Surg Clin N Am 86 (2006) 915–925

Transanal Endoscopic Microsurgery

Peter A. Cataldo, MD
Department of Surgery, University of Vermont, College of Medicine,
Fletcher 462, MCHV Campus, Burlington, VT 05401, USA

Transanal endoscopic microsurgery (TEM) involves the use of specialized

equipment including an operating proctoscope, insufflation, and magnified,
stereoscopic vision to improve the accessibility, visualization, and precision
of resection of lesions throughout the rectum. Limitations on local resection
based on the anal sphincter and boney confines of the pelvis are overcome
by this equipment. Although lesions previously unreachable transanally
have become accessible with the use of TEM, this does not change the indi-
cations for local excision of rectal masses, particularly rectal cancer. Careful
preoperative evaluation and appropriate patient selection remain the most
important predictors of outcome and must be steadfastly adhered to as
new technology is used to treat old problems.
TEM is unique when compared with other minimally invasive techniques,
particularly abdominal laparoscopic surgery. Laparoscopic surgery, though
innovative and beneficial, does not allow surgeons to perform any proce-
dures previously not possible. TEM allows surgeons to transanally excise le-
sions that previously were inaccessible. Before the advent of TEM, any
large, colonoscopically unresectable polyp in the mid-rectum necessitated
an anterior resection via a transabdominal approach. With TEM, these
polyps can now be accessed and excised without a cutaneous incision, usu-
ally as an outpatient procedure.
TEM has been available for almost 20 years and is commonly used in Eu-
rope and Great Britain, but it has been slow to ‘‘catch on’’ in the United
States. This is likely because the equipment is expensive, the procedure is dif-
ficult to master, and the indications are limited. With the expanding role of
local excision of benign and selected malignant masses in the rectum, TEM
is now gaining greater acceptance in the United States. Regional centers
treating large volumes of rectal cancer are embracing TEM with early,
encouraging results.

E-mail address: peter.cataldo@vtmednet.org

0039-6109/06/$ - see front matter Ó 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.suc.2006.06.004 surgical.theclinics.com
916 CATALDO

Indications
TEM provides access to the entire rectum, therefore any lesions or abnor-
malities within the rectum are potentially amenable to TEM. However, tech-
nical feasibility is not equivalent to appropriateness. Indications can be
neatly divided into benign and malignant categories. In the case of benign
disease, any lesion that can be safely excised or corrected with minimal func-
tional consequences is appropriate. For malignancy, the technical ability to
excise the lesion must be combined with the ability to cure the disease (par-
ticularly compared with conventional approaches) when selecting patients
for TEM.

Benign diseases
The most common indication for TEM is the excision of large, colono-
scopically unresectable rectal polyps. This was the reason TEM was devel-
oped. In this situation, TEM can spare patients from major abdominal
surgery. Polyps throughout the rectum are amenable to this approach,
and although large size and proximal rectal location make the procedure
technically challenging, they are not contraindications. With experience,
even circumferential polyps can be excised as full-thickness sleeve resections
of the rectum with complete anastomosis being performed using TEM. In
addition, other benign rectal and extrarectal masses can also be excised
such as carcinoids, retrorectal cysts, and masses within the anovaginal sep-
tum. TEM has also been effectively used to treat anastomotic strictures, rec-
tal prolapse, high extrasphincteric fistulae and for transrectal drainage of
pelvic collections (Box 1).

Box 1. Indications for TEM

Benign
Rectal polyps
Carcinoid tumors
Retrorectal masses
Anastomotic strictures
Extrasphincteric fistulae
Pelvic abscess
Malignant
Malignant polyps
T1–T2 rectal cancer
Palliative excision of T3 cancer
 TRANSANAL ENDOSCOPIC MICROSURGERY 917

