Tieu Chuan IEC
Tieu Chuan IEC
Tieu Chuan IEC
EMC guidelines
Contents
1
2
3
4
5
Electrical distribution
Ap2
Ap3
Implementation
Ap5
Ap5
Ap5
Ap7
Ap7
Ap8
Ap11
Ap11
Ap12
3.9 Standards
Ap13
Ap14
4.1 General
Ap14
Ap15
Ap16
Ap17
Ap18
Wiring recommendations
Ap20
Ap20
Ap20
Ap1
1 Electrical distribution
The system earthing arrangement must be properly selected to ensure the safety of
life and property. The behaviour of the different systems with respect to
EMC considerations must be taken into account. Figure Ap1 below presents a
summary of their main characteristics.
European standards (see EN 50174-2 6.4 and EN 50310 6.3) recommend the
TN-S system which causes the fewest EMC problems for installations comprising
information-technology equipment (including telecom equipment).
Ba
ck
Safety of persons
Safety of property
Availability of energy
EMC behaviour
TT
Good
RCD mandatory
Good
Medium fault current
(< a few dozen amperes)
Good
Good
- Risk of overvoltages
- Equipotential
problems
- Need to manage
devices with high
leakage currents
TN-S
IT
TN-C
Good
Continuity of the PE conductor must be ensured throughout the installation
Poor
Good
Poor
High fault current
Low current for first fault High fault current
(around 1 kA)
(< a few dozen mA),
(around 1 kA)
but high for second fault
Good
Excellent
Good
Excellent
Poor (to be avoided)
Poor
- Few equipotential
- Risk of overvoltages
(should never be used)
problems
- Common-mode filters - Neutral and PE are
- Need to manage
and surge arrestors
the same
devices with high
must handle the phase- - Circulation of disturbed
leakage currents
to-phase voltages
currents in exposed
- High fault currents
- RCDs subject to
conductive parts (high
(transient disturbances) nuisance tripping if
magnetic-field radiation)
common-mode
- High fault currents
capacitors are present (transient disturbances)
- Equivalent to
TN system for second
fault
Ba
ck
Transformer
Disturbing Sensitive
devices
devices
Disturbing Sensitive
devices
devices
Not recommended
Preferable
Air conditioning
Lighting
Ap2
Disturbing
devices
Sensitive
devices
Excellent
This section deals with the earthing and equipotential bonding of information-technology
devices and other similar devices requiring interconnections for signalling purposes.
Earthing networks are designed to fulfil a number of functions. They can be
independent or operate together to provide one or more of the following:
c Safety of persons with respect to electrical hazards
c Protection of equipment with respect to electrical hazards
c A reference value for reliable, high-quality signals
c Satisfactory EMC performance
The system earthing arrangement is generally designed and installed in view of
obtaining a low impedance capable of diverting fault currents and HF currents away
from electronic devices and systems. There are different types of system earthing
arrangements and some require that specific conditions be met. These conditions
are not always met in typical installations. The recommendations presented in this
section are intended for such installations.
For professional and industrial installations, a common bonding network (CBN) may
be useful to ensure better EMC performance with respect to the following points:
c Digital systems and new technologies
c Compliance with the EMC requirements of EEC 89/336 (emission and immunity)
c The wide number of electrical applications
c A high level of system safety and security, as well as reliability and/or availability
For residential premises, however, where the use of electrical devices is limited, an
isolated bonding network (IBN) or, even better, a mesh IBN may be a solution.
It is now recognised that independent, dedicated earth electrodes, each serving a
separate earthing network, are a solution that is not acceptable in terms of EMC, but
also represent a serious safety hazard. In certain countries, the national building
codes forbid such systems.
Use of a separate clean earthing network for electronics and a dirty earthing
network for energy is not recommended in view of obtaining correct EMC, even
when a single electrode is used (see Fig. Ap3 and Fig. Ap4 ). In the event of a
lightning strike, a fault current or HF disturbances as well as transient currents will
flow in the installation. Consequently, transient voltages will be created and result in
failures or damage to the installation. If installation and maintenance are carried out
properly, this approach may be dependable (at power frequencies), but it is generally
not suitable for EMC purposes and is not recommended for general use.
Ba
ck
Surge arrestors
"Clean"
earthing network
Electrical
earthing network
Ap3
Fig. Ap3 : Independent earth electrodes, a solution generally not acceptable for safety and EMC
reasons
Ba
ck
Surge arrestors
"Clean"
earthing network
Electrical
earthing network
Ba
ck
The recommended configuration for the earthing network and electrodes is two or
three dimensional (see Fig. Ap5 ). This approach is advised for general use, both in
terms of safety and EMC. This recommendation does not exclude other special
configurations that, when correctly maintained, are also suitable.
Ba
ck
In a typical installation for a multi-level building, each level should have its own
earthing network (generally a mesh) and all the networks must be both
interconnected and connected to the earth electrode. At least two connections are
required (built in redundancy) to ensure that, if one conductor breaks, no section of
the earthing network is isolated.
Practically speaking, more than two connections are made to obtain better symmetry
in current flow, thus reducing differences in voltage and the overall impedance
between the various levels in the building.
The many parallel paths have different resonance frequencies. If one path has a high
impedance, it is most probably shunted by another path with a different resonance
frequency. On the whole, over a wide frequency spectrum (dozens of Hz and MHz),
a large number of paths results in a low-impedance system (see Fig. Ap6 ).
Fig. Ap6 : Each level has a mesh and the meshes are
interconnected at several points between levels. Certain
ground-floor meshes are reinforced to meet the needs of
certain areas
Ap4
Each room in the building should have earthing-network conductors for equipotential
bonding of devices and systems, cableways, trunking systems and structures. This
system can be reinforced by connecting metal pipes, gutters, supports, frames, etc.
In certain special cases, such as control rooms or computers installed on false floors,
ground reference plane or earthing strips in areas for electronic systems can be
used to improve earthing of sensitive devices and protection interconnection cables.
3 Implementation
Ap5
Ba
3 Implementation
ck
Mesh BN
IBN
PE
Mesh BN
Mesh IBN
Local mesh
Local mesh
IBN
Trunk
Tree structure
IBN
Star (IBN)
CBN
The length of connections between a structural element and the bonding network
does not exceed 50 centimetres and an additional connection should be installed in
parallel at a certain distance from the first. The inductance of the connection
between the earthing bar of the electrical enclosure for a set of equipment and the
bonding network (see below) should be less than one Henry (0.5 H, if possible).
For example, it is possible to use a single 50 cm conductor or two parallel
conductors one meter long, installed at a minimum distance from one another (at
least 50 cm) to reduce the mutual inductance between the two conductors.
Where possible, connection to the bonding network should be at an intersection to
divide the HF currents by four without lengthening the connection. The profile of the
bonding conductors is not important, but a flat profile is preferable. The conductor
should also be as short as possible.
