle sue esperienze anno esercitati i loro
ingegni._]
Against alchemists (1207. 1208).
1207.

The false interpreters of nature declare that quicksilver is the

common seed of every metal, not remembering that nature varies the
seed according to the variety of the things she desires to produce
in the world.
1208.
And many have made a trade of delusions and false miracles,

deceiving the stupid multitude.
Against friars.
1209.
Pharisees--that is to say, friars.
[Footnote: Compare No. 837, 11. 54-57, No. 1296 (p. 363 and 364),
and No. 1305 (p. 370).]
Against writers of epitomes.
1210.
Abbreviators do harm to knowledge and to love, seeing that the love

of any thing is the offspring of this knowledge, the love being the
more fervent in proportion as the knowledge is more certain. And
this certainty is born of a complete knowledge of all the parts,
which, when combined, compose the totality of the thing which ought
to be loved. Of what use then is he who abridges the details of
those matters of which he professes to give thorough information,
while he leaves behind the chief part of the things of which the
whole is composed? It is true that impatience, the mother of
stupidity, praises brevity, as if such persons had not life long
enough to serve them to acquire a complete knowledge of one single
subject, such as the human body; and then they want to comprehend
the mind of God in which the universe is included, weighing it
minutely and mincing it into infinite parts, as if they had to
dissect it!
Oh! human stupidity, do you not perceive that, though you have been
with yourself all your life, you are not yet aware of the thing you
possess most of, that is of your folly? and then, with the crowd of
sophists, you deceive yourselves and others, despising the

mathematical sciences, in which truth dwells and the knowledge of

the things included in them. And then you occupy yourself with
miracles, and write that you possess information of those things of
which the human mind is incapable and which cannot be proved by any
instance from nature. And you fancy you have wrought miracles when
you spoil a work of some speculative mind, and do not perceive that
you are falling into the same error as that of a man who strips a
tree of the ornament of its branches covered with leaves mingled
with the scented blossoms or fruit....... [Footnote 48: _Givstino_,
Marcus Junianus Justinus, a Roman historian of the second century,
who compiled an epitome from the general history written by Trogus
Pompeius, who lived in the time of Augustus. The work of the latter
writer no longer exist.] as Justinus did, in abridging the histories
written by Trogus Pompeius, who had written in an ornate style all
the worthy deeds of his forefathers, full of the most admirable and
ornamental passages; and so composed a bald work worthy only of
those impatient spirits, who fancy they are losing as much time as
that which they employ usefully in studying the works of nature and
the deeds of men. But these may remain in company of beasts; among
their associates should be dogs and other animals full of rapine and
they may hunt with them after...., and then follow helpless beasts,
which in time of great snows come near to your houses asking alms as
from their master....
On spirits (1211--1213).
1211.
O mathematicians shed light on this error.
The spirit has no voice, because where there is a voice there is a

body, and where there is a body space is occupied, and this prevents
the eye from seeing what is placed behind that space; hence the
surrounding air is filled by the body, that is by its image.
1212.
There can be no voice where there is no motion or percussion of the

air; there can be no percussion of the air where there is no
instrument, there can be no instrument without a body; and this
being so, a spirit can have neither voice, nor form, nor strength.
And if it were to assume a body it could not penetrate nor enter
where the passages are closed. And if any one should say that by

air, compressed and compacted together, a spirit may take bodies of

various forms and by this means speak and move with strength--to him
I reply that when there are neither nerves nor bones there can be no
force exercised in any kind of movement made by such imaginary
spirits.
Beware of the teaching of these speculators, because their reasoning

is not confirmed by experience.
1213.
Of all human opinions that is to be reputed the most foolish which

deals with the belief in Necromancy, the sister of Alchemy, which
gives birth to simple and natural things. But it is all the more
worthy of reprehension than alchemy, because it brings forth nothing
but what is like itself, that is, lies; this does not happen in
Alchemy which deals with simple products of nature and whose
function cannot be exercised by nature itself, because it has no
organic instruments with which it can work, as men do by means of
their hands, who have produced, for instance, glass &c. but this
Necromancy the flag and flying banner, blown by the winds, is the
guide of the stupid crowd which is constantly witness to the
dazzling and endless effects of this art; and there are books full,
declaring that enchantments and spirits can work and speak without
tongues and without organic instruments-- without which it is
impossible to speak-- and can carry heaviest weights and raise
storms and rain; and that men can be turned into cats and wolves and
other beasts, although indeed it is those who affirm these things
who first became beasts.
And surely if this Necromancy did exist, as is believed by small

wits, there is nothing on the earth that would be of so much
importance alike for the detriment and service of men, if it were
true that there were in such an art a power to disturb the calm
serenity of the air, converting it into darkness and making
coruscations or winds, with terrific thunder and lightnings rushing
through the darkness, and with violent storms overthrowing high
buildings and rooting up forests; and thus to oppose armies,
crushing and annihilating them; and, besides these frightful storms
may deprive the peasants of the reward of their labours.--Now what
kind of warfare is there to hurt the enemy so much as to deprive him
of the harvest? What naval warfare could be compared with this? I
say, the man who has power to command the winds and to make ruinous

gales by which any fleet may be submerged, --surely a man who could
command such violent forces would be lord of the nations, and no
human ingenuity could resist his crushing force. The hidden
treasures and gems reposing in the body of the earth would all be
made manifest to him. No lock nor fortress, though impregnable,
would be able to save any one against the will of the necromancer.
He would have himself carried through the air from East to West and
through all the opposite sides of the universe. But why should I
enlarge further upon this? What is there that could not be done by
such a craftsman? Almost nothing, except to escape death. Hereby I
have explained in part the mischief and the usefulness, contained in
this art, if it is real; and if it is real why has it not remained
among men who desire it so much, having nothing to do with any
deity? For I know that there are numberless people who would, to
satisfy a whim, destroy God and all the universe; and if this
necromancy, being, as it were, so necessary to men, has not been
left among them, it can never have existed, nor will it ever exist
according to the definition of the spirit, which is invisible in
substance; for within the elements there are no incorporate things,
because where there is no body, there is a vacuum; and no vacuum can
exist in the elements because it would be immediately filled up.
Turn over.
1214.
OF SPIRITS.
We have said, on the other side of this page, that the definition of
a spirit is a power conjoined to a body; because it cannot move of
its own accord, nor can it have any kind of motion in space; and if
you were to say that it moves itself, this cannot be within the
elements. For, if the spirit is an incorporeal quantity, this
quantity is called a vacuum, and a vacuum does not exist in nature;
and granting that one were formed, it would be immediately filled up
by the rushing in of the element in which the vacuum had been
generated. Therefore, from the definition of weight, which is
this--Gravity is an accidental power, created by one element being
drawn to or suspended in another--it follows that an element, not
weighing anything compared with itself, has weight in the element
above it and lighter than it; as we see that the parts of water have
no gravity or levity compared with other water, but if you draw it
up into the air, then it would acquire weight, and if you were to
draw the air beneath the water then the water which remains above

this air would acquire weight, which weight could not sustain itself
by itself, whence collapse is inevitable. And this happens in water;
wherever the vacuum may be in this water it will fall in; and this
would happen with a spirit amid the elements, where it would
continuously generate a vacuum in whatever element it might find
itself, whence it would be inevitable that it should be constantly
flying towards the sky until it had quitted these elements.
AS TO WHETHER A SPIRIT HAS A BODY AMID THE ELEMENTS.
We have proved that a spirit cannot exist of itself amid the

elements without a body, nor can it move of itself by voluntary
motion unless it be to rise upwards. But now we will say how such a
spirit taking an aerial body would be inevitably melt into air;
because if it remained united, it would be separated and fall to
form a vacuum, as is said above; therefore it is inevitable, if it
is to be able to remain suspended in the air, that it should absorb
a certain quantity of air; and if it were mingled with the air, two
difficulties arise; that is to say: It must rarefy that portion of
the air with which it mingles; and for this cause the rarefied air
must fly up of itself and will not remain among the air that is
heavier than itself; and besides this the subtle spiritual essence
disunites itself, and its nature is modified, by which that nature
loses some of its first virtue. Added to these there is a third
difficulty, and this is that such a body formed of air assumed by
the spirits is exposed to the penetrating winds, which are
incessantly sundering and dispersing the united portions of the air,
revolving and whirling amidst the rest of the atmosphere; therefore
the spirit which is infused in this
1215.
air would be dismembered or rent and broken up with the rending of

the air into which it was incorporated.
AS TO WHETHER THE SPIRIT, HAVING TAKEN THIS BODY OF AIR, CAN MOVE OF
ITSELF OR NOT.
It is impossible that the spirit infused into a certain quantity of

air, should move this air; and this is proved by the above passage
where it is said: the spirit rarefies that portion of the air in
which it incorporates itself; therefore this air will rise high
above the other air and there will be a motion of the air caused by

its lightness and not by a voluntary movement of the spirit, and if

this air is encountered by the wind, according to the 3rd of this,
the air will be moved by the wind and not by the spirit incorporated
in it.
AS TO WHETHER THE SPIRIT CAN SPEAK OR NOT.
In order to prove whether the spirit can speak or not, it is

necessary in the first place to define what a voice is and how it is
generated; and we will say that the voice is, as it were, the
movement of air in friction against a dense body, or a dense body in
friction against the air,--which is the same thing. And this
friction of the dense and the rare condenses the rare and causes
resistance; again, the rare, when in swift motion, and the rare in
slow motion condense each other when they come in contact and make a
noise and very great uproar; and the sound or murmur made by the
rare moving through the rare with only moderate swiftness, like a
great flame generating noises in the air; and the tremendous uproar
made by the rare mingling with the rare, and when that air which is
both swift and rare rushes into that which is itself rare and in
motion, it is like the flame of fire which issues from a big gun and
striking against the air; and again when a flame issues from the
cloud, there is a concussion in the air as the bolt is generated.
Therefore we may say that the spirit cannot produce a voice without
movement of the air, and air in it there is none, nor can it emit
what it has not; and if desires to move that air in which it is
incorporated, it is necessary that the spirit should multiply
itself, and that cannot multiply which has no quantity. And in the
4th place it is said that no rare body can move, if it has not a
stable spot, whence it may take its motion; much more is it so when
an element has to move within its own element, which does not move
of itself, excepting by uniform evaporation at the centre of the
thing evaporated; as occurs in a sponge squeezed in the hand held
under water; the water escapes in every direction with equal
movement through the openings between the fingers of the hand in
which it is squeezed.
As to whether the spirit has an articulate voice, and whether the

spirit can be heard, and what hearing is, and seeing; the wave of
the voice passes through the air as the images of objects pass to
the eye.
Nonentity.

1216.
Every quantity is intellectually conceivable as infinitely

divisible.
[Amid the vastness of the things among which we live, the existence
of nothingness holds the first place; its function extends over all
things that have no existence, and its essence, as regards time,
lies precisely between the past and the future, and has nothing in
the present. This nothingness has the part equal to the whole, and
the whole to the part, the divisible to the indivisible; and the
product of the sum is the same whether we divide or multiply, and in
addition as in subtraction; as is proved by arithmeticians by their
tenth figure which represents zero; and its power has not extension
among the things of Nature.]
[What is called Nothingness is to be found only in time and in

speech. In time it stands between the past and future and has no
existence in the present; and thus in speech it is one of the things
of which we say: They are not, or they are impossible.]
With regard to time, nothingness lies between the past and the
future, and has nothing to do with the present, and as to its nature
it is to be classed among things impossible: hence, from what has
been said, it has no existence; because where there is nothing there
would necessarily be a vacuum.
Reflections on Nature (1217-1219).
1217.
EXAMPLE OF THE LIGHTNING IN CLOUDS.
[O mighty and once living instrument of formative nature. Incapable

of availing thyself of thy vast strength thou hast to abandon a life
of stillness and to obey the law which God and time gave to
procreative nature.]
Ah! how many a time the shoals of terrified dolphins and the huge
tunny-fish were seen to flee before thy cruel fury, to escape;

whilst thy fulminations raised in the sea a sudden tempest with

buffeting and submersion of ships in the great waves; and filling
the uncovered shores with the terrified and desperate fishes which
fled from thee, and left by the sea, remained in spots where they
became the abundant prey of the people in the neighbourhood.
O time, swift robber of all created things, how many kings, how many
nations hast thou undone, and how many changes of states and of
various events have happened since the wondrous forms of this fish
perished here in this cavernous and winding recess. Now destroyed by
time thou liest patiently in this confined space with bones stripped
and bare; serving as a support and prop for the superimposed
mountain.
[Footnote: The character of the handwriting points to an early

period of Leonardo's life. It has become very indistinct, and is at
present exceedingly difficult to decipher. Some passages remain
doubtful.]
[Footnote: Compare No. 1339, written on the same sheet.]
1218.
The watery element was left enclosed between the raised banks of the
rivers, and the sea was seen between the uplifted earth and the
surrounding air which has to envelope and enclose the complicated
machine of the earth, and whose mass, standing between the water and
the element of fire, remained much restricted and deprived of its
indispensable moisture; the rivers will be deprived of their waters,
the fruitful earth will put forth no more her light verdure; the
fields will no more be decked with waving corn; all the animals,
finding no fresh grass for pasture, will die and food will then be
lacking to the lions and wolves and other beasts of prey, and to men
who after many efforts will be compelled to abandon their life, and
the human race will die out. In this way the fertile and fruitful
earth will remain deserted, arid and sterile from the water being
shut up in its interior, and from the activity of nature it will
continue a little time to increase until the cold and subtle air
being gone, it will be forced to end with the element of fire; and
then its surface will be left burnt up to cinder and this will be
the end of all terrestrial nature. [Footnote: Compare No. 1339,
written on the same sheet.]

1219.
Why did nature not ordain that one animal should not live by the
death of another? Nature, being inconstant and taking pleasure in
creating and making constantly new lives and forms, because she
knows that her terrestrial materials become thereby augmented, is
more ready and more swift in her creating, than time in his
destruction; and so she has ordained that many animals shall be food
for others. Nay, this not satisfying her desire, to the same end she
frequently sends forth certain poisonous and pestilential vapours
upon the vast increase and congregation of animals; and most of all
upon men, who increase vastly because other animals do not feed upon
them; and, the causes being removed, the effects would not follow.
This earth therefore seeks to lose its life, desiring only continual
reproduction; and as, by the argument you bring forward and
demonstrate, like effects always follow like causes, animals are the
image of the world.
_XX._
_Humorous Writings._
_Just as Michaelangelo's occasional poems reflect his private life

as well as the general disposition of his mind, we may find in the
writings collected in this section, the transcript of Leonardo's
fanciful nature, and we should probably not be far wrong in
assuming, that he himself had recited these fables in the company of
his friends or at the court festivals of princes and patrons._ Era
tanto piacevole nella conversazione-- _so relates Vasari_--che
tirava a se gli animi delle genti. _And Paulus Jovius says in his
short biography of the artist:_ Fuit ingenio valde comi, nitido,
liberali, vultu autem longe venustissimo, et cum elegantiae omnis
deliciarumque maxime theatralium mirificus inventor ac arbiter
esset, ad lyramque scito caneret, cunctis per omnem aetatem
principibus mire placuit. _There can be no doubt that the fables are
the original offspring of Leonardo's brain, and not borrowed from
any foreign source; indeed the schemes and plans for the composition
of fables collected in division V seem to afford an external proof
of this, if the fables themselves did not render it self-evident.
Several of them-- for instance No._ l279--_are so strikingly
characteristic of Leonardo's views of natural science that we cannot
do them justice till we are acquainted with his theories on such
subjects; and this is equally true of the 'Prophecies'_.

_I have prefixed to these quaint writings the 'Studies on the life

and habits of animals' which are singular from their peculiar
aphoristic style, and I have transcribed them in exactly the order
in which they are written in MS. H. This is one of the very rare
instances in which one subject is treated in a consecutive series of
notes, all in one MS., and Leonardo has also departed from his
ordinary habits, by occasionally not completing the text on the page
it is begun. These brief notes of a somewhat mysterious bearing have
been placed here, simply because they may possibly have been
intended to serve as hints for fables or allegories. They can
scarcely be regarded as preparatory for a natural history, rather
they would seem to be extracts. On the one hand the names of some of
the animals seem to prove that Leonardo could not here be recording
observations of his own; on the other hand the notes on their habits
and life appear to me to dwell precisely on what must have
interested him most--so far as it is possible to form any complete
estimate of his nature and tastes._
_In No._ 1293 _lines_ 1-10, _we have a sketch of a scheme for
grouping the Prophecies. I have not however availed myself of it as
a clue to their arrangement here because, in the first place, the
texts are not so numerous as to render the suggested classification
useful to the reader, and, also, because in reading the long series,
as they occur in the original, we may follow the author's mind; and
here and there it is not difficult to see how one theme suggested
another. I have however regarded Leonardo's scheme for the
classification of the Prophecies as available for that of the Fables
and Jests, and have adhered to it as far as possible._
_Among the humourous writings I might perhaps have included the_

'Rebusses', _of which there are several in the collection of
Leonardo's drawings at Windsor; it seems to me not likely that many
or all of them could be solved at the present day and the MSS. throw
no light on them. Nor should I be justified if I intended to include
in the literary works the well-known caricatures of human faces
attributed to Leonardo-- of which, however, it may be incidentally
observed, the greater number are in my opinion undoubtedly spurious.
Two only have necessarily been given owing to their presence in
text, which it was desired to reproduce: Vol. I page_ 326, _and Pl.
CXXII. It can scarcely be doubted that some satirical intention is
conveyed by the drawing on Pl. LXIV (text No. _688_).

My reason for not presenting Leonardo to the reader as a poet is the

fact that the maxims and morals in verse which have been ascribed to
him, are not to be found in the manuscripts, and Prof. Uzielli has
already proved that they cannot be by him. Hence it would seem that
only a few short verses can be attributed to him with any
certainty._
I.
STUDIES ON THE LIFE AND HABITS OF ANIMALS.
1220.
THE LOVE OF VIRTUE.
The gold-finch is a bird of which it is related that, when it is

carried into the presence of a sick person, if the sick man is going
to die, the bird turns away its head and never looks at him; but if
the sick man is to be saved the bird never loses sight of him but is
the cause of curing him of all his sickness.
Like unto this is the love of virtue. It never looks at any vile or
base thing, but rather clings always to pure and virtuous things and
takes up its abode in a noble heart; as the birds do in green woods
on flowery branches. And this Love shows itself more in adversity
than in prosperity; as light does, which shines most where the place
is darkest.
1221.
ENVY.
We read of the kite that, when it sees its young ones growing too
big in the nest, out of envy it pecks their sides, and keeps them
without food.
CHEERFULNESS.
Cheerfulness is proper to the cock, which rejoices over every little

thing, and crows with varied and lively movements.
SADNESS.

Sadness resembles the raven, which, when it sees its young ones born
white, departs in great grief, and abandons them with doleful
lamentations, and does not feed them until it sees in them some few
black feathers.
1222.
PEACE.
We read of the beaver that when it is pursued, knowing that it is

for the virtue [contained] in its medicinal testicles and not being
able to escape, it stops; and to be at peace with its pursuers, it
bites off its testicles with its sharp teeth, and leaves them to its
enemies.
RAGE.
It is said of the bear that when it goes to the haunts of bees to

take their honey, the bees having begun to sting him he leaves the
honey and rushes to revenge himself. And as he seeks to be revenged
on all those that sting him, he is revenged on none; in such wise
that his rage is turned to madness, and he flings himself on the
ground, vainly exasperating, by his hands and feet, the foes against
which he is defending himself.
1223.
GRATITUDE.
The virtue of gratitude is said to be more [developed] in the birds

called hoopoes which, knowing the benefits of life and food, they
have received from their father and their mother, when they see them
grow old, make a nest for them and brood over them and feed them,
and with their beaks pull out their old and shabby feathers; and
then, with a certain herb restore their sight so that they return to
a prosperous state.
AVARICE.
The toad feeds on earth and always remains lean; because it never
eats enough:-- it is so afraid lest it should want for earth.
1224.

INGRATITUDE.
Pigeons are a symbol of ingratitude; for when they are old enough no
longer to need to be fed, they begin to fight with their father, and
this struggle does not end until the young one drives the father out
and takes the hen and makes her his own.
CRUELTY.
The basilisk is so utterly cruel that when it cannot kill animals by

its baleful gaze, it turns upon herbs and plants, and fixing its
gaze on them withers them up.
1225.
GENEROSITY.
It is said of the eagle that it is never so hungry but that it will

leave a part of its prey for the birds that are round it, which,
being unable to provide their own food, are necessarily dependent on
the eagle, since it is thus that they obtain food.
DISCIPLINE.
When the wolf goes cunningly round some stable of cattle, and by
accident puts his foot in a trap, so that he makes a noise, he bites
his foot off to punish himself for his folly.
1226.
FLATTERERS OR SYRENS.
The syren sings so sweetly that she lulls the mariners to sleep;
then she climbs upon the ships and kills the sleeping mariners.
PRUDENCE.
The ant, by her natural foresight provides in the summer for the
winter, killing the seeds she harvests that they may not germinate,
and on them, in due time she feeds.
FOLLY.

The wild bull having a horror of a red colour, the hunters dress up
the trunk of a tree with red and the bull runs at this with great
frenzy, thus fixing his horns, and forthwith the hunters kill him
there.
1227.
JUSTICE.
We may liken the virtue of Justice to the king of the bees which
orders and arranges every thing with judgment. For some bees are
ordered to go to the flowers, others are ordered to labour, others
to fight with the wasps, others to clear away all dirt, others to
accompagny and escort the king; and when he is old and has no wings
they carry him. And if one of them fails in his duty, he is punished
without reprieve.
TRUTH.
Although partridges steal each other's eggs, nevertheless the young

born of these eggs always return to their true mother.
1228.
FIDELITY, OR LOYALTY.
The cranes are so faithful and loyal to their king, that at night,
when he is sleeping, some of them go round the field to keep watch
at a distance; others remain near, each holding a stone in his foot,
so that if sleep should overcome them, this stone would fall and
make so much noise that they would wake up again. And there are
others which sleep together round the king; and this they do every
night, changing in turn so that their king may never find them
wanting.
FALSEHOOD.
The fox when it sees a flock of herons or magpies or birds of that

kind, suddenly flings himself on the ground with his mouth open to
look as he were dead; and these birds want to peck at his tongue,
and he bites off their heads.

1229.
LIES.
The mole has very small eyes and it always lives under ground; and
it lives as long as it is in the dark but when it comes into the
light it dies immediately, because it becomes known;--and so it is
with lies.
VALOUR.
The lion is never afraid, but rather fights with a bold spirit and
savage onslaught against a multitude of hunters, always seeking to
injure the first that injures him.
FEAR OR COWARDICE.
The hare is always frightened; and the leaves that fall from the
trees in autumn always keep him in terror and generally put him to
flight.
1230.
MAGNANIMITY.
The falcon never preys but on large birds; and it will let itself
die rather than feed on little ones, or eat stinking meat.
VAIN GLORY.
As regards this vice, we read that the peacock is more guilty of it

than any other animal. For it is always contemplating the beauty of
its tail, which it spreads in the form of a wheel, and by its cries
attracts to itself the gaze of the creatures that surround it.
And this is the last vice to be conquered.
1231.
CONSTANCY.
Constancy may be symbolised by the phoenix which, knowing that by

nature it must be resuscitated, has the constancy to endure the

burning flames which consume it, and then it rises anew.
INCONSTANCY.
The swallow may serve for Inconstancy, for it is always in movement,

since it cannot endure the smallest discomfort.
CONTINENCE.
The camel is the most lustful animal there is, and will follow the
female for a thousand miles. But if you keep it constantly with its
mother or sister it will leave them alone, so temperate is its
nature.
1232.
INCONTINENCE.
The unicorn, through its intemperance and not knowing how to control
itself, for the love it bears to fair maidens forgets its ferocity
and wildness; and laying aside all fear it will go up to a seated
damsel and go to sleep in her lap, and thus the hunters take it.
HUMILITY.
We see the most striking example of humility in the lamb which will
submit to any animal; and when they are given for food to imprisoned
lions they are as gentle to them as to their own mother, so that
very often it has been seen that the lions forbear to kill them.
1233.
PRIDE.
The falcon, by reason of its haughtiness and pride, is fain to lord

it and rule over all the other birds of prey, and longs to be sole
and supreme; and very often the falcon has been seen to assault the
eagle, the Queen of birds.
ABSTINENCE.
The wild ass, when it goes to the well to drink, and finds the water
troubled, is never so thirsty but that it will abstain from

drinking, and wait till the water is clear again.
GLUTTONY.
The vulture is so addicted to gluttony that it will go a thousand

miles to eat a carrion [carcase]; therefore is it that it follows
armies.
1234.
CHASTITY.
The turtle-dove is never false to its mate; and if one dies the
other preserves perpetual chastity, and never again sits on a green
bough, nor ever again drinks of clear water.
UNCHASTITY.
The bat, owing to unbridled lust, observes no universal rule in

pairing, but males with males and females with females pair
promiscuously, as it may happen.
MODERATION.
The ermine out of moderation never eats but once in the day; it will
rather let itself be taken by the hunters than take refuge in a
dirty lair, in order not to stain its purity.
1235.
THE EAGLE.
The eagle when it is old flies so high that it scorches its

feathers, and Nature allowing that it should renew its youth, it
falls into shallow water [Footnote 5: The meaning is obscure.]. And
if its young ones cannot bear to gaze on the sun [Footnote 6: The
meaning is obscure.]--; it does not feed them with any bird, that
does not wish to die. Animals which much fear it do not approach its
nest, although it does not hurt them. It always leaves part of its
prey uneaten.
LUMERPA,--FAME.

This is found in Asia Major, and shines so brightly that it absorbs

its own shadow, and when it dies it does not lose this light, and
its feathers never fall out, but a feather pulled out shines no
longer.
1236.
THE PELICAN.
This bird has a great love for its young; and when it finds them in
its nest dead from a serpent's bite, it pierces itself to the heart,
and with its blood it bathes them till they return to life.
THE SALAMANDER.
This has no digestive organs, and gets no food but from the fire, in
which it constantly renews its scaly skin.
The salamander, which renews its scaly skin in the fire,--for

virtue.
THE CAMELEON.
This lives on air, and there it is the prey of all the birds; so in
order to be safer it flies above the clouds and finds an air so
rarefied that it cannot support the bird that follows it.
At that height nothing can go unless it has a gift from Heaven, and
that is where the chameleon flies.
1237.
THE ALEPO, A FISH.
The fish _alepo_ does not live out of water.
THE OSTRICH.
This bird converts iron into nourishment, and hatches its eggs by
its gaze;--Armies under commanders.
THE SWAN.

The swan is white without any spot, and it sings sweetly as it dies,
its life ending with that song.
THE STORK.
This bird, by drinking saltwater purges itself of distempers. If the

male finds his mate unfaithful, he abandons her; and when it grows
old its young ones brood over it, and feed it till it dies.
1238.
THE GRASSHOPPER.
This silences the cuckoo with its song. It dies in oil and revives
in vinegar. It sings in the greatest heats
THE BAT.
The more light there is the blinder this creature becomes; as those
who gaze most at the sun become most dazzled.--For Vice, that cannot
remain where Virtue appears.
THE PARTRIDGE.
This bird changes from the female into the male and forgets its
former sex; and out of envy it steals the eggs from others and
hatches them, but the young ones follow the true mother.
THE SWALLOW.
This bird gives sight to its blind young ones by means of celandine.
1239.
THE OYSTER.--FOR TREACHERY.
This creature, when the moon is full opens itself wide, and when the
crab looks in he throws in a piece of rock or seaweed and the oyster
cannot close again, whereby it serves for food to that crab. This is
what happens to him who opens his mouth to tell his secret. He
becomes the prey of the treacherous hearer.
THE BASILISK.--CRUELTY.

All snakes flie from this creature; but the weasel attacks it by
means of rue and kills it.
THE ASP.
This carries instantaneous death in its fangs; and, that it may not
hear the charmer it stops its ears with its tail.
1240.
THE DRAGON.
This creature entangles itself in the legs of the elephant which

falls upon it, and so both die, and in its death it is avenged.
THE VIPER.
She, in pairing opens her mouth and at last clenches her teeth and
kills her husband. Then the young ones, growing within her body rend
her open and kill their mother.
THE SCORPION.
Saliva, spit out when fasting will kill a scorpion. This may be
likened to abstinence from greediness, which removes and heals the
ills which result from that gluttony, and opens the path of virtue.
1241.
THE CROCODILE. HYPOCRISY.
This animal catches a man and straightway kills him; after he is

dead, it weeps for him with a lamentable voice and many tears. Then,
having done lamenting, it cruelly devours him. It is thus with the
hypocrite, who, for the smallest matter, has his face bathed with
tears, but shows the heart of a tiger and rejoices in his heart at
the woes of others, while wearing a pitiful face.
THE TOAD.
The toad flies from the light of the sun, and if it is held there by
force it puffs itself out so much as to hide its head below and

shield itself from the rays. Thus does the foe of clear and radiant
virtue, who can only be constrainedly brought to face it with puffed
up courage.
1242.
THE CATERPILLAR.--FOR VIRTUE IN GENERAL.
The caterpillar, which by means of assiduous care is able to weave

round itself a new dwelling place with marvellous artifice and fine
workmanship, comes out of it afterwards with painted and lovely
wings, with which it rises towards Heaven.
THE SPIDER.
The spider brings forth out of herself the delicate and ingenious
web, which makes her a return by the prey it takes.
[Footnote: Two notes are underneath this text. The first: _'nessuna
chosa e da ttemere piu che lla sozza fama'_ is a repetition of the
first line of the text given in Vol. I No. 695.
The second: _faticha fugga cholla fama in braccio quasi ochultata c_

is written in red chalk and is evidently an incomplete sentence.]
1243.
THE LION.
This animal, with his thundering roar, rouses his young the third
day after they are born, teaching them the use of all their dormant
senses and all the wild things which are in the wood flee away.
This may be compared to the children of Virtue who are roused by the
sound of praise and grow up in honourable studies, by which they are
more and more elevated; while all that is base flies at the sound,
shunning those who are virtuous.
Again, the lion covers over its foot tracks, so that the way it has
gone may not be known to its enemies. Thus it beseems a captain to
conceal the secrets of his mind so that the enemy may not know his
purpose.

1244.
THE TARANTULA.
The bite of the tarantula fixes a man's mind on one idea; that is on
the thing he was thinking of when he was bitten.
THE SCREECH-OWL AND THE OWL.
These punish those who are scoffing at them by pecking out their
eyes; for nature has so ordered it, that they may thus be fed.
1245.
THE ELEPHANT.
The huge elephant has by nature what is rarely found in man; that is
Honesty, Prudence, Justice, and the Observance of Religion; inasmuch
as when the moon is new, these beasts go down to the rivers, and
there, solemnly cleansing themselves, they bathe, and so, having
saluted the planet, return to the woods. And when they are ill,
being laid down, they fling up plants towards Heaven as though they
would offer sacrifice. --They bury their tusks when they fall out
from old age.--Of these two tusks they use one to dig up roots for
food; but they save the point of the other for fighting with; when
they are taken by hunters and when worn out by fatigue, they dig up
these buried tusks and ransom themselves.
1246.
They are merciful, and know the dangers, and if one finds a man
alone and lost, he kindly puts him back in the road he has missed,
if he finds the footprints of the man before the man himself. It
dreads betrayal, so it stops and blows, pointing it out to the other
elephants who form in a troop and go warily.
These beasts always go in troops, and the oldest goes in front and
the second in age remains the last, and thus they enclose the troop.
Out of shame they pair only at night and secretly, nor do they then
rejoin the herd but first bathe in the river. The females do not
fight as with other animals; and it is so merciful that it is most
unwilling by nature ever to hurt those weaker than itself. And if it
meets in the middle of its way a flock of sheep

1247.
it puts them aside with its trunk, so as not to trample them under
foot; and it never hurts any thing unless when provoked. When one
has fallen into a pit the others fill up the pit with branches,
earth and stones, thus raising the bottom that he may easily get
out. They greatly dread the noise of swine and fly in confusion,
doing no less harm then, with their feet, to their own kind than to
the enemy. They delight in rivers and are always wandering about
near them, though on account of their great weight they cannot swim.
They devour stones, and the trunks of trees are their favourite
food. They have a horror of rats. Flies delight in their smell and
settle on their back, and the beast scrapes its skin making its
folds even and kills them.
1248.
When they cross rivers they send their young ones up against the
stream of the water; thus, being set towards the fall, they break
the united current of the water so that the current does not carry
them away. The dragon flings itself under the elephant's body, and
with its tail it ties its legs; with its wings and with its arms it
also clings round its ribs and cuts its throat with its teeth, and
the elephant falls upon it and the dragon is burst. Thus, in its
death it is revenged on its foe.
THE DRAGON.
These go in companies together, and they twine themselves after the

manner of roots, and with their heads raised they cross lakes, and
swim to where they find better pasture; and if they did not thus
combine
1249.
they would be drowned, therefore they combine.
THE SERPENT.
The serpent is a very large animal. When it sees a bird in the air
it draws in its breath so strongly that it draws the birds into its
mouth too. Marcus Regulus, the consul of the Roman army was

attacked, with his army, by such an animal and almost defeated. And
this animal, being killed by a catapult, measured 123 feet, that is
64 1/2 braccia and its head was high above all the trees in a wood.
THE BOA(?)
This is a very large snake which entangles itself round the legs of
the cow so that it cannot move and then sucks it, in such wise that
it almost dries it up. In the time of Claudius the Emperor, there
was killed, on the Vatican Hill,
1250.
one which had inside it a boy, entire, that it had swallowed.
THE MACLI.--CAUGHT WHEN ASLEEP.
This beast is born in Scandinavia. It has the shape of a great

horse, excepting that the great length of its neck and of its ears
make a difference. It feeds on grass, going backwards, for it has so
long an upper lip that if it went forwards it would cover up the
grass. Its legs are all in one piece; for this reason when it wants
to sleep it leans against a tree, and the hunters, spying out the
place where it is wont to sleep, saw the tree almost through, and
then, when it leans against it to sleep, in its sleep it falls, and
thus the hunters take it. And every other mode of taking it is in
vain, because it is incredibly swift in running.
1251.
THE BISON WHICH DOES INJURY IN ITS FLIGHT.
This beast is a native of Paeonia and has a neck with a mane like a
horse. In all its other parts it is like a bull, excepting that its
horns are in a way bent inwards so that it cannot butt; hence it has
no safety but in flight, in which it flings out its excrement to a
distance of 400 braccia in its course, and this burns like fire
wherever it touches.
LIONS, PARDS, PANTHERS, TIGERS.
These keep their claws in the sheath, and never put them out unless
they are on the back of their prey or their enemy.