Malignant diseases
Local excision of rectal cancer continues to be a controversial topic, with
advocates and detractors adamantly defending their respective positions in
the absence of confirming scientific evidence. To this date, there are no ran-
domized, prospective trials comparing local excision to radical resection
stage by stage for rectal cancer. Extensive review of the available literature
yields evidence for and against local excision. Some retrospective analyses
indicate that local recurrence is unacceptably high following local excision
[1], while others indicate similar local recurrence rates and overall survival
when compared with more radical approaches [2].
A reasonable approach advocated by many is detailed below. The pri-
mary goal must be cure of the rectal cancer, minimizing local recurrence
and maximizing patient survival. In potentially curable patients, transanal
ultrasound or MRI should be performed to identify depth of invasion (T
stage) and lymph node status (N stage). All patients with perirectal lymph-
adenopathy (stage III) should be offered radical resection, because TEM
cannot evaluate and treat regional lymph nodes. T1 lesions (confined to
the mucosa and submucosa) are ideal candidates. In addition, T2 lesions, al-
though more controversial, can also be successfully treated with local exci-
sion if combined with postoperative chemoradiotherapy [3].
If final histologic evaluation identifies lymphovascular invasion or poor
differentiation, even in T1 lesions, the addition of adjuvant radiation and
chemotherapy may decrease recurrence rates.
All malignant masses mandate full-thickness excision. Therefore, ana-
tomic considerations may prevent local excision even if tumor staging is ap-
propriate. In large lesions, full-thickness excision and primary closure can
lead to loss of rectal volume or strictures creating poor functional results,
particularly when combined with pelvic radiation. Proximal, anterior, or lat-
eral tumors will be within the peritoneal cavity and full-thickness excision
will result in intraperitoneal penetration. This is not a contraindication to
TEM, but does make the procedure technically more challenging and the
consequences of suture line disruption greater (intraperitoneal sepsis). Addi-
tionally, the theoretical disadvantages of intraperitoneal tumor cell dissem-
ination may be potentially worrisome.
T3 (full-thickness extension) lesions are not appropriate for TEM except
in unusual circumstances. If medical comorbidity precludes a transabdomi-
nal approach, then TEM may be used in combination with chemoradiation.
However, supportive evidence is limited, and survival rates are likely lower
than radical approaches. Some patients with very distal tumors may refuse
abdominal approaches based on the need for permanent colostomy. TEM
may be used to excise these lesions, even if T3, but recurrence rates will be
higher.
Some centers advocate preoperative chemoradiotherapy followed by lo-
cal excision. Significant downstaging has been identified, and these patients
918 CATALDO

may benefit from local excision [4]. Experience with this approach is limited
and widespread application should await further evidence.

Anatomic considerations
The rectum is both an intra- and extraperitoneal organ. The relationship
between the peritoneal reflection and the rectum varies from patient to pa-
tient but follows general patterns. The peritoneum sweeps over and around
the rectum from posterior to anterior in a cephalad-to-caudad fashion, cre-
ating a relatively consistent relationship between the rectum and the perito-
neal cavity. Posteriorly, the entire rectum is extraperitoneal; laterally, the
proximal one third is intraperitoneal and the distal two thirds are extraper-
itoneal. Anteriorly, the proximal two thirds are intraperitoneal and only the
distal one third is extraperitoneal. The distal one third of the rectum is also
immediately adjacent to the vagina in females and the prostate in the males.
These anatomic factors are particularly important, because TEM allows ac-
cess to proximal portions of the rectum inaccessible with traditional transa-
nal techniques.
If anterior lesions are resected, both intraperitoneal entry (with possible
subsequent peritonitis) and rectovaginal or rectourethral fistulae can occur.
These lesions should be approached only if the surgeon is very comfortable
and proficient in suture closure of the rectal defect. Resection of lateral and
posterior lesions is less challenging, because these portions of the rectum are
normally extraperitoneal (except for the most proximal rectum); further-
more, defects can be closed or left open after resection, because the extrap-
eritoneal rectum heals well by secondary intention. It is best, however, to
repair all defects as patients heal faster and surgeons gain experience and fa-
miliarity with TEM suture techniques, which are necessary in more complex
resections.

Equipment
TEM equipment was developed by Wolf Surgical Instruments Company
(Vernon Hills, Illinois). It is available through Wolf and just recently
through Storz (Karl Storz GmbH & Co., Tuttlingen, Germany) as well. It
is provided as a prepackaged set containing everything necessary to perform
TEM. Visualization is facilitated by rectal insufflation and pneumorectum;
therefore, the system must be air-tight. This is accomplished by using 40-mm
diameter proctoscopes (of various lengths up to 20 cm) (Fig. 1) with
a removable faceplate with four ports for instrument access. The four ports
include one for the optical stereoscope (Fig. 2), one for suction, and two for
the instruments necessary to perform TEM (Fig. 3). Attached to the stereo-
scope and faceplate are conduits for insufflation, irrigation (to clean
the lens), a light cord, and a pressure transducer (which constantly measures
 TRANSANAL ENDOSCOPIC MICROSURGERY 919