Ap6
Bonding conductors
Bonding conductors may be metal strips, flat braids or round conductors. For highfrequency systems, metal strips and flat braids are preferable (skin effect) because a
round conductor has a higher impedance than a flat conductor with the same cross
section. Where possible, the length to width ratio should not exceed 5.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2005
3 Implementation
ck
The inclusion of the floors in the mesh contributes to equipotentiality of the area and
consequently to the distribution and dilution of disturbing LF currents.
The screening effect of a false floor is directly related to its equipotentiality. If the
contact between the floor plates is poor (rubber antistatic joints, for example) or if the
contact between the support brackets is faulty (pollution, corrosion, mildew, etc. or if
there are no support brackets), it is necessary to add an equipotential mesh. In this
case, it is sufficient to ensure effective electrical connections between the metal
support columns. Small spring clips are available on the market to connect the metal
columns to the equipotential mesh. Ideally, each column should be connected, but it
is often sufficient to connect every other column in each direction. A mesh 1.5 to
2 metres is size is suitable in most cases. The recommended cross-sectional area of
the copper is 10 mm2 or more. In general, a flat braid is used. To reduce the effects
of corrosion, it is advised to use tin-plated copper (see Fig. Ap8 ).
Perforated floor plates act like normal floor plates when they have a cellular steel
structure.
Preventive maintenance is required for the floor plates approximately every five
years (depending on the type of floor plate and the environment, including humidity,
dust and corrosion). Rubber or polymer antistatic joints must be maintained, similar
to the bearing surfaces of the floor plates (cleaning with a suitable product).
Ba
False floor
Ap7
Spring clips
3 Implementation
Ba
ck
Mediocre
OK
Better
Ap8
Ba
ck
NO!
YES!
Different types of cables (power and low-level connections) should not be installed in
the same bundle or in the same cableway. Cableways should never be filled to more
than half capacity.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2005
3 Implementation
Ba
ck
Forbidden
Correct
Ideal
Power cables
Auxiliary circuits (relay contacts)
Control (digital)
Measurements (analogue)
Metal building components can be used for EMC purposes. Steel beams (L, H, U or
T shaped) often form an uninterrupted earthed structure with large transversal
sections and surfaces with numerous intermediate earthing connections. Cables
should if possible be run along such beams. Inside corners are better than the
outside surfaces (see Fig. Ap12 ).
Ba
ck
Recommended
Acceptable
Not recommended
Both ends of metal cableways must always be connected to local earth electrodes.
For very long cableways, additional connections to the earthing system are
recommended between connected devices. Where possible, the distance between
these earthing connections should be irregular (for symmetrical wiring systems) to
avoid resonance at identical frequencies. All connections to the earthing system
should be short.
Metal and non-metal cableways are available. Metal solutions offer better
EMC characteristics. A cableway (cable trays, conduits, cable brackets, etc.) must
offer a continuous, conducting metal structure from beginning to end.
An aluminium cableway has a lower DC resistance than a steel cableway of the
same size, but the transfer impedance (Zt) of steel drops at a lower frequency,
particularly when the steel has a high relative permeability r. Care must be taken
when different types of metal are used because direct electrical connection is not
authorised in certain cases to avoid corrosion. That could be a disadvantage in
terms of EMC.
When devices connected to the wiring system using unshielded cables are not
affected by low-frequency disturbances, the EMC of non-metal cableways can be
improved by adding a parallel earthing conductor (PEC) inside the cableway. Both
ends must be connected to the local earthing system. Connections should be made
to a metal part with low impedance (e.g. a large metal panel of the device case).
The PEC should be designed to handle high fault and common-mode currents.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2005
Ap9
3 Implementation
Implementation
When a metal cableway is made up of a number of short sections, care is required to
ensure continuity by correctly bonding the different parts. The parts should
preferably be welded along all edges. Riveted, bolted or screwed connections are
authorised as long as the contact surfaces conduct current (no paint or insulating
coatings) and are protected against corrosion. Tightening torques must be observed
to ensure correct pressure for the electrical contact between two parts.
When a particular shape of cableway is selected, it should be used for the entire
length. All interconnections must have a low impedance. A single wire connection
between two parts of the cableway produces a high local impedance that cancels its
EMC performance.
Starting at a few MHz, a ten-centimetre connection between two parts of the cableway
reduces the attenuation factor by more than a factor of ten (see Fig. Ap13 ).
Ba
ck
NO!
NOT RECOMMENDED
YES!
Each time modifications or extensions are made, it is very important to make sure
they are carried out according to EMC rules (e.g. never replace a metal cableway by
a plastic version!).
Ap10
Covers for metal cableways must meet the same requirements as those applying to
the cableways themselves. A cover should have a large number of contacts along
the entire length. If that is not possible, it must be connected to the cableway at least
at the two ends using short connections (e.g. braided or meshed connections).
When cableways must be interrupted to pass through a wall (e.g. firewalls), lowimpedance connections must be used between the two parts (see Fig. Ap14 ).
Ba
ck
Mediocre
OK
Better
Fig. Ap14 : Recommendation for metal cableways assembly to pass through a wall
3 Implementation
Ba
ck
Acceptable
Bonding bar
connected
to the chassis
Bonding wire
Correct
Ideal
Ap11
Equipotential metal panel
3 Implementation
Ba
ck
Common mode
impedance
VL1
Protected
device
V arrestor
1 m of cable = 1 H
di lighting = 10 kA
L1 = 0.5 m = 0.5 H
L2 = 1.5 m = 1.5 H
dt = 10 s
V arrestor = 1,200 V
VL2
Earthing bar
Ap12
Fig. Ap16 : The protected device must be connected to the surge-arrestor terminals
Ba
ck
Isc
prot
Isc
prot
SA
SA
Earthing bar
Protected
outgoers
Protected
outgoers
Earthing bar
Fig. Ap17 : Examples of assemblies combining surge arrestors (SA) and disconnection circuit breakers to reduce the common-mode impedances and the area of
upstream-downstream loops
3 Implementation
3.9 Standards
It is absolutely essential to specify the standards and recommendations that must be
taken into account for installations.
Below are several documents that may be used:
c EN 50174-1 Information technology - Cabling installation. Part 1: Specification
and quality assurance
c EN 50174-2 Information technology - Cabling installation. Part 2: Installation
planning and practices inside buildings
Ap13
4.1 General
Ba
ck
Source
Coupling
Victim
Origin of
emitted disturbances
Means by which
disturbances are
transmitted
Equipment likely
to be disturbed
Example:
Radiated waves
Walkie-talkie
TV set
Ap14
Ba
ck
Device 1
Device 2
Z sign.
Stray
overvoltage
I2
ECPs
Signal line
ECPs
I1
Z1
Z2
The exposed conductive parts (ECP) of devices 1 and 2 are connected to a common
earthing terminal via connections with impedances Z1 and Z2.
The stray overvoltage flows to the earth via Z1. The potential of device 1 increases
to Z1 I1. The difference in potential with device 2 (initial potential = 0) results in the
appearance of current I2.