THE LIONESS.
When the lioness defends her young from the hand of the hunter, in
order not to be frightened by the spears she keeps her eyes on the
ground, to the end that she may not by her flight leave her young
ones prisoners.
1252.
THE LION.
This animal, which is so terrible, fears nothing more than the noise
of empty carts, and likewise the crowing of cocks. And it is much
terrified at the sight of one, and looks at its comb with a
frightened aspect, and is strangely alarmed when its face is
covered.
THE PANTHER IN AFRICA.
This has the form of the lioness but it is taller on its legs and
slimmer and long bodied; and it is all white and marked with black
spots after the manner of rosettes; and all animals delight to look
upon these rosettes, and they would always be standing round it if
it were not for the terror of its face;
1253.
therefore knowing this, it hides its face, and the surrounding

animals grow bold and come close, the better to enjoy the sight of
so much beauty; when suddenly it seizes the nearest and at once
devours it.
CAMELS.
The Bactrian have two humps; the Arabian one only. They are swift in
battle and most useful to carry burdens. This animal is extremely
observant of rule and measure, for it will not move if it has a
greater weight than it is used to, and if it is taken too far it
does the same, and suddenly stops and so the merchants are obliged
to lodge there.
1254.

THE TIGER.
This beast is a native of Hyrcania, and it is something like the

panther from the various spots on its skin. It is an animal of
terrible swiftness; the hunter when he finds its young ones carries
them off hastily, placing mirrors in the place whence he takes them,
and at once escapes on a swift horse. The panther returning finds
the mirrors fixed on the ground and looking into them believes it
sees its young; then scratching with its paws it discovers the
cheat. Forthwith, by means of the scent of its young, it follows the
hunter, and when this hunter sees the tigress he drops one of the
young ones and she takes it, and having carried it to the den she
immediately returns to the hunter and does
1255.
the same till he gets into his boat.
CATOBLEPAS.
It is found in Ethiopia near to the source Nigricapo. It is not a

very large animal, is sluggish in all its parts, and its head is so
large that it carries it with difficulty, in such wise that it
always droops towards the ground; otherwise it would be a great pest
to man, for any one on whom it fixes its eyes dies immediately.
[Footnote: Leonardo undoubtedly derived these remarks as to the
Catoblepas from Pliny, Hist. Nat. VIII. 21 (al. 32): _Apud Hesperios
Aethiopas fons est Nigris_ (different readings), _ut plerique
existimavere, Nili caput.-----Juxta hunc fera appellatur catoblepas,
modica alioquin, ceterisque membris iners, caput tantum praegrave
aegre ferens; alias internecio humani generis, omnibus qui oculos
ejus videre, confestim morientibus._ Aelian, _Hist. An._ gives a far
more minute description of the creature, but he says that it poisons
beasts not by its gaze, but by its venomous breath. Athenaeus 221 B,
mentions both. If Leonardo had known of these two passages, he would
scarcely have omitted the poisonous breath. (H. MULLER-STRUBING.)]
THE BASILISK.
This is found in the province of Cyrenaica and is not more than 12

fingers long. It has on its head a white spot after the fashion of a
diadem. It scares all serpents with its whistling. It resembles a

snake, but does not move by wriggling but from the centre forwards
to the right. It is said that one
1256.
of these, being killed with a spear by one who was on horse-back,

and its venom flowing on the spear, not only the man but the horse
also died. It spoils the wheat and not only that which it touches,
but where it breathes the grass dries and the stones are split.
THE WEASEL.
This beast finding the lair of the basilisk kills it with the smell
of its urine, and this smell, indeed, often kills the weasel itself.
THE CERASTES.
This has four movable little horns; so, when it wants to feed, it
hides under leaves all of its body except these little horns which,
as they move, seem to the birds to be some small worms at play. Then
they immediately swoop down to pick them and the Cerastes suddenly
twines round them and encircles and devours them.
1257.
THE AMPHISBOENA.
This has two heads, one in its proper place the other at the tail;
as if one place were not enough from which to fling its venom.
THE IACULUS.
This lies on trees, and flings itself down like a dart, and pierces
through the wild beast and kills them.
THE ASP.
The bite of this animal cannot be cured unless by immediately

cutting out the bitten part. This pestilential animal has such a
love for its mate that they always go in company. And if, by mishap,
one of them is killed the other, with incredible swiftness, follows
him who has killed it; and it is so determined and eager for
vengeance that it overcomes every difficulty, and passing by every

troop it seeks to hurt none but its enemy. And it will travel any
distance, and it is impossible to avoid it unless by crossing water
and by very swift flight. It has its eyes turned inwards, and large
ears and it hears better than it sees.
1258.
THE ICHNEUMON.
This animal is the mortal enemy of the asp. It is a native of Egypt

and when it sees an asp near its place, it runs at once to the bed
or mud of the Nile and with this makes itself muddy all over, then
it dries itself in the sun, smears itself again with mud, and thus,
drying one after the other, it makes itself three or four coatings
like a coat of mail. Then it attacks the asp, and fights well with
him, so that, taking its time it catches him in the throat and
destroys him.
THE CROCODILE.
This is found in the Nile, it has four feet and lives on land and in
water. No other terrestrial creature but this is found to have no
tongue, and it only bites by moving its upper jaw. It grows to a
length of forty feet and has claws and is armed with a hide that
will take any blow. By day it is on land and at night in the water.
It feeds on fishes, and going to sleep on the bank of the Nile with
its mouth open, a bird called
1259.
trochilus, a very small bird, runs at once to its mouth and hops
among its teeth and goes pecking out the remains of the food, and so
inciting it with voluptuous delight tempts it to open the whole of
its mouth, and so it sleeps. This being observed by the ichneumon it
flings itself into its mouth and perforates its stomach and bowels,
and finally kills it.
THE DOLPHIN.
Nature has given such knowledge to animals, that besides the

consciousness of their own advantages they know the disadvantages of
their foes. Thus the dolphin understands what strength lies in a cut
from the fins placed on his chine, and how tender is the belly of

the crocodile; hence in fighting with him it thrusts at him from

beneath and rips up his belly and so kills him.
The crocodile is a terror to those that flee, and a base coward to

those that pursue him.
1260.
THE HIPPOPOTAMUS.
This beast when it feels itself over-full goes about seeking thorns,
or where there may be the remains of canes that have been split, and
it rubs against them till a vein is opened; then when the blood has
flowed as much as he needs, he plasters himself with mud and heals
the wound. In form he is something like a horse with long haunches,
a twisted tail and the teeth of a wild boar, his neck has a mane;
the skin cannot be pierced, unless when he is bathing; he feeds on
plants in the fields and goes into them backwards so that it may
seem, as though he had come out.
THE IBIS.
This bird resembles a crane, and when it feels itself ill it fills
its craw with water, and with its beak makes an injection of it.
THE STAG.
These creatures when they feel themselves bitten by the spider

called father-long-legs, eat crabs and free themselves of the venom.
1261.
THE LIZARD.
This, when fighting with serpents eats the sow-thistle and is free.
THE SWALLOW.
This [bird] gives sight to its blind young ones, with the juice of
the celandine.
THE WEASEL.

This, when chasing rats first eats of rue.
THE WILD BOAR.
This beast cures its sickness by eating of ivy.
THE SNAKE.
This creature when it wants to renew itself casts its old skin,
beginning with the head, and changing in one day and one night.
THE PANTHER.
This beast after its bowels have fallen out will still fight with
the dogs and hunters.
1262.
THE CHAMELEON.
This creature always takes the colour of the thing on which it is

resting, whence it is often devoured together with the leaves on
which the elephant feeds.
THE RAVEN.
When it has killed the Chameleon it takes laurel as a purge.
1263.
Moderation checks all the vices. The ermine will die rather than
besmirch itself.
OF FORESIGHT.
The cock does not crow till it has thrice flapped its wings; the
parrot in moving among boughs never puts its feet excepting where it
has first put its beak. Vows are not made till Hope is dead.
Motion tends towards the centre of gravity.
1264.

MAGNANIMITY.
The falcon never seizes any but large birds and will sooner die than
eat [tainted] meat of bad savour.
II.
FABLES.
Fables on animals (1265-1270).
1265.
A FABLE.
An oyster being turned out together with other fish in the house of
a fisherman near the sea, he entreated a rat to take him to the sea.
The rat purposing to eat him bid him open; but as he bit him the
oyster squeezed his head and closed; and the cat came and killed
him.
1266.
A FABLE.
The thrushes rejoiced greatly at seeing a man take the owl and
deprive her of liberty, tying her feet with strong bonds. But this
owl was afterwards by means of bird-lime the cause of the thrushes
losing not only their liberty, but their life. This is said for
those countries which rejoice in seeing their governors lose their
liberty, when by that means they themselves lose all succour, and
remain in bondage in the power of their enemies, losing their
liberty and often their life.
1267.
A FABLE.
A dog, lying asleep on the fur of a sheep, one of his fleas,

perceiving the odour of the greasy wool, judged that this must be a
land of better living, and also more secure from the teeth and nails
of the dog than where he fed on the dog; and without farther
reflection he left the dog and went into the thick wool. There he

began with great labour to try to pass among the roots of the hairs;
but after much sweating had to give up the task as vain, because
these hairs were so close that they almost touched each other, and
there was no space where fleas could taste the skin. Hence, after
much labour and fatigue, he began to wish to return to his dog, who
however had already departed; so he was constrained after long
repentance and bitter tears, to die of hunger.
1268.
A FABLE.
The vain and wandering butterfly, not content with being able to fly
at its ease through the air, overcome by the tempting flame of the
candle, decided to fly into it; but its sportive impulse was the
cause of a sudden fall, for its delicate wings were burnt in the
flame. And the hapless butterfly having dropped, all scorched, at
the foot of the candlestick, after much lamentation and repentance,
dried the tears from its swimming eyes, and raising its face
exclaimed: O false light! how many must thou have miserably deceived
in the past, like me; or if I must indeed see light so near, ought I
not to have known the sun from the false glare of dirty tallow?
A FABLE.
The monkey, finding a nest of small birds, went up to it greatly

delighted. But they, being already fledged, he could only succeed in
taking the smallest; greatly delighted he took it in his hand and
went to his abode; and having begun to look at the little bird he
took to kissing it, and from excess of love he kissed it so much and
turned it about and squeezed it till he killed it. This is said for
those who by not punishing their children let them come to mischief.
1269.
A FABLE.
A rat was besieged in his little dwelling by a weasel, which with

unwearied vigilance awaited his surrender, while watching his
imminent peril through a little hole. Meanwhile the cat came by and
suddenly seized the weasel and forthwith devoured it. Then the rat
offered up a sacrifice to Jove of some of his store of nuts, humbly
thanking His providence, and came out of his hole to enjoy his

lately lost liberty. But he was instantly deprived of it, together

with his life, by the cruel claws and teeth of the lurking cat.
1270.
A FABLE.
The ant found a grain of millet. The seed feeling itself taken
prisoner cried out to her: "If you will do me the kindness to allow
me accomplish my function of reproduction, I will give you a hundred
such as I am." And so it was.
A Spider found a bunch of grapes which for its sweetness was much
resorted to by bees and divers kinds of flies. It seemed to her that
she had found a most convenient spot to spread her snare, and having
settled herself on it with her delicate web, and entered into her
new habitation, there, every day placing herself in the openings
made by the spaces between the grapes, she fell like a thief on the
wretched creatures which were not aware of her. But, after a few
days had passed, the vintager came, and cut away the bunch of grapes
and put it with others, with which it was trodden; and thus the
grapes were a snare and pitfall both for the treacherous spider and
the betrayed flies.
An ass having gone to sleep on the ice over a deep lake, his heat
dissolved the ice and the ass awoke under water to his great grief,
and was forthwith drowned.
A falcon, unable to endure with patience the disappearance of a

duck, which, flying before him had plunged under water, wished to
follow it under water, and having soaked his feathers had to remain
in the water while the duck rising to the air mocked at the falcon
as he drowned.
The spider wishing to take flies in her treacherous net, was cruelly
killed in it by the hornet.
An eagle wanting to mock at the owl was caught by the wings in

bird-lime and was taken and killed by a man.
Fables on lifeless objects (1271--1274).
1271.

The water finding that its element was the lordly ocean, was seized
with a desire to rise above the air, and being encouraged by the
element of fire and rising as a very subtle vapour, it seemed as
though it were really as thin as air. But having risen very high, it
reached the air that was still more rare and cold, where the fire
forsook it, and the minute particles, being brought together, united
and became heavy; whence its haughtiness deserting it, it betook
itself to flight and it fell from the sky, and was drunk up by the
dry earth, where, being imprisoned for a long time, it did penance
for its sin.
1272.
A FABLE.
The razor having one day come forth from the handle which serves as
its sheath and having placed himself in the sun, saw the sun
reflected in his body, which filled him with great pride. And
turning it over in his thoughts he began to say to himself: "And
shall I return again to that shop from which I have just come?
Certainly not; such splendid beauty shall not, please God, be turned
to such base uses. What folly it would be that could lead me to
shave the lathered beards of rustic peasants and perform such menial
service! Is this body destined for such work? Certainly not. I will
hide myself in some retired spot and there pass my life in tranquil
repose." And having thus remained hidden for some months, one day he
came out into the air, and issuing from his sheath, saw himself
turned to the similitude of a rusty saw while his surface no longer
reflected the resplendent sun. With useless repentance he vainly
deplored the irreparable mischief saying to himself: "Oh! how far
better was it to employ at the barbers my lost edge of such
exquisite keenness! Where is that lustrous surface? It has been
consumed by this vexatious and unsightly rust."
The same thing happens to those minds which instead of exercise give
themselves up to sloth. They are like the razor here spoken of, and
lose the keenness of their edge, while the rust of ignorance spoils
their form.
A FABLE.
A stone of some size recently uncovered by the water lay on a

certain spot somewhat raised, and just where a delightful grove

ended by a stony road; here it was surrounded by plants decorated by
various flowers of divers colours. And as it saw the great quantity
of stones collected together in the roadway below, it began to wish
it could let itself fall down there, saying to itself: "What have I
to do here with these plants? I want to live in the company of
those, my sisters." And letting itself fall, its rapid course ended
among these longed for companions. When it had been there sometime
it began to find itself constantly toiling under the wheels of the
carts the iron-shoed feet of horses and of travellers. This one
rolled it over, that one trod upon it; sometimes it lifted itself a
little and then it was covered with mud or the dung of some animal,
and it was in vain that it looked at the spot whence it had come as
a place of solitude and tranquil place.
Thus it happens to those who choose to leave a life of solitary

comtemplation, and come to live in cities among people full of
infinite evil.
1273.
Some flames had already lasted in the furnace of a glass-blower,

when they saw a candle approaching in a beautiful and glittering
candlestick. With ardent longing they strove to reach it; and one of
them, quitting its natural course, writhed up to an unburnt brand on
which it fed and passed at the opposite end out by a narrow chink to
the candle which was near. It flung itself upon it, and with fierce
jealousy and greediness it devoured it, having reduced it almost to
death, and, wishing to procure the prolongation of its life, it
tried to return to the furnace whence it had come. But in vain, for
it was compelled to die, the wood perishing together with the
candle, being at last converted, with lamentation and repentance,
into foul smoke, while leaving all its sisters in brilliant and
enduring life and beauty.
1274.
A small patch of snow finding itself clinging to the top of a rock

which was lying on the topmost height of a very high mountain and
being left to its own imaginings, it began to reflect in this way,
saying to itself: "Now, shall not I be thought vain and proud for
having placed myself--such a small patch of snow--in so lofty a
spot, and for allowing that so large a quantity of snow as I have

seen here around me, should take a place lower than mine? Certainly
my small dimensions by no means merit this elevation. How easily may
I, in proof of my insignificance, experience the same fate as that
which the sun brought about yesterday to my companions, who were
all, in a few hours, destroyed by the sun. And this happened from
their having placed themselves higher than became them. I will flee
from the wrath of the sun, and humble myself and find a place
befitting my small importance." Thus, flinging itself down, it began
to descend, hurrying from its high home on to the other snow; but
the more it sought a low place the more its bulk increased, so that
when at last its course was ended on a hill, it found itself no less
in size than the hill which supported it; and it was the last of the
snow which was destroyed that summer by the sun. This is said for
those who, humbling themselves, become exalted.
Fables on plants (1275-1279).
1275.
The cedar, being desirous of producing a fine and noble fruit at its
summit, set to work to form it with all the strength of its sap. But
this fruit, when grown, was the cause of the tall and upright
tree-top being bent over.
The peach, being envious of the vast quantity of fruit which she saw
borne on the nut-tree, her neighbour, determined to do the same, and
loaded herself with her own in such a way that the weight of the
fruit pulled her up by the roots and broke her down to the ground.
The nut-tree stood always by a road side displaying the wealth of

its fruit to the passers by, and every one cast stones at it.
The fig-tree, having no fruit, no one looked at it; then, wishing to

produce fruits that it might be praised by men, it was bent and
broken down by them.
The fig-tree, standing by the side of the elm and seeing that its
boughs were bare of fruit, yet that it had the audacity to keep the
Sun from its own unripe figs with its branches, said to it: "Oh elm!
art thou not ashamed to stand in front of me. But wait till my
offspring are fully grown and you will see where you are!" But when
her offspring were mature, a troop of soldiers coming by fell upon
the fig-tree and her figs were all torn off her, and her boughs cut

away and broken. Then, when she was thus maimed in all her limbs,
the elm asked her, saying: "O fig-tree! which was best, to be
without offspring, or to be brought by them into so miserable a
plight!"
1276.
The plant complains of the old and dry stick which stands by its
side and of the dry stakes that surround it.
One keeps it upright, the other keeps it from low company.
1277.
A FABLE.
A nut, having been carried by a crow to the top of a tall campanile

and released by falling into a chink from the mortal grip of its
beak, it prayed the wall by the grace bestowed on it by God in
allowing it to be so high and thick, and to own such fine bells and
of so noble a tone, that it would succour it, and that, as it had
not been able to fall under the verdurous boughs of its venerable
father and lie in the fat earth covered up by his fallen leaves it
would not abandon it; because, finding itself in the beak of the
cruel crow, it had there made a vow that if it escaped from her it
would end its life in a little hole. At these words the wall, moved
to compassion, was content to shelter it in the spot where it had
fallen; and after a short time the nut began to split open and put
forth roots between the rifts of the stones and push them apart, and
to throw out shoots from its hollow shell; and, to be brief, these
rose above the building and the twisted roots, growing thicker,
began to thrust the walls apart, and tear out the ancient stones
from their old places. Then the wall too late and in vain bewailed
the cause of its destruction and in a short time, it wrought the
ruin of a great part of it.
1278.
A FABLE.
The privet feeling its tender boughs loaded with young fruit,
pricked by the sharp claws and beak of the insolent blackbird,
complained to the blackbird with pitious remonstrance entreating her

that since she stole its delicious fruits she should not deprive it
of the leaves with which it preserved them from the burning rays of
the sun, and that she should not divest it of its tender bark by
scratching it with her sharp claws. To which the blackbird replied
with angry upbraiding: "O, be silent, uncultured shrub! Do you not
know that Nature made you produce these fruits for my nourishment;
do you not see that you are in the world [only] to serve me as food;
do you not know, base creature, that next winter you will be food
and prey for the Fire?" To which words the tree listened patiently,
and not without tears. After a short time the blackbird was taken in
a net and boughs were cut to make a cage, in which to imprison her.
Branches were cut, among others from the pliant privet, to serve for
the small rods of the cage; and seeing herself to be the cause of
the Blackbird's loss of liberty it rejoiced and spoke as follows: "O
Blackbird, I am here, and not yet burnt by fire as you said. I shall
see you in prison before you see me burnt."
A FABLE.
The laurel and the myrtle seeing the pear tree cut down cried out
with a loud voice: "O pear-tree! whither are you going? Where is the
pride you had when you were covered with ripe fruits? Now you will
no longer shade us with your mass of leaves." Then the pear-tree
replied: "I am going with the husbandman who has cut me down and who
will take me to the workshop of a good sculptor who by his art will
make me take the form of Jove the god; and I shall be dedicated in a
temple and adored by men in the place of Jove, while you are bound
always to remain maimed and stripped of your boughs, which will be
placed round me to do me honour.
A FABLE.
The chesnut, seeing a man upon the fig-tree, bending its boughs down
and pulling off the ripe fruits, which he put into his open mouth
destroying and crushing them with his hard teeth, it tossed its long
boughs and with a noisy rustle exclaimed: "O fig! how much less are
you protected by nature than I. See how in me my sweet offspring are
set in close array; first clothed in soft wrappers over which is the
hard but softly lined husk; and not content with taking this care of
me, and having given them so strong a shelter, on this she has
placed sharp and close-set spines so that the hand of man cannot
hurt me." Then the fig-tree and her offspring began to laugh and
having laughed she said: "I know man to be of such ingenuity that

with rods and stones and stakes flung up among your branches he will
bereave you of your fruits; and when they are fallen, he will
trample them with his feet or with stones, so that your offspring
will come out of their armour, crushed and maimed; while I am
touched carefully by their hands, and not like you with sticks and
stones."
1279.
The hapless willow, finding that she could not enjoy the pleasure of
seeing her slender branches grow or attain to the height she wished,
or point to the sky, by reason of the vine and whatever other trees
that grew near, but was always maimed and lopped and spoiled,
brought all her spirits together and gave and devoted itself
entirely to imagination, standing plunged in long meditation and
seeking, in all the world of plants, with which of them she might
ally herself and which could not need the help of her withes. Having
stood for some time in this prolific imagination, with a sudden
flash the gourd presented itself to her thoughts and tossing all her
branches with extreme delight, it seemed to her that she had found
the companion suited to her purpose, because the gourd is more apt
to bind others than to need binding; having come to this conclusion
she awaited eagerly some friendly bird who should be the mediator of
her wishes. Presently seeing near her the magpie she said to him: "O
gentle bird! by the memory of the refuge which you found this
morning among my branches, when the hungry cruel, and rapacious
falcon wanted to devour you, and by that repose which you have
always found in me when your wings craved rest, and by the pleasure
you have enjoyed among my boughs, when playing with your companions
or making love--I entreat you find the gourd and obtain from her
some of her seeds, and tell her that those that are born of them I
will treat exactly as though they were my own flesh and blood; and
in this way use all the words you can think of, which are of the
same persuasive purport; though, indeed, since you are a master of
language, I need not teach you. And if you will do me this service I
shall be happy to have your nest in the fork of my boughs, and all
your family without payment of any rent." Then the magpie, having
made and confirmed certain new stipulations with the willow,--and
principally that she should never admit upon her any snake or
polecat, cocked his tail, and put down his head, and flung himself
from the bough, throwing his weight upon his wings; and these,
beating the fleeting air, now here, now there, bearing about
inquisitively, while his tail served as a rudder to steer him, he

came to a gourd; then with a handsome bow and a few polite words, he
obtained the required seeds, and carried them to the willow, who
received him with a cheerful face. And when he had scraped away with
his foot a small quantity of the earth near the willow, describing a
circle, with his beak he planted the grains, which in a short time
began to grow, and by their growth and the branches to take up all
the boughs of the willow, while their broad leaves deprived it of
the beauty of the sun and sky. And not content with so much evil,
the gourds next began, by their rude hold, to drag the ends of the
tender shoots down towards the earth, with strange twisting and
distortion.
Then, being much annoyed, it shook itself in vain to throw off the
gourd. After raving for some days in such plans vainly, because the
firm union forbade it, seeing the wind come by it commended itself
to him. The wind flew hard and opened the old and hollow stem of the
willow in two down to the roots, so that it fell into two parts. In
vain did it bewail itself recognising that it was born to no good
end.
III.
JESTS AND TALES.
1280.
A JEST.
A priest, making the rounds of his parish on Easter Eve, and

sprinkling holy water in the houses as is customary, came to a
painter's room, where he sprinkled the water on some of his
pictures. The painter turned round, somewhat angered, and asked him
why this sprinkling had been bestowed on his pictures; then said the
priest, that it was the custom and his duty to do so, and that he
was doing good; and that he who did good might look for good in
return, and, indeed, for better, since God had promised that every
good deed that was done on earth should be rewarded a hundred-fold
from above. Then the painter, waiting till he went out, went to an
upper window and flung a large pail of water on the priest's back,
saying: "Here is the reward a hundred-fold from above, which you
said would come from the good you had done me with your holy water,
by which you have damaged my pictures."

1281.
When wine is drunk by a drunkard, that wine is revenged on the

drinker.
1282.
Wine, the divine juice of the grape, finding itself in a golden and
richly wrought cup, on the table of Mahomet, was puffed up with
pride at so much honour; when suddenly it was struck by a contrary
reflection, saying to itself: "What am I about, that I should
rejoice, and not perceive that I am now near to my death and shall
leave my golden abode in this cup to enter into the foul and fetid
caverns of the human body, and to be transmuted from a fragrant and
delicious liquor into a foul and base one. Nay, and as though so
much evil as this were not enough, I must for a long time lie in
hideous receptacles, together with other fetid and corrupt matter,
cast out from human intestines." And it cried to Heaven, imploring
vengeance for so much insult, and that an end might henceforth be
put to such contempt; and that, since that country produced the
finest and best grapes in the whole world, at least they should not
be turned into wine. Then Jove made that wine drunk by Mahomet to
rise in spirit to his brain; and that in so deleterious a manner
that it made him mad, and gave birth to so many follies that when he
had recovered himself, he made a law that no Asiatic should drink
wine, and henceforth the vine and its fruit were left free.
As soon as wine has entered the stomach it begins to ferment and

swell; then the spirit of that man begins to abandon his body,
rising as it were skywards, and the brain finds itself parting from
the body. Then it begins to degrade him, and make him rave like a
madman, and then he does irreparable evil, killing his friends.
1283.
An artizan often going to visit a great gentleman without any

definite purpose, the gentleman asked him what he did this for. The
other said that he came there to have a pleasure which his lordship
could not have; since to him it was a satisfaction to see men
greater than himself, as is the way with the populace; while the
gentleman could only see men of less consequence than himself; and
so lords and great men were deprived of that pleasure.

1284.
Franciscan begging Friars are wont, at certain times, to keep fasts,

when they do not eat meat in their convents. But on journeys, as
they live on charity, they have license to eat whatever is set
before them. Now a couple of these friars on their travels, stopped
at an inn, in company with a certain merchant, and sat down with him
at the same table, where, from the poverty of the inn, nothing was
served to them but a small roast chicken. The merchant, seeing this
to be but little even for himself, turned to the friars and said:
"If my memory serves me, you do not eat any kind of flesh in your
convents at this season." At these words the friars were compelled
by their rule to admit, without cavil, that this was the truth; so
the merchant had his wish, and eat the chicken and the friars did
the best they could. After dinner the messmates departed, all three
together, and after travelling some distance they came to a river of
some width and depth. All three being on foot--the friars by reason
of their poverty, and the other from avarice--it was necessary by
the custom of company that one of the friars, being barefoot, should
carry the merchant on his shoulders: so having given his wooden
shoes into his keeping, he took up his man. But it so happened that
when the friar had got to the middle of the river, he again
remembered a rule of his order, and stopping short, he looked up,
like Saint Christopher, to the burden on his back and said: "Tell
me, have you any money about you?"--"You know I have", answered the
other, "How do you suppose that a Merchant like me should go about
otherwise?" "Alack!" cried the friar, "our rules forbid as to carry
any money on our persons," and forthwith he dropped him into the
water, which the merchant perceived was a facetious way of being
revenged on the indignity he had done them; so, with a smiling face,
and blushing somewhat with shame, he peaceably endured the revenge.
1285.
A JEST.
A man wishing to prove, by the authority of Pythagoras, that he had

formerly been in the world, while another would not let him finish
his argument, the first speaker said to the second: "It is by this
token that I was formerly here, I remember that you were a miller."
The other one, feeling himself stung by these words, agreed that it
was true, and that by the same token he remembered that the speaker
had been the ass that carried the flour.

A JEST.
It was asked of a painter why, since he made such beautiful figures,

which were but dead things, his children were so ugly; to which the
painter replied that he made his pictures by day, and his children
by night.
1286.
A man saw a large sword which another one wore at his side. Said he
"Poor fellow, for a long time I have seen you tied to that weapon;
why do you not release yourself as your hands are untied, and set
yourself free?" To which the other replied: "This is none of yours,
on the contrary it is an old story." The former speaker, feeling
stung, replied: "I know that you are acquainted with so few things
in this world, that I thought anything I could tell you would be new
to you."
1287.
A man gave up his intimacy with one of his friends because he often
spoke ill of his other friends. The neglected friend one day
lamenting to this former friend, after much complaining, entreated
him to say what might be the cause that had made him forget so much
friendship. To which he answered: "I will no longer be intimate with
you because I love you, and I do not choose that you, by speaking
ill of me, your friend, to others, should produce in others, as in
me, a bad impression of yourself, by speaking evil to them of me,
your friend. Therefore, being no longer intimate together, it will
seem as though we had become enemies; and in speaking evil of me, as
is your wont, you will not be blamed so much as if we continued
intimate.
1288.
A man was arguing and boasting that he knew many and various tricks.
Another among the bystanders said: "I know how to play a trick which
will make whomsoever I like pull off his breeches." The first man--
the boaster--said: "You won't make me pull off mine, and I bet you a
pair of hose on it." He who proposed the game, having accepted the
offer, produced breeches and drew them across the face of him who
bet the pair of hose and won the bet [4].

A man said to an acquaintance: "Your eyes are changed to a strange

colour." The other replied: "It often happens, but you have not
noticed it." "When does it happen?" said the former. "Every time
that my eyes see your ugly face, from the shock of so unpleasing a
sight they suddenly turn pale and change to a strange colour."
A man said to another: "Your eyes are changed to a strange colour."

The other replied: "It is because my eyes behold your strange ugly
face."
A man said that in his country were the strangest things in the
world. Another answered: "You, who were born there, confirm this as
true, by the strangeness of your ugly face."
[Footnote: The joke turns, it appears, on two meanings of trarre and

is not easily translated.]
1289.
An old man was publicly casting contempt on a young one, and boldly
showing that he did not fear him; on which the young man replied
that his advanced age served him better as a shield than either his
tongue or his strength.
1290.
A JEST.
A sick man finding himself in _articulo mortis_ heard a knock at the

door, and asking one of his servants who was knocking, the servant
went out, and answered that it was a woman calling herself Madonna
Bona. Then the sick man lifting his arms to Heaven thanked God with
a loud voice, and told the servants that they were to let her come
in at once, so that he might see one good woman before he died,
since in all his life he had never yet seen one.
1291.
A JEST.
A man was desired to rise from bed, because the sun was already
risen. To which he replied: "If I had as far to go, and as much to

do as he has, I should be risen by now; but having but a little way

to go, I shall not rise yet."
1292.
A man, seeing a woman ready to hold up the target for a jousting

match, exclaimed, looking at the shield, and considering his spear:
"Alack! this is too small a workman for so great a business."
IV.
PROPHECIES.
1293.
THE DIVISION OF THE PROPHECIES.
First, of things relating to animals; secondly, of irrational

creatures; thirdly of plants; fourthly, of ceremonies; fifthly, of
manners; sixthly, of cases or edicts or quarrels; seventhly, of
cases that are impossible in nature [paradoxes], as, for instance,
of those things which, the more is taken from them, the more they
grow. And reserve the great matters till the end, and the small
matters give at the beginning. And first show the evils and then the
punishment of philosophical things.
(Of Ants.)
These creatures will form many communities, which will hide

themselves and their young ones and victuals in dark caverns, and
they will feed themselves and their families in dark places for many
months without any light, artificial or natural.
[Footnote: Lines 1--5l are in the original written in one column,

beginning with the text of line 11. At the end of the column is the
programme for the arrangement of the prophecies, placed here at the
head: Lines 56--79 form a second column, lines 80--97 a third one
(see the reproduction of the text on the facsimile PI. CXVIII).
Another suggestion for the arrangement of the prophecies is to be

found among the notes 55--57 on page 357.]
(Of Bees.)

And many others will be deprived of their store and their food, and
will be cruelly submerged and drowned by folks devoid of reason. Oh
Justice of God! Why dost thou not wake and behold thy creatures thus
ill used?
(Of Sheep, Cows, Goats and the like.)
Endless multitudes of these will have their little children taken

from them ripped open and flayed and most barbarously quartered.
(Of Nuts, and Olives, and Acorns, and Chesnuts, and such like.)
Many offspring shall be snatched by cruel thrashing from the very

arms of their mothers, and flung on the ground, and crushed.
(Of Children bound in Bundles.)
O cities of the Sea! In you I see your citizens--both females and

males--tightly bound, arms and legs, with strong withes by folks who
will not understand your language. And you will only be able to
assuage your sorrows and lost liberty by means of tearful complaints
and sighing and lamentation among yourselves; for those who will
bind you will not understand you, nor will you understand them.
(Of Cats that eat Rats.)
In you, O cities of Africa your children will be seen quartered in

their own houses by most cruel and rapacious beasts of your own
country.
(Of Asses that are beaten.)
[Footnote 48: Compare No. 845.] O Nature! Wherefore art thou so

partial; being to some of thy children a tender and benign mother,
and to others a most cruel and pitiless stepmother? I see children
of thine given up to slavery to others, without any sort of
advantage, and instead of remuneration for the good they do, they
are paid with the severest suffering, and spend their whole life in
benefitting those who ill treat them.
(Of Men who sleep on boards of Trees.)

