Lesson 2: The Trigonometric Functions by Thomas E. Price

THE UNIVERSITY OF AKRON
Department of Theoretical and Applied Mathematics

LESSON 2:
THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
by
Thomas E. Price
Directory
Table of Contents
Begin Lesson
Copyright c 1999-2001 teprice@uakron.edu
Last Revision Date: August 17, 2001
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. Denition of the Trigonometric Functions
3. Some values of the trigonometric functions
4. Trigonometric functions at related angles
5. Periodic behavior of the trigonometric functions
6. Exercises
Solutions to Exercises
1. Introduction
There are six trigonometric functions: sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant,
and cosecant; abbreviated as sin, cos, tan, cot, sec, and csc respectively. These are
functions of a single real variable that is normally an angle measurement given in
terms of radians or degrees. Consequently, values such as sin 2.7 rad or tan 33
(read:
the sine of 2.7 radians or the tangent of 33 degrees) often appear in trigonometric
expressions. In the rst case, the radian identier (rad) is frequently suppressed for
simplicity and sin 2.7 rad is shortened to sin 2.7. When variables such as t or ( is
the Greek letter alpha) denote angles, measurement identiers are usually omitted.
Consequently, the reader will encounter expressions such as sin t and tan . In such
cases the context must make the choice of measurement clear. In this tutorial we will
normally use Greek letters to denote angles measured in degrees while most other
variables generally denote radian measurement.
The next section of this lesson introduces the trigonometric functions using their
circular denitions. Specically, the functions are dened by coordinates of points on
a particular circle. This approach requires that the angles constructed by points on
this circle be given in radian measure. Section 3 and Section 4 demonstrate strategies
for computing the numerical values of the trigonometric functions at certain special
angles by using various geometric properties of the circle. The nal section of this
lesson examines the periodic or cyclic nature of the trigonometric functions.
It should be noted that right triangles provide an alternate means for dening
Section 1: Introduction 4
the trigonometric functions. In this setting the angles are normally measured in
degrees and the length of the sides of right triangles are used to determine the values
of the trigonometric functions. This approach and its connection with the circular
denitions is presented in a subsequent lesson. (See Lesson 3.)
2. Denition of the Trigonometric Functions
x
y
P(x, y)
t
Figure 2.1: Example of
an angle determined by a
point on the unit circle.
As indicated in Figure 2.1 let P be the point on the
unit circle with coordinates (x, y) that determines the
angle in standard position
1
of measure t rad. Then
the values of all six trigonometric functions at t are
dened in terms of the numbers x and y. For example,
the sine function is dened to have value y at the angle
of measure t radians. That is,
sin t = y.
Example 1 Since the coordinates of the point P on
the unit circle determined by the angle 0 rad are (1, 0)
we see that sin 0 = 0.
The cosine function is dened by
cos t = x.
Example 2 Again, since P (1, 0) is the point on the unit circle described by the angle
0 rad we have cos 0 = 1.
1
An angle is in standard position if its initial side lies on the x-axis and has its vertex at the
origin.
5
Section 2: Denition of the Trigonometric Functions 6
The denitions of all six trigonometric functions are given in Table 2.1 below. The
student should memorize these denitions. A few elementary identities or relations
sin t = y cos t = x tan t =
y
x
cot t =
x
y
sec t =
1
x
csc t =
1
y
Table 2.1: Denition of the trigonometric functions.
easily follow from these denitions. For example,
csc t =
1
y
=
1
sin t
=sin t =
1
csc t
sec t =
1
x
=
1
cos t
=cos t =
1
sec t
tan t =
y
x
=
1
cot t
=
sin t
cos t
and
cot t =
x
y
=
1
tan t
=
cos t
sin t
.
Identities such as these have an important role in the study and use of trigonometry.
Lesson 6 is devoted to their development.
3. Some values of the trigonometric functions
It is relatively easy to calculate the values of the trigonometric functions for particular
angles. For example, we saw in Example 1 that for t = 0 the coordinates of P in
Figure 2.1 are (1, 0) so x = 1 and y = 0. Consequently,
sin 0 = 0, cos 0 = 1, tan 0 = 0, and csc 0 = 1.
The cotangent and secant functions are undened when t = 0 because division by
zero is undened.
At t = /2 the point P has coordinates (0, 1), so
sin