Z1 I 1 = (Zsign + Z2) I 2
I2
Z1
=
I 1 (Zsign + Z2)
Ba
ck
Disturbed
cable
Device 1
Device 2
Signal cable
Disturbing
current
Difference in
potential
ZMC
Fault
currents
Lightning
strike
Ap15
Ba
ck
c Reduce the level of the disturbing currents by adding common-mode filtering and
differential-mode inductors
Device 1
Z sign.
Stray
overvoltage
Device 2
I2
Z sup.
Z1
PEC
I1
Z2
If the impedance of the parallel earthing conductor PEC (Z sup) is very low
compared to Z sign, most of the disturbing current flows via the PEC, i.e. not
via the signal line as in the previous case.
The difference in potential between devices 1 and 2 becomes very low and the
disturbance acceptable.
Ba
ck
Definition
Vsource
The level of disturbance depends on the voltage variations (dv/dt) and the value of
the coupling capacitance between the disturber and the victim.
Ap16
t
Vvictim
ck
B a Differential mode
Common mode
Source
Vs
DM
Iv
Victim
Vs
Iv
CM
CM
DM
Source
Ba
Victim
ck
Metal shielding
Source
Victim
Ap17
ck
B a Differential mode
Common mode
Source
Vs
DM
Iv
Victim
Vs
Iv
CM
CM
DM
Source
Victim
ck
Metal shielding
Source
Victim
Ap17
Ba
ck
Disturbing
cable
Disturbing
cable
Victim loop
Victim pair
i
Victim loop
Differential mode
Common mode
Counter-measures
c Limit the length of parallel runs of disturbers and victims to the strict minimum
c Increase the distance between the disturber and the victim
c For two-wire connections, run the two wires as close together as possible
c Use multi-core or touching single-core cables, preferably in a triangular layout
c Position a PEC bonded at both ends and between the disturber and the victim
c Use symmetrical transmission systems on correctly implemented, symmetrical
wiring systems
c Shield the disturbing cables, the victim cables or both (the shielding must be
bonded)
c Reduce the dv/dt of the disturber by increasing the signal rise time where possible
(series-connected resistors or PTC resistors on the disturbing cable, ferrite rings on
the disturbing and/or victim cable)
Ap18
The electrical field (E field) and the magnetic field (H field) are coupled in wiring
systems via the wires and loops (see Fig. Ap26 ).
Ba
ck
E field
H field
i
Field-to-cable coupling
Field-to-loop coupling
ck
Ba
E field
EM field
Signal
cable
Device 1
Device 2
i
Device
h
Area of the
earth loop
Counter-measures
To minimise the effects of radiated coupling, the measures below are required.
For field-to-cable coupling
c Reduce the antenna effect of the victim by reducing the height (h) of the cable with
respect to the ground referencing plane
c Place the cable in an uninterrupted, bonded metal cableway (tube, trunking, cable
tray)
c Use shielded cables that are correctly installed and bonded
c Add PECs
c Place filters or ferrite rings on the victim cable
For field-to-loop coupling
c Reduce the surface of the victim loop by reducing the height (h) and the length of
the cable. Use the solutions for field-to-cable coupling. Use the Faraday cage
principle.
Radiated coupling can be eliminated using the Faraday cage principle. A possible
solution is a shielded cable with both ends of the shielding connected to the metal
case of the device. The exposed conductive parts must be bonded to enhance
effectiveness at high frequencies.
Radiated coupling decreases with the distance and when symmetrical transmission
links are used.
Ap19
5 Wiring recommendations
Ba
ck
2 - Relay
connections
Ba
ck
1 - Power connections
(supply + PE)
Unshielded cables of
different groups
Device
Shielded cables of
different groups
NO!
4 - Analogue link
(sensor)
Ground
reference
plane
YES!
3 - Digital link
(bus)
Sensitive
cable
Disturbing
cable
Disturbing
cable
c Class 3
Digital circuits (HF switching).
This class is sensitive to pulses, but also disturbs the following class.
YES!
c Class 4
Analogue input/output circuits (low-level measurements, active sensor supply
circuits). This class is sensitive.
Ba
YES!
Standard cable
ck
NO!
u1m
30 cm
NO!
Cross incompatible
cables at right angles
It is a good idea to use conductors with a specific colour for each class to facilitate
identification and separate the classes. This is useful during design and
troubleshooting.
Correctly implemented
ribbon cable
Digital connection
Analogue pair
Bonding wires
5 Wiring recommendations
A cable should carry the signals of a single group (see Fig. Ap31 )
If it is necessary to use a cable to carry the signals of different groups, internal
shielding is necessary to limit cross-talk (differential mode). The shielding, preferably
braided, must be bonded at each end for groups 1, 2 and 3.
Ba
ck
NO!
Shielded pair
Electronic
control
device
Sensor
Unshielded cable for stator control
Electromechanical
device
YES!
Bonded using a clamp
Shielded pair + overshielding
Electronic
control
device
Sensor
Shielded cable for stator control
Electromechanical
device
Fig. Ap32 : Shielding and overshielding for disturbing and/or sensitive cables
Ba
ck
NO!
Power +
analogue
Digital +
relay contacts
Avoid using a single connector for different groups (see Fig. Ap33 )
Except where necessary for groups 1 and 2 (differential mode). If a single connector
is used for both analogue and digital signals, the two groups must be separated by
at least one set of contacts connected to 0 V used as a barrier.
YES!
Power +
relay contacts
Digital +
analogue
Shielding
Power connections
Digital connections
Analogue connections
Ba
Ap21
c
Ba
NO!
YES!
Electronic
system
ck
NO!
Electronic
system
YES!
Wires not
equipotentially
bonded
Digital connections
Analogue connections
5 Wiring recommendations
Ba
ck
NO!
Area of
loop too large
PCB with
relay contact
I/Os
YES!
PCB with
relay contact
I/Os
+
Power supply
+
Power supply
Fig. Ap35 : The two wires of a pair must always be run close together
Ba
ck
NO!
YES!
Chassis 1
Chassis 1
Chassis 2
Chassis 2
Chassis 3
Chassis 3
Ap22
B
k
ac
NO!
YES!
Metal tray
Power
supply
I/O interface
Power
supply
I/O interface
Fig. Ap36 : Run wires along their entire length against the bonded metal parts
Chapter B
General design - Regulations Installed power
B1
Contents
1
2
3
4
Methodology
B2
B4
B4
2.2 Regulations
B5
2.3 Standards
B5
B6
B6
B7
B7
2.8 Environment
B8
B10
B10
B12
B15
B15
B15
B18
B17
B18
B19
B20
B21
B21
B23
B25
B26
B27
1 Methodology
B2
The study of an electrical installation using this guide requires the reading of all the
chapters in the order in which they are presented.
Service connection
This connection can be made at:
LV distribution system
E - Distribution within a low-voltage installation
The earthing system (TT, IT or TN) having been previously determined, then the
appropriate protective devices must be implemented in order to achieve protection
against hazards of direct or indirect contact.