Fig. 1. Proctoscopes.

intrarectal pressure). The stereoscope is a 10-mm optical instrument with

a 50-degree downward viewing angle, a 75-degree field of view, and two eye-
pieces for stereoscopic, three-dimensional vision (Fig. 2). A 40-degree, 5-mm
scope is inserted along side the stereoscope to which a laparoscopic camera
can be attached, allowing the procedure to be viewed on a standard laparo-
scopic monitor.
TEM is facilitated by a dedicated Wolf insufflator. This unit provides for
simultaneous CO2 insufflation and continuous measurement of intrarectal
pressure. Standard laparoscopic insufflators can also be used; however,
with most units, insufflation and measurement of pressure are performed
through one port. This leads to intermittent changes in rectal volume each
time the pressure is measured (insufflation stops to measure pressure) and
is manifest by slight movements in the operating field. A dedicated roller-
pump suction unit enables suction without losing pneurorectum.
All operating instruments are 5 mm in diameter, and most have tips with
a downward deflection (Fig. 3). The stereoscopic lens provides 50-degree-
angle viewing, thus the operating field is in the ‘‘lower half’’ of the rectal
lumen; therefore, downward-angled instruments facilitate access to the

Fig. 2. Optical stereoscope.

920 CATALDO

Fig. 3. Instruments necessary to perform TEM.

operative field. Instruments include graspers, cautery, needle holders, scis-

sors, and ‘‘b.b.’’ appliers (b.b.’s are placed at the beginning and end of
each suture in place of tying knots).
The entire apparatus is held in place by the ‘‘Martin Arm,’’ a unique
‘‘multi-elbowed’’ holder attached to the operating table. This allows the
proctoscope to be placed precisely in the desired position and to be locked
in place. This device is infinitely adjustable and facilitates excellent exposure
anywhere in the rectum (and can be readjusted throughout the operation).
A trainer is also available for training residents or fellows and for main-
taining or improving skills between cases.

Setup and patient positioning

Proper positioning is essential to ensure successful removal of rectal
masses with TEM. The stereoscope and the majority of the instruments
are manufactured with a 50-degree downward angle. This allows the instru-
ments to pass through the ‘‘top half’’ of the operating proctoscope while
viewing and reaching lesions in the ‘‘bottom half’’ of the exposed rectum.
Therefore, it is important that the lesion be located in the bottom half of
the viewing field or in the portion of the rectum closest to the operating
room floor. This is accomplished by orienting the patient properly on the
operating room table as follows: For posterior lesions, the patient is posi-
tioned in modified lithotomy; for anterior lesions, the patient is prone; for
left-sided lesions, the left side is down; and so forth. This is facilitated by
the use of ‘‘split leg’’ attachments for lateral and prone positions, and
with padded stirrups for lithotomy.
Once the patient is positioned properly, the anus is gently dilated and the
proctoscope inserted. The scope is manipulated until the lesion is visible in
the lower half of the operating field and secured in place with the Martin
Arm. The external monitor is positioned where it can be comfortably
viewed. The insufflator and suction are positioned at the foot of the table
 TRANSANAL ENDOSCOPIC MICROSURGERY 921

where the tubing can easily reach the operating field. The scrub nurse is po-
sitioned at the opposite foot. The surgeon sits between the patient’s legs with
the table adjusted to a comfortable operating height.
Proper setup and positioning is essential and can be the difference be-
tween a simple, well-performed TEM and a difficult operative struggle. If
the lesion is properly positioned in the operative field and is not overly large,
the entire resection can often be performed without repositioning the
equipment.