Men shall sleep, and eat, and dwell among trees, in the forests and
open country.
(Of Dreaming.)
Men will seem to see new destructions in the sky. The flames that
fall from it will seem to rise in it and to fly from it with terror.
They will hear every kind of animals speak in human language. They
will instantaneously run in person in various parts of the world,
without motion. They will see the greatest splendour in the midst of
darkness. O! marvel of the human race! What madness has led you
thus! You will speak with animals of every species and they with you
in human speech. You will see yourself fall from great heights
without any harm and torrents will accompany you, and will mingle
with their rapid course.
(Of Christians.)
Many who hold the faith of the Son only build temples in the name of
the Mother.
(Of Food which has been alive.)
[84] A great portion of bodies that have been alive will pass into
the bodies of other animals; which is as much as to say, that the
deserted tenements will pass piecemeal into the inhabited ones,
furnishing them with good things, and carrying with them their
evils. That is to say the life of man is formed from things eaten,
and these carry with them that part of man which dies . . .
1294.
(Of Funeral Rites, and Processions, and Lights, and Bells, and
Followers.)
The greatest honours will be paid to men, and much pomp, without
their knowledge.
[Footnote: A facsimile of this text is on PI. CXVI below on the

right, but the writing is larger than the other notes on the same
sheet and of a somewhat different style. The ink is also of a
different hue, as may be seen on the original sheet at Milan.]

1295.
(Of the Avaricious.)
There will be many who will eagerly and with great care and
solicitude follow up a thing, which, if they only knew its
malignity, would always terrify them.
(Of those men, who, the older they grow, the more avaricious they
become, whereas, having but little time to stay, they should become
more liberal.)
We see those who are regarded as being most experienced and

judicious, when they least need a thing, seek and cherish it with
most avidity.
(Of the Ditch.)
Many will be busied in taking away from a thing, which will grow in
proportion as it is diminished.
(Of a Weight placed on a Feather-pillow.)
And it will be seen in many bodies that by raising the head they
swell visibly; and by laying the raised head down again, their size
will immediately be diminished.
(Of catching Lice.)
And many will be hunters of animals, which, the fewer there are the
more will be taken; and conversely, the more there are, the fewer
will be taken.
(Of Drawing Water in two Buckets with a single Rope.)
And many will be busily occupied, though the more of the thing they
draw up, the more will escape at the other end.
(Of the Tongues of Pigs and Calves in Sausage-skins.)
Oh! how foul a thing, that we should see the tongue of one animal in
the guts of another.

(Of Sieves made of the Hair of Animals.)
We shall see the food of animals pass through their skin everyway
excepting through their mouths, and penetrate from the outside
downwards to the ground.
(Of Lanterns.)
[Footnote 35: Lanterns were in Italy formerly made of horn.] The

cruel horns of powerful bulls will screen the lights of night
against the wild fury of the winds.
(Of Feather-beds.)
Flying creatures will give their very feathers to support men.
(Of Animals which walk on Trees--wearing wooden Shoes.)
The mire will be so great that men will walk on the trees of their
country.
(Of the Soles of Shoes, which are made from the Ox.)
And in many parts of the country men will be seen walking on the
skins of large beasts.
(Of Sailing in Ships.)
There will be great winds by reason of which things of the East will
become things of the West; and those of the South, being involved in
the course of the winds, will follow them to distant lands.
(Of Worshipping the Pictures of Saints.)
Men will speak to men who hear not; having their eyes open, they
will not see; they will speak to these, and they will not be
answered. They will implore favours of those who have ears and hear
not; they will make light for the blind.
(Of Sawyers.)
There will be many men who will move one against another, holding in
their hands a cutting tool. But these will not do each other any

injury beyond tiring each other; for, when one pushes forward the
other will draw back. But woe to him who comes between them! For he
will end by being cut in pieces.
(Of Silk-spinning.)
Dismal cries will be heard loud, shrieking with anguish, and the
hoarse and smothered tones of those who will be despoiled, and at
last left naked and motionless; and this by reason of the mover,
which makes every thing turn round.
(Of putting Bread into the Mouth of the Oven and taking it out
again.)
In every city, land, castle and house, men shall be seen, who for
want of food will take it out of the mouths of others, who will not
be able to resist in any way.
(Of tilled Land.)
The Earth will be seen turned up side down and facing the opposite
hemispheres, uncovering the lurking holes of the fiercest animals.
(Of Sowing Seed.)
Then many of the men who will remain alive, will throw the victuals
they have preserved out of their houses, a free prey to the birds
and beasts of the earth, without taking any care of them at all.
(Of the Rains, which, by making the Rivers muddy, wash away the
Land.)
[Footnote 81: Compare No. 945.] Something will fall from the sky
which will transport a large part of Africa which lies under that
sky towards Europe, and that of Europe towards Africa, and that of
the Scythian countries will meet with tremendous revolutions
[Footnote 84: Compare No. 945.].
(Of Wood that burns.)
The trees and shrubs in the great forests will be converted into
cinder.

(Of Kilns for Bricks and Lime.)
Finally the earth will turn red from a conflagration of many days
and the stones will be turned to cinders.
(Of boiled Fish.)
The natives of the waters will die in the boiling flood.
(Of the Olives which fall from the Olive trees, shedding oil which
makes light.)
And things will fall with great force from above, which will give us
nourishment and light.
(Of Owls and screech owls and what will happen to certain birds.)
Many will perish of dashing their heads in pieces, and the eyes of
many will jump out of their heads by reason of fearful creatures
come out of the darkness.
(Of flax which works the cure of men.)
That which was at first bound, cast out and rent by many and various
beaters will be respected and honoured, and its precepts will be
listened to with reverence and love.
(Of Books which teach Precepts.)
Bodies without souls will, by their contents give us precepts by

which to die well.
(Of Flagellants.)
Men will hide themselves under the bark of trees, and, screaming,
they will make themselves martyrs, by striking their own limbs.
(Of the Handles of Knives made of the Horns of Sheep.)
We shall see the horns of certain beasts fitted to iron tools, which
will take the lives of many of their kind.
(Of Night when no Colour can be discerned.)

There will come a time when no difference can be discerned between

colours, on the contrary, everything will be black alike.
(Of Swords and Spears which by themselves never hurt any one.)
One who by himself is mild enough and void of all offence will
become terrible and fierce by being in bad company, and will most
cruelly take the life of many men, and would kill many more if they
were not hindered by bodies having no soul, that have come out of
caverns--that is, breastplates of iron.
(Of Snares and Traps.)
Many dead things will move furiously, and will take and bind the
living, and will ensnare them for the enemies who seek their death
and destruction.
(Of Metals.)
That shall be brought forth out of dark and obscure caves, which
will put the whole human race in great anxiety, peril and death. To
many that seek them, after many sorrows they will give delight, and
to those who are not in their company, death with want and
misfortune. This will lead to the commission of endless crimes; this
will increase and persuade bad men to assassinations, robberies and
treachery, and by reason of it each will be suspicious of his
partner. This will deprive free cities of their happy condition;
this will take away the lives of many; this will make men torment
each other with many artifices deceptions and treasons. O monstrous
creature! How much better would it be for men that every thing
should return to Hell! For this the vast forests will be devastated
of their trees; for this endless animals will lose their lives.
(Of Fire.)
One shall be born from small beginnings which will rapidly become
vast. This will respect no created thing, rather will it, by its
power, transform almost every thing from its own nature into
another.
(Of Ships which sink.)

Huge bodies will be seen, devoid of life, carrying, in fierce haste,

a multitude of men to the destruction of their lives.
(Of Oxen, which are eaten.)
The masters of estates will eat their own labourers.
(Of beating Beds to renew them.)
Men will be seen so deeply ungrateful that they will turn upon that
which has harboured them, for nothing at all; they will so load it
with blows that a great part of its inside will come out of its
place, and will be turned over and over in its body.
(Of Things which are eaten and which first are killed.)
Those who nourish them will be killed by them and afflicted by

merciless deaths.
(Of the Reflection of Walls of Cities in the Water of their

Ditches.)
The high walls of great cities will be seen up side down in their
ditches.
(Of Water, which flows turbid and mixed with Soil and Dust; and of
Mist, which is mixed with the Air; and of Fire which is mixed with
its own, and each with each.)
All the elements will be seen mixed together in a great whirling

mass, now borne towards the centre of the world, now towards the
sky; and now furiously rushing from the South towards the frozen
North, and sometimes from the East towards the West, and then again
from this hemisphere to the other.
(The World may be divided into two Hemispheres at any Point.)
All men will suddenly be transferred into opposite hemispheres.
(The division of the East from the West may be made at any point.)
All living creatures will be moved from the East to the West; and in
the same way from North to South, and vice versa.

(Of the Motion of Water which carries wood, which is dead.)
Bodies devoid of life will move by themselves and carry with them
endless generations of the dead, taking the wealth from the
bystanders.
(Of Eggs which being eaten cannot form Chickens.)
Oh! how many will they be that never come to the birth!
(Of Fishes which are eaten unborn.)
Endless generations will be lost by the death of the pregnant.
(Of the Lamentation on Good Friday.)
Throughout Europe there will be a lamentation of great nations over

the death of one man who died in the East.
(Of Dreaming.)
Men will walk and not stir, they will talk to those who are not
present, and hear those who do not speak.
(Of a Man's Shadow which moves with him.)
Shapes and figures of men and animals will be seen following these
animals and men wherever they flee. And exactly as the one moves the
other moves; but what seems so wonderful is the variety of height
they assume.
(Of our Shadow cast by the Sun, and our Reflection in the Water at
one and the same time.)
Many a time will one man be seen as three and all three move
together, and often the most real one quits him.
(Of wooden Chests which contain great Treasures.)
Within walnuts and trees and other plants vast treasures will be
found, which lie hidden there and well guarded.

(Of putting out the Light when going to Bed.)
Many persons puffing out a breath with too much haste, will thereby
lose their sight, and soon after all consciousness.
(Of the Bells of Mules, which are close to their Ears.)
In many parts of Europe instruments of various sizes will be heard

making divers harmonies, with great labour to those who hear them
most closely.
(Of Asses.)
The severest labour will be repaid with hunger and thirst, and
discomfort, and blows, and goadings, and curses, and great abuse.
(Of Soldiers on horseback.)
Many men will be seen carried by large animals, swift of pace, to

the loss of their lives and immediate death.
In the air and on earth animals will be seen of divers colours

furiously carrying men to the destruction of their lives.
(Of the Stars of Spurs.)
By the aid of the stars men will be seen who will be as swift as any
swift animal.
(Of a Stick, which is dead.)
The motions of a dead thing will make many living ones flee with
pain and lamentation and cries.
(Of Tinder.)
With a stone and with iron things will be made visible which before
were not seen.
1296.
(Of going in Ships.)

We shall see the trees of the great forests of Taurus and of Sinai
and of the Appenines and others, rush by means of the air, from East
to West and from North to South; and carry, by means of the air,
great multitudes of men. Oh! how many vows! Oh! how many deaths! Oh!
how many partings of friends and relations! Oh! how many will those
be who will never again see their own country nor their native land,
and who will die unburied, with their bones strewn in various parts
of the world!
(Of moving on All Saints' Day.)
Many will forsake their own dwellings and carry with them all their
belongings and will go to live in other parts.
(Of All Souls' Day.)
How many will they be who will bewail their deceased forefathers,
carrying lights to them.
(Of Friars, who spending nothing but words, receive great gifts and
bestow Paradise.)
Invisible money will procure the triumph of many who will spend it.
(Of Bows made of the Horns of Oxen.)
Many will there be who will die a painful death by means of the
horns of cattle.
(Of writing Letters from one Country to another.)
Men will speak with each other from the most remote countries, and
reply.
(Of Hemispheres, which are infinite; and which are divided by an

infinite number of Lines, so that every Man always has one of these
Lines between his Feet.)
Men standing in opposite hemispheres will converse and deride each

other and embrace each other, and understand each other's language.
(Of Priests who say Mass.)

There will be many men who, when they go to their labour will put on
the richest clothes, and these will be made after the fashion of
aprons [petticoats].
(Of Friars who are Confessors.)
And unhappy women will, of their own free will, reveal to men all
their sins and shameful and most secret deeds.
(Of Churches and the Habitations of Friars.)
Many will there be who will give up work and labour and poverty of
life and goods, and will go to live among wealth in splendid
buildings, declaring that this is the way to make themselves
acceptable to God.
(Of Selling Paradise.)
An infinite number of men will sell publicly and unhindered things

of the very highest price, without leave from the Master of it;
while it never was theirs nor in their power; and human justice will
not prevent it.
(Of the Dead which are carried to be buried.)
The simple folks will carry vast quantities of lights to light up

the road for those who have entirely lost the power of sight.
(Of Dowries for Maidens.)
And whereas, at first, maidens could not be protected against the

violence of Men, neither by the watchfulness of parents nor by
strong walls, the time will come when the fathers and parents of
those girls will pay a large price to a man who wants to marry them,
even if they are rich, noble and most handsome. Certainly this seems
as though nature wished to eradicate the human race as being useless
to the world, and as spoiling all created things.
(Of the Cruelty of Man.)
Animals will be seen on the earth who will always be fighting

against each other with the greatest loss and frequent deaths on
each side. And there will be no end to their malignity; by their

strong limbs we shall see a great portion of the trees of the vast
forests laid low throughout the universe; and, when they are filled
with food the satisfaction of their desires will be to deal death
and grief and labour and wars and fury to every living thing; and
from their immoderate pride they will desire to rise towards heaven,
but the too great weight of their limbs will keep them down. Nothing
will remain on earth, or under the earth or in the waters which will
not be persecuted, disturbed and spoiled, and those of one country
removed into another. And their bodies will become the sepulture and
means of transit of all they have killed.
O Earth! why dost thou not open and engulf them in the fissures of
thy vast abyss and caverns, and no longer display in the sight of
heaven such a cruel and horrible monster.
1297.
PROPHECIES.
There will be many which will increase in their destruction.
(The Ball of Snow rolling over Snow.)
There will be many who, forgetting their existence and their name,
will lie as dead on the spoils of other dead creatures.
(Sleeping on the Feathers of Birds.)
The East will be seen to rush to the West and the South to the North
in confusion round and about the universe, with great noise and
trembling or fury.
(In the East wind which rushes to the West.)
The solar rays will kindle fire on the earth, by which a thing that
is under the sky will be set on fire, and, being reflected by some
obstacle, it will bend downwards.
(The Concave Mirror kindles a Fire, with which we heat the oven, and
this has its foundation beneath its roof.)
A great part of the sea will fly towards heaven and for a long time
will not return. (That is, in Clouds.)

There remains the motion which divides the mover from the thing
moved.
Those who give light for divine service will be destroyed.(The Bees
which make the Wax for Candles)
Dead things will come from underground and by their fierce movements
will send numberless human beings out of the world. (Iron, which
comes from under ground is dead but the Weapons are made of it which
kill so many Men.)
The greatest mountains, even those which are remote from the sea
shore, will drive the sea from its place.
(This is by Rivers which carry the Earth they wash away from the
Mountains and bear it to the Sea-shore; and where the Earth comes
the sea must retire.)
The water dropped from the clouds still in motion on the flanks of
mountains will lie still for a long period of time without any
motion whatever; and this will happen in many and divers lands.
(Snow, which falls in flakes and is Water.)
The great rocks of the mountains will throw out fire; so that they
will burn the timber of many vast forests, and many beasts both wild
and tame.
(The Flint in the Tinder-box which makes a Fire that consumes all
the loads of Wood of which the Forests are despoiled and with this
the flesh of Beasts is cooked.)
Oh! how many great buildings will be ruined by reason of Fire.
(The Fire of great Guns.)
Oxen will be to a great extent the cause of the destruction of

cities, and in the same way horses and buffaloes.
(By drawing Guns.)
1298.

The Lion tribe will be seen tearing open the earth with their clawed
paws and in the caves thus made, burying themselves together with
the other animals that are beneath them.
Animals will come forth from the earth in gloomy vesture, which will
attack the human species with astonishing assaults, and which by
their ferocious bites will make confusion of blood among those they
devour.
Again the air will be filled with a mischievous winged race which
will assail men and beasts and feed upon them with much noise--
filling themselves with scarlet blood.
1299.
Blood will be seen issuing from the torn flesh of men, and trickling
down the surface.
Men will have such cruel maladies that they will tear their flesh
with their own nails. (The Itch.)
Plants will be seen left without leaves, and the rivers standing
still in their channels.
The waters of the sea will rise above the high peaks of the
mountains towards heaven and fall again on to the dwellings of men.
(That is, in Clouds.)
The largest trees of the forest will be seen carried by the fury of
the winds from East to West. (That is across the Sea.)
Men will cast away their own victuals. (That is, in Sowing.)
1300.
Human beings will be seen who will not understand each other's
speech; that is, a German with a Turk.
Fathers will be seen giving their daughters into the power of man
and giving up all their former care in guarding them. (When Girls
are married.)

Men will come out their graves turned into flying creatures; and
they will attack other men, taking their food from their very hand
or table. (As Flies.)
Many will there be who, flaying their mother, will tear the skin
from her back. (Husbandmen tilling the Earth.)
Happy will they be who lend ear to the words of the Dead. (Who read
good works and obey them.)
1031.
Feathers will raise men, as they do birds, towards heaven (that is,
by the letters which are written with quills.)
The works of men's hands will occasion their death. (Swords and
Spears.)
Men out of fear will cling to the thing they most fear. (That is
they will be miserable lest they should fall into misery.)
Things that are separate shall be united and acquire such virtue
that they will restore to man his lost memory; that is papyrus
[sheets] which are made of separate strips and have preserved the
memory of the things and acts of men.
The bones of the Dead will be seen to govern the fortunes of him who
moves them. (By Dice.)
Cattle with their horns protect the Flame from its death. (In a
Lantern [Footnote 13: See note page 357.].)
The Forests will bring forth young which will be the cause of their
death. (The handle of the hatchet.)
1302.
Men will deal bitter blows to that which is the cause of their life.
(In thrashing Grain.)
The skins of animals will rouse men from their silence with great
outcries and curses. (Balls for playing Games.)

Very often a thing that is itself broken is the occasion of much

union. (That is the Comb made of split Cane which unites the threads
of Silk.)
The wind passing through the skins of animals will make men dance.
(That is the Bag-pipe, which makes people dance.)
1303.
(Of Walnut trees, that are beaten.)
Those which have done best will be most beaten, and their offspring
taken and flayed or peeled, and their bones broken or crushed.
(Of Sculpture.)
Alas! what do I see? The Saviour crucified anew.
(Of the Mouth of Man, which is a Sepulchre.)
Great noise will issue from the sepulchres of those who died evil
and violent deaths.
(Of the Skins of Animals which have the sense of feeling what is in
the things written.)
The more you converse with skins covered with sentiments, the more
wisdom will you acquire.
(Of Priests who bear the Host in their body.)
Then almost all the tabernacles in which dwells the Corpus Domini,
will be plainly seen walking about of themselves on the various
roads of the world.
1304.
And those who feed on grass will turn night into day (Tallow.)
And many creatures of land and water will go up among the stars
(that is Planets.)
The dead will be seen carrying the living (in Carts and Ships in

various places.)
Food shall be taken out of the mouth of many ( the oven's mouth.)
And those which will have their food in their mouth will be deprived
of it by the hands of others (the oven.)
1305.
(Of Crucifixes which are sold.)
I see Christ sold and crucified afresh, and his Saints suffering
Martyrdom.
(Of Physicians, who live by sickness.)
Men will come into so wretched a plight that they will be glad that
others will derive profit from their sufferings or from the loss of
their real wealth, that is health.
(Of the Religion of Friars, who live by the Saints who have been
dead a great while.)
Those who are dead will, after a thousand years be those who will
give a livelihood to many who are living.
(Of Stones converted into Lime, with which prison walls are made.)
Many things that have been before that time destroyed by fire will
deprive many men of liberty.
1306.
(Of Children who are suckled.)
Many Franciscans, Dominicans and Benedictines will eat that which at

other times was eaten by others, who for some months to come will
not be able to speak.
(Of Cockles and Sea Snails which are thrown up by the sea and which
rot inside their shells.)
How many will there be who, after they are dead, will putrefy inside

their own houses, filling all the surrounding air with a fetid
smell.
1307.
(Of Mules which have on them rich burdens of silver and gold.)
Much treasure and great riches will be laid upon four-footed beasts,
which will convey them to divers places.
1308.
(Of the Shadow cast by a man at night with a light.)
Huge figures will appear in human shape, and the nearer you get to
them, the more will their immense size diminish.
[Footnote page 1307: It seems to me probable that this note, which

occurs in the note book used in 1502, when Leonardo, in the service
of Cesare Borgia, visited Urbino, was suggested by the famous
pillage of the riches of the palace of Guidobaldo, whose treasures
Cesare Borgia at once had carried to Cesena (see GREGOROVIUS,
_Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter_. XIII, 5, 4). ]
1309.
(Of Snakes, carried by Storks.)
Serpents of great length will be seen at a great height in the air,

fighting with birds.
(Of great guns, which come out of a pit and a mould.)
Creatures will come from underground which with their terrific noise
will stun all who are near; and with their breath will kill men and
destroy cities and castles.
1310.
(Of Grain and other Seeds.)
Men will fling out of their houses those victuals which were
intended to sustain their life.

(Of Trees, which nourish grafted shoots.)
Fathers and mothers will be seen to take much more delight in their
step-children then in their own children.
(Of the Censer.)
Some will go about in white garments with arrogant gestures

threatening others with metal and fire which will do no harm at all
to them.
1311.
(Of drying Fodder.)
Innumerable lives will be destroyed and innumerable vacant spaces

will be made on the earth.
(Of the Life of Men, who every year change their bodily substance.)
Men, when dead, will pass through their own bowels.
1312.
(Shoemakers.)
Men will take pleasure in seeing their own work destroyed and
injured.
1313.
(Of Kids.)
The time of Herod will come again, for the little innocent children
will be taken from their nurses, and will die of terrible wounds
inflicted by cruel men.
V.
DRAUGHTS AND SCHEMES FOR THE HUMOROUS WRITINGS.
Schemes for fables, etc. (1314-1323).

1314.
A FABLE.
The crab standing under the rock to catch the fish which crept under
it, it came to pass that the rock fell with a ruinous downfall of
stones, and by their fall the crab was crushed.
THE SAME.
The spider, being among the grapes, caught the flies which were
feeding on those grapes. Then came the vintage, and the spider was
cut down with the grapes.
The vine that has grown old on an old tree falls with the ruin of
that tree, and through that bad companionship must perish with it.
The torrent carried so much earth and stones into its bed, that it
was then constrained to change its course.
The net that was wont to take the fish was seized and carried away
by the rush of fish.
The ball of snow when, as it rolls, it descends from the snowy

mountains, increases in size as it falls.
The willow, which by its long shoots hopes as it grows, to outstrip

every other plant, from having associated itself with the vine which
is pruned every year was always crippled.
1315.
Fable of the tongue bitten by the teeth.
The cedar puffed up with pride of its beauty, separated itself from
the trees around it and in so doing it turned away towards the wind,
which not being broken in its fury, flung it uprooted on the earth.
The traveller's joy, not content in its hedge, began to fling its
branches out over the high road, and cling to the opposite hedge,
and for this it was broken away by the passers by.

1316.
The goldfinch gives victuals to its caged young. Death rather than
loss of liberty. [Footnote: Above this text is another note, also
referring to liberty; see No. 694.]
1317.
(Of Bags.)
Goats will convey the wine to the city.
1318.
All those things which in winter are hidden under the snow, will be
uncovered and laid bare in summer. (for Falsehood, which cannot
remain hidden).
1319.
A FABLE.
The lily set itself down by the shores of the Ticino, and the
current carried away bank and the lily with it.
1320.
A JEST.
Why Hungarian ducats have a double cross on them.
1321.
A SIMILE.
A vase of unbaked clay, when broken, may be remoulded, but not a

baked one.
1322.
Seeing the paper all stained with the deep blackness of ink, it he
deeply regrets it; and this proves to the paper that the words,
composed upon it were the cause of its being preserved.

1323.
The pen must necessarily have the penknife for a companion, and it
is a useful companionship, for one is not good for much without the
other.
Schemes for prophecies (1324-1329).
1324.
The knife, which is an artificial weapon, deprives man of his nails,

his natural weapons.
The mirror conducts itself haughtily holding mirrored in itself the

Queen. When she departs the mirror remains there ...
1325.
Flax is dedicated to death, and to the corruption of mortals. To

death, by being used for snares and nets for birds, animals and
fish; to corruption, by the flaxen sheets in which the dead are
wrapped when they are buried, and who become corrupt in these
winding sheets.-- And again, this flax does not separate its fibre
till it has begun to steep and putrefy, and this is the flower with
which garlands and decorations for funerals should be made.
1326.
(Of Peasants who work in shirts)
Shadows will come from the East which will blacken with great colour
darkness the sky that covers Italy.
(Of the Barbers.)
All men will take refuge in Africa.
1327.
The cloth which is held in the hand in the current of a running

stream, in the waters of which the cloth leaves all its foulness and
dirt, is meant to signify this &c.

By the thorn with inoculated good fruit is signified those natures

which of themselves were not disposed towards virtue, but by the aid
of their preceptors they have the repudation of it.
1328.
A COMMON THING.
A wretched person will be flattered, and these flatterers are always

the deceivers, robbers and murderers of the wretched person.
The image of the sun where it falls appears as a thing which covers
the person who attempts to cover it.
(Money and Gold.)
Out of cavernous pits a thing shall come forth which will make all
the nations of the world toil and sweat with the greatest torments,
anxiety and labour, that they may gain its aid.
(Of the Dread of Poverty.)
The malicious and terrible [monster] will cause so much terror of

itself in men that they will rush together, with a rapid motion,
like madmen, thinking they are escaping her boundless force.
(Of Advice.)
The man who may be most necessary to him who needs him, will be
repaid with ingratitude, that is greatly contemned.
1329.
(Of Bees.)
They live together in communities, they are destroyed that we may

take the honey from them. Many and very great nations will be
destroyed in their own dwellings.
1330.
WHY DOGS TAKE PLEASURE IN SMELLING AT EACH OTHER.

This animal has a horror of the poor, because they eat poor food,
and it loves the rich, because they have good living and especially
meat. And the excrement of animals always retains some virtue of its
origin as is shown by the faeces ...
Now dogs have so keen a smell, that they can discern by their nose
the virtue remaining in these faeces, and if they find them in the
streets, smell them and if they smell in them the virtue of meat or
of other things, they take them, and if not, they leave them: And to
return to the question, I say that if by means of this smell they
know that dog to be well fed, they respect him, because they judge
that he has a powerful and rich master; and if they discover no such
smell with the virtue of meet, they judge that dog to be of small
account and to have a poor and humble master, and therefore they
bite that dog as they would his master.
1331.
The circular plans of carrying earth are very useful, inasmuch as

men never stop in their work; and it is done in many ways. By one of
these ways men carry the earth on their shoulders, by another in
chests and others on wheelbarrows. The man who carries it on his
shoulders first fills the tub on the ground, and he loses time in
hoisting it on to his shoulders. He with the chests loses no time.
[Footnote: The subject of this text has apparently no connection
with the other texts of this section.]
Irony (1332).
1332.
If Petrarch was so fond of bay, it was because it is of a good taste

in sausages and with tunny; I cannot put any value on their foolery.
[Footnote: Conte Porro has published these lines in the _Archivio
Stor. Lombarda_ VIII, IV; he reads the concluding line thus: _I no
posso di loro gia (sic) co' far tesauro._--This is known to be by a
contemporary poet, as Senatore Morelli informs me.]
Tricks (1333-1335).
1333.

We are two brothers, each of us has a brother. Here the way of

saying it makes it appear that the two brothers have become four.
1334.
TRICKS OF DIVIDING.
Take in each hand an equal number; put 4 from the right hand into
the left; cast away the remainder; cast away an equal number from
the left hand; add 5, and now you will find 13 in this [left] hand;
that is-I made you put 4 from the right hand into the left, and cast
away the remainder; now your right hand has 4 more; then I make you
throw away as many from the right as you threw away from the left;
so, throwing from each hand a quantity of which the remainder may be
equal, you now have 4 and 4, which make 8, and that the trick may
not be detected I made you put 5 more, which made 13.
TRICKS OF DIVIDING.
Take any number less than 12 that you please; then take of mine
enough to make up the number 12, and that which remains to me is the
number which you at first had; because when I said, take any number
less than 12 as you please, I took 12 into my hand, and of that 12
you took such a number as made up your number of 12; and what you
added to your number, you took from mine; that is, if you had 8 to
go as far as to 12, you took of my 12, 4; hence this 4 transferred
from me to you reduced my 12 to a remainder of 8, and your 8 became
12; so that my 8 is equal to your 8, before it was made 12.
[Footnote 1334: G. Govi _says in the_ 'Saggio' p. 22: _Si dilett

Leonarda, di giuochi di prestigi e molti (?) ne descrisse, che si
leggono poi riportati dal Paciolo nel suo libro:_ de Viribus
Quantitatis, _e che, se non tutti, sono certo in gran parte
invenzioni del Vinci._]
1335.
If you want to teach someone a subject you do not know yourself, let
him measure the length of an object unknown to you, and he will
learn the measure you did not know before;--Master Giovanni da Lodi.
_XXI._

_Letters. Personal Records. Dated Notes._
_When we consider how superficial and imperfect are the accounts of

Leonardo's life written some time after his death by Vasari and
others, any notes or letters which can throw more light on his
personal circumstances cannot fail to be in the highest degree
interesting. The texts here given as Nos._ 1351--1353, _set his
residence in Rome in quite a new aspect; nay, the picture which
irresistibly dwells in our minds after reading these details of his
life in the Vatican, forms a striking contrast to the contemporary
life of Raphael at Rome._
_I have placed foremost of these documents the very remarkable

letters to the Defterdar of Syria. In these Leonardo speaks of
himself as having staid among the mountains of Armenia, and as the
biographies of the master tell nothing of any such distant journeys,
it would seem most obvious to treat this passage as fiction, and so
spare ourselves the onus of proof and discussion. But on close
examination no one can doubt that these documents, with the
accompanying sketches, are the work of Leonardo's own hand. Not
merely is the character of the handwriting his, but the spelling and
the language are his also. In one respect only does the writing
betray any marked deviation from the rest of the notes, especially
those treating on scientific questions; namely, in these
observations he seems to have taken particular pains to give the
most distinct and best form of expression to all he had to say; we
find erasures and emendations in almost every line. He proceeded, as
we shall see, in the same way in the sketches for letters to
Giuliano de' Medici, and what can be more natural, I may ask, than
to find the draft of a letter thus altered and improved when it is
to contain an account of a definite subject, and when personal
interests are in the scale? The finished copies as sent off are not
known to exist; if we had these instead of the rough drafts, we
might unhesitatingly have declared that some unknown Italian
engineer must have been, at that time, engaged in Armenia in the
service of the Egyptian Sultan, and that Leonardo had copied his
documents. Under this hypothesis however we should have to state
that this unknown writer must have been so far one in mind with
Leonardo as to use the same style of language and even the same
lines of thought. This explanation might--as I say--have been
possible, if only we had the finished letters. But why should these
rough drafts of letters be regarded as anything else than what they
actually and obviously are? If Leonardo had been a man of our own

time, we might perhaps have attempted to account for the facts by

saying that Leonardo, without having been in the East himself, might
have undertaken to write a Romance of which the scene was laid in
Armenia, and at the desire of his publisher had made sketches of
landscape to illustrate the text.
I feel bound to mention this singular hypothesis as it has actually

been put forward (see No. 1336 note 5); and it would certainly seem
as though there were no other possible way of evading the conclusion
to which these letters point, and their bearing on the life of the
master,--absurd as the alternative is. But, if, on a question of
such importance, we are justified in suggesting theories that have
no foundation in probability, I could suggest another which, as
compared with that of a Fiction by Leonardo, would be neither more
nor less plausible; it is, moreover the only other hypothesis,
perhaps, which can be devised to account for these passages, if it
were possible to prove that the interpretation that the documents
themselves suggest, must be rejected a priori; viz may not Leonardo
have written them with the intention of mystifying those who, after
his death, should try to decipher these manuscripts with a view to
publishing them? But if, in fact, no objection that will stand the
test of criticism can be brought against the simple and direct
interpretation of the words as they stand, we are bound to regard
Leonardo's travels in the East as an established fact. There is, I
believe nothing in what we know of his biography to negative such a
fact, especially as the details of his life for some few years are
wholly unknown; nor need we be at a loss for evidence which may
serve to explain--at any rate to some extent--the strangeness of his
undertaking such a journey. We have no information as to Leonardo's
history between 1482 and 1486; it cannot be proved that he was
either in Milan or in Florence. On the other hand the tenor of this
letter does not require us to assume a longer absence than a year or
two. For, even if his appointment_ (offitio) _as Engineer in Syria
had been a permanent one, it might have become untenable--by the
death perhaps of the Defterdar, his patron, or by his removal from
office--, and Leonardo on his return home may have kept silence on
the subject of an episode which probably had ended in failure and
disappointment.
From the text of No. 1379 we can hardly doubt that Leonardo intended
to make an excursion secretly from Rome to Naples, although so far
as has hitherto been known, his biographers never allude to it. In
another place (No. 1077) he says that he had worked as an Engineer

in Friuli. Are we to doubt this statement too, merely because no

biographer has hitherto given us any information on the matter? In
the geographical notes Leonardo frequently speaks of the East, and
though such passages afford no direct proof of his having been
there, they show beyond a doubt that, next to the Nile, the
Euphrates, the Tigris and the Taurus mountains had a special
interest in his eyes. As a still further proof of the futility of
the argument that there is nothing in his drawings to show that he
had travelled in the East, we find on Pl. CXX a study of oriental
heads of Armenian type,--though of course this may have been made in
Italy.
If the style of these letters were less sober, and the expressions
less strictly to the point throughout, it miglit be possible to
regard them as a romantic fiction instead of a narrative of fact.
Nay, we have only to compare them with such obviously fanciful
passages as No. 1354, Nos. 670-673, and the Fables and Prophecies.
It is unnecessary to discuss the subject any further here; such
explanations as the letter needs are given in the foot notes.
The drafts of letters to Lodovico il Moro are very remarkable.

Leonardo and this prince were certainly far less closely connected,
than has hitherto been supposed. It is impossible that Leonardo can
have remained so long in the service of this prince, because the
salary was good, as is commonly stated. On the contrary, it would
seem, that what kept him there, in spite of his sore need of the
money owed him by the prince, was the hope of some day being able to
carry out the project of casting the_ 'gran cavallo'.
Drafts of Letters and Reports referring to Armenia (1336. 1337).
1336.
To THE DEVATDAR OF SYRIA, LIEUTENANT OF THE SACRED SULTAN OF

BABYLON.
[3] The recent disaster in our Northern parts which I am certain

will terrify not you alone but the whole world, which
[Footnote: Lines 1-52 are reproduced in facsimile on Pl. CXVI.
1. _Diodario._ This word is not to be found in any Italian

dictionary, and for a long time I vainly sought an explanation of

it. The youthful reminiscences of my wife afforded the desired clue.