2
= 1, cos

2
= 0, cot

2
= 0, and csc

2
= 1.
The tangent and secant functions are undened at /2.
Remember: sin t = y, cos t = x, tan t =
y
x
, cot t =
x
y
, sec t =
1
x
, csc t =
1
y
.
7
Section 3: Some values of the trigonometric functions 8
We have seen that it is easy to nd the values of the trigonometric functions at
t = 0 and /2. There are other important angles for which the values of these functions
can be directly calculated. Some techniques for computing these values are illustrated
in the following examples. These special values
2
are summarized in Table 2.2 on page
13. They should be memorized and the techniques for computing them should be
mastered. Memorizing these values and mastering the geometric principles employed
to compute them will assist the reader in developing an understanding of the basic
principles of trigonometry, and in acquiring the necessary skills for solving more
complicated trigonometric problems.
2
The values of the trigonometric functions for arbitrary angles are not easily computed and the
introduction of the hand held calculator and other computing devices has greatly simplied this
task. When using a computing device the user must remember to set it to degree or radian mode
depending on the dimension being used to measure angles.
Example 3 Determine the values of the trigonometric functions at t = /4.
Solution: As suggested by the gure below, at t = /4 (45
) the two coordinates x

and y of the point P(x, y) on the unit circle must be equal since P lies on the line
y = x.
yx=
(,) Pxx
y
x
Replacing y by x in the equation of the unit circle (x
2
+ y
2
= 1) yields x
2
+ x
2
= 1,
or 2x
2
= 1. Then,
x
2
= 1/2 or x = (1/
2).
The point P is in the rst quadrant of the plane suggesting that x is positive so
x =
1
2
.
Since y = x we also have
3
y =
1
2
.
Appealing directly to the denitions of the trigonometric functions we have
sin

4
= cos

4
=
1
2
, tan

4
= cot

4
=
2/2
2/2
= 1, and sec

4
= csc

4
=
2
1
=
2.
3
Note that since
2
= 1 we have
1
2
=
1
2
=
2
2
.
Historically, students were required to make conversions such as this. This process, referred to
as rationalizing the denominator, often simplied numerical computations. Indeed, observe that
without a calculator it is much more dicult to perform the division
1
2
than the division
2
2
. Com-
puting machines all but eliminated complicated hand calculations and the process of rationalizing
the denominator no longer holds the prestigious position it once did in arithmetic computations.
However, this process is often used as a procedure for simplifying algebraic expressions and remains
a valuable tool for practitioners.
y
x
3 / p
( ) 0 , 2 / 1
() 0 , 1
() , Pxy
Solution: Examine the larger triangle with vertices P,
(1, 0), and the origin in the gure to the right. The
two radii of the unit circle forming the angle of mea-
sure /3 rad each have length one so the triangle is
isosceles. Since the remaining two angles must be equal
and have sum
4

3
= 2/3, they must also have
measure /3 rad. This means that the larger triangle
is equilateral so each side has length one. Note the
two right triangles forming the equilateral triangle with
common side indicated by the dashed line. These tri-
angles have base length 1/2 because these two lengths
must be equal and sum to one. That is the x-coordinate
of the point P that determines the angle /3 is 1/2.
Appealing to the equation of the unit circle it follows that
_
1
2
_
2
+y
2
= 1 so y =
3/2.
We have used positive roots since P is in the rst quadrant. Hence,
sin

3
=
3
2
cos

3
=
1
2
tan

3
=
3/2
1/2
=
3 cot

3
=
1
3
sec

3
= 2 csc

3
=
2
3
.
4
The sum of the three angles of a triangle must be rad or 180
.
Solution: An argument similar to that used in the previous example
5
suggests that
the point P on the unit circle that determines the angle of /6 rad has coordinates
(
3/2, 1/2). Consequently, the values of the trigonometric functions at /6 rad are
sin