Operative technique
TEM can be separated into three distinct components, all equally impor-
tant: patient positioning, equipment setup, and lesion removal. As previ-
ously mentioned, the orientation of the lesion should be confirmed (by
way of digital examination or rigid proctoscopy) and the patient should
be positioned so that the tumor is oriented toward the floor. The patient’s
legs should then be positioned appropriately so that the anal area is acces-
sible and unencumbered movement of the TEM instruments is possible.
Once this is accomplished, the TEM instrumentation can be set up and
inserted. The anus is gently dilated with 3 fingers and the operating procto-
scope inserted. The windowed faceplate and manual bellows are attached,
allowing the surgeon to operate the operating proctoscope identical to
a standard rigid proctoscope. The scope is advanced until the lesion is visible
in the lower half of the viewing field. The scope is then attached to the Mar-
tin Arm, which is tightened to fix the operating proctoscope in the desired
position.
The standard TEM faceplate is then attached to the operating procto-
scope and the stereoscope and remote viewing scopes are inserted. Follow-
ing this, the TEM insufflator/pressure monitor/roller-pump suction
apparatus is activated, and the TEM tubing is attached (which, incidentally,
is no simple task). There are four separate pieces of tubing, each of which
must be properly attached in the proper sequencedotherwise, the equip-
ment will not function properly. One tube is responsible for continuous in-
sufflation, a second for continuous monitoring and regulation of intrarectal
pressure, a third for irrigation of the optical lens and the operative field, and
a fourth for roller-pump suction (standard suction will deflate the rectal lu-
men instantly).
Once the equipment has been properly set up and satisfactory visualiza-
tion of the lesion has been confirmed, the excision can begin. Local anes-
thetic containing epinephrine is infiltrated around and under the lesion to
aid in hemostasis through a long needle (a laparoscopic needle for gallblad-
der decompression works well). Five-millimeter margins are then marked by
way of electrocauterization. The excision can be performed in the submuco-
sal plane or through the full-thickness of the rectal wall. Full-thickness ex-
cisions are technically easier and appropriate for all malignant lesions or in
922 CATALDO

any lesions where malignancy is suspected. Large benign polyps can be ex-
cised in the submucosal plane.
For both submucosal and full-thickness excisions, the dissection proceeds
from distal to proximal and from right to left. The mass is elevated with
a grasper, and electrocauterization is applied to enter the correct operative
plane; the yellow perirectal fat indicates the proper full-thickness plane, and
the transversely oriented inner circular rectal muscular fibers confirm proper
submucosal resection. Once the proper plane has been entered, the lesion is
further elevated and the dissection continues from proximal to distal and
from right to left. It is important to correctly identify the proximal extent
of resection to avoid unnecessary proximal dissection and extrarectal resec-
tion. (It is easy to undermine too far proximally if care is not taken to fre-
quently visualize the premarked proximal resection margin). After the lesion
is excised, the faceplate is removed and the lesion is retrieved through the
operating proctoscope.
After excising the mass, the defect is closed. Distal posterior rectal defects
can be left open if necessary, because this portion of the rectum is extraper-
itoneal and intraperitoneal extension is highly unlikely. All other defects
should be closed, because unrecognized intraperitoneal penetration will
lead to peritonitis if the defect is not closed completely. It is best to close
all defects if possible, because this will improve operative technique and has-
ten postoperative recovery.
Defects are closed with intraluminal suturing. Silver b.b.’s are attached at
the beginning and end of each suture in lieu of knots, because the narrow
operating space makes knot-tying difficult. All defects are closed trans-
versely to prevent narrowing of the lumen. Large defects are bisected with
a single suture to bring the proximal and distal ends into proximity and
to ensure proper orientation. Once this is accomplished, the defect is closed
with running suture from the lateral margins to the middle. With large re-
sections and closures, it is possible to become disoriented and to completely
occlude the lumen. Therefore, it is essential to perform rigid proctoscopy
following closure to ensure an adequate postoperative lumen. With these
techniques, the experienced operator can excise very large rectal masses.
For large, benign, circumferential lesions, a complete sleeve resection of
the rectum with full-thickness intestinal anastomosis can be performed. Fol-
lowing resection, the specimen is pinned to a cork board to facilitate path-
ologic evaluation (Fig. 4).

Results
Outcomes or results following TEM can be divided into three categories:
(1) early postoperative complications and outcomes, (2) functional results,
(3) and (in the treatment of malignancy) oncologic outcomes. All three
are distinct and individually important. A patient with a smooth, uncompli-
cated, postoperative recovery receives little benefit if left with long-term
 TRANSANAL ENDOSCOPIC MICROSURGERY 923

Fig. 4. Specimen pinned to corkboard to facilitate pathologic evaluation.