The chief town of each Turkish Villayet, or province --such as
Broussa, for instance, in Asia Minor, is the residence of a
Defterdar, who presides over the financial affairs of the province.
_Defterdar hane_ was, in former times, the name given to the
Ministry of Finance at Constantinople; the Minister of Finance to
the Porte is now known as the _Mallie-Nazri_ and the _Defterdars_
are his subordinates. A _Defterdar_, at the present day is merely
the head of the finance department in each Provincial district. With
regard to my suggestion that Leonardo's _Diodario_ might be
identical with the Defterdar of former times, the late M. C.
DEFREMERIE, Arabic Professor, and Membre de l'Institut de France
wrote to me as follows: _Votre conjecture est parfaitement fondee;
diodario est Vequivalent de devadar ou plus exactement devatdar,
titre d'une importante dignite en Egypt'e, sous les Mamlouks._
The word however is not of Turkish, but of Perso-Arabie derivation.

[Defter written in arab?] literally _Defter_ (Arabic) meaning
_folio_; for _dar_ (Persian) Bookkeeper or holder is the English
equivalent; and the idea is that of a deputy in command. During the
Mamelook supremacy over Syria, which corresponded in date with
Leonardo's time, the office of Defterdar was the third in importance
in the State.
_Soltano di Babilonia_. The name of Babylon was commonly applied to

Cairo in the middle ages. For instance BREIDENBACH, _Itinerarium
Hierosolyma_ p. 218 says: "At last we reached Babylon. But this is
not that Babylon which stood on the further shore of the river
Chober, but that which is called the Egyptian Babylon. It is close
by Cairo and the twain are but one and not two towns; one half is
called Cairo and the other Babylon, whence they are called together
Cairo-Babylon; originally the town is said to have been named
Memphis and then Babylon, but now it is called Cairo." Compare No.
1085, 6.
Egypt was governed from 1382 till 1517 by the Borgite or

Tcherkessian dynasty of the Mamelook Sultans. One of the most famous
of these, Sultan Kait Bey, ruled from 1468-1496 during whose reign
the Gama (or Mosque) of Kait Bey and tomb of Kait Bey near the
Okella Kait Bey were erected in Cairo, which preserve his name to
this day. Under the rule of this great and wise prince many
foreigners, particularly Italians, found occupation in Egypt, as may
be seen in the 'Viaggio di Josaphat Barbaro', among other

travellers. "Next to Leonardo (so I learn from Prof. Jac. Burckhardt

of Bale) Kait Bey's most helpful engineer was a German who in about
1487, superintended the construction of the Mole at Alexandria.
Felix Fabri knew him and mentions him in his _Historia Suevorum_,
written in 1488."
3. _Il nuovo accidente accaduto_, or as Leonardo first wrote and

then erased, _e accaduto un nuovo accidente_. From the sequel this
must refer to an earthquake, and indeed these were frequent at that
period, particularly in Asia Minor, where they caused immense
mischief. See No. 1101 note.]
shall be related to you in due order, showing first the effect and
then the cause. [Footnote 4: The text here breaks off. The following
lines are a fresh beginning of a letter, evidently addressed to the
same person, but, as it would seem, written at a later date than the
previous text. The numerous corrections and amendments amply prove
that it is not a copy from any account of a journey by some unknown
person; but, on the contrary, that Leonardo was particularly anxious
to choose such words and phrases as might best express his own
ideas.]
Finding myself in this part of Armenia [Footnote 5: _Parti

d'Erminia_. See No. 945, note. The extent of Armenia in Leonardo's
time is only approximately known. In the XVth century the Persians
governed the Eastern, and the Arabs the Southern portions. Arabic
authors--as, for instance Abulfeda--include Cilicia and a part of
Cappadocia in Armenia, and Greater Armenia was the tract of that
country known later as Turcomania, while Armenia Minor was the
territory between Cappadocia and the Euphrates. It was not till
1522, or even 1574 that the whole country came under the dominion of
the Ottoman Turks, in the reign of Selim I.
The Mamelook Sultans of Egypt seem to have taken a particular

interest in this, the most Northern province of their empire, which
was even then in danger of being conquered by the Turks. In the
autumn of 1477 Sultan Kait Bey made a journey of inspection,
visiting Antioch and the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates with a
numerous and brilliant escort. This tour is briefly alluded to by
_Moodshireddin_ p. 561; and by WEIL, _Geschichte der Abbasiden_ V,
p. 358. An anonymous member of the suite wrote a diary of the
expedition in Arabic, which has been published by R. V. LONZONE
(_'Viaggio in Palestina e Soria di Kaid Ba XVIII sultano della II

dinastia mamelucca, fatto nel 1477. Testo arabo. Torino 1878'_,

without notes or commentary). Compare the critique on this edition,
by J. GILDEMEISTER in _Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palaestina Vereins_
(Vol. Ill p. 246--249). Lanzone's edition seems to be no more than
an abridged copy of the original. I owe to Professor Sche'fer,
Membre de l'Institut, the information that he is in possession of a
manuscript in which the text is fuller, and more correctly given.
The Mamelook dynasty was, as is well known, of Circassian origin,
and a large proportion of the Egyptian Army was recruited in
Circassia even so late as in the XVth century. That was a period of
political storms in Syria and Asia Minor and it is easy to suppose
that the Sultan's minister, to whom Leonardo addresses his report as
his superior, had a special interest in the welfare of those
frontier provinces. Only to mention a few historical events of
Sultan Kait Bey's reign, we find that in 1488 he assisted the
Circassians to resist the encroachments of Alaeddoulet, an Asiatic
prince who had allied himself with the Osmanli to threaten the
province; the consequence was a war in Cilicia by sea and land,
which broke out in the following year between the contending powers.
Only a few years earlier the same province had been the scene of the
so-called Caramenian war in which the united Venetian, Neapolitan
and Sclavonic fleets had been engaged. (See CORIALANO CIPPICO,
_Della guerra dei Veneziani nell' Asia dal_ 1469--1474. Venezia
1796, p. 54) and we learn incidentally that a certain Leonardo
Boldo, Governor of Scutari under Sultan Mahmoud,--as his name would
indicate, one of the numerous renegades of Italian birth--played an
important part in the negotiations for peace.
_Tu mi mandasti_. The address _tu_ to a personage so high in office

is singular and suggests personal intimacy; Leonardo seems to have
been a favourite with the Diodario. Compare lines 54 and 55.
I have endeavoured to show, and I believe that I am also in a

position to prove with regard to these texts, that they are draughts
of letters actually written by Leonardo; at the same time I must not
omit to mention that shortly after I had discovered
these texts in the Codex Atlanticus and published a paper on the

subject in the _Zeitschrift fur bildende Kunst (Vol. XVI)_, Prof.
Govi put forward this hypothesis to account for their origin:
_"Quanto alle notizie sul monte Tauro, sull'Armenia e sull' Asia

minore che si contengono negli altri frammenti, esse vennero prese

da qualche geografro o viaggiatore contemporaneo. Dall'indice

imperfetto che accompagna quei frammenti, si potrebbe dedurre che
Leonardo volesse farne un libro, che poi non venne compiuto. A ogni
modo, non e possibile di trovare in questi brani nessun indizio di
un viaggio di Leonardo in oriente, ne della sua conversione alla
religione di Maometto, come qualcuno pretenderebbe. Leonardo amava
con passione gli studi geografici, e nel suoi scritti s'incontran
spesso itinerart, indicazioni, o descrizioni di luoghi, schizzi di
carte e abbozzi topografici di varie regioni, non e quindi strano
che egli, abile narratore com'era, si fosse proposto di scrivere una
specie di Romanzo in forma epistolare svolgendone Pintreccio
nell'Asia Minore, intorno alla quale i libri d'allora, e forse
qualche viaggiatore amico suo, gli avevano somministrato alcuni
elementi piu o meno_ fantastici. (See Transunti della Reale
Accademia dei Lincei Voi. V Ser. 3).
It is hardly necessary to point out that Prof. Govi omits to name

the sources from which Leonardo could be supposed to have drawn his
information, and I may leave it to the reader to pronounce judgment
on the anomaly which is involved in the hypothesis that we have here
a fragment of a Romance, cast in the form of a correspondence. At
the same time, I cannot but admit that the solution of the
difficulties proposed by Prof. Govi is, under the circumstances,
certainly the easiest way of dealing with the question. But we
should then be equally justified in supposing some more of
Leonardo's letters to be fragments of such romances; particularly
those of which the addresses can no longer be named. Still, as
regards these drafts of letters to the Diodario, if we accept the
Romance theory, as proposed by Prof. Govi, we are also compelled
to assume that Leonardo purposed from the first to illustrate his
tale; for it needs only a glance at the sketches on PI. CXVI to CXIX
to perceive that they are connected with the texts; and of course
the rest of Leonardo's numerous notes on matters pertaining to the
East, the greater part of which are here published for the first
time, may also be somehow connected with this strange romance.
7. _Citta de Calindra (Chalindra)_. The position of this city is so

exactly determined, between the valley of the Euphrates and the
Taurus range that it ought to be possible to identify it. But it can
hardly be the same as the sea port of Cilicia with a somewhat
similar name Celenderis, Kelandria, Celendria, Kilindria, now the
Turkish Gulnar. In two Catalonian Portulans in the Bibliotheque
Natio- nale in Paris-one dating from the XV'h century, by Wilhelm

von Soler, the other by Olivez de Majorca, in l584-I find this place
called Calandra. But Leonardo's Calindra must certainly have lain
more to the North West, probably somewhere in Kurdistan. The fact
that the geographical position is so carefully determined by
Leonardo seems to prove that it was a place of no great importance
and little known. It is singular that the words first written in 1.
8 were divisa dal lago (Lake Van?), altered afterwards to
dall'Eitfrates.
Nostri confini, and in 1. 6 proposito nostro. These refer to the

frontier and to the affairs of the Mamelook Sultan, Lines 65 and 66
throw some light on the purpose of Leonardo's mission.
8. _I_ corni del gra mote Tauro. Compare the sketches PI.
CXVI-CXVIII. So long as it is impossible to identify the situation
of Calindra it is most difficult to decide with any certainty which
peak of the Taurus is here meant; and I greatly regret that I had no
foreknowledge of this puzzling topographical question when, in 1876,
I was pursuing archaeological enquiries in the Provinces of Aleppo
and Cilicia, and had to travel for some time in view of the imposing
snow-peaks of Bulghar Dagh and Ala Tepessi.
9-10. The opinion here expressed as to the height of the mountain

would be unmeaning, unless it had been written before Leonardo moved
to Milan, where Monte Rosa is so conspicuous an object in the
landscape. 4 _ore inanzi_ seems to mean, four hours before the sun's
rays penetrate to the bottom of the valleys.]
to carry into effect with due love and care the task for which you
sent me [Footnote: ][6]; and to make a beginning in a place which
seemed to me to be most to our purpose, I entered into the city of
Calindrafy[7], near to our frontiers. This city is situated at the
base of that part of the Taurus mountains which is divided from the
Euphrates and looks towards the peaks of the great Mount Taurus [8]
to the West [9]. These peaks are of such a height that they seem to
touch the sky, and in all the world there is no part of the earth,
higher than its summit[10], and the rays of the sun always fall upon
it on its East side, four hours before day-time, and being of the
whitest stone [Footnote 11:_Pietra bianchissima_. The Taurus
Mountains consist in great part of limestone.] it shines
resplendently and fulfils the function to these Armenians which a
bright moon-light would in the midst of the darkness; and by its
great height it outreaches the utmost level of the clouds by a space

of four miles in a straight line. This peak is seen in many places

towards the West, illuminated by the sun after its setting the third
part of the night. This it is, which with you [Footnote 14:
_Appresso di voi_. Leonardo had at first written _noi_ as though his
meaning had,been: This peak appeared to us to be a comet when you
and I observed it in North Syria (at Aleppo? at Aintas?). The
description of the curious reflection in the evening, resembling the
"Alpine-glow" is certainly not an invented fiction, for in the next
lines an explanation of the phenomenon is offered, or at least
attempted.] we formerly in calm weather had supposed to be a comet,
and appears to us in the darkness of night, to change its form,
being sometimes divided in two or three parts, and sometimes long
and sometimes short. And this is caused by the clouds on the horizon
of the sky which interpose between part of this mountain and the
sun, and by cutting off some of the solar rays the light on the
mountain is intercepted by various intervals of clouds, and
therefore varies in the form of its brightness.
THE DIVISIONS OF THE BOOK [Footnote 19: The next 33 lines are
evidently the contents of a connected Report or Book, but not of one
which he had at hand; more probably, indeed, of one he purposed
writing.].
The praise and confession of the faith [Footnote 20: _Persuasione di

fede_, of the Christian or the Mohammedan faith? We must suppose the
latter, at the beginning of a document addressed to so high a
Mohammedan official. _Predica_ probably stands as an abbreviation
for _predicazione_ (lat. _praedicatio_) in the sense of praise or
glorification; very probably it may mean some such initial doxology
as we find in Mohammedan works. (Comp. 1. 40.)].
The sudden inundation, to its end.
[23] The destruction of the city.
[24]The death of the people and their despair.
The preacher's search, his release and benevolence [Footnote 28: The
phraseology of this is too general for any conjecture as to its
meaning to be worth hazarding.]
Description of the cause of this fall of the mountain [Footnote 30:

_Ruina del monte_. Of course by an earthquake. In a catalogue of

earthquakes, entitled _kechf aussalssaleb an auasf ezzel-zeleh_, and

written by Djelal eddin].
The mischief it did.
[32] Fall of snow.
The finding of the prophet [33].
His prophesy.
[35] The inundation of the lower portion of Eastern Armenia, the

draining of which was effected by the cutting through the Taurus
Mountains.
How the new prophet showed [Footnote 40:_Nova profeta, 1. 33,

profeta_. Mohammed. Leonardo here refers to the Koran:
In the name of the most merciful God.--When the earth shall be

shaken by an earthquake; and the earth shall cast forth her burdens;
and a man shall say, what aileth her? On that day the earth shall
declare her tidings, for that thy Lord will inspire her. On that day
men shall go forward in distinct classes, that they may behold their
works. And whoever shall have wrought good of the weight of an ant,
shall behold the same. And whoever shall have wrought evil of the
weight of an ant, shall behold the same. (The Koran, translated by
G. Sale, Chapter XCIX, p. 452).] that this destruction would happen
as he had foretold.
Description of the Taurus Mountains [43] and the river Euphrates.
Why the mountain shines at the top, from half to a third of the
night, and looks like a comet to the inhabitants of the West after
the sunset, and before day to those of the East.
Why this comet appears of variable forms, so that it is now round

and now long, and now again divided into two or three parts, and now
in one piece, and when it is to be seen again.
OF THE SHAPE OF THE TAURUS MOUNTAINS [Footnote 53-94: The facsimile

of this passage is given on Pl. CXVII.].
I am not to be accused, Oh Devatdar, of idleness, as your chidings

seem to hint; but your excessive love for me, which gave rise to the
benefits you have conferred on me [Footnote 55] is that which has
also compelled me to the utmost painstaking in seeking out and
diligently investigating the cause of so great and stupendous an
effect. And this could not be done without time; now, in order to
satisfy you fully as to the cause of so great an effect, it is
requisite that I should explain to you the form of the place, and
then I will proceed to the effect, by which I believe you will be
amply satisfied.
[Footnote 36: _Tagliata di Monte Tauro_. The Euphrates flows through

the Taurus range near the influx of the Kura Shai; it rushes through
a rift in the wildest cliffs from 2000 to 3000 feet high and runs on
for 90 miles in 300 falls or rapids till it reaches Telek, near
which at a spot called Gleikash, or the Hart's leap, it measures
only 35 paces across. Compare the map on Pl. CXIX and the
explanation for it on p. 391.]
[Footnote 54: The foregoing sketch of a letter, lines 5. 18, appears

to have remained a fragment when Leonardo received pressing orders
which caused him to write immediately and fully on the subject
mentioned in line 43.]
[Footnote 59: This passage was evidently intended as an improvement

on that immediately preceding it. The purport of both is essentially
the same, but the first is pitched in a key of ill-disguised
annoyance which is absent from the second. I do not see how these
two versions can be reconciled with the romance-theory held by Prof.
Govi.] Do not be aggrieved, O Devatdar, by my delay in responding to
your pressing request, for those things which you require of me are
of such a nature that they cannot be well expressed without some
lapse of time; particularly because, in order to explain the cause
of so great an effect, it is necessary to describe with accuracy the
nature of the place; and by this means I can afterwards easily
satisfy your above-mentioned request. [Footnote 62: This passage was
evidently intended as an improvement on that immediately preceding
it. The purport of both is essentially the same, but the first is
pitched in a key of ill-disguised annoyance which is absent from the
second. I do not see how these two versions can be reconciled with
the romance-theory held by Prof. Govi.]
I will pass over any description of the form of Asia Minor, or as to

what seas or lands form the limits of its outline and extent,

because I know that by your own diligence and carefulness in your

studies you have not remained in ignorance of these matters [65];
and I will go on to describe the true form of the Taurus Mountain
which is the cause of this stupendous and harmful marvel, and which
will serve to advance us in our purpose [66]. This Taurus is that
mountain which, with many others is said to be the ridge of Mount
Caucasus; but wishing to be very clear about it, I desired to speak
to some of the inhabitants of the shores of the Caspian sea, who
give evidence that this must be the true Caucasus, and that though
their mountains bear the same name, yet these are higher; and to
confirm this in the Scythian tongue Caucasus means a very high
[Footnote 68: Caucasus; Herodot Kaoxaais; Armen. Kaukaz.] peak, and
in fact we have no information of there being, in the East or in the
West, any mountain so high. And the proof of this is that the
inhabitants of the countries to the West see the rays of the sun
illuminating a great part of its summit for as much as a quarter of
the longest night. And in the same way, in those countries which lie
to the East.
OF THE STRUCTURE AND SIZE OF MOUNT TAURUS.
[Footnote 73: The statements are of course founded on those of the

'inhabitants' spoken of in 1. 67.] The shadow of this ridge of the
Taurus is of such a height that when, in the middle of June, the Sun
is at its meridian, its shadow extends as far as the borders of
Sarmatia, twelve days off; and in the middle of December it extends
as far as the Hyperborean mountains, which are at a month's journey
to the North [75]. And the side which faces the wind is always free
from clouds and mists, because the wind which is parted in beating
on the rock, closes again on the further side of that rock, and in
its motion carries with it the clouds from all quarters and leaves
them where it strikes. And it is always full of thunderbolts from
the great quantity of clouds which accumulate there, whence the rock
is all riven and full of huge debris [Footnote 77: Sudden storms are
equally common on the heights of Ararat. It is hardly necessary to
observe that Ararat cannot be meant here. Its summit is formed like
the crater of Vesuvius. The peaks sketched on Pl. CXVI-CXVIII are
probably views of the same mountain, taken from different sides.
Near the solitary peak, Pl. CXVIII these three names are written
_goba, arnigasar, caruda_, names most likely of different peaks. Pl.
CXVI and CXVII are in the original on a single sheet folded down the
middle, 30 centimetres high and 43 1/2 wide. On the reverse of one
half of the sheet are notes on _peso_ and _bilancia_ (weight and

balance), on the other are the 'prophecies' printed under Nos. 1293
and 1294. It is evident from the arrangement that these were written
subsequently, on the space which had been left blank. These pages
are facsimiled on Pl. CXVIII. In Pl. CXVI-CXVIII the size is smaller
than in the original; the map of Armenia, Pl. CXVIII, is on Pl. CXIX
slightly enlarged. On this map we find the following names,
beginning from the right hand at the top: _pariardes mo_ (for
Paryadres Mons, Arm. Parchar, now Barchal or Kolai Dagh; Trebizond
is on its slope).
_Aquilone_ --North, _Antitaurus Antitaurus psis mo_ (probably meant

for Thospitis = Lake Van, Arm. Dgov Vanai, Tospoi, and the Mountain
range to the South); _Gordis mo_ (Mountains of Gordyaea), the birth
place of the Tigris; _Oriente_ --East; _Tigris_, and then, to the
left, _Eufrates_. Then, above to the left _Argeo mo_ (now Erdshigas,
an extinct volcano, 12000 feet high); _Celeno mo_ (no doubt Sultan
Dagh in Pisidia). Celeno is the Greek town of KeAouvat-- see Arian
I, 29, I--now the ruins of Dineir); _oriente_ --East; _africo
libezco_ (for libeccio--South West). In the middle of the Euphrates
river on this small map we see a shaded portion surrounded by
mountains, perhaps to indicate the inundation mentioned in l. 35.
The affluent to the Euphrates shown as coming with many windings
from the high land of 'Argeo' on the West, is the Tochma Su, which
joins the main river at Malatie. I have not been able to discover
any map of Armenia of the XVth or XVIth century in which the course
of the Euphrates is laid down with any thing like the correctness
displayed in this sketch. The best I have seen is the Catalonian
Portulan of Olivez de Majorca, executed in 1584, and it is far
behind Leonardo's.]. This mountain, at its base, is inhabited by a
very rich population and is full of most beautiful springs and
rivers, and is fertile and abounding in all good produce,
particularly in those parts which face to the South. But after
mounting about three miles we begin to find forests of great fir
trees, and beech and other similar trees; after this, for a space of
three more miles, there are meadows and vast pastures; and all the
rest, as far as the beginning of the Taurus, is eternal snows which
never disappear at any time, and extend to a height of about
fourteen miles in all. From this beginning of the Taurus up to the
height of a mile the clouds never pass away; thus we have fifteen
miles, that is, a height of about five miles in a straight line; and
the summit of the peaks of the Taurus are as much, or about that.
There, half way up, we begin to find a scorching air and never feel
a breath of wind; but nothing can live long there; there nothing is

brought forth save a few birds of prey which breed in the high
fissures of Taurus and descend below the clouds to seek their prey.
Above the wooded hills all is bare rock, that is, from the clouds
upwards; and the rock is the purest white. And it is impossible to
walk to the high summit on account of the rough and perilous ascent.
1337.
[Footnote: 1337. On comparing this commencement of a letter l. 1-2

with that in l. 3 and 4 of No. 1336 it is quite evident that both
refer to the same event. (Compare also No. 1337 l. 10-l2 and 17 with
No. 1336 l. 23, 24 and 32.) But the text No. 1336, including the
fragment l. 3-4, was obviously written later than the draft here
reproduced. The _Diodario_ is not directly addressed--the person
addressed indeed is not known--and it seems to me highly probable
that it was written to some other patron and friend whose name and
position are not mentioned.]
Having often made you, by my letters, acquainted with the things

which have happened, I think I ought not to be silent as to the
events of the last few days, which--[2]...
Having several times--
Having many times rejoiced with you by letters over your prosperous
fortunes, I know now that, as a friend you will be sad with me over
the miserable state in which I find myself; and this is, that during
the last few days I have been in so much trouble, fear, peril and
loss, besides the miseries of the people here, that we have been
envious of the dead; and certainly I do not believe that since the
elements by their separation reduced the vast chaos to order, they
have ever combined their force and fury to do so much mischief to
man. As far as regards us here, what we have seen and gone through
is such that I could not imagine that things could ever rise to such
an amount of mischief, as we experienced in the space of ten hours.
In the first place we were assailed and attacked by the violence and
fury of the winds [10]; to this was added the falling of great
mountains of snow which filled up all this valley, thus destroying a
great part of our city [Footnote 11: _Della nostra citta_ (Leonardo
first wrote _di questa citta_). From this we may infer that he had
at some time lived in the place in question wherever it might be.].
And not content with this the tempest sent a sudden flood of water
to submerge all the low part of this city [12]; added to which there

came a sudden rain, or rather a ruinous torrent and flood of water,

sand, mud, and stones, entangled with roots, and stems and fragments
of various trees; and every kind of thing flying through the air
fell upon us; finally a great fire broke out, not brought by the
wind, but carried as it would seem, by ten thousand devils, which
completely burnt up all this neighbourhood and it has not yet
ceased. And those few who remain unhurt are in such dejection and
such terror that they hardly have courage to speak to each other, as
if they were stunned. Having abandoned all our business, we stay
here together in the ruins of some churches, men and women mingled
together, small and great [Footnote 17: _Certe ruine di chiese_.
Either of Armenian churches or of Mosques, which it was not unusual
to speak of as churches.
_Maschi e femmini insieme unite_, implies an infringement of the

usually strict rule of the separation of the sexes.], just like
herds of goats. The neighbours out of pity succoured us with
victuals, and they had previously been our enemies. And if
[Footnote 18: _I vicini, nostri nimici_. The town must then have
stood quite close to the frontier of the country. Compare 1336. L.
7. _vicini ai nostri confini_. Dr. M. JORDAN has already published
lines 4-13 (see _Das Malerbuch, Leipzig_, 1873, p. 90:--his reading
differs from mine) under the title of "Description of a landscape
near Lake Como". We do in fact find, among other loose sheets in the
Codex Atlanticus, certain texts referring to valleys of the Alps
(see Nos. 1030, 1031 and note p. 237) and in the arrangement of the
loose sheets, of which the Codex Atlanticus has been formed, these
happen to be placed close to this text. The compiler stuck both on
the same folio sheet; and if this is not the reason for Dr. JORDAN'S
choosing such a title (Description &c.) I cannot imagine what it can
have been. It is, at any rate, a merely hypothetical statement. The
designation of the population of the country round a city as "the
enemy" (_nemici_) is hardly appropriate to Italy in the time of
Leonardo.]
it had not been for certain people who succoured us with victuals,
all would have died of hunger. Now you see the state we are in. And
all these evils are as nothing compared with those which are
promised to us shortly.
I know that as a friend you will grieve for my misfortunes, as I, in

former letters have shown my joy at your prosperity ...

Notes about events observed abroad (1338-1339).
1338.
BOOK 43. OF THE MOVEMENT OF AIR ENCLOSED IN WATER.
I have seen motions of the air so furious that they have carried,
mixed up in their course, the largest trees of the forest and whole
roofs of great palaces, and I have seen the same fury bore a hole
with a whirling movement digging out a gravel pit, and carrying
gravel, sand and water more than half a mile through the air.
[Footnote: The first sixteen lines of this passage which treat of

the subject as indicated on the title line have no place in this
connexion and have been omitted.]
[Footnote 2: _Ho veduto movimenti_ &c. Nothing of the kind happened

in Italy during Leonardo's lifetime, and it is therefore extremely
probable that this refers to the natural phenomena which are so
fully described in the foregoing passage. (Compare too, No. 1021.)
There can be no doubt that the descriptions of the Deluge in the
Libro di Pittura (Vol. I, No. 607-611), and that of the fall of a
mountain No. 610, l. 17-30 were written from the vivid impressions
derived from personal experience. Compare also Pl. XXXIV-XL.]
1339.
[Footnote: It may be inferred from the character of the writing,

which is in the style of the note in facsimile Vol. I, p. 297, that
this passage was written between 1470 and 1480. As the figure 6 at
the end of the text indicates, it was continued on another page, but
I have searched in vain for it. The reverse of this leaf is coloured
red for drawing in silver point, but has not been used for that
purpose but for writing on, and at about the same date. The passages
are given as Nos. 1217, 1218, 1219, 1162 and No. 994 (see note page
218). The text given above is obviously not a fragment of a letter,
but a record of some personal experience. No. 1379 also seems to
refer to Leonardo's journeys in Southern Italy.]
Like a whirling wind which rushes down a sandy and hollow valley,
and which, in its hasty course, drives to its centre every thing
that opposes its furious course ...

No otherwise does the Northern blast whirl round in its tempestuous

progress ...
Nor does the tempestuous sea bellow so loud, when the Northern blast
dashes it, with its foaming waves between Scylla and Charybdis; nor
Stromboli, nor Mount Etna, when their sulphurous flames, having been
forcibly confined, rend, and burst open the mountain, fulminating
stones and earth through the air together with the flames they
vomit.
Nor when the inflamed caverns of Mount Etna [Footnote 13: Mongibello
is a name commonly given in Sicily to Mount Etna (from Djebel,
Arab.=mountain). Fr. FERRARA, _Descrizione dell' Etna con la storia
delle eruzioni_ (Palermo, 1818, p. 88) tells us, on the authority of
the _Cronaca del Monastero Benedettino di Licordia_ of an eruption
of the Volcano with a great flow of lava on Sept. 21, 1447. The next
records of the mountain are from the years 1533 and 1536. A. Percy
neither does mention any eruptions of Etna during the years to which
this note must probably refer _Memoire des tremblements de terre de
la peninsule italique, Vol. XXII des Memoires couronnees et Memoires
des savants etrangers. Academie Royal de Belgique_).
A literal interpretation of the passage would not, however, indicate

an allusion to any great eruption; particularly in the connection
with Stromboli, where the periodical outbreaks in very short
intervals are very striking to any observer, especially at night
time, when passing the island on the way from Naples to Messina.],
rejecting the ill-restained element vomit it forth, back to its own
region, driving furiously before it every obstacle that comes in the
way of its impetuous rage ...
Unable to resist my eager desire and wanting to see the great ... of
the various and strange shapes made by formative nature, and having
wandered some distance among gloomy rocks, I came to the entrance of
a great cavern, in front of which I stood some time, astonished and
unaware of such a thing. Bending my back into an arch I rested my
left hand on my knee and held my right hand over my down-cast and
contracted eye brows: often bending first one way and then the
other, to see whether I could discover anything inside, and this
being forbidden by the deep darkness within, and after having
remained there some time, two contrary emotions arose in me, fear
and desire--fear of the threatening dark cavern, desire to see

whether there were any marvellous thing within it ...
Drafts of Letters to Lodovico il Moro (1340-1345).
1340.
[Footnote: The numerous corrections, the alterations in the figures

(l. 18) and the absence of any signature prove that this is merely
the rough draft of a letter to Lodovico il Moro. It is one of the
very few manuscripts which are written from left to right--see the
facsimile of the beginning as here reproduced. This is probably the
final sketch of a document the clean of which copy was written in
the usual manner. Leonardo no doubt very rarely wrote so, and this
is probably the reason of the conspicuous dissimilarity in the
handwriting, when he did. (Compare Pl. XXXVIII.) It is noteworthy
too that here the orthography and abbreviations are also
exceptional. But such superficial peculiarities are not enough to
stamp the document as altogether spurious. It is neither a forgery
nor the production of any artist but Leonardo himself. As to this
point the contents leave us no doubt as to its authenticity,
particularly l. 32 (see No. 719, where this passage is repeated).
But whether the fragment, as we here see it, was written from
Leonardo's dictation--a theory favoured by the orthography, the
erasures and corrections--or whether it may be a copy made for or by
Melzi or Mazenta is comparatively unimportant. There are in the
Codex Atlanticus a few other documents not written by Leonardo
himself, but the notes in his own hand found on the reverse pages of
these leaves amply prove that they were certainly in Leonardo's
possession. This mark of ownership is wanting to the text in
question, but the compilers of the Codex Atlanticus, at any rate,
accepted it as a genuine document.
With regard to the probable date of this projected letter see Vol.
II, p. 3.]
Most illustrious Lord, Having now sufficiently considered the

specimens of all those who proclaim themselves skilled contrivers of
instruments of war, and that the invention and operation of the said
instruments are nothing different to those in common use: I shall
endeavour, without prejudice to any one else, to explain myself to
your Excellency showing your Lordship my secrets, and then offering
them to your best pleasure and approbation to work with effect at
opportune moments as well as all those things which, in part, shall

be briefly noted below.
1) I have a sort of extremely light and strong bridges, adapted to

be most easily carried, and with them you may pursue, and at any
time flee from the enemy; and others, secure and indestructible by
fire and battle, easy and convenient to lift and place. Also methods
of burning and destroying those of the enemy.
2) I know how, when a place is besieged, to take the water out of

the trenches, and make endless variety of bridges, and covered ways
and ladders, and other machines pertaining to such expeditions.
3) Item. If, by reason of the height of the banks, or the strength

of the place and its position, it is impossible, when besieging a
place, to avail oneself of the plan of bombardment, I have methods
for destroying every rock or other fortress, even if it were founded
on a rock, &c.
4) Again I have kinds of mortars; most convenient and easy to carry;

and with these can fling small stones almost resembling a storm; and
with the smoke of these causing great terror to the enemy, to his
great detriment and confusion.
9) [8] And when the fight should be at sea I have kinds of many
machines most efficient for offence and defence; and vessels which
will resist the attack of the largest guns and powder and fumes.
5) Item. I have means by secret and tortuous mines and ways, made
without noise to reach a designated [spot], even if it were needed
to pass under a trench or a river.
6) Item. I will make covered chariots, safe and unattackable which,

entering among the enemy with their artillery, there is no body of
men so great but they would break them. And behind these, infantry
could follow quite unhurt and without any hindrance.
7) Item. In case of need I will make big guns, mortars and light
ordnance of fine and useful forms, out of the common type.
8) Where the operation of bombardment should fail, I would contrive

catapults, mangonels, _trabocchi_ and other machines of marvellous
efficacy and not in common use. And in short, according to the
variety of cases, I can contrive various and endless means of

offence and defence.
10) In time of peace I believe I can give perfect satisfaction and

to the equal of any other in architecture and the composition of
buildings public and private; and in guiding water from one place to
another.
Item: I can carry out sculpture in marble, bronze or clay, and also
in painting whatever may be done, and as well as any other, be he
whom he may.
[32] Again, the bronze horse may be taken in hand, which is to be to

the immortal glory and eternal honour of the prince your father of
happy memory, and of the illustrious house of Sforza.
And if any one of the above-named things seem to any one to be

impossible or not feasible, I am most ready to make the experiment
in your park, or in whatever place may please your Excellency--to
whom I commend myself with the utmost humility &c.
1341.
To my illustrious Lord, Lodovico, Duke of Bari, Leonardo da Vinci of

Florence-- Leonardo.
[Footnote: Evidently a note of the superscription of a letter to the

Duke, and written, like the foregoing from left to right. The
manuscript containing it is of the year 1493. Lodovico was not
proclaimed and styled Duke of Milan till September 1494. The Dukedom
of Bari belonged to the Sforza family till 1499.]
1342.
You would like to see a model which will prove useful to you and to
me, also it will be of use to those who will be the cause of our
usefulness.
[Footnote: 1342. 1343. These two notes occur in the same not very
voluminous MS. as the former one and it is possible that they are
fragments of the same letter. By the _Modello_, the equestrian
statue is probably meant, particularly as the model of this statue
was publicly exhibited in this very year, 1493, on tne occasion of
the marriage of the Emperor Maximilian with Bianca Maria Sforza.]