Each circuit is then studied in detail. From the rated currents of the loads, the level of
short-circuit current, and the type of protective device, the cross-sectional area of
circuit conductors can be determined, taking into account the nature of the
cableways and their influence on the current rating of conductors.
Before adopting the conductor size indicated above, the following requirements must
be satisfied:
c The voltage drop complies with the relevant standard
c Motor starting is satisfactory
c Protection against electric shock is assured
The short-circuit current Isc is then determined, and the thermal and electrodynamic
withstand capability of the circuit is checked.
These calculations may indicate that it is necessary to use a conductor size larger
than the size originally chosen.
H - The switchgear
The performance required by the switchgear will determine its type and
characteristics.
The use of cascading techniques and the discriminative operation of fuses and
tripping of circuit breakers are examined.
1 Methodology
B3
Reactive energy
K - Power factor improvement and harmonic
filtering
The power factor correction within electrical installations is carried out locally,
globally or as a combination of both methods.
Harmonics
L - Harmonics detection and filtering
Harmonics in the network affect the quality of energy and are at the origin of many
pollutions as overloads, vibrations, ageing of equipment, trouble of sensitive
equipment, of local area networks, telephone networks. This chapter deals with the
origins and the effects of harmonics and explain how to measure them and present
the solutions.
Generic applications
Certain premises and locations are subject to particularly strict regulations: the most
common example being domestic dwellings.
Ecodial software
Ecodial software(1) provides a complete design package for LV installations, in
accordance with IEC standards and recommendations.
The following features are included:
c Construction of one-line diagrams
c Calculation of short-circuit currents
c Calculation of voltage drops
c Optimization of cable sizes
c Required ratings of switchgear and fusegear
c Discrimination of protective devices
c Recommendations for cascading schemes
c Verification of the protection of persons
c Comprehensive print-out of the foregoing calculated design data
B4
Ba
ck
120/208
240
230/400(1)
277/480
400/690(1)
480
347/600
1000
600
(1) The nominal voltage of existing 220/380 V and 240/415 V systems shall evolve
toward the recommended value of 230/400 V. The transition period should be as short
as possible and should not exceed the year 2008. During this period, as a first step,
the electricity supply authorities of countries having 220/380 V systems should bring
the voltage within the range 230/400 V +6 %, -10 % and those of countries having
240/415 V systems should bring the voltage within the range 230/400 V +10 %, -6 %.
At the end of this transition period, the tolerance of 230/400 V 10 % should have
been achieved; after this the reduction of this range will be considered. All the above
considerations apply also to the present 380/660 V value with respect to the
recommended value 400/690 V.
Fig. B1 : Standard voltages between 100 V and 1000 V (IEC 60038 Edition 6.2 2002-07)
Ba
ck
Series I
Highest voltage
for equipment (kV)
3.6(1)
7.2(1)
12
(17.5)
24
36(3)
40.5(3)
Nominal system
voltage (kV)
3.3(1)
3(1)
6.6(1)
6(1)
11
10
(15)
22
20
33(3)
35(3)
Series II
Highest voltage
for equipment (kV)
4.40(1)
13.2(2)
13.97(2)
14.52(1)
26.4(2)
36.5
Nominal system
voltage (kV)
4.16(1)
12.47(2)
13.2(2)
13.8(1)
24.94(2)
34.5
2.2 Regulations
In most countries, electrical installations shall comply with more than one set of
regulations, issued by National Authorities or by recognized private bodies. It is
essential to take into account these local constraints before starting the design.
2.3 Standards
This Guide is based on relevant IEC standards, in particular IEC 60364. IEC 60364
has been established by medical and engineering experts of all countries in the
world comparing their experience at an international level. Currently, the safety
principles of IEC 60364 and 60479-1 are the fundamentals of most electrical
standards in the world (see table below and next page).
IEC 60364-7-708
IEC 60364-7-709
IEC 60364-7-710
IEC 60364-7-711
IEC 60364-7-712
IEC 60364-7-713
IEC 60364-7-714
IEC 60364-7-715
IEC 60364-7-717
IEC 60364-7-740
IEC 60427
IEC 60439-1
IEC 60439-2
IEC 60439-3
IEC 60439-4
IEC 60446
IEC 60439-5
IEC 60479-1
IEC 60479-2
IEC 60479-3
ck
IEC 60364-7-706
IEC 60364-7-707
Standard voltages
Power transformers - Temperature rise
Power transformers - Insulation levels, dielectric tests and external clearances in air
Power transformers - Ability to withstand short circuit
Power transformers - Determination of sound levels
Semiconductor convertors - General requirements and line commutated convertors
Electrical relays
High-voltage switches - High-voltage switches for rated voltages above 1 kV and less than 52 kV
Low-voltage fuses - General requirements
Low-voltage fuses - Supplementary requirements for fuses for use by unskilled persons (fuses mainly for household and similar applications)
High-voltage fuses - Current-limiting fuses
Electric cables - Calculation of the current rating - Current rating equations (100% load factor) and calculation of losses - General
Electrical installations of buildings
Electrical installations of buildings - Fundamental principles
Electrical installations of buildings - Protection for safety - Protection against electric shock
Electrical installations of buildings - Protection for safety - Protection against thermal effects
Electrical installations of buildings - Protection for safety - Protection against overcurrent
Electrical installations of buildings - Protection for safety - Protection against electromagnetic and voltage disrurbance
Electrical installations of buildings - Selection and erection of electrical equipment - Common rules
Electrical installations of buildings - Selection and erection of electrical equipment - Wiring systems
Electrical installations of buildings - Selection and erection of electrical equipment - Isolation, switching and control
Electrical installations of buildings - Selection and erection of electrical equipment - Earthing arrangements
Electrical installations of buildings - Selection and erection of electrical equipment - Other equipments
Electrical installations of buildings - Verification and testing - Initial verification
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Locations containing a bath tub or shower basin
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Swimming pools and other basins
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Locations containing sauna heaters
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Construction and demolition site installations
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Electrical installations of agricultural and horticultural
premises
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Restrictive conducting locations
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Earthing requirements for the installation of data
processing equipment
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Electrical installations in caravan parks and caravans
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Marinas and pleasure craft
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Medical locations
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Exhibitions, shows and stands
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Solar photovoltaic (PV) power supply systems
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Furniture
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - External lighting installations
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Extra-low-voltage lighting installations
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Mobile or transportable units
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Temporary electrical installations for structures,
amusement devices and booths at fairgrounds, amusement parks and circuses
High-voltage alternating current circuit-breakers
Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies - Type-tested and partially type-tested assemblies
Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies - Particular requirements for busbar trunking systems (busways)
Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies - Particular requirements for low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies intended to
be installed in places where unskilled persons have access for their use - Distribution boards
Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies - Particular requirements for assemblies for construction sites (ACS)
Basic and safety principles for man-machine interface, marking and identification - Identification of conductors by colours or numerals
Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies - Particular requirements for assemblies intended to be installed outdoors in public places Cable distribution cabinets (CDCs)
Effects of current on human beings and livestock - General aspects
Effects of current on human beings and livestock - Special aspects
Effects of current on human beings and livestock - Effects of currents passing through the body of livestock
Ba
IEC 60038
IEC 60076-2
IEC 60076-3
IEC 60076-5
IEC 60076-10
IEC 60146
IEC 60255
IEC 60265-1
IEC 60269-1
IEC 60269-2
IEC 60282-1
IEC 60287-1-1
IEC 60364
IEC 60364-1
IEC 60364-4-41
IEC 60364-4-42
IEC 60364-4-43
IEC 60364-4-44
IEC 60364-5-51
IEC 60364-5-52
IEC 60364-5-53
IEC 60364-5-54
IEC 60364-5-55
IEC 60364-6-61
IEC 60364-7-701
IEC 60364-7-702
IEC 60364-7-703
IEC 60364-7-704
IEC 60364-7-705
B6
IEC 60947-1
IEC 60947-2
IEC 60947-3
IEC 60947-4-1
IEC 60947-6-1
IEC 61000
IEC 61140
IEC 61557-1
IEC 61557-8
IEC 61557-9
IEC 61558-2-6
IEC 62271-1
IEC 62271-100
IEC 62271-102
IEC 62271-105
IEC 62271-200
IEC 62271-202
ck
IEC 60724
IEC 60755
IEC 60787
IEC 60831
IEC 60529
IEC 60644
IEC 60664
IEC 60715
(Concluded)
Ba
ck
Type of installation
Installations which
require the protection
of employees
Installations in buildings
used for public gatherings,
where protection against
the risks of fire and panic
are required
Residential
Testing
frequency
Annually
Every 3 years
From one to
three years
Declaration of conformity
Where the equipment is to be used by skilled or instructed persons, the
manufacturers declaration of conformity (included in the technical documentation), is
generally recognized as a valid attestation. Where the competence of the
manufacturer is in doubt, a certificate of conformity can reinforce the manufacturers
declaration.