6
=
1
2
cos

6
=
3
2
tan

6
=
1
3
cot

6
=
3/2
1/2
=
3
sec

6
=
2
3
csc

6
= 2.
Remember: sin t = y, cos t = x, tan t =
y
x
, cot t =
x
y
, sec t =
1
x
, csc t =
1
y
.
5
For a dierent approach see Exercise 4.
A summary of the values of the trigonometric functions at various angles, including
those discussed thus far, is given in Table 2.2 below. A dash () indicates that the
function is undened at the given angle.
Function
Radians
sin t cos t tan t cot t sec t csc t
0 0 1 0 1
/6
1
2
3
2
3
3
3
2
3
3
2
/4
2
2
2
2
1 1

2

2
/3
3
2
1
2
3
3
2
2
3
3
/2 1 0 0 1
Table 2.2: Values of the trigonometric functions at special angles.
(3/2,1 /2)
(,) Pxy
x
y
/6 p
/6 p -
Solution: Let P denote the point on the unit circle that
determines the angle /6 rad. Consider the gure to
the right and note the symmetric relationship between
the coordinates of the two points determining the an-
gles /6 rad and /6 rad. Armed with the results of
Example 5, this suggests that the coordinates of P are
(
_
3/2, 1/2). Consequently,
sin
_
6
_
=
1
2
cos
_
6
_
=
3
2
tan
_
6
_
=
1/2
3/2
=
1
3
cot
_
6
_
=
3
sec
_
6
_
=
2
3
csc
_
6
_
= 2.
Example 7 Find sin 30
and tan(30
).
Solution: A 30
angle has radian measure /6 so sin 30
= sin

6
= 1/2. Likewise,
tan(30
) = tan
_
6
_
=
1
3
.
4. Trigonometric functions at related angles
) , ( y x
t -
t
x
y
(,) xy-
Figure 2.2: Symmetry prop-
erties of the angles t rad and
(t) rad.
Example 6 demonstrated that using the symmetry of
the unit circle the values of the trigonometric func-
tions at /6 rad could be used to compute the values
of these functions at (/6) rad. This section is de-
voted to exploiting that and other symmetry prop-
erties of the unit circle. Figure 2.2 suggests that the
coordinates of points symmetrically located with re-
spect to the x-axis are related. That is, reecting
the point (x, y) about the x-axis identies the point
(x, y) on the circle. Consequently, if the angle of
measure t rad determines the point (x, y) on the unit
circle, then this symmetry suggests that the angle of
measure (t) rad identies the point (x, y) on the
circle. Hence,
sin(t) = y = sin t and
cos (t) = x = cos t.
A moments reection will convince the reader that these relationships hold regardless
of the magnitude or direction of the angle t.
Similar identities hold for the remaining trigonometric functions. These can be
established using the geometric symmetry of the unit circle. They can also be derived
15
Section 4: Trigonometric functions at related angles 16
by appealing to the identities presented in section 2. For example, using the identities
above for the sine and cosine function and the identity
tan t =
sin t
cos t
we have
tan (t) =
sin (t)
cos (t)
=
sin t
cos t
=
sin t
cos t
= tan t.
Example 8 Using the information provided in Table 2.2 we have the following values
Function
Radians
sin t cos t tan t cot t sec t csc t
0 0 1 0 1
/6
1
2
3
2

3
3

3
2
3
3
2
/4
2
2
2
2
1 1

2
2
/3
3
2
1
2

3
3
2
2
3
3
/2 1 0 0 1
) , ( y x ) , ( y x -
t - p
t
x
y
Figure 2.3: Symmetry
properties of the angles
t rad and ( t) rad.
The symmetry of the unit circle illustrated in
Figure 2.3 indicates that the angle of measure
( t) rad determines the point (x, y) on the unit
circle if the angle of measure t rad determines (x, y).
Hence,
sin ( t) = y = sin t and
cos( t) = x = cos t.
Once again, similar identities for the remaining
trigonometric functions can be established using
these symmetry properties or by direct calculation.
Both strategies are illustrated in the next example.
Example 9 Use the symmetry properties of the
unit circle and the methods of direct calculation to
determine sec ( t) .
Solution: Here,
sec ( t) =
1
x
=
1
x
= sec t (Symmetry)
sec ( t) =
1
cos ( t)
=
1
cos t
=
1
cos t
= sec t. (Direct Calculation)
Example 10 Using the symmetry of the circle and the information in Table 2.2
determine the values of the sine, cosine, and tangent functions at a)
3
4
rad and b)
5
6
rad.
p
p p
/4
- /4
2
2
,
2
2
-
2
2
,
2
2
Solution:
a) Observe that
3
4
= /4. Table 2.2 indicates
that the angle