1343.
There are here, my Lord, many gentlemen who will undertake this
expense among them, if they are allowed to enjoy the use of
admission to the waters, the mills, and the passage of vessels and
when it is sold to them the price will be repaid to them by the
canal of Martesana.
1344.
I am greatly vexed to be in necessity, but I still more regret that

this should be the cause of the hindrance of my wish which is always
disposed to obey your Excellency.
Perhaps your Excellency did not give further orders to Messer

Gualtieri, believing that I had money enough.
I am greatly annoyed that you should have found me in necessity, and

that my having to earn my living should have hindered me ...
[12] It vexes me greatly that having to earn my living has forced me

to interrupt the work and to attend to small matters, instead of
following up the work which your Lordship entrusted to me. But I
hope in a short time to have earned so much that I may carry it out
quietly to the satisfaction of your Excellency, to whom I commend
myself; and if your Lordship thought that I had money, your Lordship
was deceived. I had to feed 6 men for 56 months, and have had 50
ducats.
1345.
And if any other comission is given me

by any ...
of the reward of my service. Because I am
not [able] to be ...
things assigned because meanwhile they
have ... to them ...
... which they well may settle rather than I ...
not my art which I wish to change and ...
given some clothing if I dare a sum ...

My Lord, I knowing your Excellency's

mind to be occupied ...
to remind your Lordship of my small matters
and the arts put to silence
that my silence might be the cause of making
your Lordship scorn ...
my life in your service. I hold myself ever
in readiness to obey ...
[Footnote 11: See No. 723, where this passage is repeated.]
Of the horse I will say nothing because

I know the times [are bad]
to your Lordship how I had still to receive
two years' salary of the ...
with the two skilled workmen who are constantly
in my pay and at my cost
that at last I found myself advanced the
said sum about 15 lire ...
works of fame by which I could show to
those who shall see it that I have been
everywhere, but I do not know where I
could bestow my work [more] ...
[Footnote 17: See No. 1344 l. 12.]

I, having been working to gain my
living ...
I not having been informed what it is, I find

myself ...
[Footnote 19: In April, 1498, Leonardo was engaged in

painting the Saletta Nigra of the Castello at Milan.
(See G. MONGERI, _l'Arte in Milano_, 1872, p. 417.)]
remember the commission to paint the

rooms ...
I conveyed to your Lordship only requesting

you ...
[Footnote: The paper on which this is written is torn down the

middle; about half of each line remains.]
Draft of letter to be sent to Piacenza (1346. 1347).
[Footnote: 1346. 1347. Piacenza belonged to Milan. The Lord spoken

of in this letter, is no doubt Lodovico il Moro. One may infer from
the concluding sentence (No. 1346, l. 33. 34 and No. 1347), that
Leonardo, who no doubt compiled this letter, did not forward it to
Piacenza himself, but gave it to some influential patron, under
whose name and signature a copy of it was sent to the Commission.]
1346.
Magnificent Commissioners of Buildings I, understanding that your

Magnificencies have made up your minds to make certain great works
in bronze, will remind you of certain things: first that you should
not be so hasty or so quick to give the commission, lest by this
haste it should become impossible to select a good model and a good
master; and some man of small merit may be chosen, who by his
insufficiency may cause you to be abused by your descendants,
judging that this age was but ill supplied with men of good counsel
and with good masters; seeing that other cities, and chiefly the
city of the Florentines, has been as it were in these very days,
endowed with beautiful and grand works in bronze; among which are
the doors of their Baptistery. And this town of Florence, like
Piacenza, is a place of intercourse, through which many foreigners
pass; who, seeing that the works are fine and of good quality, carry
away a good impression, and will say that that city is well filled
with worthy inhabitants, seeing the works which bear witness to
their opinion; and on the other hand, I say seeing so much metal
expended and so badly wrought, it were less shame to the city if the
doors had been of plain wood; because, the material, costing so
little, would not seem to merit any great outlay of skill...
Now the principal parts which are sought for in cities are their
cathedrals, and of these the first things which strike the eye are
the doors, by which one passes into these churches.
Beware, gentlemen of the Commission, lest too great speed in your

determination, and so much haste to expedite the entrusting of so
great a work as that which I hear you have ordered, be the cause
that that which was intended for the honour of God and of men should
be turned to great dishonour of your judgments, and of your city,

which, being a place of mark, is the resort and gathering-place of

innumerable foreigners. And this dishonour would result if by your
lack of diligence you were to put your trust in some vaunter, who by
his tricks or by favour shown to him here should obtain such work
from you, by which lasting and very great shame would result to him
and to you. Thus I cannot help being angry when I consider what men
those are who have conferred with you as wishing to undertake this
great work without thinking of their sufficiency for it, not to say
more. This one is a potter, that one a maker of cuirasses, this one
is a bell-founder, another a bell ringer, and one is even a
bombardier; and among them one in his Lordship's service, who
boasted that he was the gossip of Messer Ambrosio Ferrere [Footnote
26: Messer Ambrogio Ferrere was Farmer of the Customs under the
Duke. Piacenza at that time belonged to Milan.], who has some power
and who has made him some promises; and if this were not enough he
would mount on horseback, and go to his Lord and obtain such letters
that you could never refuse [to give] him the work. But consider
where masters of real talent and fit for such work are brought when
they have to compete with such men as these. Open your eyes and look
carefully lest your money should be spent in buying your own
disgrace. I can declare to you that from that place you will procure
none but average works of inferior and coarse masters. There is no
capable man,--[33] and you may believe me,--except Leonardo the
Florentine, who is making the equestrian statue in bronze of the
Duke Francesco and who has no need to bring himself into notice,
because he has work for all his life time; and I doubt, whether
being so great a work, he will ever finish it [34].
The miserable painstakers ... with what hope may they expect a
reward of their merit?
1347.
There is one whom his Lordship invited from Florence to do this work
and who is a worthy master, but with so very much business he will
never finish it; and you may imagine that a difference there is to
be seen between a beautiful object and an ugly one. Quote Pliny.
Letter to the Cardinal Ippolito d' Este.
1348.
[Footnote: This letter addressed to the Cardinal Ippolito d'Este is

here given from Marchese G. CAMPORI'S publication: _Nuovi documenti

per la Vita di Leonardo da Vinci. Atti e Memorie delle R. R.
Deputazioni di Storia patria per la provincie modenesi e parmenesi,
Vol. III._ It is the only text throughout this work which I have not
myself examined and copied from the original. The learned discoverer
of this letter--the only letter from Leonardo hitherto known as
having been sent--adds these interesting remarks: _Codesto Cardinale
nato ad Ercole I. nel 1470, arcivescovo di Strigonia a sette anni,
poi d'Agra, aveva conseguito nel 1497 la pingue ed ambita cattedra
di Milano, la dove avra conosciuto il Vinci, sebbene il poco amore
ch'ei professava alle arti lasci credere che le proteste di servitu
di Leonardo piu che a gratitudine per favori ricevuti e per opere a
lui allogate, accennino a speranza per un favore che si aspetta.
Notabile e ancora in questo prezioso documento la ripetuta signatura
del grande artista 'che si scrive Vincio e Vincius, non da Vinci
come si tiene comunemente, sebbene l'una e l'altra possano valere a
significare cosi il casato come il paese; restando a sapere se il
nome del paese di Vinci fosse assunto a cognome della famiglia di
Leonardo nel qual supposto piu propriamento avrebbe a chiamarsi
Leonardo Vinci, o Vincio (latinamente Vincius) com'egli stesso amo
segnarsi in questa lettera, e come scrissero parecchi contenporanei
di lui, il Casio, il Cesariano, Geoffrey Tory, il Gaurico, il
Bandello, Raffaelle Maffei, il Paciolo. Per ultimo non lascero
d'avvertire come la lettera del Vinci e assai ben conservata, di
nitida e larga scrittura in forma pienemente corrispondente a quella
dei suoi manoscritti, vergata all'uso comune da sinistra a destra,
anziche contrariamente come fu suo costume; ma indubbiamente
autentica e fornita della menzione e del suggello che fresca ancora
conserva l'impronta di una testa di profilo da un picciolo antico
cammeo._ (Compare No. 1368, note.)]
Most Illustrious and most Reverend Lord.

The Lord Ippolito, Cardinal of Este
at Ferrare.
Most Illustrious and most Reverend Lord.
I arrived from Milan but a few days since and finding that my elder
brother refuses to
carry into effect a will, made three years ago when my father
died--as also, and no less, because I would not fail in a matter I
esteem most important--I cannot forbear to crave of your most

Reverend Highness a letter of recommendation and favour to Ser

Raphaello Hieronymo, at present one of the illustrious members of
the Signoria before whom my cause is being argued; and more
particularly it has been laid by his Excellency the Gonfaloniere
into the hands of the said Ser Raphaello, that his Worship may have
to decide and end it before the festival of All Saints. And
therefore, my Lord, I entreat you, as urgently as I know how and am
able, that your Highness will write a letter to the said Ser
Raphaello in that admirable and pressing manner which your Highness
can use, recommending to him Leonardo Vincio, your most humble
servant as I am, and shall always be; requesting him and pressing
him not only to do me justice but to do so with despatch; and I have
not the least doubt, from many things that I hear, that Ser
Raphaello, being most affectionately devoted to your Highness, the
matter will issue _ad votum_. And this I shall attribute to your
most Reverend Highness' letter, to whom I once more humbly commend
myself. _Et bene valeat_.
Florence XVIIIa 7bris 1507.

E. V. R. D.
your humble servant

Leonardus Vincius, pictor.
Draft of Letter to the Governor of Milan.
1349.
I am afraid lest the small return I have made for the great
benefits, I have received from your Excellency, have not made you
somewhat angry with me, and that this is why to so many letters
which I have written to your Lordship I have never had an answer. I
now send Salai to explain to your Lordship that I am almost at an
end of the litigation I had with my brother; that I hope to find
myself with you this Easter, and to carry with me two pictures of
two Madonnas of different sizes. These were done for our most
Christian King, or for whomsoever your Lordship may please. I should
be very glad to know on my return thence where I may have to reside,
for I would not give any more trouble to your Lordship. Also, as I
have worked for the most Christian King, whether my salary is to
continue or not. I wrote to the President as to that water which the
king granted me, and which I was not put in possession of because at
that time there was a dearth in the canal by reason of the great

droughts and because [Footnote:Compare Nos. 1009 and 1010. Leonardo

has noted the payment of the pension from the king in 1505.] its
outlets were not regulated; but he certainly promised me that when
this was done I should be put in possession. Thus I pray your
Lordship that you will take so much trouble, now that these outlets
are regulated, as to remind the President of my matter; that is, to
give me possession of this water, because on my return I hope to
make there instruments and other things which will greatly please
our most Christian King. Nothing else occurs to me. I am always
yours to command. [Footnote:1349. Charles d'Amboise, Marechal de
Chaumont, was Governor of Milan under Louis XII. Leonardo was in
personal communication with him so early as in 1503. He was absent
from Milan in the autumn of 1506 and from October l5l0--when he
besieged Pope Julius II. in Bologna--till his death, which took
place at Correggio, February 11, 1511. Francesco Vinci, Leonardo's
uncle, died--as Amoretti tells us--in the winter of l5l0-11 (or
according to Uzielli in 1506?), and Leonardo remained in Florence
for business connected with his estate. The letter written with
reference to this affair, No. 1348, is undoubtedly earlier than the
letters Nos. 1349 and 1350. Amoretti tells us, _Memorie Storiche_,
ch. II, that the following note existed on the same leaf in MS. C.
A. I have not however succeeded in finding it. The passage runs
thus: _Jo sono quasi al fine del mio letizio che io o con mie
fratetgli ... Ancora ricordo a V. Excia la facenda che o cum Ser
Juliana mio Fratello capo delli altri fratelli ricordandoli come se
offerse di conciar le cose nostre fra noi fratelli del comune della
eredita de mio Zio, e quelli costringa alla expeditione, quale
conteneva la lettera che lui me mando._]
Drafts of Letters to the Superintendent of Canals and to Fr. Melzi.
1350.
Magnificent President, I am sending thither Salai, my pupil, who is

the bearer of this, and from him you will hear by word of mouth the
cause of my...
Magnificent President, I...
Magnificent President:--Having ofttimes remembered the proposals

made many times to me by your Excellency, I take the liberty of
writing to remind your Lordship of the promise made to me at my last
departure, that is the possession of the twelve inches of water

granted to me by the most Christian King. Your Lordship knows that I

did not enter into possession, because at that time when it was
given to me there was a dearth of water in the canal, as well by
reason of the great drought as also because the outlets were not
regulated; but your Excellency promised me that as soon as this was
done, I should have my rights. Afterwards hearing that the canal was
complete I wrote several times to your Lordship and to Messer
Girolamo da Cusano,who has in his keeping the deed of this gift; and
so also I wrote to Corigero and never had a reply. I now send
thither Salai, my pupil, the bearer of this, to whom your Lordship
may tell by word of mouth all that happened in the matter about
which I petition your Excellency. I expect to go thither this Easter
since I am nearly at the end of my lawsuit, and I will take with me
two pictures of our Lady which I have begun, and at the present time
have brought them on to a very good end; nothing else occurs to me.
My Lord the love which your Excellency has always shown me and the
benefits that I have constantly received from you I have hitherto...
I am fearful lest the small return I have made for the great
benefits I have received from your Excellency may not have made you
somewhat annoyed with me. And this is why, to many letters which I
have written to your Excellency I have never had an answer. I now
send to you Salai to explain to your Excellency that I am almost at
the end of my litigation with my brothers, and that I hope to be
with you this Easter and carry with me two pictures on which are two
Madonnas of different sizes which I began for the most Christian
King, or for whomsoever you please. I should be very glad to know
where, on my return from this place, I shall have to reside, because
I do not wish to give more trouble to your Lordship; and then,
having worked for the most Christian King, whether my salary is to
be continued or not. I write to the President as to the water that
the king granted me of which I had not been put in possession by
reason of the dearth in the canal, caused by the great drought and
because its outlets were not regulated; but he promised me certainly
that as soon as the regulation was made, I should be put in
possession of it; I therefore pray you that, if you should meet the
said President, you would be good enough, now that the outlets are
regulated, to remind the said President to cause me to be put in
possession of that water, since I understand it is in great measure
in his power. Nothing else occurs to me; always yours to command.
Good day to you Messer Francesco. Why, in God's name, of all the

letters I have written to you, have you never answered one. Now wait
till I come, by God, and I shall make you write so much that perhaps
you will become sick of it.
Dear Messer Francesco. I am sending thither Salai to learn from His

Magnificence the President to what end the regulation of the water
has come since, at my departure this regulation of the outlets of
the canal had been ordered, because His Magnificence the President
promised me that as soon as this was done I should be satisfied. It
is now some time since I heard that the canal was in order, as also
its outlets, and I immediately wrote to the President and to you,
and then I repeated it, and never had an answer. So you will have
the goodness to answer me as to that which happened, and as I am not
to hurry the matter, would you take the trouble, for the love of me,
to urge the President a little, and also Messer Girolamo Cusano, to
whom you will commend me and offer my duty to his Magnificence.
[Footnote: 1350. 28-36. Draft of a letter to Francesco Melzi, born

l493--a youth therefore of about 17 in 1510. Leonardo addresses his
young friend as "Messer", as being the son of a noble house. Melzi
practised art under Leonardo as a dilettante and not as a pupil,
like Cesare da Sesto and others (See LERMOLIEFF, _Die Galerien_ &c.,
p. 476).]
Drafts of a letter to Giuliano de' Medici (1351-1352).
135l.
[Most illustrious Lord. I greatly rejoice most Illustrious Lord at

your...]
I was so greatly rejoiced, most illustrious Lord, by the desired

restoration of your health, that it almost had the effect that [my
own health recovered]--[I have got through my illness]--my own
illness left me-- --of your Excellency's almost restored health. But
I am extremely vexed that I have not been able completely to satisfy
the wishes of your Excellency, by reason of the wickedness of that
deceiver, for whom I left nothing undone which could be done for him
by me and by which I might be of use to him; and in the first place
his allowances were paid to him before the time, which I believe he
would willingly deny, if I had not the writing signed by myself and
the interpreter. And I, seeing that he did not work for me unless he
had no work to do for others, which he was very careful in

solliciting, invited him to dine with me, and to work afterwards

near me, because, besides the saving of expense, he
[Footnote 1351. 1353: It is clear from the contents of this notes

that they refer to Leonardo's residence in Rome in 1513-1515. Nor
can there be any doubt that they were addressed to Leonardo's patron
at the time: Giuliano de' Medici, third son of Lorenzo the
Magnificent and brother of Pope Leo X (born 1478). In 1512 he became
the head of the Florentine Republic. The Pope invited him to Rome,
where he settled; in 1513 he was named patrician with much splendid
ceremonial. The medal struck in honour of the event bears the words
MAG. IVLIAN. MEDICES. Leonardo too uses the style "Magnifico", in
his letter. Compare also No. 1377.
GlNO CAPPONI (_Storia della Repubblica di Firenze_, Vol. III, p.

139) thus describes the character of Giuliano de' Medici, who died
in 1516: _Era il migliore della famiglia, di vita placida, grande
spenditore, tenendo intorno a se uomini ingegnosi, ed ogni nuova
cosa voleva provare._
See too GREGOROVIUS, _Geschichte der Stadi Rom_, VIII (book XIV.
III, 2): _Die Luftschlosser furstlicher Grosse, wozu ihn der Papst
hatte erheben wollen zerfielen. Julian war der edelste aller
damaligen Medici, ein Mensch von innerlicher Richtung, unbefriedigt
durch das Leben, mitten im Sonnenglanz der Herrlichkeit Leo's X.
eine dunkle Gestalt die wie ein Schatten voruberzog._ Giuliano lived
in the Vatican, and it may be safely inferred from No. 1352 l. 2,
and No. 1353 l. 4, that Leonardo did the same.
From the following unpublished notice in the Vatican archives, which

M. Eug. Muntz, librarian of the Ecole des Beaux arts, Paris, has
done me the favour to communicate to me, we get a more accurate view
of Leonardo's relation to the often named GIORGIO TEDESCO:
_Nota delle provisione_ (sic) _a da pagare per me in nome del nostro

ill. S. Bernardo Bini e chompa di Roma, e prima della illma sua
chonsorte ogni mese d. 800.
A Ldo da Vinci per sua provisione d. XXXIII, e piu d. VII al detto

per la provisione di Giorgio tedescho, che sono in tutto d. 40.
From this we learn, that seven ducats formed the German's monthly
wages, but according to No. 1353 l. 7 he pretended that eight ducats

had been agreed upon.]
would acquire the Italian language. He always promised, but would

never do so. And this I did also, because that Giovanni, the German
who makes the mirrors, was there always in the workshop, and wanted
to see and to know all that was being done there and made it known
outside ... strongly criticising it; and because he dined with those
of the Pope's guard, and then they went out with guns killing birds
among the ruins; and this went on from after dinner till the
evening; and when I sent Lorenzo to urge him to work he said that he
would not have so many masters over him, and that his work was for
your Excellency's Wardrobe; and thus two months passed and so it
went on; and one day finding Gian Niccolo of the Wardrobe and asking
whether the German had finished the work for your Magnificence, he
told me this was not true, but only that he had given him two guns
to clean. Afterwards, when I had urged him farther, be left the
workshop and began to work in his room, and lost much time in making
another pair of pincers and files and other tools with screws; and
there he worked at mills for twisting silk which he hid when any one
of my people went in, and with a thousand oaths and mutterings, so
that none of them would go there any more.
I was so greatly rejoiced, most Illustrious Lord, by the desired

restoration of your health, that my own illness almost left me. But
I am greatly vexed at not having been able to completely satisfy
your Excellency's wishes by reason of the wickedness of that German
deceiver, for whom I left nothing undone by which I could have hope
to please him; and secondly I invited him to lodge and board with
me, by which means I should constantly see the work he was doing and
with greater ease correct his errors while, besides this, he would
learn the Italian tongue, by means of which be could with more ease
talk without an interpreter; his moneys were always given him in
advance of the time when due. Afterwards he wanted to have the
models finished in wood, just as they were to be in iron, and wished
to carry them away to his own country. But this I refused him,
telling him that I would give him, in drawing, the breadth, length,
height and form of what he had to do; and so we remained in
ill-will.
The next thing was that he made himself another workshop and pincers
and tools in his room where he slept, and there he worked for
others; afterwards he went to dine with the Swiss of the guard,
where there are idle fellows, in which he beat them all; and most

times they went two or three together with guns, to shoot birds
among the ruins, and this went on till evening.
At last I found how this master Giovanni the mirror-maker was he who
had done it all, for two reasons; the first because he had said that
my coming here had deprived him of the countenance and favour of
your Lordship which always... The other is that he said that his
iron-workers' rooms suited him for working at his mirrors, and of
this he gave proof; for besides making him my enemy, he made him
sell all he had and leave his workshop to him, where he works with a
number of workmen making numerous mirrors to send to the fairs.
1352.
I was so greatly rejoiced, most Illustrious Lord, by the wished for

recovery of your health, that my own ills have almost left me; and I
say God be praised for it. But it vexes me greatly that I have not
been able completely to satisfy your Excellency's wishes by reason
of the wickedness of that German deceiver, for whom I left nothing
undone by which I could hope to please him; and secondly I invited
him to lodge and board with me, by which means I should see
constantly the work he was doing, for which purpose I would have a
table fixed at the foot of one of these windows, where he could work
with the file and finish the things made below; and so I should
constantly see the work he might do, and it could be corrected with
greater ease.
Draft of letter written at Rome.
1353.
This other hindered me in anatomy, blaming it before the Pope; and

likewise at the hospital; and he has filled [4] this whole Belvedere
with workshops for mirrors; and he did the same thing in Maestro
Giorgio's room. He said that he had been promised [7] eight ducats
every month, beginning with the first day, when he set out, or at
latest when he spoke with you; and that you agreed.
Seeing that he seldom stayed in the workshop, and that he ate a

great deal, I sent him word that, if he liked I could deal with him
separately for each thing that he might make, and would give him
what we might agree to be a fair valuation. He took counsel with his
neighbour and gave up his room, selling every thing, and went to

find...
Miscellaneous Records (1354. 1355).
1354.
[Footnote: A puzzling passage, meant, as it would seem, for a jest.

Compare the description of Giants in Dante, _Inf_. XXI and XXII.
Perhaps Leonardo had the Giant Antaeus in his mind. Of him the myth
relates that he was a son of Ge, that he fed on lions; that he
hunted in Libya and killed the inhabitants. He enjoyed the
peculiarity of renewing his strength whenever he fell and came in
contact with his mother earth; but that Hercules lifted him up and
so conquered and strangled him. Lucan gives a full account of the
struggle. Pharsalia IV, 617. The reading of this passage, which is
very indistinctly written, is in many places doubtful.]
Dear Benedetto de' Pertarti. When the proud giant fell because of
the bloody and miry state of the ground it was as though a mountain
had fallen so that the country shook as with an earthquake, and
terror fell on Pluto in hell. From the violence of the shock he lay
as stunned on the level ground. Suddenly the people, seeing him as
one killed by a thunderbolt, turned back; like ants running wildly
over the body of the fallen oak, so these rushing over his ample
limbs.......... them with frequent wounds; by which, the giant being
roused and feeling himself almost covered by the multitude, he
suddenly perceives the smarting of the stabs, and sent forth a roar
which sounded like a terrific clap of thunder; and placing his hands
on the ground he raised his terrible face: and having lifted one
hand to his head he found it full of men and rabble sticking to it
like the minute creatures which not unfrequently are found there;
wherefore with a shake of his head he sends the men flying through
the air just as hail does when driven by the fury of the winds. Many
of these men were found to be dead; stamping with his feet.
And clinging to his hair, and striving to hide in it, they behaved
like sailors in a storm, who run up the ropes to lessen the force of
the wind [by taking in sail].
News of things from the East.
Be it known to you that in the month of June there appeared a Giant,

who came from the Lybian desert... mad with rage like ants....

struck down by the rude.
This great Giant was born in Mount Atlas and was a hero ... and had
to fight against the Egyptians and Arabs, Medes and Persians. He
lived in the sea on whales, grampuses and ships.
Mars fearing for his life took refuge under the... of Jove.
And at the great fall it seemed as though the whole province quaked.
1355.
This spirit returns to the brain whence it had departed, with a loud
voice and with these words, it moved...
And if any man though he may have wisdom or goodness .........
[Footnote: This passage, very difficult to decipher, is on the

reverse of a drawing at Windsor, Pl. CXXII, which possibly has some
connection with it. The drawing is slightly reduced in this
reproduction; the original being 25 cm. high by 19 cm. wide.]
O blessed and happy spirit whence comest thou? Well have I known
this man, much against my will. This one is a receptacle of
villainy; he is a perfect heap of the utmost ingratitude combined
with every vice. But of what use is it to fatigue myself with vain
words? Nothing is to be found in them but every form of sin ... And
if there should be found among them any that possesses any good,
they will not be treated differently to myself by other men; and in
fine, I come to the conclusion that it is bad if they are hostile,
and worse if they are friendly.
Miscellaneous drafts of letters and personal records (1356--1368).
1356.
All the ills that are or ever were, if they could be set to work by
him, would not satisfy the desires of his iniquitous soul; and I
could not in any length of time describe his nature to you, but I
conclude...
1357.

I know one who, having promised me much, less than my due, being
disappointed of his presumptuous desires, has tried to deprive me of
all my friends; and as he has found them wise and not pliable to his
will, he has menaced me that, having found means of denouncing me,
he would deprive me of my benefactors. Hence I have informed your
Lordship of this, to the end [that this man who wishes to sow the
usual scandals, may find no soil fit for sowing the thoughts and
deeds of his evil nature] so that he, trying to make your Lordship,
the instrument of his iniquitous and maliceous nature may be
disappointed of his desire.
1358.
[Footnote: Below this text we read gusstino--Giustino and in another

passage on the same page Justin is quoted (No. 1210, 1. 48). The two
have however no real connection.]
And in this case I know that I shall make few enemies seeing that no
one will believe what I can say of him; for they are but few whom
his vices have disgusted, and he only dislikes those men whose
natures are contrary to those vices. And many hate their fathers,
and break off friendship with those who reprove their vices; and he
will not permit any examples against them, nor any advice.
If you meet with any one who is virtuous do not drive him from you;
do him honour, so that he may not have to flee from you and be
reduced to hiding in hermitages, or caves or other solitary places
to escape from your treachery; if there is such an one among you do
him honour, for these are our Saints upon earth; these are they who
deserve statues from us, and images; but remember that their images
are not to be eaten by you, as is still done in some parts of India
[Footnote 15: In explanation of this passage I have received the
following communication from Dr. G. W. LEITNER of Lahore: "So far as
Indian customs are known to us, this practice spoken of by Leonardo
as 'still existing in some parts of India' is perfectly unknown; and
it is equally opposed to the spirit of Hinduism, Mohammedanism and
Sikhism. In central Thibet the ashes of the dead, when burnt, are
mixed with dough, and small figures--usually of Buddha--are stamped
out of them and some are laid in the grave while others are
distributed among the relations. The custom spoken of by Leonardo
may have prevailed there but I never heard of it." Possibly Leonardo
refers here to customs of nations of America.] where, when the
images have according to them, performed some miracle, the priests

cut them in pieces, being of wood, and give them to all the people
of the country, not without payment; and each one grates his portion
very fine, and puts it upon the first food he eats; and thus
believes that by faith he has eaten his saint who then preserves him
from all perils. What do you think here, Man, of your own species?
Are you so wise as you believe yourselves to be? Are these things to
be done by men?
1359.
As I told you in past days, you know that I am without any....

Francesco d'Antonio. Bernardo di Maestro Jacopo.
1360.
Tell me how the things happened.
1361.
j lorezo\\\ 2 inbiadali\\\ 3 inferri de\\\ 4in lorezo\\\ 5[inno

abuil]\\ 6 in acocatu\\\ 7 per la sella\\\ 8colte di lor\\\ 9v
cavallott\\\ I0el uiagg\\\ IIal\\\ I2a lurez\\\ 13in biada\\\
14inferri\\\ 15abuss\\\ 16in viagg\\\ 17alorz\\\ [Footnote: This
seems to be the beginning of a letter, but only the first words of
the lines have been preserved, the leaf being torn down the middle.
No translation is possible.]
1362.
And so may it please our great Author that I may demonstrate the
nature of man and his customs, in the way I describe his figure.
[Footnote: A preparatory note for the passage given as No. 798, 11.
41--42.]
1363.
This writing distinctly about the kite seems to be my destiny,

because among the first recollections of my infancy, it seemed to me
that, as I was in my cradle, a kite came to me and opened my mouth
with its tail, and struck me several times with its tail inside my
lips.

[Footnote: This note probably refers to the text No. 1221.]
1364.
[When I did well, as a boy you used to put me in prison. Now if I do

it being grown up, you will do worse to me.]
1365.
Tell me if anything was ever done.
1366.
Tell me if ever I did a thing which me ....
1367.
Do not reveal, if liberty is precious to you; my face is the prison

of love.
[Footnote: This note seems to be a quotation.]
1368.
Maestro Leonardo of Florence.
[Footnote: So Leonardo writes his name on a sheet with sundry short

notes, evidently to try a pen. Compare the signature with those in
Nos. 1341, 1348 and 1374 (see also No. 1346, l. 33). The form
"Lionardo" does not occur in the autographs. The Portrait of the
Master in the Royal Library at Turin, which is reproduced--slightly
diminished--on Pl. I, has in the original two lines of writing
underneath; one in red chalk of two or three words is partly
effaced: _lionardo it... lm_ (or _lai_?); the second written in
pencil is as follows: _fatto da lui stesso assai vecchio_. In both
of these the writing is very like the Master's, but is certainly
only an imitation.]
Notes bearing Dates (1369--1378).
1369.
The day of Santa Maria _della Neve_ [of the Snows] August the 2nd

1473. [Footnote: W. An. I. 1368. 1369. This date is on a drawing of

a rocky landscape. See _Chronique des Arts_ 1881 no. 23: _Leonard de
Vinci a-t-il ete au Righi le 5 aout 1473_? letter by H. de
Geymuller. The next following date in the MSS. is 1478 (see No.
663).
1370.
On the 2nd of April 1489, book entitled 'Of the human figure'.
[Footnote: While the letters in the MS. notes of 1473 and 1478 are
very ornate, this note and the texts on anatomy on the same sheet
(for instance No. 805) are in the same simple hand as we see on Pl.
CXVI and CXIX. No 1370 is the only dated note of the years between
1480 and 1489, and the characters are in all essential points
identical with those that we see in the latest manuscripts written
in France (compare the facsimiles on Pl. CXV and p. 254), so that it
is hardly possible to determine exactly the date of a manuscript
from the style of the handwriting, if it does not betray the
peculiarities of style as displayed in the few notes dated previous
to l480.--Compare the facsimile of the manuscripts 1479 on Pl.LXII,
No. 2; No. 664, note, Vol. I p. 346. This shows already a marked
simplicity as compared with the calligraphy of I478.
The text No. 720 belongs to the year 1490; No. 1510 to the year
1492; No. 1459, No. 1384 and No. 1460 to the year 1493; No. 1463,
No. 1517, No. 1024, 1025 and 1461 to the year 1494; Nos. 1523 and
1524 to the year 1497.
1371.
On the 1st of August 1499, I wrote here of motion and of weight.
[Footnote:1371. _Scrissi qui_. Leonardo does not say where; still we

may assume that it was not in Milan. Amoretti writes, _Memorie
Storiche_, chap. XIX: _Sembra pertanto che non nel 1499 ma nel 1500,
dopo il ritorno e la prigionia del duca, sia da qui partito Lionardo
per andare a Firenze; ed e quindi probabile, che i mesi di governo
nuovo e incerto abbia passati coll' amico suo Francesco Melzi a
Vaprio, ove meglio che altrove studiar potea la natura, e
soprattutta le acque, e l'Adda specialmente, che gia era stato
l'ogetto delle sue idrostatiche ricerche_. At that time Melzi was
only six years of age. The next date is 1502; to this year belong
No. 1034, 1040, 1042, 1048 and 1053. The note No. 1525 belongs to

the year 1503.]
1372.
On the 9th of July 1504, Wednesday, at seven o'clock, died Ser Piero
da Vinci, notary at the Palazzo del Podesta, my father, --at seven
o'clock, being eighty years old, leaving behind ten sons and two
daughters.
[Footnote: This statement of Ser Piero's age contradicts that of the

_Riassunto della portata di Antonio da Vinci_ (Leonardo's
grandfather), who speaks of Ser Piero as being thirty years old in
1457; and that of the _Riassunto della portata di Ser Piero e
Francesco_, sons of Antonia da Vinci, where Ser Piero is mentioned
as being forty in 1469. These documents were published by G.
UZIELLI, _Ricerche intorno a L. da Vinci, Firenze_, 1872, pp. 144
and 146. Leonardo was, as is well known, a natural son. His mother
'La Catarina' was married in 1457 to Acchattabriga di Piero del
Vaccha da Vinci. She died in 1519. Leonardo never mentions her in
the Manuscripts. In the year of Leonardo's birth Ser Piero married
Albiera di Giovanni Amadoci, and after her death at the age of
thirty eight he again married, Francesca, daughter of Ser Giovanni
Lanfredi, then only fifteen. Their children were Leonardo's
halfbrothers, Antonio (b. 1476), Ser Giuliano (b. 1479), Lorenzo (b.
1484), a girl, Violante (b. 1485), and another boy Domenico (b.
1486); Domenico's descendants still exist as a family. Ser Piero
married for the third time Lucrezia di Guglielmo Cortigiani by whom
he had six children: Margherita (b. 1491), Benedetto (b. 1492),
Pandolfo (b. 1494), Guglielmo (b. 1496), Bartolommeo (b. 1497), and
Giovanni) date of birth unknown). Pierino da Vinci the sculptor
(about 1520-1554) was the son of Bartolommeo, the fifth of these
children. The dates of their deaths are not known, but we may infer
from the above passage that they were all still living in 1505.]
1373.
On Wednesday at seven o'clock died Ser Piero da Vinci on the 9th of

July 1504.
[Footnote: This and the previous text it may be remarked are the
only mention made by Leonardo of his father; Nos. 1526, 1527 and No.
1463 are of the year 1504.]