B8
Note: CE marking
In Europe, the European directives require the manufacturer or his authorized
representative to affix the CE marking on his own responsibility. It means that:
c The product meets the legal requirements
c It is presumed to be marketable in Europe
The CE marking is neither a mark of origin nor a mark of conformity.
Mark of conformity
Marks of conformity are affixed on appliances and equipment generally used by
ordinary non instructed persons (e.g in the field of domestic appliances). A mark of
conformity is delivered by certification body if the equipment meet the requirements
from an applicable standard and after verification of the manufactures quality
management system.
Certification of Quality
The standards define several methods of quality assurance which correspond to
different situations rather than to different levels of quality.
Assurance
A laboratory for testing samples cannot certify the conformity of an entire production
run:
These tests are called type tests. In some tests for conformity to standards,
the samples are destroyed (tests on fuses, for example).
Only the manufacturer can certify that the fabricated products have, in fact,
the characteristics stated.
Quality assurance certification is intended to complete the initial declaration or
certification of conformity.
As proof that all the necessary measures have been taken for assuring the quality of
production, the manufacturer obtains certification of the quality control system which
monitors the fabrication of the product concerned. These certificates are issued by
organizations specializing in quality control, and are based on the international
standard ISO 9000.
These standards define three model systems of quality assurance control
corresponding to different situations rather than to different levels of quality:
c Model 3 defines assurance of quality by inspection and checking of final products.
c Model 2 includes, in addition to checking of the final product, verification of the
manufacturing process. For example, this method is applied, to the manufacturer of
fuses where performance characteristics cannot be checked without destroying the
fuse.
c Model 1 corresponds to model 2, but with the additional requirement that the
quality of the design process must be rigorously scrutinized; for example, where it is
not intended to fabricate and test a prototype (case of a custom-built product made to
specification).
2.8 Environment
Environmental management systems can be certified by an independent body if they
meet requirements given in ISO 14001. This type of certification mainly concerns
industrial settings but can also be granted to places where products are designed.
A product environmental design sometimes called eco-design is an approach of
sustainable development with the objective of designing products/services best
meeting the customers requirements while reducing their environmental impact over
their whole life cycle. The methodologies used for this purpose lead to choose
equipments architecture together with components and materials taking into account
the influence of a product on the environment along its life cycle (from extraction of
raw materials to grave) i.e. production, transport, distribution, end of life etc.
In Europe two Directives have been published, they are called:
c RoHS Directive (Restriction of Hazardous Substances) coming into force on July
2006 (the coming into force was on February 13th, 2003, and the application date is
July 1st, 2006) aims to eliminate from products six hazardous substances: lead,
mercury, cadmium, hexavalent chromium, polybrominated biphenyls (PBB) or
polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE).
c WEEE Directive (Waste of Electrical and Electronic Equipment) coming into force
in August 2005 2006 (the coming into force was on February 13th, 2003, and the
application date is August 13th, 2005) in order to master the end of life and
treatments for household and non household equipment.
In other parts of the world some new legislation will follow the same objectives.
In addition to manufacturers action in favour of products eco-design, the contribution
of the whole electrical installation to sustainable development can be significantly
improved through the design of the installation. Actually, it has been shown that an
optimised design of the installation, taking into account operation conditions, MV/LV
substations location and distribution structure (switchboards, busways, cables), can
reduce substantially environmental impacts (raw material depletion, energy
depletion, end of life)
See chapter E about location of the substation and the main LV switchboard.
B10
c A declared power demand which determines the contract for the supply of energy
c The rating of the HV/LV transformer, where applicable (allowing for expected
increased load)
c Levels of load current at each distribution board
kW input
so that a kVA input reduction will increase (i.e.
kVA input
improve) the value of cos .
As noted above cos =
The current supplied to the motor, after power-factor correction, is given by:
I = Ia
cos
cos '
where cos is the power factor before compensation and cos is the power factor
after compensation, Ia being the original current.
ck
Figure B4 below shows, in function of motor rated power, standard motor current
values for several voltage supplies.