4
rad corresponds to the point
_
2
2
,
2
2
_
on the unit circle, so it follows from the preced-
ing discussion that
_

3
4
_
rad determines the point
_
2
2
,
2
2
_
. (The gure to the right my be helpful.)
Consequently,
sin
3
4
=
2
2
, cos
3
4
=
2
2
and tan
3
4
= 1.
b) Note that
5
6
= /6 so the coordinates so the coordinates associated with this
angle are (
3
2
,
1
2
). Hence,
sin
5
6
=
1
2
, cos
5
6
=
3
2
, and tan
5
6
=
1
3
.
The two symmetry properties discussed thus far are easily combined to obtain the
coordinates of the point on the unit circle related to the angle (t ) rad. To see this
introduce the notation s = t and let (x, y) be the point on the unit circle deter-
mined by the angle t rad. Then (x, y) is associated with s rad . Using the symmetry
property discussed at the beginning of this section, the point associated with s rad
is obtained by simply negating the y-coordinate of that for s. (See Figure 2.2.) This
means that(x, y) is determined by s. But s rad = ( t) rad = (t ) rad .
The gure below provides a complete visual account of this result.
) , ( y x ) , ( y x -
t - p
t
x
y
(,)xy --
t p -
Example 11 Using the symmetry of the circle and the information in Table 2.2
determine the values of the sine, cosine, and tangent functions at a)
2
3
rad and b)
5
6
rad.
Solution:
a) Since
2
3
= /3 and /3 is associated with
_
1
2
,
3
2
_
, the coordinates of the
point that determines the angle
2
3
rad are
_
1
2
,
3
2
_
. Consequently,
sin
_
2
3
_
=
3
2
, cos
_
2
3
_
=
1
2
and tan
_
2
3
_
=
3.
b) Since the coordinates of the point on the unit circle determined by

6
are
_
3
2
,
1
2
_
and
5
6
=

6
, we have using the point
_
3
2
,
1
2
_
sin
_
5
6
_
=
1
2
, cos
_
5
6
_
=
3
2
and tan
_
5
6
_
=
1
3
.
) , ( y x
) , ( y x - -
p H=@ t
x
y
t p +
Figure 2.4: Symmetry
properties of the angles
t rad and ( + t) rad.
As illustrated in Figure 2.4 the coordinates of
the points on the unit circle that determines the an-
gles t rad and (t +) rad are symmetric with respect
to the origin since they dier by an angle of rad
(180
). (Note the angle of rad indicated in the g-

ure by the bold curved arrow that separates the two
angles t rad and (t + ) rad.) Given that the coor-
dinates on the unit circle associated with the angle
t rad are (x, y) , those determined by (t + ) rad are
(x, y). This suggests the relations
sin(t + ) = y = sin t and
cos(t + ) = x = cos t.
Also, we can calculate
tan(t + ) =
sin(t + )
cos(t + )
=
sin t
cos
= tan t
for any angle t. Again, the remaining three trigono-
metric functions satisfy similar identities.
Example 12 Determine the values of the sine, cosine, and tangent functions at
5
4
rad.
Solution: Consider Figure 2.4 and recall that if the coordinates on the unit circle
determined by the angle t rad are (x, y), then the coordinates related to the angle
(t + ) rad are (x, y). Since
5
4
=

4
+ and the point associated with

4
rad is
_
2
2
,
2
2
_
, the coordinates that determine the angle
5
4
rad are (
2
2
,
2
2
). The three
values are
sin
5
4
=
2
2
, cos
5
4
=
2
2
, and tan
5
4
= 1.
Example 13 Determine the value of the sine function at the angle at 240
.
Solution: Since 240
= 60
+180
and the point on the unit circle determined by the

angle 60
is
_
1
2
,
3
2
_
we see that sin 240
3
2
.
5. Periodic behavior of the trigonometric functions
The terminal sides of coterminal angles
6
in standard position intersect the unit circle
at a unique point P. Since the values of any trigonometric function depend only on
the coordinates of P, it must be the same at coterminal angles. For example, since
3
+ 4 =
13
3
, the angles