1374.
Begun by me, Leonardo da Vinci, on the l2th of July 1505.
[Footnote: Thus he writes on the first page of the MS. The title is
on the foregoing coversheet as follows: _Libro titolato
disstrafformatione coe_ (cioe) _d'un corpo nvn_ (in un) _altro sanza
diminuitione e acresscemento di materia._]
1375.
Begun at Milan on the l2th of September 1508.
[Footnote: No. 1528 and No. 1529 belong to the same year. The text
Vol. I, No. 4 belongs to the following year 1509 (1508 old style);
so also does No. 1009.-- Nos. 1022, 1057 and 1464 belong to 1511.]
1376.
On the 9th of January 1513.
[Footnote: No. 1465 belongs to the same year. No. 1065 has the next
date 1514.]
1377.
The Magnifico Giuliano de' Medici left Rome on the 9th of January
1515, just at daybreak, to take a wife in Savoy; and on the same day
fell the death of the king of France.
[Footnote: Giuliano de Medici, brother to Pope Leo X.; see note to

Nos. 1351-1353. In February, 1515, he was married to Filiberta,
daughter of Filippo, Duke of Savoy, and aunt to Francis I, Louis
XII's successor on the throne of France. Louis XII died on Jan. 1st,
and not on Jan. 9th as is here stated.-- This addition is written in
paler ink and evidently at a later date.]
1378.
On the 24th of June, St John's day, 1518 at Amboise, in the palace

of...
[Footnote: _Castello del clli_. The meaning of this word is obscure;

it is perhaps not written at full length.]
_XXII._
_Miscellaneous Notes._
_The incidental memoranda scattered here and there throughout the

MSS. can have been for the most part intelligible to the writer
only; in many cases their meaning and connection are all the more
obscure because we are in ignorance about the persons with whom
Leonardo used to converse nor can we say what part he may have
played in the various events of his time. Vasari and other early
biographers give us a very superficial and far from accurate picture
of Leonardo's private life. Though his own memoranda, referring for
the most part to incidents of no permanent interest, do not go far
towards supplying this deficiency, they are nevertheless of some
importance and interest as helping us to solve the numerous
mysteries in which the history of Leonardo's long life remains
involved. We may at any rate assume, from Leonardo's having
committed to paper notes on more or less trivial matters on his
pupils, on his house-keeping, on various known and unknown
personages, and a hundred other trifies--that at the time they must
have been in some way important to him._
_I have endeavoured to make these 'Miscellaneous Notes' as complete

as possible, for in many cases an incidental memorandum will help to
explain the meaning of some other note of a similar kind. The first
portion of these notes (Nos. l379--l457), as well as those referring
to his pupils and to other artists and artificers who lived in his
house (1458--1468,) are arranged in chronological order. A
considerable proportion of these notes belong to the period between
1490 and 1500, when Leonardo was living at Milan under the patronage
of Lodovico il Moro, a time concerning which we have otherwise only
very scanty information. If Leonardo did really--as has always been
supposed,--spend also the greater part of the preceding decade in
Milan, it seems hardly likely that we should not find a single note
indicative of the fact, or referring to any event of that period, on
the numerous loose leaves in his writing that exist. Leonardo's life
in Milan between 1489 and 1500 must have been comparatively
uneventful. The MSS. and memoranda of those years seem to prove that
it was a tranquil period of intellectual and artistic labour rather
than of bustling court life. Whatever may have been the fate of the
MSS. and note books of the foregoing years--whether they were

destroyed by Leonardo himself or have been lost--it is certainly

strange that nothing whatever exists to inform us as to his life and
doings in Milan earlier than the consecutive series of manuscripts
which begin in the year 1489._
_There is nothing surprising in the fact that the notes regarding

his pupils are few and meagre. Excepting for the record of money
transactions only very exceptional circumstances would have prompted
him to make any written observations on the persons with whom he was
in daily intercourse, among whom, of course, were his pupils. Of
them all none is so frequently mentioned as Salai, but the character
of the notes does not--as it seems to me--justify us in supposing
that he was any thing more than a sort of factotum of Leonardo's
(see 1519, note)._
_Leonardo's quotations from books and his lists of titles supply

nothing more than a hint as to his occasional literary studies or
recreations. It was evidently no part of his ambition to be deeply
read (see Nrs. 10, 11, 1159) and he more than once expressly states
(in various passages which will be found in the foregoing sections)
that he did not recognise the authority of the Ancients, on
scientific questions, which in his day was held paramount.
Archimedes is the sole exception, and Leonardo frankly owns his
admiration for the illustrious Greek to whose genius his own was so
much akin (see No. 1476). All his notes on various authors,
excepting those which have already been inserted in the previous
section, have been arranged alphabetically for the sake of
convenience (1469--1508)._
_The passages next in order contain accounts and inventories

principally of household property. The publication of these--often
very trivial entries--is only justifiable as proving that the
wealth, the splendid mode of life and lavish expenditure which have
been attributed to Leonardo are altogether mythical; unless we put
forward the very improbable hypothesis that these notes as to money
in hand, outlay and receipts, refer throughout to an exceptional
state of his affairs, viz. when he was short of money._
_The memoranda collected at the end (No. 1505--1565) are, in the

original, in the usual writing, from left to right. Besides, the
style of the handwriting is at variance with what we should expect
it to be, if really Leonardo himself had written these notes. Most
of them are to be found in juxtaposition with undoubtedly authentic

writing of his. But this may be easily explained, if we take into

account the fact, that Leonardo frequently wrote on loose sheets. He
may therefore have occasionally used paper on which others had made
short memoranda, for the most part as it would seem, for his use. At
the end of all I have given Leonardo's will from the copy of it
preserved in the Melzi Library. It has already been printed by
Amoretti and by Uzielli. It is not known what has become of the
original document._
Memoranda before 1500 (1379-l413).
1379.
Find Longhi and tell him that you wait for him at Rome and will go
with him to Naples; make you pay the donation [Footnote 2: _Libro di
Vitolone_ see No. 1506 note.] and take the book by Vitolone, and the
measurements of the public buildings. [3] Have two covered boxes
made to be carried on mules, but bed-covers will be best; this makes
three, of which you will leave one at Vinci. [4] Obtain
the.............. from Giovanni Lombardo the linen draper of Verona.
Buy handkerchiefs and towels,.... and shoes, 4 pairs of hose, a
jerkin of... and skins, to make new ones; the lake of Alessandro.
[Footnote: 7 and fol. It would seem from the text that Leonardo
intended to have instructions in painting on paper. It is hardly
necessary to point out that the Art of illuminating was quite
separate from that of painting.]
Sell what you cannot take with you. Get from Jean de Paris the
method of painting in tempera and the way of making white [Footnote:
The mysterious looking words, quite distinctly written, in line 1:
_ingol, amor a, ilopan a_ and on line 2: _enoiganod al_ are
obviously in cipher and the solution is a simple one; by reading
them backwards we find for _ingol_: logni-probably _longi_,
evidently the name of a person; for _amor a_: _a Roma_, for _ilopan
a_: _a Napoli_. Leonardo has done the same in two passages treating
on some secrets of his art Nos. 641 and 729, the only other places
in which we find this cipher employed; we may therefore conclude
that it was for the sake of secrecy that he used it.
There can be no doubt, from the tenor of this passage, that Leonardo
projected a secret excursion to Naples. Nothing has hitherto been
known of this journey, but the significance of the passage will be
easily understood by a reference to the following notes, from which

we may infer that Leonardo really had at the time plans for
travelling further than Naples. From lines 3, 4 and 7 it is evident
that he purposed, after selling every thing that was not easily
portable, to leave a chest in the care of his relations at Vinci.
His luggage was to be packed into two trunks especially adapted for
transport by mules. The exact meaning of many sentences in the
following notes must necessarily remain obscure. These brief remarks
on small and irrelevant affairs and so forth are however of no
historical value. The notes referring to the preparations for his
journey are more intelligible.]
salt, and how to make tinted paper; sheets of paper folded up; and
his box of colours; learn to work flesh colours in tempera, learn to
dissolve gum lac, linseed ... white, of the garlic of Piacenza; take
'de Ponderibus'; take the works of Leonardo of Cremona. Remove the
small furnace ... seed of lilies and of... Sell the boards of the
support. Make him who stole it, give you the ... learn levelling and
how much soil a man can dig out in a day.
1380.
This was done by Leone in the piazza of the castle with a chain and
an arrow. [Footnote: This note must have been made in Milan; as we
know from the date of the MS.]
1381.
NAMES OF ENGINEERS.
Callias of Rhodes, Epimachus the Athenian, Diogenes, a philosopher,

of Rhodes, Calcedonius of Thrace, Febar of Tyre, Callimachus the
architect, a master of fires. [Footnote: Callias, Architect of
Aradus, mentioned by Vitruvius (X, 16, 5).--Epimachus, of Athens,
invented a battering-enginee for Demetrius Poliorketes (Vitruvius X,
16, 4).--Callimachus, the inventor of the Corinthian capital (Vitr.
IV, I, 9), and of the method of boring marble (Paus. I, 26, 7), was
also famous for his casts in bronze (Plin. XXXIV, 8, 19). He
invented a lamp for the temple of Athene Polias, on the Acropolis of
Athens (Paus. I, 26, 7)--The other names, here mentioned, cannot be
identified.]
1382.

Ask maestro Lodovico for 'the conduits of water'. [Footnote:

Condotti d'acqua. Possibly a book, a MS. or a map.]
1383.
... at Pistoja, Fioravante di Domenico at Florence is my most

beloved friend, as though he were my [brother]. [Footnote: On the
same sheet is the text No. 663.]
1384.
On the 16th day of July.
Caterina came on 16th day of July, 1493.
Messer Mariolo's Morel the Florentin, has a big horse with a fine
neck and a beautiful head.
The white stallion belonging to the falconer has fine hind quarters;
it is behind the Comasina Gate.
The big horse of Cermonino, of Signor Giulio. [Footnote: Compare

Nos. 1522 and 1517. Caterina seems to have been his housekeeper.]
1385.
OF THE INSTRUMENT.
Any one who spends one ducat may take the instrument; and he will
not pay more than half a ducat as a premium to the inventor of the
instrument and one grosso to the workman every year. I do not want
sub-officials. [Footnote: Refers perhaps to the regulation of the
water in the canals.]
1386.
Maestro Giuliano da Marliano has a fine herbal. He lives opposite to

Strami the Carpenters. [Footnote: Compare No. 616, note. 4.
legnamiere (milanese dialect) = legnajuolo.]
1387.
Christofano da Castiglione who lives at the Pieta has a fine head.

1388.
Work of ... of the stable of Galeazzo; by the road of Brera

[Footnote 4: Brera, see No. 1448, II, 13]; benefice of Stanghe
[Footnote 5:Stanghe, see No. 1509.]; benefice of Porta Nuova;
benefice of Monza; Indaco's mistake; give first the benefices; then
the works; then ingratitude, indignity and lamentations.
1389.
Chiliarch--captain of 1000.
Prefects--captains.
A legion, six thousand and sixty three men.
1390.
A nun lives at La Colomba at Cremona; she works good straw plait,

and a friar of Saint Francis. [Footnote: _La Colomba_ is to this day
the name of a small house at Cremona, decorated with frescoes.]
1391.
Needle,--Niccolao,--thread,--Ferrando, -lacopo
Andrea,--canvas,--stone,--colours, --brushes,--pallet,--sponge,--the
panel of the Duke.
1392.
Messer Gian Domenico Mezzabarba and Messer Giovanni Franceso

Mezzabarba. By the side of Messer Piero d'Anghiera.
1393.
Conte Francesco Torello.
1394.
Giuliano Trombetta,--Antonio di Ferrara, --Oil of .... [Footnote:

Near this text is the sketch of a head drawn in red chalk.]

1395.
Paul was snatched up to heaven. [Footnote: See the facsimile of this

note on Pl. XXIII No. 2.]
1396.
Giuliano da Maria, physician, has a steward without hands.
1397.
Have some ears of corn of large size sent from Florence.
1398.
See the bedstead at Santa Maria. Secret.
1399.
Arrigo is to have 11 gold Ducats. Arrigo is to have 4 gold ducats in

the middle of August.
1400.
Give your master the instance of a captain who does not himself win
the victory, but the soldiers do by his counsels; and so he still
deserves the reward.
1401.
Messer Pier Antonio.
1402.
Oil,--yellow,--Ambrosio,--the mouth, --the farmhouse.
1403.
My dear Alessandro from Parma, by the hand of ...
1404.
Giovannina, has a fantastic face,--is at Santa Caterina, at the

Hospital. [Footnote: Compare the text on the same page: No. 667.]
1405.
24 tavole make 1 perch. 4 trabochi make 1 tavola. 4 braccia and a

half make a trabocco. A perch contains 1936 square braccia, or 1944.
1406.
The road of Messer Mariolo is 13 1/4 braccia wide; the House of

Evangelista is 75.
It enters 7 1/2 braccia in the house of Mariolo. [Footnote: On this

page and that which faces it, MS.I2 7la, are two diagrams with
numerous reference numbers, evidently relating to the measurements
of a street.]
1407.
I ask at what part of its curved motion the moving cause will leave
the thing moved and moveable.
Speak to Pietro Monti of these methods of throwing spears.
1408.
Antonio de' Risi is at the council of Justice.
1409.
Paolo said that no machine that moves another .... [Footnote: The
passage, of which the beginning is here given, deals with questions
in mechanics. The instances in which Leonardo quotes the opinions of
his contemporaries on scientific matters are so rare as to be worth
noticing. Compare No. 901. ]
1410.
Caravaggio. [Footnote: _Caravaggio_, a village not far from the Adda

between Milan and Brescia, where Polidoro and Michelangelo da
Caravaggio were born. This note is given in facsimile on Pl. XIII,
No. I (above, to the left). On Pl. XIII, No. 2 above to the right we
read _cerovazo_.]

1411.
Pulleys,--nails,--rope,--mercury,--cloth, Monday.
1412.
MEMORANDUM.
Maghino, Speculus of Master Giovanni the Frenchman; Galenus on

utility.
1413.
Near to Cordusio is Pier Antonio da Tossano and his brother

Serafino. [Footnote: This note is written between lines 23 and 24 of
the text No. 710. Corduso, Cordusio (_curia ducis_) = Cordus in the
Milanese dialect, is the name of a Piazza between the Via del
Broletto and the Piazza de' Mercanti at Milan.. In the time of il
Moro it was the centre of the town. The persons here named were
members of the noble Milanese family de'Fossani; Ambrogio da
Possano, the contemporary painter, had no connection with them.]
1414.
Memoranda after 1500 (1414--1434)
1414.
Paul of Vannochio at Siena ... The upper chamber for the apostles.
[4] Buildings by Bramante.
The governor of the castle made a prisoner.
[6] Visconti carried away and his son killed. [Footnote 6: Visconti.
_Chi fosse quel Visconte non sapremmo indovinare fra tanti di questo
nome. Arluno narra che allora atterrate furono le case de' Viconti,
de' Castiglioni, de' Sanseverini, e de' Botta e non è improbabile
che ne fossero insultati e morti i padroni. Molti Visconti annovera
lo stesso Cronista che per essersi rallegrati del ritorno del duca
in Milano furono da' Francesi arrestati, e strascinati in Francia
come prigionieri di stato; e fra questi Messer Francesco Visconti, e

suo figliuolo Battista_. (AMORETTI, Mem. Stor. XIX.).]
Giovanni della Rosa deprived of his money.
Borgonzio began ....; and moreover his fortunes fled. [Footnote 8:

Borgonzio o Brugonzio Botta fu regolatore delle ducali entrate sotto
il Moro, alla cui fuga la casa sua fu pur messa a sacco da'
partitanti francesi. (AMORETTI, l. c.)]
The Duke has lost the state, property and liberty and none of his
entreprises was carried out by him.
[Footnote: l. 4--10 This passage evidently refers to events in Milan

at the time of the overthrow of Ludovico il Moro. Amoretti published
it in the '_Memorie Storiche_' and added copious notes.]
1415.
Ambrosio Petri, St. Mark, 4 boards for the window, 2 ..., 3 the
saints of chapels, 5 the Genoese at home.
1416.
Piece of tapestry,--pair of compasses,-- Tommaso's book,--the book

of Giovanni Benci,--the box in the custom-house,--to cut the
cloth,--the sword-belt,--to sole the boots, --a light hat,--the cane
from the ruined houses,--the debt for the table linen,
--swimming-belt,--a book of white paper for drawing,--charcoal.--How
much is a florin ...., a leather bodice.
1417.
Borges shall get for you the Archimedes from the bishop of Padua,
and Vitellozzo the one from Borgo a San Sepolcro [Footnote 3: Borgo
a San Sepolcro, where Luca Paciolo, Leonardo's friend, was born.]
[Footnote: Borges. A Spanish name.]
1418.
Marzocco's tablet.
1419.

Marcello lives in the house of Giacomo da Mengardino.
1420.
Where is Valentino?--boots,--boxes in the

custom-house,...,--[Footnote 5: Carmine. A church and monastery at
Florence.] the monk at the Carmine,--squares,--[Footnotes 7 and 8:
Martelli, Borgherini; names of Florentine families. See No. 4.]
Piero Martelli,--[8] Salvi Borgherini,--send back the bags,--a
support for the spectacles,--[Footnote 11: San Gallo; possibly
Giuliano da San Gallo, the Florentine architect.] the nude study of
San Gallo,--the cloak. Porphyry,--groups,--square,--[Footnote 16:
Pandolfini, see No. 1544 note.] Pandolfino. [Footnote: Valentino.
Cesare Borgia is probably meant. After being made Archbishop of
Valence by Alexander VI he was commonly called Valentinus or
Valentino. With reference to Leonardo's engagements by him see pp.
224 and 243, note.]
1421.
Concave mirrors; philosophy of Aristotle;[Footnote 2: _Avicenna_

(Leonardo here writes it Avinega) the Arab philosopher, 980-1037,
for centuries the unimpeachable authority on all medical questions.
Leonardo possibly points here to a printed edition: _Avicennae
canonum libri V, latine_ 1476 _Patavis._ Other editions are, Padua
1479, and Venice 1490.] the books of Avicenna Italian and Latin
vocabulary; Messer Ottaviano Palavicino or his Vitruvius [Footnote
3: _Vitruvius._ See Vol. I, No. 343 note.]. bohemian knives;
Vitruvius[Footnote 6: _Vitruvius._ See Vol. I, No. 343 note.]; go
every Saturday to the hot bath where you will see naked men;
'Meteora' [Footnote 7: _Meteora._ See No. 1448, 25.],
Archimedes, on the centre of gravity; [Footnote 9: The works of

Archimedes were not printed during Leonardo's life-time.] anatomy
[Footnote 10: Compare No. 1494.] Alessandro Benedetto; The Dante of
Niccolo della Croce; Inflate the lungs of a pig and observe whether
they increase in width and in length, or in width diminishing in
length.
[Footnote 14: _Johannes Marliani sua etate philosophorum et

medicorum principis et ducalis phisic. primi de proportione motuum

velocitate questio subtilissima incipit ex ejusdem Marliani

originali feliciter extracta, M(ilano)_ 1482.
Another work by him has the title: _Marlianus mediolanensis. Questio

de caliditate corporum humanorum tempore hiemis ed estatis et de
antiparistasi ad celebrem philosophorum et medicorum universitatem
ticinensem._ 1474.] Marliano, on Calculation, to Bertuccio.
Albertus, on heaven and earth [Footnote 15: See No. 1469, 1. 7.],
[from the monk Bernardino]. Horace has written on the movements of
the heavens.
[Footnote: _Filosofia d'Aristotele_ see No. 1481 note.]
1422.
Of the three regular bodies as opposed to some commentators who

disparage the Ancients, who were the originators of grammar and the
sciences and ...
1423.
The room in the tower of Vaneri.
[Footnote: This note is written inside the sketch of a plan of a

house. On the same page is the date 1513 (see No. 1376).]
1424.
The figures you will have to reserve for the last book on shadows
that they may appear in the study of Gerardo the illuminator at San
Marco at Florence.
[Go to see Melzo, and the Ambassador, and Maestro Bernardo].
[Footnote: L. 1-3 are in the original written between lines 3 and 4

of No. 292. But the sense is not clear in this connection. It is
scarcely possible to devine the meaning of the following sentence.
2. 3. _Gherardo_ Miniatore, a famous illuminator, 1445-1497, to whom

Vasari dedicated a section of his Lives (Vol. II pp. 237-243, ed.
Sansoni 1879).
5. _Bernardo_, possibly the painter Bernardo Zenale.]

1425.
Hermes the philosopher.
1426.
Suisset, viz. calculator,--Tisber, --Angelo Fossobron,--Alberto.
1427.
The structure of the drawbridge shown me by Donnino, and why _c_ and
_d_ thrust downwards.
[Footnote: The sketch on the same page as this text represents two
poles one across the other. At the ends of the longest are the
letter _c_ and _d_. The sense of the passage is not rendered any
clearer.]
1428.
The great bird will take its first flight;-- on the back of his
great swan,--filling the universe with wonders; filling all writings
with his fame and bringing eternal glory to his birthplace.
[Footnote: This seems to be a speculation about the flying machine

(compare p. 271).]
1429.
This stratagem was used by the Gauls against the Romans, and so
great a mortality ensued that all Rome was dressed in mourning.
[Footnote: Leonardo perhaps alludes to the Gauls under Brennus, who

laid his sword in the scale when the tribute was weighed.]
1430.
Alberto da Imola;--Algebra, that is, the demonstration of the

equality of one thing to another.
1431.

Johannes Rubicissa e Robbia.
1432.
Ask the wife of Biagio Crivelli how the capon nurtures and hatches
the eggs of the hen,--he being drunk.
1433.
The book on Water to Messer Marco Antonio.
[Footnote: Possibly Marc-Antonio della Torre, see p. 97.]
1434.
Have Avicenna's work on useful inventions translated; spectacles

with the case, steel and fork and...., charcoal, boards, and paper,
and chalk and white, and wax;.... .... for glass, a saw for bones
with fine teeth, a chisel, inkstand ........ three herbs, and Agnolo
Benedetto. Get a skull, nut,--mustard.
Boots,--gloves, socks, combs, papers, towels, shirts,....

shoe-tapes,--..... shoes, penknife, pens. A skin for the chest.
[Footnote: 4. Lapis. Compare Condivi, _Vita di Michelagnolo

Buonarotti_, Chap. XVIII.: _Ma egli_ (Michelangelo) _non avendo che
mostrare, prese una penna (percioche in quel tempo il lapis non era
in uso) e con tal leggiadria gli dipinse una mano ecc._ The incident
is of the year l496.--Lapis means pencil, and chalk (_matita_).
Between lines 7 and 8 are the texts given as Nos. 819 and No. 7.]
Undated memoranda (1435-1457).
1435.
The book of Piero Crescenze,--studies from the nude by Giovanni

Ambrosio,--compasses, --the book of Giovanni Giacomo.
1436.
MEMORARDUM.
To make some provisions for my garden, --Giordano, _De

Ponderibus_[Footnote 3: _Giordano_. Jordanus Nemorarius, a

mathematician of the beginning of the XIIIth century. No particulars
of his life are known. The title of his principal work is:
_Arithmetica decem libris demonstrata_, first published at Paris
1496. In 1523 appeared at Nuremberg: _Liber Jordani Nemorarii de
ponderibus, propositiones XIII et earundem demonstrationes,
multarumque rerum rationes sane pulcherrimas complectens, nunc in
lucem editus._],--the peacemaker, the flow and ebb of the sea,--have
two baggage trunks made, look to Beltraffio's [Footnote 6:
_Beltraffio_, see No. 465, note 2.
There are sketches by the side of lines 8 and 10.] lathe and have
taken the stone,--out leave the books belonging to Messer Andrea the
German,-- make scales of a long reed and weigh the substance when
hot and again when cold. The mirror of Master Luigi; _A b_ the flow
and ebb of the water is shown at the mill of Vaprio,--a cap.
1437.
Giovanni Fabre,--Lazaro del Volpe,-- the common,--Ser Piero.
[Footnote: These names are inserted on a plan of plots of land

adjoining the Arno.]
1438.
[Lactantius], [the book of Benozzo], groups,--to bind the book,--a

lantern,--Ser Pecantino,--Pandolfino.--[Rosso]--a square, --small
knives,--carriages,--curry combs-- cup.
1439.
Quadrant of Carlo Marmocchi,--Messer Francesco Araldo,--Ser

Benedetto d'Accie perello,--Benedetto on arithmetic,--Maestro Paulo,
physician,--Domenico di Michelino,-- ...... of the Alberti,--Messer
Giovanni Argimboldi.
1440.
Colours, formula,--Archimedes,--Marcantonio.
Tinned iron,--pierced iron.

1441.
See the shop that was formerly Bartolommeo's, the stationer.
[Footnote: 6. _Marc Antonio_, see No. 1433.]
1442.
The first book is by Michele di Francesco Nabini; it treats on

science.
1443.
Messer Francesco, physician of Lucca, with the Cardinal Farnese.
[Footnote: _Alessandro Farnese_, afterwards Pope Paul III was

created in 1493 Cardinal di San Cosimo e San Damiano, by Alexander
VI.]
1444.
Pandolfino's book [Footnote 1: _Pandolfino, Agnolo_, of Florence. It

is to this day doubtful whether he or L. B. Alberti was the author
of the famous work '_Del Governo della Famiglia_'. It is the more
probable that Leonardo should have meant this work by the words _il
libro_, because no other book is known to have been written by
Pandolfino. This being the case this allusion of Leonardo's is an
important evidence in favour of Pandolfino's authorship (compare No.
1454, line 3).],--knives,--a pen for ruling,--to have the vest
dyed,--The library at St.-Mark's,--The library at Santo
Spirito,--Lactantius of the Daldi [Footnote 7: The works of
Lactantius were published very often in Italy during Leonardo's
lifetime. The first edition published in 1465 "_in monastero
sublacensi_" was also the first book printed in Italy.],--Antonio
Covoni,--A book by Maestro Paolo Infermieri, --Boots, shoes and
hose,--(Shell)lac, --An apprentice to do the models for me. Grammar,
by Lorenzo de Medici,--Giovanni del Sodo,--Sansovino, [Footnote 15:
_Sansovino_, Andrea--the _sculptor_; 1460-1529.]--a ruler,--a very
sharp knife,--Spectacles,--fractions....,
--repair.........,--Tomaso's book,-- Michelagnolo's little chain;
Learn the multiplication of roots from Maestro Luca;--my map of the
world which Giovanni Benci has [Footnote 25: Leonardo here probably
alludes to the map, not executed by him (See p. 224), which is with

the collection of his MSS. at Windsor, and was published in the

_Archaeologia_ Vol. XI (see p. 224).];-Socks,--clothes from the
customhouse-officier,--Red Cordova leather,--The map of the world,
of Giovanni Benci,--a print, the districts about Milan--Market book.
Get the Friar di Brera to show you [the book] '_de Ponderibus_'
[Footnote 11: _Brera_, now _Palazzo delle Scienze ed Arti. Until
1571 it was the monastery of the order of the Umiliati and
afterwards of the Jesuits.
_De ponderibus_, compare No. 1436, 3.],--
Of the measurement of San Lorenzo,--
I lent certain groups to Fra Filippo de Brera, [Footnote 13:

_Brera_, now _Palazzo delle Scienze ed Arti. Until 1571 it was the
monastery of the order of the Umiliati and afterwards of the
Jesuits.
_De ponderibus_, compare No. 1436, 3.]--
Memorandum: to ask Maestro Giovannino as to the mode in which the

tower of Ferrara is walled without loopholes,--
Ask Maestro Antonio how mortars are placed on bastions by day or by

night,--
Ask Benedetto Portinari how the people go on the ice in Flanders,--
On proportions by Alchino, with notes by Marliano, from Messer

Fazio,--
The measurement of the sun, promised me by Maestro Giovanni, the

Frenchman,--
The cross bow of Maestro Gianetto,--
The book by Giovanni Taverna that Messer Fazio,--
You will draw Milan [21],--
The measurement of the canal, locks and supports, and large boats;
and the expense,--

Plan of Milan [Footnote 23: _Fondamento_ is commonly used by

Leonardo to mean ground-plan. See for instance p. 53.],--
Groups by Bramante [Footnote 24: _Gruppi_. See Vol. I p. 355, No.

600, note 9.],--
The book on celestial phenomena by Aristoteles, in Italian [Footnote

25: _Meteora_. By this Leonardo means no doubt the four books. He
must refer here to a MS. translation, as no Italian translation is
known to have been published (see No. 1477 note).],--
Try to get Vitolone, which is in the library at Pavia [Footnote 26:

_Vitolone_ see No. 1506, note.
_Libreria di Pavia_. One of the most famous of Italian libraries.

After the victory of Novara in April 1500, Louis XII had it conveyed
to France, '_come trofeo di vittoria_'!] and which treats of
Mathematics,--He had a master [learned] in waterworks and get him to
explain the repairs and the costs, and a lock and a canal and a mill
in the Lombard fashion.
A grandson of Gian Angelo's, the painter has a book on water which

was his fathers.
Paolino Scarpellino, called Assiolo has great knowledge of water

works.
[Footnote 12: _Sco Lorenzo_. A church at Milan, see pp. 39, 40 and
50.]
[Footnote 13. 24: _Gruppi_. See Vol. I p. 355, No. 600, note 9.]
[Footnote 16: The _Portinari_ were one of the great merchant-

families of Florence.]
1449.
Francesco d'Antonio at Florence.
1450.
Giuliano Condi[1],--Tomaso Ridolfi,-- Tomaso Paganelli,--Nicolo del

Nero,--Simone Zasti,--Nasi,--the heir of Lionardo Manelli,

--Guglielmo di Ser Martino,--Bartolomeo del Tovaglia,--Andrea
Arrigucci,-- Nicolo Capponi,--Giovanni Portinari.
[Footnote: I. _Guiliano Gondi_. Ser Piero da Vinci, Leonardo's

father, lived till 1480, in a house belonging to Giuliano Gondi. In
1498 this was pulled down to make room for the fine Palazzo built on
the Piazza San Firenze by Giuliano di San Gallo, which still exists.
In the _Riassunto del Catasto di Ser Piero da Vinci_, 1480, Leonardo
is not mentioned; it is evident therefore that he was living
elsewhere. It may be noticed incidentally that in the _Catasto di
Giuliano Gondi_ of the same year the following mention is made of
his four eldest sons:
_Lionardo mio figliuolo d'eta d'anni 29, non fa nulla, Giovambatista

d'eta d'anni 28 in Ghostantinopoli, Billichozo d'eta d'anni 24 a
Napoli, Simone d'eta d'anni 23 in Ungheria._
He himself was a merchant of gold filigree (_facciamo lavorare una

bottegha d'arte di seta ... facciamo un pocho di trafico a Napoli_}.
As he was 59 years old in 1480, he certainly would not have been
alive at the time of Leonardo's death. But Leonardo must have been
on intimate terms with the family till the end of his life, for in a
letter dated June 1. 1519, in which Fr. Melzi, writing from Amboise,
announces Leonardo's death to Giuliano da Vinci at Florence (see p.
284), he says at the end "_Datemene risposta per i Gondi_" (see
UZIELLI, _Ricerche_, passim).
Most of the other names on the list are those of well-known

Florentine families.]
1451.
Pandolfino.
1452.
Vespuccio will give me a book of Geometry.
[Footnote: See No. 844, note, p. 130.]
1453.

Marcantonio Colonna at Santi Apostoli.
[Footnote: In July 1506 Pope Julius II gave Donna Lucrezia della

Rovere, the daughter of his sister Lucchina, in marriage to the
youthful Marcantonio Colonna, who, like his brothers Prospero and
Fabrizio, became one of the most famous Captains of his family. He
gave to him Frascati and made him a present of the palazzo he had
built, when Cardinal, near the church of Santi Apostoli which is now
known as the Palazzo Colonna (see GREGOROVIUS, _Gesch. der Stadt
Rom._ Vol. VIII, book XIV I, 3. And COPPI, _Mem. Colonnesi_ p.
251).]
1454.
A box, a cage,-- A square, to make the bird [Footnote 2: Vasari

states that Leonardo invented mechanical birds which moved through
the air. Compare No. 703.],-- Pandolfino's book, mortar [?],-- Small
knives, Venieri for the
[Footnote: Much of No. 1444 is repeated in this memorandum.]
Pen for ruling, stone,--star,--
To have the vest dyed, Alfieri's tazza,--
The Libraries, the book on celestial

phenomena,--
Lactantius of the go to the house of

Daldi,-- the Pazzi,
Book from Maestro small box,--

Paolo Infermieri,--
Boots, shoes and small gimlet,--

hose,
Lac, .......,--
An apprentice for .....,--

models,
Grammar of Lo- the amount of the

renzo de' Medici, ...
Giovanni del Sodo .....

for...,--the broken
Sansovino, the....
Piero di Cosino the wings,--
[Footnote 16: _Pier di Cosimo_ the well known Florentine painter

1462-1521. See VASARI, _Vite_ (Vol. IV, p. 134 ed. Sansoni 1880)
about Leonardo's influence on Piero di Cosimo's style of painting.]
Filippo and Lorenzo [Footnote 17: _Filippo e Lorenzo_; probably the

painters Filippino Lippi and Lorenzo di Credi. L. di Credi's
pictures and Vasari's history of that painter bear ample evidence to
his intimate relations with Leonardo.],--A ruler-,-- Spectacles,--to
do the..... again,--Tomaso's book,--Michelagnolo's chain,--The
multiplication of roots,--Of the bow and strinch,--The map of the
world from Benci,-- Socks,--The clothes from the custom-house
officier,--Cordova leather,--Market books, --waters of
Cronaca,--waters of Tanaglino..., --the caps,--Rosso's mirror; to
see him make it,--1/3 of which I have 5/6,--on the celestial
phenomena, by Aristotle [Footnote 36: _Meteora_. See No. 1448,
25.],--boxes of Lorenzo di Pier Francesco [Footnote 37: _Lorenzo di
Pier Francesco_ and his brother _Giovanni_ were a lateral branch of
the _Medici_ family and changed their name for that of
Popolani.],--Maestro Piero of the Borgo,--To have my book
bound,--Show the book to Serigatto,-- and get the rule of the clock
[Footnote 41: Possibly this refers to the clock on the tower of the
Palazzo Vecchio at Florence. In February 1512 it had been repaired,
and so arranged as to indicate the hours after the French manner
(twelve hours a. m. and as many p. m.).],--
ring,--nutmeg,--gum,--the square,--Giovan' Batista at the piazza,
de' Mozzi,--Giovanni Benci has my book and jaspers,--brass for the
spectacles.
1455.
Search in Florence for......
1456.