Ba
kW
hp
230 V
0.18
0.25
0.37
0.55
0.75
1.1
1.5
2.2
3.0
3.7
4
5.5
7.5
11
15
18.5
22
30
37
45
55
75
90
110
132
150
160
185
200
220
250
280
300
1/2
3/4
1
1-1/2
2
3
7-1/2
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
75
100
125
150
200
250
300
350
400
-
A
1.0
1.5
1.9
2.6
3.3
4.7
6.3
8.5
11.3
15
20
27
38.0
51
61
72
96
115
140
169
230
278
340
400
487
609
748
-
380 415 V
A
1.3
1.8
2.3
3.3
4.3
6.1
9.7
14.0
18.0
27.0
34.0
44
51
66
83
103
128
165
208
240
320
403
482
560
636
-
400 V
A
0.6
0.85
1.1
1.5
1.9
2.7
3.6
4.9
6.5
8.5
11.5
15.5
22.0
29
35
41
55
66
80
97
132
160
195
230
280
350
430
-
440 480 V
A
1.1
1.6
2.1
3.0
3.4
4.8
7.6
11.0
14.0
21.0
27.0
34
40
52
65
77
96
124
156
180
240
302
361
414
474
-
500 V
690 V
A
0.48
0.68
0.88
1.2
1.5
2.2
2.9
3.9
5.2
6.8
9.2
12.4
17.6
23
28
33
44
53
64
78
106
128
156
184
224
280
344
-
A
0.35
0.49
0.64
0.87
1.1
1.6
2.1
2.8
3.8
4.9
6.7
8.9
12.8
17
21
24
32
39
47
57
77
93
113
134
162
203
250
-
Ba
ck
B12
kW
hp
230 V
315
335
355
375
400
425
450
475
500
530
560
600
630
670
710
750
800
850
900
950
1000
540
500
-
A
940
1061
1200
1478
1652
1844
2070
2340
2640
2910
380 415 V
A
786
-
400 V
440 480 V
A
515
590
-
A
540
610
690
850
950
1060
1190
1346
1518
1673
500 V
690 V
A
432
488
552
680
760
848
952
1076
1214
1339
A
313
354
400
493
551
615
690
780
880
970
Ba
ck
Nominal
power
(kW)
0.1
0.2
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
6
7
8
9
10
3-phase
230 V
0.25
0.50
1.26
2.51
3.77
5.02
6.28
7.53
8.72
10
11.3
12.6
15.1
17.6
20.1
22.6
25.1
3-phase
400 V
0.14
0.29
0.72
1.44
2.17
2.89
3.61
4.33
5.05
5.77
6.5
7.22
8.66
10.1
11.5
13
14.4
Pn
(1)
3U
Pn (1)
c 1-phase case: I a =
U
where U is the voltage between the terminals of the equipment.
For an incandescent lamp, the use of halogen gas allows a more concentrated light
source. The light output is increased and the lifetime of the lamp is doubled.
Note: At the instant of switching on, the cold filament gives rise to a very brief but
intense peak of current.
Ia =
Pballast + Pn
U cos
Where U = the voltage applied to the lamp, complete with its related equipment.
If no power-loss value is indicated for the ballast, a figure of 25% of Pn may be used.
Ba
c k Arrangement
Tube power
of lamps, starters (W) (3)
and ballasts
Single tube
18
36
58
Twin tubes
2 x 18
2 x 36
2 x 58
(3) Power in watts marked on tube
With PF
correction
capacitor
0.14
0.23
0.36
0.28
0.46
0.72
Electronic
ballast
Tube
length
(cm)
0.10
0.18
0.28
0.18
0.35
0.52
60
120
150
60
120
150
B14
Ba
ck
Type of lamp
Separated
ballast lamp
Integrated
ballast lamp
Lamp power
(W)
10
18
26
8
11
16
21
Current at 230 V
(A)
0.080
0.110
0.150
0.075
0.095
0.125
0.170
Fig. B7 : Current demands and power consumption of compact fluorescent lamps (at 230 V - 50 Hz)
Discharge lamps
Figure B8 gives the current taken by a complete unit, including all associated
ancillary equipment.
These lamps depend on the luminous electrical discharge through a gas or vapour of
a metallic compound, which is contained in a hermetically-sealed transparent
envelope at a pre-determined pressure. These lamps have a long start-up time,
during which the current Ia is greater than the nominal current In. Power and current
demands are given for different types of lamp (typical average values which may
differ slightly from one manufacturer to another).
Ba
ck
Power
Current In(A)
demand
PF not
(W) at
corrected
230 V 400 V 230 V 400 V
High-pressure sodium vapour lamps
50
60
0.76
70
80
1
100
115
1.2
150
168
1.8
250
274
3
400
431
4.4
1000
1055
10.45
Low-pressure sodium vapour lamps
26
34.5
0.45
36
46.5
66
80.5
91
105.5
131
154
Type of
lamp (W)
Starting
PF
Ia/In
corrected
230 V 400 V
Period
(mins)
Luminous
efficiency
(lumens
per watt)
Average
timelife of
lamp (h)
Utilization
0.3
0.45
0.65
0.85
1.4
2.2
4.9
1.4 to 1.6 4 to 6
80 to 120
9000
c Lighting of
large halls
c Outdoor spaces
c Public lighting
0.17
0.22
0.39
0.49
0.69
1.1 to 1.3 7 to 15
100 to 200
8000
to 12000
c Lighting of
autoroutes
c Security lighting,
station
c Platform, storage
areas
Most electrical appliances and equipments are marked to indicate their nominal
power rating (Pn).
The installed power is the sum of the nominal powers of all power-consuming
devices in the installation. This is not the power to be actually supplied in practice.
This is the case for electric motors, where the power rating refers to the output
power at its driving shaft. The input power consumption will evidently be greater
Fluorescent and discharge lamps associated with stabilizing ballasts, are other
cases in which the nominal power indicated on the lamp is less than the power
consumed by the lamp and its ballast.
Methods of assessing the actual power consumption of motors and lighting
appliances are given in Section 3 of this Chapter.
The power demand (kW) is necessary to choose the rated power of a generating set
or battery, and where the requirements of a prime mover have to be considered.
For a power supply from a LV public-supply network, or through a HV/LV transformer,
the significant quantity is the apparent power in kVA.
c Ia =
Pa x 103
3xU
for three-phase balanced load where:
V = phase-to-neutral voltage (volts)
U = phase-to-phase voltage (volts)
It may be noted that, strictly speaking, the total kVA of apparent power is not the
arithmetical sum of the calculated kVA ratings of individual loads (unless all loads
are at the same power factor).
It is common practice however, to make a simple arithmetical summation, the result
of which will give a kVA value that exceeds the true value by an acceptable design
margin.
When some or all of the load characteristics are not known, the values shown in
Figure B9 next page may be used to give a very approximate estimate of VA
demands (individual loads are generally too small to be expressed in kVA or kW).
The estimates for lighting loads are based on floor areas of 500 m2.
c Ia =
Ba
ck
B16
Ba
ck
Number of downstream
consumers
2 to 4
5 to 9
10 to 14
15 to 19
20 to 24
25 to 29
30 to 34
35 to 39
40 to 49
50 and more
Factor of
simultaneity (ks)
1
0.78
0.63
0.53
0.49
0.46
0.44
0.42
0.41
0.40
= 100 A
400 3
the current entering the third floor is:
Ba
= 55 A
ck
4th
floor
6 consumers
36 kVA
3 rd
floor
4 consumers
24 kVA
2 nd
floor
5 consumers
30 kVA
1st
floor
6 consumers
36 kVA
ground
floor
4 consumers
24 kVA
0.78
0.63
0.53
0.49
0.46
Fig. B11 : Application of the factor of simultaneity (ks) to an apartment block of 5 storeys
B18
Ba
ck
Number of
circuits
Assemblies entirely tested
2 and 3
4 and 5
6 to 9
10 and more
Assemblies partially tested
in every case choose
Factor of
simultaneity (ks)
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
1.0
Ba
ck
ks factors which may be used for circuits supplying commonly-occurring loads, are
shown in Figure B13 .