3
rad and
13
3
rad are coterminal so sin
13
3
= sin

3
=
3
2
.
More generally, for any angle of measure t rad,
sin(t + 2k) = sin t (1)
where k can be any integer. The geometric symmetry of the unit circle suggests that
the value 2 (or k = 1) is the smallest positive number for which Equation 1 holds.
This property of the sine function is described by saying that it is periodic with
period 2. Similar statements hold for the cosine function so it is also periodic with
period 2. Furthermore, the secant and cosecant have period 2 since they are the
reciprocals of the cosine and sine functions respectively
7
, The tangent and cotangent
functions are also periodic but have period as suggested by Exercise 5.
6
Recall that coterminal angles have the same initial and terminal sides. Such angles must have
radian measures that dier by an integer multiple of 2.
7
Recall that csc t =
1
y
=
1
sint
, sec t =
1
x
=
1
cos t
, and tant =
y
x
=
1
cot t
.
23
6. Exercises
Exercise 1. Determine the values of the trigonometric functions if they are dened
at the angles: with radian measure
(a)
(b) 3/2
(c) /2
(d) /4
(e) 2/3
(f) 5/6
(g) /3
(h) 3/4
Exercise 2. Determine the values of the trigonometric functions at the angles with
radian measure
a) 4 b) 5/2 c) 7/2 d) 9/4 e) 5/3 f) 11/6 g) 4/3 h) 9/4.
radian measure
a) 97 b) 15/2 c) 31/2 d) 19/4 e) 9/3 ,f) 21/6 g) 14/3 h) 19/4.
Exercise 4. Find the coordinates of the point P (x, y) on the unit circle determined
by the angle /6 rad. The gure below should provide some insight.
24
Section 6: Exercises 25
(,) Pxy
y
/6 p
/6 p -
(,)xy --
2 y
x
Exercise 5. Show that the period of the tangent and cotangent functions is .
Solutions to Exercises
Exercise 1(a) Determine the values of the trigonometric functions at the angles:
with radian measure .
Solution: Since = 0 and the coordinates of the point on the unit circle
determined by 0 rad are (1, 0), the coordinates of the point P determined by are
(1, 0). Of course, this observation follows directly by simply using a drawing to locate
the point on the unit circle determined by the angle rad and then observing that
the coordinates of that point P are (1, 0). The table below list the desired values
or a dash indicates that the function is undened at rad .
t P sin cos tan cot sec csc
(1, 0) 0 1 0 1
.
Solutions to Exercises 27
Exercise 1(b) Determine the values of the trigonometric functions at the angles:
with radian measure 3/2.
Solution: Since
3
2
=

2
+ , the coordinates of the point P determined by the angle
3
2
rad are (0, 1). The table below list the desired values or a dash indicates that the
function is undened at 3/2 rad .
3/2 (0, 1) 1 0 0 1
.
Exercise 1(c) Determine the values of the trigonometric functions at the angles:
with radian measure /2.
Solution: Since
2
=

2
, the coordinates of the point P determined by the angle
2
rad are (0, 1). The table below list the desired values or a dash indicates that
the function is undened at 3/2 rad . Note that this answer is exactly the same as
that for the angle
3
2
rad given in the previous part of this exercise. This is because
the two angles are coterminal since they dier by 2.
/2 (0, 1) 1 0 0 1
Exercise 1(d) Determine the values of the trigonometric functions at the angles:
Solution: The coordinates of the point P determined by the angle
4
rad are
_
1
2
,
1
2
_
.
The table below list the desired values.
/4
_
1
2
,
1
2
_
1
2
1
2
1 1

2
Exercise 1(e) Determine the values of the trigonometric functions at the angles:
Solution: Since
2
3
=
3
2
3
rad are
_
1
2
,
3
2
_
. The table below list the desired values.
2/3
_
1
2
,
3
2
_

3
2
1
2

3
1
3
2
2
Exercise 1(f) Determine the values of the trigonometric functions at the angles:
Solution: Since
5
6
=

6
5
6
rad are
_
3
2
,
1
2
_
. The table below list the desired values.
5
6
_
3
2
,
1
2
_
1
2
3
2
1
3
2
3
2
Exercise 1(g) Determine the values of the trigonometric functions at the angles:
Solution: The table below list the desired values.
/3
_
1
2
,