Bernardo da Ponte ... Val di Lugano ... many veins for anatomical
demonstration.
[Footnote: This fragmentary note is written on the margin of a

drawing of two legs.]
1457.
Paolo of Tavechia, to see the marks in the German stones.
[Footnote: This note occurs on a pen and ink drawing made by

Leonardo as a sketch for the celebrated large cartoon in the
possession of the Royal Academy of Arts, in London. This cartoon is
commonly supposed to be identical with that described and lauded by
Vasari, which was exhibited in Florence at the time and which now
seems to be lost. Mr. Alfred Marks, of Long Ditton, in his valuable
paper (read before the Royal Soc. of Literature, June 28, 1882) "On
the St. Anne of Leonardo da Vinci", has adduced proof that the
cartoon now in the Royal Academy was executed earlier at Milan. The
note here given, which is written on the sheet containing the study
for the said cartoon, has evidently no reference to the drawing on
which it is written but is obviously of the same date. Though I have
not any opening here for discussing this question of the cartoon, it
seemed to me important to point out that the character of the
writing in this note does not confirm the opinion hitherto held that
the Royal Academy cartoon was the one described by Vasari, but, on
the contrary, supports the hypothesis put forward by Mr. Marks.]
Notes on pupils (1458-1468.)
1458.
Giacomo came to live with me on St.-Mary Magdalen's[Footnote: _Il di

della Maddalena._ July 22.] day, 1490, aged 10 years. The second day
I had two shirts cut out for him, a pair of hose, and a jerkin, and
when I put aside some money to pay for these things he stole 4
_lire_ the money out of the purse; and I could never make him
confess, though I was quite certain of the fact.--Thief, liar,
obstinate, glutton.
The day after, I went to sup with Giacomo Andrea, and the said
Giacomo supped for two and did mischief for four; for he brake 3
cruets, spilled the wine, and after this came to sup where I ....

Item: on the 7th day of September he stole a silver point of the

value of 22 soldi from Marco[Footnote 6: _Marco_, probably
Leonardo's pupil Marco d'Oggionno; 1470 is supposed to be the date
of his birth and 1540 of his death.
_Che stava con meco._ We may infer from this that he left the master
shortly after this, his term of study having perhaps expired.] who
was living with me, 4 _lire_ this being of silver; and he took it
from his studio, and when the said Marco had searched for it a long
while he found it hidden in the said Giacomo's box 4 _lire_.
Item: on the 26th January following, I, being in the house of Messer

Galeazzo da San Severino [Footnote 9: Galeazzo. See No. 718 note.],
was arranging the festival for his jousting, and certain footmen
having undressed to try on some costumes of wild men for the said
festival, Giacomo went to the purse of one of them which lay on the
bed with other clothes, 2 lire 4 S, and took out such money as was
in it.
Item: when I was in the same house, Maestro Agostino da Pavia gave
to me a Turkish hide to have (2 lire.) a pair of short boots made of
it; this Giacomo stole it of me within a month and sold it to a
cobbler for 20 soldi, with which money, by his own confession, he
bought anise comfits.
Item: again, on the 2nd April, Giovan Antonio [Footnote 16: Giovan
Antonio, probably Beltraffio, 1467 to 1516.] having left a silver
point on a drawing of his, Giacomo stole it, and this was of the
value of 24 soldi (1 lira 4 S.)
The first year-
A cloak, 2 lire,
6 shirts, 4 lire,
3 jerkins, 6 lire,
4 pairs of hose, 7 lire 8 soldi,
1 lined doublet, 5 lire,
24 pairs of shoes, 6 lire 5 soldi,
A cap, 1 lira,
laces, 1 lira.
[Footnote: Leonardo here gives a detailed account not only of the

loss he and others incurred through Giacomo but of the wild tricks
of the youth, and we may therefore assume that the note was not made
merely as a record for his own use, but as a report to be forwarded
to the lad's father or other responsible guardian.]
1459.
On the last day but one of September;
Thursday the 27th day of September Maestro Tommaso came back and
worked for himself until the last day but one of February. On the
18th day of March, 1493, Giulio, a German, came to live with
me,--Lucia, Piero, Leonardo.
On the 6th day of October.
1460.
1493. On the 1st day of November we settled accounts. Giulio had to

pay 4 months; and Maestro Tommaso 9 months; Maestro Tommaso
afterwards made 6 candlesticks, 10 days' work; Giulio some
fire-tongs 15 days work. Then he worked for himself till the 27th
May, and worked for me at a lever till the 18th July; then for
himself till the 7th of August, and for one day, on the fifteenth,
for a lady. Then again for me at 2 locks until the 20th of August.
1461.
On the 23rd day of August, 12 lire from Pulisona. On the 14th of

March 1494, Galeazzo came to live with me, agreeing to pay 5 lire a
month for his cost paying on the l4th day of each month.
His father gave me 2 Rhenish florins.
On the l4th of July, I had from Galeazzo 2 Rhenish florins.
1462.
On the 15th day of September Giulio began the lock of my studio

1494.
1463.

Saturday morning the 3rd of August 1504 Jacopo the German came to
live with me in the house, and agreed with me that I should charge
him a carlino a day.
1464.
1511. On the 26th of September Antonio broke his leg; he must rest
40 days.
[Footnote: This note refers possibly to Beltraffio.]
1465.
I left Milan for Rome on the 24th day of September, 1513, with
Giovanni [Footnote 2: _Giovan;_ it is not likely that Leonardo
should have called Giovan' Antonio Beltraffio at one time Giovanni,
as in this note and another time Antonio, as in No. 1464 while in
No. 1458 l. 16 we find _Giovan'Antonio_, and in No. 1436, l.6
_Beltraffio_. Possibly the Giovanni here spoken of is Leonardo's
less known pupil Giovan Pietrino (see No. 1467, 5).], Francesco di
Melzi [Footnote 2,3: _Francesco de' Melzi_ is often mentioned, see
Nos. 1350.], Salai [Footnote 3: _Salai_. See No. 1519 note.],
Lorenzo and il Fanfoia.
[Footnote 4: _Lorenzo_. See No. 1351, l. 10 (p. 408). Amoretti gives

the following note in _Mem. Stor. XXIII:_ 1505. _Martedi--sera a di
14 d'aprile. Venne Lorenzo a stare con mecho: disse essere d'eta
d'anni 17 .. a di 15 del detto aprile ebbi scudi 25 d'oro dal
chamerlingo di Santa Maria nuova._ This, he asserts is derived from
a MS. marked S, in quarto. This MS. seems to have vanished and left
no trace behind; Amoretti himself had not seen it, but copied from a
selection of extracts made by Oltrocchi before the Leonardo MSS.
were conveyed to Paris on the responsibility of the first French
Republic. Lorenzo, by this, must have been born in 1487. The
sculptor Lorenzetto was born in 1490. Amoretti has been led by the
above passage to make the following absurd observations:
_Cotesto Lorenzo, che poi gli fu sempre compagno, almeno sin che
stette in Italia, sarebb' egli Lorenzo Lotto bergamasco? Sappiamo
essere stato questo valente dipintore uno de'bravi scolari del
Vinci_ (?).
_Il Fafoia_, perhaps a nickname. Cesare da Sesto, Leonardo's pupil,

seems to have been in Rome in these years, as we learn from a

drawing by him in the Louvre.
1466.
On the 3rd day of January.
Benedetto came on the 17th of October; he stayed with me two months

and 13 days of last year, in which time he earned 38 lire, 18 soldi
and 8 dinari; he had of this 26 lire and 8 soldi, and there remains
to be paid for the past year 12 lire 10 soldi.
Giodatti (?) came on the 8th day of September, at 4 soldi a month,

and stayed with me 3 months and 24 days, and earned 59 lire 14 soldi
and 8 dinari; he has had 43 lire, 4 soldi, there remains to pay 16
lire, 10 soldi and 8 dinari.
Benedetto, 24 grossoni.
[Footnote: This seems to be an account for two assistants. The name

of the second is scarcely legible. The year is not given. The note
is nevertheless of chronological value. The first line tells us the
date when the note was registered, January 3d, and the observations
that follow refer to events of the previous month 'of last year'
_(dell'anno passato)_. Leonardo cannot therefore have written thus
in Florence where the year was, at that period, calculated as
beginning in the month of March (see Vol. I, No. 4, note 2). He must
then have been in Milan. What is more important is that we thus
learn how to date the beginning of the year in all the notes written
at Milan. This clears up Uzielli's doubts: _A Milano facevasi
cominciar l'anno ab incarnatione, cioe il 25 Marzo e a nativitate,
cioe il 25 Decembre. Ci sembra probabile che Leonardo dovesse
prescegliere lo stile che era in uso a Firenze._ (_Ricerche_, p. 84,
note.)]
1467.
Gian Maria 4,
Benedetto 4,
Gian Pietro [5] 3,
Salai 3,
Bartolomeo 3,
Gherardo 4.

1468.
Salai, 20 lire,
Bonifacio, 2 lire,
Bartolomeo, 4 lire,
Arrigo [Harry], 15 lire.
Quotations and notes on books and authors (1469-1508).
1469.
Book on Arithmetic [Footnote 1: _"La nobel opera de arithmethica ne

la qual se tracta tute cosse amercantia pertinente facta & compilata
per Piero borgi da Veniesia", in-40. In fine: "Nela inclita cita di
Venetia a corni. 2 augusto. 1484. fu imposto fine ala presente
opera." Segn. a--p. quaderni. V'ha pero un' altra opera simile di
Filippo Calandro, 1491. E da consultarsi su quest' ultimo, Federici:
Memorie Trevigiane, Fiore di virtu: pag. 73. "Libricciuolo composto
di bello stile verso il 1320 e piu volte impresso nel secolo XV
(ristampato poi anche piu tardi). Gli accademici della Crusca lo
ammettono nella serie dei testi di lingua. Vedasi Gamba, Razzolini,
Panzer, Brunet, Lechi, ecc._ (G. D'A.)], 'Flowers of Virtue',
Pliny [Footnote 2: _"Historia naturale di C. Plinio Secondo,

tradocta di lingua latina in fiorentina per Christophoro Laudino &
Opus Nicolai Jansonis gallici imp. anno salutis M.CCCC.LXXVI.
Venetiis" in-fol.--Diogene Laertio. Incomincia: "El libro de la vita
de philosophi etc.: Impressum Venetiis" per Bernardinum Celerium de
Luere, 1480", in-40_ (G. D'A.).], 'Lives of the Philosophers',
The Bible [Footnote 3: _"La Bibia volgare historiata (per Nicolo di

Mallermi) Venecia ... M.CCCC.LXXI in kalende di Augusto (per
Vindelino de Spira)" 2 vol. in-fol. a 2 col. di 50 lin,; od altra
ediz. della stessa versione del Mallermi, Venetia 1471, e sempre:
"Venecia per Gabriel de Piero 1477," in-fol.; 2 vol.; Ottavio Scotto
da Modoetia 1481," "Venetia 1487 per Joan Rosso Vercellese," "1490
Giovanni Ragazo di Monteferato a instantia di Luchanthonio di
Giunta, ecc."--Lapidario Teofrasto? Mandebille: "Le grand
lapidaire," versione italiana ms.?... Giorgio Agricola non puo
essere, perche nato nel 1494, forse Alberto Magno: de mineralibus.
Potrebbe essere una traduzione del poema latino (Liber lapidum seu
de gemmis) di Marbordio Veterio di Rennes (morto nel 1123 da lui

stesso tradotto in francese dal greco di Evao re d'Arabia celebre

medico che l'aveva composto per l'imperatore Tiberio. Marbodio
scrisse il suo prima per Filippo Augusto re di Francia. Vi sono
anche traduzioni in prosa. "Il lapidario o la forza e la virtu delle
pietre preziose, delle Erbe e degli Animali."_ (G. D'A.)],
'Lapidary',
'On warfare' [Footnote 4: _Il Vegezio? ... Il Frontino? ... Il

Cornazzano?... Noi crediamo piuttosto il Valturio. Questo libro
doveva essere uno de'favoriti di Leonardo poiche libro di scienza e
d'arte nel tempo stesso._], 'Epistles of Filelfo',
[Footnote: The late Marchese Girolamo d'Adda published a highly

valuable and interesting disquisition on this passage under the
title: _Leonardo da Vinci e la sua Libreria, note di un bibliofilo
(Milano 1873. Ed. di soli 75 esemplari_; privately printed). In the
autumn of 1880 the Marchese d'Adda showed me a considerable mass of
additional notes prepared for a second edition. This, as he then
intended, was to come out after the publication of this work of
mine. After the much regretted death of the elder Marchese, his son,
the Marchese Gioachino d'Adda was so liberal as to place these MS.
materials at my disposal for the present work, through the kind
intervention of Signor Gustavo Frizzoni. The following passages,
with the initials G. d'A. are prints from the valuable notes in that
publication, the MS. additions I have marked. I did not however
think myself justified in reproducing here the acute and interesting
observations on the contents of most of the rare books here
enumerated.]
[Footnote: 1467. 5. See No. 1465, 2.]
The first decade, [5] 'On the preservation of health', The third
decade, [6] Ciecho d'Ascoli, The fourth decade, [7] Albertus Magnus,
Guido, [8] New treatise on rhetorics, Piero Crescentio, [9]
Cibaldone, 'Quadriregio', [10] Aesop,
Donato, [Footnote 11: "_Donatus latine & italice: Impressum Venetiis

impensis Johannis Baptistae de Sessa anno_ 1499, _in_-4°".-- "_El
Psalterio de David in lingua volgare (da Malermi Venetia nel
M.CCCC.LXXVI,_" in-fol. s. n._ (G. D'A.)] Psalms,
Justinus, [Footnote 12: Compare No. 1210, 48.--_La versione di

Girolamo Squarzafico:_ "_Il libro di Justino posto diligentemente in

materna lingua. Venetia ale spesse (sic) di Johane de Colonia &

Johane Gheretze_ ... l477," _in-fol._--"_Marsilii Ficini, Theologia
platonica, sive de animarum immortalitate, Florentine, per Ant.
Misconimum_ 1482," _in-fol., ovvero qualche versione italiana di
questo stesso libro, ms._ (G. D'A.)] 'On the immortality of the
soul,
Guido [Footnote 13: _Forse_ "_la Historia Trojana Guidonis_" _od il

_"_manipulus_" _di_ "_Guido da Monterocherii_"_ ma piu probabilmente
_"_Guido d'Arezzo_"_ il di cui libro: _"_Micrologus, seu disciplina
artis musicae_"_ poteva da Leonardo aversi ms.; di questi ne
esistono in molto biblioteche, e fu poi impresso nel 1784 dal
Gerbert._
_Molte sono le edizione dei sonetti di Burchiello Fiorentino,

impresse nel secolo XV. La prima e piu rara e recercata:_
"_Incominciano li sonetti, ecc. (per Christoforo Arnaldo)_"_, in_-4°
_senza numeri, richiami o segnature, del_ 1475, _e fors' anche del_
1472, _secondo Morelli e Dibdin, ecc._ (G. D'A.)] Burchiello,
'Doctrinale' [Footnote 14: _Versione italiana det "Doctrinal de

Sapience" di Guy de Roy, e foris'anche l'originale in lingua
francese.--_
_Di Pulci Luigi, benche nell' edizione:_ "_Florentiae_ 1479" _in_-4°

si dica: _"_Il Driadeo composto in rima octava per Lucio Pulcro_"_
Altre ediz, del secolo XV, _"_Florentie Miscomini_ 1481, _in_-40,
_Firenze, apud S. Jacob, de Ripoli,_ 1483,_" _in_-4° _e "Antoni de
Francesco,_ 1487," _in_-4° _e Francesco di Jacopo_ 1489,_in_-4° _ed
altre ancora di Venezia e senza alcuna nota ecc._ (G. D'A.)]
Driadeo,
Morgante [Footnote 15: _Una delle edizioni del Morgante impresse nel
secolo XV, ecc.--_
_Quale delle opere di Francesco Petrarca, sarebbe malagevole

l'indovinare, ma probabilmente il Canzoniere._ (G. D'A.)] Petrarch.
John de Mandeville [Footnote 16: _Sono i viaggi del cavaliere_

"_Mandeville_" _gentiluomo inglese. Scrisse il suo libro in lingua
francese. Fu stampato replicatamente nel secolo XV in francese, in
inglese ed in italiano ed in tedesco; del secolo XV ne annoverano
forse piu di 27 edizioni, di cui ne conosciamo_ 8 _in francese,

quattro in latino, sei in tedesco e molte altre in volgare._ (G.

D'A.)]
'On honest recreation' [Footnote 17: _Il Platina (Bartolomeo Sacchi)

la versione italiana_ "_de la honesta voluptate, & valetudine (& de
li obsonnii) Venetia (senza nome di tipografo)_ 1487," _piccolo
in_-4° _gotico._ (G. D'A.)--Compare No. 844, 21.]
Manganello, [Footnote 18: _Il Manganello: Satira eccessivamente

vivace contro le donne ad imitazione della Sesta di Giovenale.
Manganello non e soltanto il titolo del libricino, sua ben anche il
nome dell'autore ch'era un_ "_milanese_". _Di questo libercolo
rarissimo, che sembra impresso a Venezia dallo Zoppino (Nicolo
d'Aristotile detto il), senza data, ma dei primissimi anni del
secolo XVI, e forse piu antico, come vedremo in appresso, non se ne
conoscono fra biblioteche pubbliche e private che due soli esemplari
in Europa._ (G. D'A.)]
The Chronicle of Isidoro, [Footnote 19: "_Cronica desidero_",

_sembra si deggia leggere piuttosto_ "_cronico disidoro_"_; ed in
questo caso s'intenderebbe la_ "_cronica d'Isidoro_" _tanto in voga
a quel tempo_ "_Comenza la Cronica di Sancto Isidoro menore con
alchune additione cavate del testo & istorie de la Bibia & del libro
di Paulo Oroso .... Impresso in Ascoli in casa del reverendo misser
Pascale ..... per mano di Guglielmo de Linis de Alamania
M.CCCC.LXXVII_" _in_-4° _di_ 157 _ff. E il primo libro impresso ad
Ascoli e l'edizione principe di questa cronica in oggi assai rara.
Non lo e meno l'edizione di Cividal del Friuli_, 1480, _e quella ben
anche di Aquila_, 1482, _sempre in-_4°. _Vedasi Panzer, Hain, Brunet
e P. Dechamps._ (G. D'A.)]
The Epistles of Ovid, [Footnote 20: "_Le pistole di Ovidio tradotte

in prosa. Napoli Sixt. Riessinger_", _in_-4°, _oppure:_ "_Epistole
volgarizzate_ 1489," _in_-4° _a due col._ "_impresse ne la cita
(sic) di Bressa per pre: Baptista de Farfengo,_" _(in ottave) o:_
"_El libro dele Epistole di Ovidio in rima volgare per messere
Dominico de Monticelli toschano. Brescia Farfengo_," _in_-4° _got.
(in rima volgare)_, 1491, _ed anche la versione di Luca Pulci.
Firenze, Mischomini_, 1481, _in_-4°. (G. D'A.) ]
Epistles of Filelfo, [Footnote 21: See l. 4.]
Sphere, [Footnote 22: "_Jo: de Sacrobusto_," _o_ "_Goro Dati_," _o_

"_Tolosano da Colle_" _di cui molteplici edizioni del secolo XV._

(G. D'A.)]
The Jests of Poggio, [Footnote 23: _Tre edizioni delle facezie del
Poggio abbiamo in lingua italiana della fine del secolo XV, tutte
senza data. "Facetie de Poggio fiorentino traducte de latino in
vulgare ornatissimo," in-40, segn. a--e in caratteri romani;
l'altra: "Facetie traducte de latino in vulgare," in-40, caratteri
gotici, ecc._ (G. D'A.)] Chiromancy, [Footnote 24: "_Die Kunst
Cyromantia etc, in tedesco. 26 ff. di testo e figure il tutte
eseguito su tavole di legno verso la fine del secolo XV da Giorgio
Schapff". Dibdin, Heinecken, Sotheby e Chatto ne diedero una lunga
descrizione; i primi tre accompagnati da fac-simili. La data 1448
che si legge alla fine del titolo si riferisce al periodo della
composizione del testo, non a quello della stampa del volume benche
tabellario. Altri molti libri di Chiromanzia si conoscono di quel
tempo e sarebbe opera vana il citarli tutti._ (G. D'A.)]
Formulary of letters, [Footnote 25: _Miniatore Bartolomeo.

"Formulario de epistole vulgare missive e responsive, & altri fiori
de ornali parlamenti al principe Hercule d'Esti ecc. composto ecc.
Bologna per Ugo di Rugerii," in-40, del secolo XV. Altra edizione di
"Venetia Bernardino di Novara, 1487" e "Milano per Joanne Angelo
Scinzenzeler 1500," in-40._ (G. D'A.)
Five books out of this list are noted by Leonardo in another MS.
(Tr. 3): _donato, -- lapidario, -- plinio, -- abacho, -- morgante._]
1470.
Nonius Marcellus, Festus Pompeius, Marcus Varro.
[Footnote: Nonius Marcellus and Sextus Pompeius Festus were Roman

grammarians of about the fourth century A. D. Early publications of
the works of Marcellus are: _De proprietate sermonis, Romae_ (about
1470), and 1471 (place of publication unknown). _Compendiosa
doctrina, ad filium, de proprietate sermonum._ Venice, 1476. BRUNET,
_Manuel du libraire_ (IV, p. 97) notes: _Le texte de cet ancien
grammairien a ete reimprime plusieurs fois a la fin du XVe siecle,
avec ceux de Pomponius Festus et de Terentius Varro. La plus
ancienne edition qui reunisse ces trois auteurs est celle de Parme,
1480 ... Celles de Venise, 1483, 1490, 1498, et de Milan, 1500,
toutes in-fol., ont peu de valeur._]

1471.
Map of Elephanta in India which Antonello Merciaio has from maestro

Maffeo;--there for seven years the earth rises and for seven years
it sinks;--Enquire at the stationers about Vitruvius.
1472.
See 'On Ships' Messer Battista, and Frontinus 'On Acqueducts'

[Footnote 2: 2. _Vitruvius de Arch., et Frontinus de Aquedoctibus._
Florence, 1513.--This is the earliest edition of Frontinus.--The
note referring to this author thus suggests a solution of the
problem of the date of the Leicester Manuscript.].
[Footnote: Compare No. 1113, 25.]
1473.
Anaxagoras: Every thing proceeds from every thing, and every thing
becomes every thing, and every thing can be turned into every thing
else, because that which exists in the elements is composed of those
elements.
1474.
The Archimedes belonging to the Bishop of Padua.
[Footnote: See No. 1421, 1. 3, 6 and Vol. I, No. 343.]
1475.
Archimedes gave the quadrature of a polygonal figure, but not of the

circle. Hence Archimedes never squared any figure with curved sides.
He squared the circle minus the smallest portion that the intellect
can conceive, that is the smallest point visible.
1476.
If any man could have discovered the utmost powers of the cannon, in
all its various forms and have given such a secret to the Romans,

with what rapidity would they have conquered every country and have
vanquished every army, and what reward could have been great enough
for such a service! Archimedes indeed, although he had greatly
damaged the Romans in the siege of Syracuse, nevertheless did not
fail of being offered great rewards from these very Romans; and when
Syracuse was taken, diligent search was made for Archimedes; and he
being found dead greater lamentation was made for him by the Senate
and people of Rome than if they had lost all their army; and they
did not fail to honour him with burial and with a statue. At their
head was Marcus Marcellus. And after the second destruction of
Syracuse, the sepulchre of Archimedes was found again by Cato[25],
in the ruins of a temple. So Cato had the temple restored and the
sepulchre he so highly honoured.... Whence it is written that Cato
said that he was not so proud of any thing he had done as of having
paid such honour to Archimedes.
[Footnote: Where Leonardo found the statement that Cato had found
and restored the tomb of Archimedes, I do not know. It is a merit
that Cicero claims as his own (Tusc. V, 23) and certainly with a
full right to it. None of Archimedes' biographers --not even the
diligent Mazzucchelli, mentions any version in which Cato is named.
It is evidently a slip of the memory on Leonardo's part. Besides,
according to the passage in Cicero, the grave was not found _'nelle
ruine d'un tempio'_--which is highly improbable as relating to a
Greek--but in an open spot (H. MULLER-STRUBING).--See too, as to
Archimedes, No. 1417.
Leonardo says somewhere in MS. C.A.: _Architronito e una macchina di

fino rame, invenzlon d' Archimede_ (see _'Saggio'_, p. 20).]
1477.
Aristotle, Book 3 of the Physics, and Albertus Magnus, and Thomas

Aquinas and the others on the rebound of bodies, in the 7th on
Physics, on heaven and earth.
1478.
Aristotle says that if a force can move a body a given distance in a

given time, the same force will move half the same body twice as far
in the same time.
1479.

Aristotle in Book 3 of the Ethics: Man merits praise or blame solely

in such matters as lie within his option to do or not to do.
1480.
Aristotle says that every body tends to maintain its nature.
1481.
On the increase of the Nile, a small book by Aristotle. [Footnote:

_De inundatione Nili_, is quoted here and by others as a work of
Aristotle. The Greek original is lost, but a Latin version of the
beginning exists (Arist. Opp. IV p. 213 ed. Did. Par.).
In his quotations from Aristotle Leonardo possibly refers to one of

the following editions: _Aristotelis libri IV de coelo et mundo; de
anima libri III; libri VIII physi- corum; libri de generatione et
corruptione; de sensu et sensato... omnia latine, interprete
Averroe, Venetiis 1483_ (first Latin edition). There is also a
separate edition of _Liber de coelo et mundo_, dated 1473.]
1482.
Avicenna will have it that soul gives birth to soul as body to body,
and each member to itself.
[Footnote: Avicenna, see too No. 1421, 1. 2.]
1483.
Avicenna on liquids.
1484.
Roger Bacon, done in print. [Footnote: The earliest printed edition

known to Brunet of the works of Roger Bacon, is a French
translation, which appeared about fourty years after Leonardo's
death.]
1485.
Cleomedes the philosopher.

[Footnote: Cleomede. A Greek mathematician of the IVth century B. C.

We have a Cyclic theory of Meteorica by him. His works were not
published before Leonardo's death.]
1486.
CORNELIUS CELSUS.
The highest good is wisdom, the chief evil is suffering in the body.
Because, as we are composed of two things, that is soul and body, of
which the first is the better, the body is the inferior; wisdom
belongs to the better part, and the chief evil belongs to the worse
part and is the worst of all. As the best thing of all in the soul
is wisdom, so the worst in the body is suffering. Therefore just as
bodily pain is the chief evil, wisdom is the chief good of the soul,
that is with the wise man; and nothing else can be compared with it.
[Footnote: _Aulus Cornelius Celsus_, a Roman physician, known as the

Roman Hippocrates, probably contemporary with Augustus. Only his
eight Books 'De Medicina', are preserved. The earliest editions are:
_Cornelius Celsus, de medicina libr. VIII._, Milan 1481 Venice 1493
and 1497.]
1487.
Demetrius was wont to say that there was no difference between the
speech and words of the foolish and ignorant, and the noises and
rumblings of the wind in an inflated stomach. Nor did he say so
without reason, for he saw no difference between the parts whence
the noise issued; whether their lower parts or their mouth, since
one and the other were of equal use and importance.
[Footnote: Compare Vol. I, No. 10.]
1488.
Maestro Stefano Caponi, a physician, lives at the piscina, and has

Euclid _De Ponderibus_.
1489.
5th Book of Euclid. First definition: a part is a quantity of less

magnitude than the greater magnitude when the less is contained a

certain number of times in the greater.
A part properly speaking is that which may be multiplied, that is

when, being multiplied by a certain number, it forms exactly the
whole. A common aggregate part ...
Second definition. A greater magnitude is said to be a multiple of a

less, when the greater is measured by the less.
By the first we define the lesser [magnitude] and by the second the
greater is defined. A part is spoken
1490.
of in relation to the whole; and all their relations lie between

these two extremes, and are called multiples.
1491.
Hippocrates says that the origin of men's sperm derives from the
brain, and from the lungs and testicles of our parents, where the
final decocture is made, and all the other limbs transmit their
substance to this sperm by means of expiration, because there are no
channels through which they might come to the sperm.
[Footnote: The works of Hippocrates were printed first after

Leonardo's death.]
1492.
Lucretius in his third [book] 'De Rerum Natura'. The hands, nails
and teeth were (165) the weapons of ancient man.
They also use for a standard a bunch of grass tied to a pole (167).
[Footnote: _Lucretius, de rerum natura libri VI_ were printed first

about 1473, at Verona in 1486, at Brescia in 1495, at Venice in 1500
and in 1515, and at Florence in 1515. The numbers 165 and 167 noted
by Leonardo at the end of the two passages seem to indicate pages,
but if so, none of the editions just mentioned can here be meant,
nor do these numbers refer to the verses in the poems of Lucretius.]

1493.
Ammianus Marcellinus asserts that seven hundred thousand volumes of

books were burnt in the siege of Alexandria in the time of Julius
Cesar.
[Footnote: _Ammiani Marcellini historiarum libri qui extant XIII_,

published at Rome in 1474.]
1494.
Mondino says that the muscles which raise the toes are in the
outward side of the thigh, and he adds that there are no muscles in
the back [upper side] of the feet, because nature desired to make
them light, so as to move with ease; and if they had been fleshy
they would be heavier; and here experience shows ...
[Footnote: _"Mundini anatomia. Mundinus, Anothomia (sic). Mundini

praestantissimorum doctorum almi studii ticiensis (sic) cura
diligentissime emendata. Impressa Papiae per magistrum Antonium de
Carfano 1478," in-fol.; ristampata: "Bononiae Johan. de Noerdlingen,
1482," in-fol.; "Padova per Mattheum Cerdonis de Vuindischgretz,
1484," in-40; "Lipsia, 1493," in-40; "Venezia, 1494," in-40 e ivi
"1498," con fig. Queste figure per altro non sono, come si e
preteso, le prime che fossero introdotte in un trattato di Notamia.
Nel 'fasciculus Medicinae' di Giovanni Ketham, che riproduce
l''Anatomia' del Mundinus, impresso pure a Venezia da J. e G. de
Gregoriis, 1491, in-fol., contengonsi intagli in legno (si vogliono
disegnati non gia incisi da Andrea Mantegna) di grande dimensione, e
che furono piu volte riprodotti negli anni successivi. Quest'
edizione del "fasciculus" del 1491, sta fra nostri libri e potrebbe
benissimo essere il volume d'Anatomia notato da Leonardo._ (G.
D'A.)]
1495.
Of the error of those who practice without knowledge;--[3] See first

the 'Ars poetica' of Horace [5].
[Footnote: A 3-5 are written on the margin at the side of the title
line of the text given, entire as No. 19]
1496.

The heirs of Maestro Giovanni Ghiringallo have the works of

Pelacano.
1497.
The catapult, as we are told by Nonius and Pliny, is a machine

devised by those &c.
[Footnote: _Plinius_, see No. 946.]
1498.
I have found in a history of the Spaniards that in their wars with

the English Archimedes of Syracuse who at that time was living at
the court of Ecliderides, King of the Cirodastri. And in maritime
warfare he ordered that the ships should have tall masts, and that
on their tops there should be a spar fixed [Footnote 6: Compare No.
1115.] of 40 feet long and one third of a foot thick. At one end of
this was a small grappling iron and at the other a counterpoise; and
there was also attached 12 feet of chain; and, at the end of this
chain, as much rope as would reach from the chain to the base of the
top, where it was fixed with a small rope; from this base it ran
down to the bottom of the mast where a very strong spar was attached
and to this was fastened the end of the rope. But to go on to the
use of his machine; I say that below this grappling iron was a fire
[Footnote 14: Compare No. 1128.] which, with tremendous noise, threw
down its rays and a shower of burning pitch; which, pouring down on
the [enemy's] top, compelled the men who were in it to abandon the
top to which the grappling-iron had clung. This was hooked on to the
edges of the top and then suddenly the cord attached at the base of
the top to support the cord which went from the grappling iron, was
cut, giving way and drawing in the enemy's ship; and if the
anchor--was cast ...
[Footnote: Archimedes never visited Spain, and the names here

mentioned cannot be explained. Leonardo seems to quote here from a
book, perhaps by some questionable mediaeval writer. Prof. C. Justi
writes to me from Madrid, that Spanish savants have no knowledge of
the sources from which this story may have been derived.]
1499.