Circuit function
Factor of simultaneity (ks)
Lighting
1
Heating and air conditioning
1
Socket-outlets
0.1 to 0.2 (1)
10 and more
0.6
Lifts and catering hoist (2) c For the most powerful
motor
1
c For the second most
powerful motor
0.75
c For all motors
0.60
(1) In certain cases, notably in industrial installations, this factor can be higher.
(2) The current to take into consideration is equal to the nominal current of the motor,
increased by a third of its starting current.
I=
kVA x 103
U
where kVA is the actual maximum 3-phase apparent-power value shown on the
diagram for the circuit concerned, and U is the phase to- phase voltage (in volts).
Ba
ck
Level 2
Level 1
Utilization
Level 3
Workshop A Lathe
no. 1
0.8
no. 2
0.8
no. 3
0.8
no. 4
0.8
0.8
1.6
0.8
1.6
18
18
0.2
3.6
15
0.8
12
12 Socket4.3
1
Pedestalno. 1
drill
no. 2
5 socketoutlets 10/16 A
30 fluorescent
lamps
Workshop B Compressor
3 socketoutlets 10/16 A
Distribution
box
0.75
Power
circuit
14.4
10.6
10.6
2.5
2.5
no. 2
2.5
2.5
Distribution
box
no. 1
15
15
no. 2
5 socketoutlets 10/16 A
15
15
18
18
0.28
10 fluorescent
lamps
1
Oven
20 fluorescent
lamps
0.9
Socketoulets
Lighting
circuit
Power
circuit
0.4
Workshop A
distribution
box
oulets
Workshop B
distribution
box
18.9
Main
general
distribution
board
MGDB
LV / HV
15.6
65
0.9
Lighting
circuit
0.9
Workshop C
distribution
35
Powver
box
circuit
0.9
37.8
Socketoulets
Lighting
circuit
Fig B14 : An example in estimating the maximum predicted loading of an installation (the factor values used are for demonstration purposes only)
Ba
ck
Apparent power
kVA
100
160
250
315
400
500
630
800
1000
1250
1600
2000
2500
3150
In (A)
237 V
244
390
609
767
974
1218
1535
1949
2436
3045
3898
4872
6090
7673
410 V
141
225
352
444
563
704
887
1127
1408
1760
2253
2816
3520
4436
Fig. B15 : Standard apparent powers for HV/LV transformers and related nominal output
currents
B20
The nominal full-load current In on the LV side of a 3-phase transformer is given by:
In =
Pa x 103
U
where
c Pa = kVA rating of the transformer
c U = phase-to-phase voltage at no-load in volts (237 V or 410 V)
c In is in amperes.
For a single-phase transformer:
Pa x 103
V
where
In =
Power monitoring and control system may be of high benefice for the operator or the
owner of an electrical network.
Companies are moving faster and faster, the use of building facilities either.
An electrical network has then to face successive generation of needs, which will
lead to many load evolutions but also certainly to associated services evolutions for example, tracking the costs due to higher level of competition.
Even if the decision is to invest later, the design of the network has to take into
account that using a monitoring system will happen eventually, and then it will be a
competitive advantage if the Equipment has anticipated its integration.
Nowadays, entering the Power monitoring and control approach doesnt mean
setting-up a complex and expensive system.
Some simplest features are really affordable with a very good payback because they
can be directly embedded in your Power Equipment.
Such system may simply share the communication medium of the users Intranet site.
In addition operation wont ask specific skills and training. It will only require the use
of license-free software such as Intranet browsers.
Upgradability is also now a reality, based on new technologies that come for the
Office and Communication world (you can now run multiple protocols on the same
medium, the legacy and the new one). Then being in a position of taking advantages
of these new possibilities will be more and more a differentiating behaviour.
B22
Here are some examples of the main usage of the simplest monitoring systems :
c Benchmark between zones to detect abnormal consumption
c Track unexpected consumption
c Ensure that power consumption is not higher than your competitors
c Choose the right Power delivery contract with the Power Utility
c Set-up simple load-shedding just focusing on optimising manageable loads such
as lights
c Be in a position to ask for damage compensation due to non-quality delivery from
the Power Utilities (The process has been stopped because of a sag on the
network).
Ba
ck
Function
levels
General
purpose
monitoring
system
General
purpose
site
monitoring
Eqt gateway
Power
Equipment
Specialised
network
monitoring
Other
utilities
Process
Specialised
monitoring
such as
Power Logic
SMS
2
Eqt server
Power
Equipment
Web browser
standard
1
Basic
monitoring
Eqt server
Intelligent
Power
Equipment
Other
utilities
Standard network
System
complexity
B24
Ba
ck
Standard remote
Web browser
Standard local
Web browser
Internet
Intranet (Ethernet/IP)
Equipment server
Gateway
Modbus
Meter 1
Meter 2
Meter 3
Circuit breakers
Ba
ck
Dedicated supervisor
for electrician
Gateway
Modbus
2
Circuit breakers
Meter 1
Meter 2
Meter 3
Ba
ck
Conventional
supervisor
Gateway
Modbus
Meter 1
Meter 2
Meter 3
Circuit breakers
Ba
ck
Intelligent service
Access to electricity real-time information - local
Access to electricity real-time information - remote
Mobile access to information
Site-wise monitoring (ED network)
Multi-process monitoring
Data logging
Trending
Alarming
Remote control automated functions
Advanced functions to optimise
the electrical network management
Capabilities
Easiness for use / training for electrician
Affordability (based on Initial cost)
Upgradability to follow network evolutions
Intelligent Power
Equipment
++
++
+++
+
+
+
+
+
ED Specialist
monitoring
+
+++
++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+
+++
+++
+++
++
++
++
++
General purpose
site monitoring
++
+++
+++
++
++
++
+++
B26
Ethernet
Ethernet is the common word which designates the IEEE 802.3 standard family.
Ethernet refers to OSI layers 1 and 2 of a communication mean. Ethernet use is not
enough at all to specify a communication mean to interoperate between two devices.
Ethernet 802.3 is usually associated to other words to define others aspects of the
network :
Ethernet 802.3 10 Base T means Ethernet 10Mb/s using RJ45 connector
IP
IP means Internet Protocol.
However, even if the Internet has been its effective success factor, IP is not
exclusive to the Internet.
IP is also widely used for internal use such as on the Intranet, but also in closed
zone.
IP is an intermediate communication that enables the communication between two
distant devices, even if between them many successive medium types are used.
The switch from one type to another is totally transparent for the application.
RS 485
RS 485 is an electrical standard which defines a balanced serial communication
mean.
Modbus
Modbus is originally a communication protocol set up by the Modicon company.
Now Modbus definition is under the management and property of Modbus-IDA.org
association, an independent and open association whose role is to extend and
ensure Modbus interoperability.
Modbus messaging protocol refers to layer 7 of the OSI model.