incontinence. Similarly, a patient with perfect postoperative functional re-

sults gains little from TEM if recurrent cancer develops.
TEM is generally performed as an outpatient procedure in the United
States and is associated with a brief inpatient stay in Europe. Average
lengths of stay vary. Cataldo and colleagues [5] reported a 0.9-day mean
length of stay in a previous series, Smith and colleagues [6] reported a range
of 0 to 3 days, and Demartines and colleagues (in Switzerland) [7] reported
a mean 5.5-day length of stay.
Complications are rare but can be significant; they include intraperitoneal
sepsis, rectovaginal fistula, suture line disruption, and hemorrhage. Demar-
tines and colleagues [7] identified a 14% complication rate in 50 patients,
including intraperitoneal entry in 2 patients (4%), urinary tract infection
in 4 patients (8%), and myocardial infarction in 1 patient (2%). Steele noted
5 complications in 100 patients. Intraperitoneal entry in 1 patient required
conversion to a laparotomy; there were 2 cases of incontinence, 1 case of rec-
tal stenosis, and a single postoperative cardiac death [8]. In 334 patients,
Mentges and colleagues [9] reported a 0.3% mortality rate and a 5.5% ma-
jor complication rate (3 intraperitoneal sepsis; 3 rectovaginal fistulae; 7 post-
operative hemorrhage requiring reoperation). In a systematic review of 55
reports, Middleton and colleagues [10] identified a complication rate of
10.3%, compared with 17% for standard local excision.
Several investigators have studied the functional consequences following
TEM. Kreis and colleagues [11] found anal dilatation and insertion of the
40-mm TEM proctoscope to be associated with a temporary decrease in
postoperative continence. Kennedy and colleagues [12] identified decreased
anal resting pressure (as identified with manometry) postoperatively, but no
dimunition in clinical continence. Herman and colleagues [13] identified pre-
operative alterations in continence to be predictive of poor postoperative
function. In addition, resections of greater than 50% of the rectal wall
924 CATALDO

caused decreased rectal compliance and poor functional outcome. Cataldo

and colleagues [5] compared the validated functional assessment and quality
of life tools Fecal Incontinence Severity Index and Fecal Incontinence Qual-
ity of Life Scale preoperatively and at 6 weeks postoperatively (each patient
serving as his/her own control) and found no decrease in clinical continence
following TEM. In summary, most authors found TEM to be associated
with some minor temporary changes in defecatory function, but permanent
dysfunction was rare.
Regarding oncologic results, many studies report results with early stage
rectal cancers. Some report results following excision of benign adenomas as
well. With respect to local excision of rectal cancer, results are widely re-
ported and are variable. Several authors specifically report their outcomes
following TEM. Buess reported a 4% local recurrence rate following
TEM for T1 rectal cancer (2/46) and a 20% local recurrence rate (1/5) fol-
lowing resection of T3 lesions. All patients were salvaged with radical sur-
gery [10]. Steele and colleagues [9] followed 23 patients with carcinoma
undergoing TEM and found 0% recurrence for T1 lesions, 14% recurrence
for T2 lesions, and 0% recurrence for T3 lesions. T2 and T3 lesions were
treated with postoperative chemoradiotherapy. Floyd and Saclarides [14]
identified 2 recurrences in 75 patients undergoing TEM for T1 rectal cancer,
both of which were salvaged with radical resections, for a 0% cancer specific
mortality. In a systematic review of 58 reports, Middleton and colleagues
[11] found local recurrence to be significantly less common (6%) following
TEM when compared with traditional transanal approaches (22%).
It is clear that TEM is a safe procedure associated with a shorter hospital
stay and lower perioperative morbidity and mortality when compared with
transabdominal rectal resections. No studies have compared functional re-
sults between TEM and abdominal/rectal resections, but TEM appears to
be associated with minimal functional consequences.
Finally, oncologic results vary, but TEM seems to be associated with
lower local recurrence rates when compared with standard transanal exci-
sions, and for early stage rectal cancer may provide identical oncologic out-
comes to radical resection.

Summary
TEM has been used effectively to treat large rectal polyps and early rectal
malignancy for more than 20 years in Europe. Until recently, only a few spe-
cialized centers offered TEM in the United States, where it is now gaining
popularity. Many hospitals have purchased equipment and are offering
TEM; however, the equipment is expensive and the learning curve is steep.
Therefore, it is essential that anyone performing TEM have an adequate
number of cases to develop and maintain expertise in this technique. That
being said, TEM remains unique when compared with laparoscopy and
other minimally invasive techniques that incorporate less invasive methods
 TRANSANAL ENDOSCOPIC MICROSURGERY 925

of performing old operations. TEM allows surgeons to perform operations

that were impossible before the development and acceptance of this
technique.

Acknowledgment
I would like to thank Tina Blais-Armell for her help in preparing the
manuscript.

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