Theophrastus on the ebb and flow of the tide, and of eddies, and on
water. [Footnote: The Greek philosophers had no opportunity to study
the phenomenon of the ebb and flow of the tide and none of them
wrote about it. The movement of the waters in the Euripus however
was to a few of them a puzzling problem.]
1500.
Tryphon of Alexandria, who spent his life at Apollonia, a city of

Albania (163). [Footnote: Tryphon of Alexandria, a Greek Grammarian
of the time of Augustus. His treatise TtaOY Aeijecu appeared first
at Milan in 1476, in Constantin Laskaris's Greek Grammar.]
1501.
Messer Vincenzio Aliprando, who lives near the Inn of the Bear, has
Giacomo Andrea's Vitruvius.
1502.
Vitruvius says that small models are of no avail for ascertaining

the effects of large ones; and I here propose to prove that this
conclusion is a false one. And chiefly by bringing forward the very
same argument which led him to this conclusion; that is, by an
experiment with an auger. For he proves that if a man, by a certain
exertion of strength, makes a hole of a given diameter, and
afterwards another hole of double the diameter, this cannot be made
with only double the exertion of the man's strength, but needs much
more. To this it may very well be answered that an auger
1503.
of double the diameter cannot be moved by double the exertion, be-

cause the superficies of a body of the same form but twice as large
has four times the extent of the superficies of the smaller, as is
shown in the two figures a and n.
1504.
OF SQUARING THE CIRCLE, AND WHO IT WAS THAT FIRST DISCOVERED IT BY

ACCIDENT.
Vitruvius, measuring miles by means of the repeated revolutions of

the wheels which move vehicles, extended over many Stadia the lines
of the circumferences of the circles of these wheels. He became
aware of them by the animals that moved the vehicles. But he did not
discern that this was a means of finding a square equal to a circle.
This was first done by Archimedes of Syracuse, who by multiplying
the second diameter of a circle by half its circumference produced a
rectangular quadrilateral equal figure to the circle [Footnote 10:
Compare No. 1475.].
[Footnote: _Vitruvius_, see also Nos. 1113 and 343.]
1505.
Virgil says that a blank shield is devoid of merit because among the
people of Athens the true recognition confirmed by testimonies ...
[Footnote: The end of the text cannot be deciphered.]
1506.
In Vitolone there are 805 conclusions [problems] in perspective.
[Footnote: _(Witelo, Vitellion, Vitellon) Vitellione. E da vedersi

su questo ottico prospettico del secolo XIII Luca Pacioli, Paolo
Lomazzo, Leonardo da Vinci, ecc. e fra i moderni il Graesse, il
Libri, il Brunet, e le Memorie pubblicate dal principe Boncompagni,
e 'Sur l' orthographe du nom et sur la patrie de Witelo (Vitellion)
note de Maximilien Curtze, professeur a Thorn', ove sono descritti i
molti codici esistenti nelle biblioteche d' Europa. Bernardino Baldi
nelle sue 'Vite de'matematici', manoscritto presso il principe
Boncompagni, ha una biografia del Vitellione. Questo scritto del
Baldi reca la data 25 agosto 1588. Discorsero poi di lui Federigo
Risnerio e Giovanni di Monteregio nella prefazione dell' Alfagrano,
Giovanni Boteone, Girolamo Cardano, 'De subtilitate', che nota gli
errori di Vitellione. Visse, secondo il Baldi, intorno all' anno
1269, ma secondo il Reinoldo fioriva nel 1299, avendo dedicata la
sua opera ad un frate Guglielmo di Monteca, che visse di que' tempi.
Intorno ad un manoscritto dell' ottica di Vitellione, citato da Luca

Pacioli v'ha un secondo esemplare del Kurlz, con aggiunte del
principe Boncompagni, e le illustrazioni del cav. Enrico Narducci.
Nel 'Catalogo di manoscritti' posseduti da D. Baldassare de'
principi Boncompagni, compilato da esso Narducci, Roma, 1862, sotto

al n. 358, troviamo citato: Vitellio, 'Perspectiva', manoscritto del

secolo XIV. La 'Prospettiva di Vitelleone' (sic) Thuringo-poloni e
citata due volte da Paolo Lomazzo nel Trattato dell' arte della
pittura. Vitellio o Vitello o Witelo. Il suo libro fu impresso in
foglio a Norimberga nel 1535; la secondo edizione e del 1551, sempre
di Norimberga, ed una terza di Basilea, 1572._ (See _Indagini
Storiche ... sulla Libreria-Visconteo-Sforzesca del Castello di
Pavia ... per cura di_ G. D'A., _Milano 1879. P. I. Appendice p.
113. 114)._]
1507.
Vitolone, at Saint Mark's.
[Footnote: _Altro codice di cotesta 'Prospettiva' del Vitolone

troviamo notato nel 'Canone bibliographico di Nicolo V', conservato
alla, Magliabecchiana, in copia dell' originale verosimilmente
inviato dal Parentucelli a Cosimo de' Medici (Magliab. cod. segn. 1
VII, 30 carte da 193 a 198). Proviene dal Convento di San Marco e lo
aveva trascritto frate Leonardo Scruberti fiorentino, dell' ordine
dei predicatori che fu anche bibliotecario della Medicea pubblica in
San Marco_ (See _Indagini Storiche ... per cura di_ G. D'A. _Parte
I, p. 97)._]
1508.
How this proposition of Xenophon is false.
If you take away unequal quantities from unequal quantities, but in

the same proportion, &c. [Footnote: Xenophon's works were published
several times during Leonardo's lifetime.]
Inventories and accounts (1509--1545).
1509.
On the 28th day of April I received from the Marchesino 103 lire and
12 dinari. [Footnote: Instead of the indication of the year there is
a blank space after _d'aprile_.--Marchesino Stange was one of
Lodovico il Moro's officials.--Compare No. 1388.]
1510.

On the 10th day of July 1492 in 135

Rhenish florins 1. 445
in dinari of 6 soldi 1. 112 S 16
in dinari of 5 1/2 soldi 1. 29 S 13
9 in gold and 3 scudi 1. 53
-----------------------------
1. 811 in all
1511.
On the first day of February, lire 1200.
1512.
The hall towards the court is 126 paces long and 27 braccia wide.
1513.
The narrow cornice above the hall lire 30.
The cornice beneath that, being one for each picture, lire 7, and
for the cost of blue, gold, white, plaster, indigo and glue 3 lire;
time 3 days.
The pictures below these mouldings with their pilasters, 12 lire

each.
I calculate the cost for smalt, blue and gold and other colours at 1
1/2 lire.
The days I calculate at 3, for the invention of the composition,

pilasters and other things.
1514.
Item for each vault 7 lire
outlay for blue and gold 3 1/2
time, 4 days
for the windows 1 1/2

The cornice below the windows 16 soldi per braccio
item for 24 pictures of Roman history 14 lire each
The philosophers 10 lire
the pilasters, one ounce of blue 10 soldi
for gold 15 soldi
Total 2 and 1/2 lire.
1515.
The cornice above lire 30
The cornice below lire 7
The compositions, one with another lire 13
1516.
Salai, 6 lire ... 4 soldi ... 10 soldi for a chain;--
On the l4th of March I had 13 lire S. 4; 16 lire remain.
1517.
How many braccia high is the level of the walls?--
123 braccia
How large is the hall?
How large is the garland?
30 ducats.
On the 29th day of January, 1494
cloth for hose lire 4 S 3
lining S 16

making S 8
to Salai S 3
a jasper ring S 13
a sparkling stone S 11
to Caterina S 10
to Caterina S 10
1518.
The wheel lire 7
the tire lire 10
the shield lire 4
the cushion lire 8
the ends of the axle-tree lire 2
bed and frame lire 30
conduit lire 10
S.K.M.II.2 4a]
1519.
Parsley 10 parts
mint 1 part
thyme 1 part
Vinegar ... and a little salt two pieces of canvas for Salai.
[Footnote: This note, of about the year 1494, is the earliest

mention of Salai, and the last is of the year 1513 (see No. 1465,

3). From the various notes in the MSS. he seems to have been
Leonardo's assistant and keeper only, and scarcely himself a
painter. At any rate no signed or otherwise authenticated picture by
him is known to exist. Vasari speaks somewhat doubtfully on this
point.]
1520.
On Tuesday I bought wine for morning [drinking]; on Friday the 4th

day of September the same.
[Footnote: This note enables us to fix the date of the Manuscript,

in which it is to be found. In 1495 the 4th of September fell on a
Friday; the contents of the Manuscript do not permit us to assign it
to a much earlier or later date (Compare No. 1522, and Note).]
1521.
The cistern ... at the Hospital, --2 ducats, --beans, --white maize,
--red maize, --millet, --buckwheat, --kidney beans, --beans, --peas.
1522.
EXPENSES OF THE INTERMENT OF CATERINA.
For the 3 lbs of tapers 27 S

For the bier 8 S
A pall over the bier 12 S
For bearing and placing the cross 4 S
For bearing the body 8 S
For 4 priests and 4 clerks 20 S
Bell, book and sponge 2 S
For the gravediggers 16 S
To the senior 8 S
For a license from the authorities 1 S
106 S
The doctor 2 S
Sugar and candles 12 S
120 S
[Footnote: See Nos. 1384 and 1517.]

1523.
Salai's cloak, the 4th of April 1497.

4 braccia of silver cloth l. 15 S 4
green velvet to trim it l. 9 S --
binding l.-- S 9
loops l.-- S 12
the making l. 1 S 5
binding for the front l.-- S 5
stitching _________
here are 13 grossoni of his l. 26 S 5
Salai stole the soldi.
1524.
On Monday I bought 4 braccia of cloth lire 13 S 14 1/2 on the 17th

of, October 1497.
1525.
Memorandum. That on the 8th day of April 1503, I, Leonardo da Vinci,

lent to Vante, miniature painter 4 gold ducats, in gold. Salai
carried them to him and gave them into his own hand, and he said he
would repay within the space of 40 days.
Memorandum. That on the same day I paid to Salai 3 gold ducats which
he said he wanted for a pair of rose-coloured hose with their
trimming; and there remain 9 ducats due to him--excepting that he
owes me 20 ducats, that is 17 I lent him at Milan, and 3 at Venice.
Memorandum. That I gave Salai 21 braccia of cloth to make a shirt,

at 10 soldi the braccio, which I gave him on the 20th day of April
1503.
[Footnote: With regard to Vante or Attavante, the miniature painter

(not Nanni as I formerly deciphered this name, which is difficult to
read; see _Zeitschrift fur Bild. Kunst_, 1879, p. 155), and Vasari,
Lives of Frate Giovanni da Fiesole, of Bartolommeo della Gatta, and
of Gherardo, _miniatore._ He, like Leonardo, was one of the
committee of artists who, in 1503, considered the erection and
placing of Michel Angelo's David. The date of his death is not
known; he was of the same age as Leonardo. Further details will be
found in '_Notizie di Attavante miniatore, e di alcuni suoi lavori_'

(Milanese's ed. of Vasari, III, 231-235).]
1526.
On the morning of San Peter's day, June 29th, 1504, I took io

ducats, of which I gave one to Tommaso my servant to spend.
On Monday morning 1 florin to Salai to spend on the house.
On Thursday I took 1 florin for my own spending.
Wednesday evening 1 florin to Tommaso, before supper.
Saturday morning 1 florin to Tommaso.
Monday morning 1 florin less 10 soldi.
Thursday to Salai 1 florin less 10 soldi.
For a jerkin, 1 florin.
For a jerkin And a cap 2 florins.
To the hosier, 1 florin.
To Salai, 1 florin.
Friday morning, the 19th of July, 1 florin, less 6 soldi. I have 7

fl. left, and 22 in the box.
Tuesday, the 23th day of July, 1 florin to Tommaso.
Monday morning, to Tommaso 1 florin.
[Wednesday morning 1 fl. to Tommaso.]
Thursday morning the 1st day of August 1 fl. to Tommaso.
Sunday, the 4th of August, 1 florin.
Friday, the 9th day of August 1504, I took 10 ducats out of the box.
1527.

1504. On the 9th day of August, 1504, I took 10 florins in gold[2]

... [3] on Friday the 9th day of August fifteen grossoni that is fl.
5 S 5 ... given to me 1 florin in gold on the 12th day of August [4]
... on the 14th of August, 32 grossoni to Tommaso. On the 18th of
the same 5 grossoni to Salai. On the 8th of September 6 grossoni to
the workman to spend; that is on the day of our Lady's birth. On the
16th day of September I gave 4 grossoni to Tommaso: on a Sunday.
[Footnote: In the original, the passage given as No. 1463 is written

between lines 2 and 3 of this text, and it is possible that the
entries in lines 3 and 4 refer to the payments of Jacopo Tedesco,
who is there mentioned. The first words of these lines are very
illegible.]
[Footnote 7: _Al fattore._ Il Fattore, was, as is well known, the

nick-name of Giovanni Franceso Penni, born in Florence in 1486, and
subsequently a pupil of Raphael's. According to Vasari he was known
by it even as a boy. Whether he is spoken of in this passage, or
whether the word Fattore should be translated literally, I will not
undertake to decide. The latter seems to me more probably right.]
1528.
On the day of October, 1508, I had 30 scudi; 13 I lent to Salai to

make up his sister's dowry, and 17 I have left.
1529.
Memorandum of the money I have had from the King as my salary from
July 1508 till April next 1509. First 100 scudi, then 70, then 50,
then 20 and then 200 florins at 48 soldi the florin. [Footnote:
Compare No. 1350 and 1561.]
1530.
Saturday the 2nd day of March I had from Santa Maria Novella 5 gold
ducats, leaving 450. Of these I gave 2 the same day to Salai, who
had lent them to me. [Footnote: See '_Conto corrente di Leonardo da
Vinci con lo Spedale di S. Maria Nuova_' [1500 a 1507, 1513-1520]
published by G. UZIELLI, _Ricerche intorno a Leonardo da Vinci,
Firenze,_ 1872, pp. 164, 165, 218 and 219. The date here given by
Leonardo does not occur in either of the accounts.]

1531.
Thursday, the eighth day of June, I took 17 grossoni, 18 soldi; on

the same Thursday in the morning I gave to Salai 22 soldi for the
expenses.
1532.
To Salai 4 grossoni, and for one braccio of velvet, 5 lire, and 1/2;
viz. 10 soldi for loops of silver; Salai 14 soldi for binding, the
making of the cloak 25 soldi. [Footnote: Compare No. 1523.]
1533.
I gave to Salai 93 lire 6 soldi, of which I have had 67 lire and

there remain 26 lire 6 soldi.
1534.
To Salai S 42
2 dozen of laces S 8
for papers S 3 d 8
a pair of shoes S 14
for velvet S 14
a sword and knife S 21
to the barber S 11
to Paolo for a ... S 20
For having his fortune told S 6
1535.
On Friday morning,
one florin to Salai to
spend; 3 soldi received

bread S.. d
wine S.. d
grapes S.. d
mushrooms S.. d
fruit S.. d
[Footnote 6: Compare Nos. 1545, l. 4 and 5,

with similar entries for horse's fodder.]
bran S.. d
at the barber's S.. d
for shoes S.. d
1536.
On Thursday morning one florin.
1537.
On Saint Ambrose's day from the morning to Thursday 36 soldi.
1538.
The moneys I have had from Ser Matteo;

first 20 grassoni, then on 13 occasions 3 f.
and then 61 grassoni, then 3, and then 33;
46 soldi 12 grossoni.
1539.
For paper S 18
for canvas S 30
for paper S 10 d 19
Total S 73

1540.
20 pounds of German
blue, at one ducat the pound lire 80 S d
60 pounds of white, S..

the pound lire 15 S d
1 1/2 pound at 4 S the pound lire 6 S d
2 pounds of cinnabar at
S 18 the pound lire 1 S 16 d
6 pounds of green at S 12
the pound lire 3 S 12 d
4 pounds of yellow at S 12
1 pound of minium at S 8
4 pounds of ... at S 2
6 pounds of ochre at S 1
black ... at S 2 the pound

for 20 lire 2 S 0 d
wax to make the stars

29 pounds at S--the pound lire 0 S 0 d
40 pounds of oil for painting

at 5 soldi the pound lire 10 S 0 d
Altogether lire 120 d 18

without the gold. 18
tin for putting on the gold 120 18

58
1541.
Two large hatchets and one very small one, 8 brass spoons, 4
tablecloths, 2 towels, 15 small napkins, 2 coarse napkins, 2 coarse
cloths, 2 wrappers, 3 pairs of sheets, 2 pairs new and 1 old.
1542.
Bed 7 0 S
ring 7 0
crockery 2 5
gardener 1 2
..... 2 8
porters 2 1
glasses 1
fuel 3 6
a lock 1
Section title: Miscellaneous Notes.
1543.
New tin-ware 3 pairs of sheets

6 small bowls, each of 4 breadths,
6 bowls, 2 small sheets,
2 large dishes, 2 tablecloths and 1/2,
2 dishes medium size, 16 coarse cloths,
2 small ones 8 shirts,
Old tin-ware 9 napkins,
3 small bowls, 2 hand-towels.
4 bowls,
3 square stones,
2 small bowls,

1 large bowl,
1 platter,
4 candlesticks,
1 small candlestick.
1544.
Hose S 40
straw S 60
wheat S 42
wine S 54
bread S 18
meat S 54
eggs S 5
salad S 3
the Barber S 2 d 6
horses S1
1545.
Sunday
meat S 10 d
wine S 12 d
bran S 5d4
herbs S 10 d
buttermilk S 4 d 4
melon S 3d
bread S 3d1
____________________
Monday S 9 8
____________________
..... S 6d
wine S 12 d
bran S 9d4
buttermilk S 4 d 4
herbs S 8d
____________________
Tuesday S d
_____________________
meat S 0d8
wine S 12 d
bread S 3d

meal S 5d4
herbs S 8d
_____________________
Wednesday
_____________________
wine S 5d
melon S 2d
meal S 5d4
vegetables S 8
Notes by unknown persons among the MSS. (1546-1565).
1546.
Miseracione divina sacro sancte Romane ecclesie tituli n cardinalis

2wulgariter nuncupatus venerabili religioso fratri Johanni Mair
d'Nustorf 3ordinis praedicatorum provintie teutonie (?) conventus
Wiennensis capellano 4 nostro commensali salutem in dno sempiternam
Religione zelus rite ac in [ferite?] 5honestas aliarumque
laudabilium probitatis et virtutum merita quibus apud nos fide
6digno commendationis testimonio Magistri videlicet ordinis felicis
recordacionis Leonardi de 7Mansuetis de Perusio sigillo suo ... us
dans tibi ad ... opera virtutum comen(salem)? 8 locum et tempus
success(ores) cujus similiter officium ministratus qui
praedecessoris sui donum (?) 9confirmavit et de novo dedit
aliorumque plurima [laudatis] qui opera tua laudant 10nos inducunt
ut tibi (?) reddamus ad gratiam liberalem hinc est quod nos
cupientes. [Footnote: The meaning of this document, which is very
difficult to decipher, and is written in unintelligible Latin, is,
that Leonardo di Mansuetis recommends the Rev. Mair of Nusdorf,
chaplain at Vienna, to some third person; and says also that
something, which had to be proved, has been proved. The rest of the
passages on the same leaf are undoubtedly in Leonardo's hand. (Nos.
483, 661, 519, 578, 392, 582, 887 and 894.)]
1547.
Johannes Antonius di Johannes Ambrosius de Bolate. He who lets time

pass and does not grow in virtue, the more I think of it the more I
grieve. No man has it in him to be virtuous who will give up honour
for gain. Good fortune is valueless to him who knows not toil. The
man becomes happy who follows Christ. There is no perfect gift
without great suffering. Our glories and our triumphs pass away.

Foul lust, and dreams, and luxury, and sloth have banished every
virtue from the world; so that our Nature, wandering and perplexed,
has almost lost the old and better track. Henceforth it were well to
rouse thyself from sleep. The master said that lying in down will
not bring thee to Fame; nor staying beneath the quilts. He who,
without Fame, burns his life to waste, leaves no more vestige of
himself on earth than wind-blown smoke, or the foam upon the sea.
[Footnote: From the last sentence we may infer that this text is by
the hand of a pupil of Leonardo's.-- On the same sheet are the notes
Nos.1175 and 715 in Leonardo's own handwriting.]
1548.
On the morning of Santo Zanobio the

29th of May 1504, I had from Lionardo Vinci
15 gold ducats and began to spend them.
to Mona Margarita S 62 d 4
to remake the ring S 19 d 8
clothes S 13
good beef S 4
eggs S 6
debt at the bank S 7
velvet S 12
wine S 6d4
meat S 4
mulberries S 2d4
mushrooms S 3d4
salad S 1
fruit S 1d4
candles S 3
... S 1
flour S 2
Sunday 198 8
bread S 6
wine S 9d4
meat S 7
soup S 2
fruit S 3d4
candles S 3d
Monday 31

bread S 6d4
meat S 10 d 8
wine S 9d4
fruit S 4
soup S 1d8
32
1549.
Tuesday
bread S 6
meat S 11
wine S 7
fruit S 9
soup S 2
salad S 1
[Footnote 1548 and 1549: On the same sheet is the text No. 1015 in Leonardo's own handwriting.]
1550.
To Monna Margarita S 5
to Tomaso S 14
to Monna Margarita d 5 S 2
on the day of San Zanobi
left ... after
payment d 13 S 2 d 4
of Monna Margarita
altogether d 14 S 5 d 4
1551.
On Monday, the l3th of February, I lent lire S 7 to Lionardo to

spend, Friday d 7.
[Footnote: This note is followed by an account very like the one

given as No. 1549.]
1552.

Stephano Chigi, Canonico ..., servant of the honorable Count Grimani

at S. Apostoli.
[Footnote: Compare No. 674, 21-23.]
1553.
Having become anxious ... Bernardo di Simone, Silvestro di Stefano,

Bernardo di Jacopo, Francesco di Matteo Bonciani, Antonio di
Giovanni Ruberti, Antonio da Pistoia.... Antonio; He who has time
and waits for time, will lose his friends and his money.
1554.
Reverend Maestro, Domino Giovanni, I spoke to Maestro Zacaria as a

brother about this business, and I made him satisfied with the
arrangement that I had wished; that is, as regards the commission
that I had from the parties and I say that between us there is no
need to pay money down, as regard the pictures of the ...
1555.
Of things seen through a mist that which is nearest its farthest

limit will be least visible, and all the more so as they are more
remote.
1556.
Theodoricus Rex Semper Augustus.
1557.
Either you say Hesperia alone, and it will mean Italy, or you add
ultima, and it will mean Spain. Umbria, part of Tuscany.
[Footnote: The notes in Greek, Nos. 1557, 1558 and 1562 stand in
close connection with each other, but the meaning of some words is
very doubtful, and a translation is thus rendered impossible.]
1558.
[Footnote: Greek Characters]

1559.
Canonica of ... on the 5th of July 1507; my dearly beloved mother,

sisters and cousin I herewith inform you that thanks to God I am ...
about the sword which I ... bring it to Maso at the piazza ... and I
will settle the business of Piero so that ...
[Footnote: AMORETTI, _Mem. Stor. XXIV_, quotes the first three lines
of this letter as by Leonardo. The character of the writing however
does not favour this hypothesis, and still less the contents. I
should regard it rather a rough draft of a letter by young Melzi. I
have not succeeded in deciphering completely the 13 lines of this
text. Amoretti reads at the beginning _Canonica di Vaprio_, but
_Vaprio_ seems to me a very doubtful reading.]
1560.
Ut bene respondet Naturae ars docta! dedisset

Vincius, ut tribuit cetera - sic animam -
Noluit ut similis magis haec foret: altera sic est:
Possidet illius Maurus amans animam.
[Footnote: These three epigrams on the portrait of Lucrezia

Crivelli, a picture by Leonardo which must have been lost at a very
early date, seem to have been dedicated to Leonardo by the poet.
Leonardo used the reverse of the sheet for notes on geometry.]
Hujus quam cernis nomen Lucretia, Divi Omnia cui larga contribuere
manu. Rara huic forma data est; pinxit Leonardos, amavit Maurus,
pictorum primus hic, ille ducum.
Naturam, ac superas hac laesit imagine Divas Pictor: tantum hominis

posse manum haec doluit, Illae longa dari tam magnae tempera formae,
Quae spatio fuerat deperitura brevi.
1561.
Egidius Romanus on the formation of the human body in the mother's

womb [Footnote 1: _Liber magistri Egidii de pulsibus matrice
conipositus (cum commentario Gentilis de Fulgineo)_ published in
1484 at Padova, in 1494 and in 1514 at Venice, and in 1505 at
Lyons.].

[Footnote 2:2. This text appears to be in a handwriting different

from that in the note, l. 1. Here the reading is not so simple as
AMORETTI gave it, _Mem. Star. XXV: A Monsieur Lyonard Peintre du Roy
pour Amboyse_. He says too that this address is of the year 1509,
and Mr. Ravaisson remarks: "_De cette suscription il semble qu'on
peut inferer que Leonard etait alors en France, a la cour de Louis
XII ... Pour conclure je crois qu'il n'est pas prouve que Leonard de
Vinci n'ait pas fait un voyage de quelques mois en France sous Louis
XII, entre le printemps de 1509 et l'automne de_ 1510."--I must
confess that I myself have not succeeded in deciphering completely
this French writing of which two words remain to me doubtful. But so
much seems to be quite evident that this is not an address of a
letter at all, but a certificate or note. _Amboise_[l. 6] I believe
to be the signature of Charles d'Amboise the Governor of Milan. If
this explanation is the right one, it can be easily explained by the
contents of Nos. 1350 and 1529. The note, line 1, was perhaps added
later by another hand; and Leonardo himself wrote afterwards on the
same sheet some geometrical explanations. I must also point out that
the statement that this sheet belongs to the year 1509 has
absolutely no foundation in fact. There is no clue whatever for
giving a precise date to this note.] To Monsieur le Vinci,--the
horses of the king's equerry.... Continue the payment to Ms.
Lyonard, Painter to the King.
[6] Amboise.
1562.
[Footnote: Greek Characters]
1563.
Memorandum to Maestro Lionardo to have ... the state of Florence.
1564.
To remind your Excellency that Ridolfo Manini brought to Florence a

quantity of crystal besides other stones such as are ...
1565.
XVI C. 6 de Ciuitate Dei, se Antipodes.

[Footnote: A facsimile of this note, which refers to a well known

book by St. Augustin, is given on page 254.]
1566.
Leonardo's Will.
Be it known to all persons, present and to come that at the court of

our Lord the King at Amboise before ourselves in person, Messer
Leonardo da Vinci painter to the King, at present staying at the
place known as Cloux near Amboise, duly considering the certainty of
death and the uncertainty of its time, has acknowledged and declared
in the said court and before us that he has made, according to the
tenor of these presents, his testament and the declaration of his
last will, as follows. And first he commends his soul to our Lord,
Almighty God, and to the Glorious Virgin Mary, and to our lord Saint
Michael, to all the blessed Angels and Saints male and female in
Paradise.
Item. The said Testator desires to be buried within the church of

Saint Florentin at Amboise, and that his body shall be borne thither
by the chaplains of the church.
Item. That his body may be followed from the said place to the said
church of Saint Florentin by the _collegium_ of the said church,
that is to say by the rector and the prior, or by their vicars and
chaplains of the church of Saint Denis of Amboise, also the lesser
friars of the place, and before his body shall be carried to the
said church this Testator desires, that in the said church of Saint
Florentin three grand masses shall be celebrated by the deacon and
sub-deacon and that on the day when these three high masses are
celebrated, thirty low masses shall also be performed at Saint
Gregoire.
Item. That in the said church of Saint Denis similar services shall
be performed, as above.
Item. That the same shall be done in the church of the said friars
and lesser brethren.
Item. The aforesaid Testator gives and bequeaths to Messer Francesco

da Melzo, nobleman, of Milan, in remuneration for services and

favours done to him in the past, each
[Footnote: See page 420.]
and all of the books the Testator is at present possessed of, and
the instruments and portraits appertaining to his art and calling as
a painter.
Item. The same Testator gives and bequeaths henceforth for ever to
Battista de Vilanis his servant one half, that is the moity, of his
garden which is outside the walls of Milan, and the other half of
the same garden to Salai his servant; in which garden aforesaid
Salai has built and constructed a house which shall be and remain
henceforth in all perpetuity the property of the said Salai, his
heirs and successors; and this is in remuneration for the good and
kind services which the said de Vilanis and Salai, his servants have
done him in past times until now.
Item. The said Testator gives to Maturina his waiting woman a cloak
of good black cloth lined with fur, a ... of cloth and two ducats
paid once only; and this likewise is in remuneration for good
service rendered to him in past times by the said Maturina.
Item. He desires that at his funeral sixty tapers shall be carried

which shall be borne by sixty poor men, to whom shall be given money
for carrying them; at the discretion of the said Melzo, and these
tapers shall be distributed among the four above mentioned churches.
Item. The said Testator gives to each of the said churches ten lbs.
of wax in thick tapers, which shall be placed in the said churches
to be used on the day when those said services are celebrated.
Item. That alms shall be given to the poor of the Hotel-Dieu, to the
poor of Saint Lazare d'Amboise and, to that end, there shall be
given and paid to the treasurers of that same fraternity the sum and
amount of seventy soldi of Tours.
Item. The said Testator gives and bequeaths to the said Messer
Francesco Melzo, being present and agreeing, the remainder of his
pension and the sums of money which are owing to him from the past
time till the day of his death by the receiver or treasurer-general
M. Johan Sapin, and each and every sum of money that he has already
received from the aforesaid Sapin of his said pension, and in case

he should die before the said Melzo and not otherwise; which moneys
are at present in the possession of the said Testator in the said
place called Cloux, as he says. And he likewise gives and bequeaths
to the said Melzo all and each of his clothes which he at present
possesses at the said place of Cloux, and all in remuneration for
the good and kind services done by him in past times till now, as
well as in payment for the trouble and annoyance he may incur with
regard to the execution of this present testament, which however,
shall all be at the expense of the said Testator.
And he orders and desires that the sum of four hundred scudi del
Sole, which he has deposited in the hands of the treasurer of Santa
Maria Nuova in the city of Florence, may be given to his brothers
now living in Florence with all the interest and usufruct that may
have accrued up to the present time, and be due from the aforesaid
treasurer to the aforesaid Testator on account of the said four
hundred crowns, since they were given and consigned by the Testator
to the said treasurers.
Item. He desires and orders that the said Messer Francesco de Melzo
shall be and remain the sole and only executor of the said will of
the said Testator; and that the said testament shall be executed in
its full and complete meaning and according to that which is here
narrated and said, to have, hold, keep and observe, the said Messer
Leonardo da Vinci, constituted Testator, has obliged and obliges by
these presents the said his heirs and successors with all his goods
moveable and immoveable present and to come, and has renounced and
expressly renounces by these presents all and each of the things
which to that are contrary. Given at the said place of Cloux in the
presence of Magister Spirito Fieri vicar, of the church of Saint
Denis at Amboise, of M. Guglielmo Croysant priest and chaplain, of
Magister Cipriane Fulchin, Brother Francesco de Corion, and of
Francesco da Milano, a brother of the Convent of the Minorites at
Amboise, witnesses summoned and required to that end by the
indictment of the said court in the presence of the aforesaid M.
Francesco de Melze who accepting and agreeing to the same has
promised by his faith and his oath which he has administered to us
personally and has sworn to us never to do nor say nor act in any
way to the contrary. And it is sealed by his request with the royal
seal apposed to legal contracts at Amboise, and in token of good
faith.
Given on the XXIIIrd day of April MDXVIII, before Easter.

And on the XXIIIrd day of this month of April MDXVIII, in the

presence of M. Guglielmo Borian, Royal notary in the court of the
bailiwick of Amboise, the aforesaid M. Leonardo de Vinci gave and
bequeathed, by his last will and testament, as aforesaid, to the
said M. Baptista de Vilanis, being present and agreeing, the right
of water which the King Louis XII, of pious memory lately deceased
gave to this same de Vinci, the stream of the canal of Santo
Cristoforo in the duchy of Milan, to belong to the said Vilanis for
ever in such wise and manner that the said gentleman made him this
gift in the presence of M. Francesco da Melzo, gentleman, of Milan
and in mine.
And on the aforesaid day in the said month of April in the said year
MDXVIII the same M. Leonardo de Vinci by his last will and testament
gave to the aforesaid M. Baptista de Vilanis, being present and
agreeing, each and all of the articles of furniture and utensils of
his house at present at the said place of Cloux, in the event of the
said de Vilanis surviving the aforesaid M. Leonardo de Vinci, in the
presence of the said M. Francesco Melzo and of me Notary &c. Borean.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, THE NOTEBOOKS OF LEONARDO DA

VINCI, COMPLETE ***
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http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/8ldvc10.

This eBook was produced by Charles Aldarondo and the Distributed

The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci

Translated by Jean Paul Richter

Vasari says, and rightly, in his Life of Leonardo, "that he laboured

http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/8ldvc10.txt (2 of 747)21/03/2006 09:24:14

inexplicable that these valuable and interesting original texts

That, notwithstanding this eagerness to possess the Manuscripts,

Leonardos literary labours in various departments both of Art and of

http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/8ldvc10.txt (3 of 747)21/03/2006 09:24:14

much to be lamented that he should never have collated and arranged

Leonardo himself lamented this confusion, and for that reason I do

http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/8ldvc10.txt (4 of 747)21/03/2006 09:24:14

scattered materials of his scientific system, and I may venture to

The beginning of Leonardo's literary labours dates from about his

In 1651, Raphael Trichet Dufresne, of Paris, published a selection

http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/8ldvc10.txt (5 of 747)21/03/2006 09:24:14

from Leonardo's writings on painting, and this treatise became so

I, like other enquirers, had given up the original Manuscript of the

http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/8ldvc10.txt (6 of 747)21/03/2006 09:24:14

the process of "photogravure". Her Majesty the Queen graciously

The notes and dissertations on the texts on Architecture in Vol. II

I may further mention with regard to the illustrations, that the

It is scarcely necessary to add that most of the drawings here

http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/8ldvc10.txt (7 of 747)21/03/2006 09:24:14

now, on the termination of a work of several years' duration, in a

"Majestati naturae par ingenium."

LONDON, April 1883.

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PROLEGOMENA AND GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK ON PAINTING

Clavis Sigillorum and Index of Manuscripts.--The author's intention

General remarks on perspective (40--41).--The elements of

SIX BOOKS ON LIGHT AND SHADE

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GENERAL INTRODUCTION.--Prolegomena (110).--Scheme of the books on

Definition (222. 223).--An illustration by experiment (224).--A

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de' perdimenti (235--239).--The effect of light or dark backgrounds

The reciprocal effects of colours on objects placed opposite each

PERSPECTIVE OF COLOUR AND AERIAL PERSPECTIVE

General rules (289--291).--An exceptional case (292).--An experiment

ON THE PROPORTIONS AND ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE HUMAN FIGURE

Preliminary observations (308. 309).--Proportions of the head and

http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/8ldvc10.txt (11 of 747)21/03/2006 09:24:14

(345--349).--The movement of the arm (350--354).--The movement of

BOTANY FOR PAINTERS, AND ELEMENTS OF LANDSCAPE PAINTING

Classification of trees (393).--The relative thickness of the

THE PRACTICE OF PAINTING

I. MORAL PRECEPTS FOR THE STUDENT OF PAINTING.--How to ascertain the

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497).--On the productive power of minor artists (498--501).--A

STUDIES AND SKETCHES FOR PICTURES AND DECORATIONS

On pictures of the Madonna (663).--Bernardo di Bandino's portrait

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Anghiari (669).--Allegorical representations referring to the duke

The author's intention to publish his MSS.

[Footnote: The leaf on which this passage is written, is headed with

The preparation of the MSS. for publication.

[Footnote: A comparatively small portion of Leonardo's notes on