3
2
_

3
2
1
2

3
1
3
2
2
Exercise 1(h) Determine the values of the trigonometric functions at the angles:
Solution: The table below list the desired values.
3/4
_
1
2
,
1
2
_
1
2
1
2
1 1
radian measure
a) 4 b) 5/2 c) 7/2 d) 9/4 e) 5/3 f) 11/6 g) 4/3 h) 9/4.
Solution: The following table is derived using the values in Table 2.2, the symmetry
properties of the unit circle, and the periodic behavior of the trigonometric functions.
a) 4 (1, 0) 0 1 0 1
b) 5/2 (0, 1) 1 0 0 1
c) 7/2 (0, 1) 1 0 0 1
d) 9/4
_
1
2
,
1
2
_
1
2
1
2
1 1

2
2
e) 5/3
_
1
2
,

3
2
_

3
2
1
2

3
1
3
2
2
3
f) 11/6
_
3
2
,
1
2
_
1
2
3
2
1
3
2
3
2
g) 4/3
_
1
2
,
3
2
_

3
2
1
2

3
1
3
2
2
3
h) 9/4
_
1
2
,
1
2
_
1
2
1
2
1 1

2

2
Exercise 2
radian measure
a) 97 b) 15/2 c) 31/2 d) 19/4 e) 9/3 ,f) 21/6 g) 14/3 h) 19/4.
Solution: The following table is derived using the values in Table 2.2, the symmetry
properties of the unit circle, and the periodic behavior of the trigonometric functions.
t P sin cos tan cot sec csc Notes
a) 97 (1, 0) 0 1 0 1 97 = 2(48) +
b) 15/2 (0, 1) 1 0 0 1
15
2
= 2(3) +
3
2
c) 31/2 (0, 1) 1 0 0 1
31
2
= 14 +
3
2
d) 19/4
_
1
2
,
1
2
_
1
2
1
2
1 1
2

2
19
4
= 2(2) +
3
4
e) 9/3 (1, 0) 0 1 0 1
9
3
= 2 +
f) 21/6 (0, 1) 1 0 0 1
21
6
= 2 +
3
2
g) 14/3
_
1
2
,
3
2
_

3
2
1
2

3
1
3
2
2
3
14
3
= 2(2) +
2
3
h) 19/4
_
1
2
,
1
2
_
1
2
1
2
1 1
2
19
4
= 4 +
3
4
Exercise 3
Exercise 4. Find the coordinates of the point P (x, y) on the unit circle determined
by the angle /6 rad.
Solution: Consider the triangle in the gure below formed by the points (x, y) and
the origin. The two sides formed by radii of the unit circle ensure that this triangle
is isosceles. Hence, this is an equilateral triangle since the angle at the origin has
measure /3 rad and the remaining two angles must be equal and, consequently, have
radian measure /3.
(,) Pxy
y
/6 p
/6 p -
(,)xy --
2 y
x
Since the triangle has one side of length one, all three sides must be one unit long.
Since the vertical side has length one we have
2y = 1 or y =
1
2
.
Further, since (x, y) in the gure is a point on the unit circle, we know that x
2
+y
2
= 1.
Substituting y =
1
2
into this equation gives
x
2
+
_
1
2
_
2
= 1 =x
2
=
3
4
.
Since x must be positive it follows that
x =
3
2
.
We have
P =
_
3
2
,
1
2
_
.
Exercise 4
Exercise 5. Show that the period of the tangent and cotangent function is .
Solution: We have already seen that tan (t + ) = tan t for all numbers t in the
domain of the tangent function. It remains to show that is the smallest such
number. Suppose there is a number c such that tan (t + c) = tan t for all t in the
domain of the tangent function. Then setting t = 0 yields
tan 0 = tan c
suggesting that c is an integer multiple of . It follows that is the smallest positive
number for which tan (t + ) = tan t for all numbers t in its domain. Since the
cot t =
1
tan t
it follows that the cotangent function also has period . Exercise 5

Lesson 2: The Trigonometric Functions by Thomas E. Price

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THE UNIVERSITY OF AKRON

Department of Theoretical and Applied Mathematics

) the two coordinates x

angle has radian measure /6 so sin 30

). (Note the angle of rad indicated in the g-

and the point on the unit circle determined by the

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