It can be associated to different medium :
c Serial Line such as RS 485 and RS 232 standard the most usual way for
defining Modbus
c Ethernet (in fact over TCP/IP, over Ethernet)
But Modbus is also capable of going through modem, whatever their type (PSTN,
Radio, GSM, ).
et
M
od
TC bu
P s
Et /IP
he
rn
et
Services
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Frame
Physical
Et
h
IP ern
RS bu
s
48
5
Et
he
rn
et
Modbus is now recognized as the de-facto standard for electricity application in the
industry and building fields.
k
ac
Web technologies
By such wording we include all the technologies usually used through the Web for :
c Visualising information (HTML files over HTTP/HTTPS protocol)
c Sending mails (SMTP/POP protocol)
c Retrieving/ exchanging files (FTP)
c Managing the network (SNMP)
c Synchronising the device attached to the network (NTP/SNTP)
c .
These protocol are managed by the IETF, an international association.
Using Web technologies is very often licence-free for the user as there are the basis
of common tool such as Web browsers.
Interoperability
In order to ensure interoperability, at least the 7 OSI layers of communication should
be absolutely compatible between themselves. This means for example that having
two Ethernet (OSI layer 1 and 2) devices doesnt mean that these devices will interoperate.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2005
Auxiliary power
In the same way as communication bus, auxiliary power has to be distributed to the
main Power devices. Isolated Auxiliary DC Power is usually required.
Its distribution may be merged with the communication means : the same cable
includes communication and auxiliary power.
Communication accessories
Communication accessories may be necessary to ease the wiring and the
maintenance of the switchboard. It then offers higher ease of reading and
understanding the internal wiring of the switchboard. It may also make possible the
disconnection of a communicating device, on line.
Chapter C
Connection to the HV utility
distribution network
C1
Contents
1
2
3
4
5
6
C2
C2
C11
C12
C14
C14
C15
2.3 Implementation
C15
2.4 Commissioning
C15
Protection aspect
C16
C16
C17
C19
C22
4.1 General
C22
C22
C25
C25
C30
5.1 General
C30
C32
C33
C35
C35
C35
C37
C2
Ba
ck
Fig. C1 : Relation between nominal system voltages and highest voltages for the equipment
It is recommended that in any one country the ratio between two adjacent nominal
voltages should be not less than two.
In order to ensure adequate protection of equipment against abnormally-high short
term power-frequency overvoltages, and transient overvoltages caused by lightning,
switching, and system fault conditions, etc. all HV equipment must be specified to
have appropriate Rated Insulation Levels.
Switchgear
Figure C2 shown below, is extracted from IEC 60694 and lists standard values of
withstand voltage requirements. The choice between List 1 and List 2 values of
table C2 depends on the degree of exposure to lightning and switching
overvoltages(1), the type of neutral earthing, and the type of overvoltage protection
devices, etc. (for further guidance reference should be made to IEC 60071).
Ba
ck
Rated
voltage
U (r.m.s.
value)
Rated short-duration
power-frequency
withstand voltage
(r.m.s. value)
List 1
List 2
To earth,
Across the To earth,
Across the To earth,
Across the
between
isolating
between
isolating
between
isolating
poles
distance
poles
distance
poles
distance
and across
and across
and across
open
open
open
switching
switching
switching
device
device
device
(kV)
(kV)
(kV)
(kV)
(kV)
(kV)
(kV)
3.6
20
23
40
46
10
12
7.2
40
46
60
70
20
23
12
60
70
75
85
28
32
17.5
75
85
95
110
38
45
24
95
110
125
145
50
60
36
145
165
170
195
70
80
52
250
290
95
110
72.5
325
375
140
160
Note: The withstand voltage values across the isolating distance are valid only for the
switching devices where the clearance between open contacts is designed to meet safety
requirements specified for disconnectors (isolators).
Ba
ck
Highest voltage
for equipment
(r.m.s.)
(kV)
i 1.1
3.6
7.2
12
17.5
24
36
52
72.5
C3
C4
Other components
It is evident that the insulation performance of other HV components associated with
these major items, e.g. porcelain or glass insulators, HV cables, instrument
transformers, etc. must be compatible with that of the switchgear and transformers
noted above. Test schedules for these items are given in appropriate
IEC publications.
The national standards of any particular country are normally rationalized to include
one or two levels only of voltage, current, and fault-levels, etc.
General note:
The IEC standards are intended for worldwide application and consequently
embrace an extensive range of voltage and current levels.
These reflect the diverse practices adopted in countries of different meteorologic,
geographic and economic constraints.
Short-circuit current
Standard values of circuit breaker short-circuit current-breaking capability are
normally given in kilo-amps.
These values refer to a 3-phase short-circuit condition, and are expressed as the
average of the r.m.s. values of the AC component of current in each of the three
phases.
For circuit breakers in the rated voltage ranges being considered in this chapter,
Figure C4 gives standard short-circuit current-breaking ratings.
Ba
ck
kV
kA
(rms)
3.6
8
10
16
25
40
7.2
8
12.5
16
25
40
12
8
12.5
16
25
40
50
17.5
8
12.5
16
25
40
24
8
12.5
16
25
40
36
8
12.5
16
25
40
52
8
12.5
20
Ba
ck
Current (I)
2rI''k
When a fault occurs, the transient short-circuit current is a function of time and
comprises two components (see Fig. C5 ).
c An AC component, decreasing to its steady-state value, caused by the various
rotating machines and a function of the combination of their time constants
c A DC component, decreasing to zero, caused by the initiation of the current and a
function of the circuit impedances
2rIb
IDC
2rIk
Ip
Time (t)
tmin
Practically speaking, one must define the short-circuit values that are useful in
selecting system equipment and the protection system:
c Ik: rms value of the initial symmetrical current
c Ib: rms value of the symmetrical current interrupted by the switching device when
the first pole opens at tmin (minimum delay)
c Ik: rms value of the steady-state symmetrical current
c Ip: maximum instantaneous value of the current at the first peak
c IDC: DC value of the current
Ba
ck
Type of short-circuit
Ik
General situation
Distant faults
3-phase
c Un
3 Z1
c Un
3 Z1
2-phase
c Un
Z1 + Z2
c Un
2 Z1
2-phase-to-earth
c Un 3 Z2
Z1 Z2 + Z2 Z0 + Z1 Z0
c Un 3
Z1 + 2 Z0
Phase-to-earth
c Un 3
Z1 + Z2 + Z0
c Un 3
2 Z1 + Z0
Characterization
There are 2 types of system equipment, based on whether or not they react when a
fault occurs.
Passive equipment
This category comprises all equipment which, due to its function, must have
the capacity to transport both normal current and short-circuit current.
This equipment includes cables, lines, busbars, disconnecting switches, switches,
transformers, series reactances and capacitors, instrument transformers.
For this equipment, the capacity to withstand a short-circuit without damage
is defined in terms of:
c Electrodynamic withstand (peak withstand current; value of the peak current
expressed in kA), characterizing mechanical resistance to electrodynamic stress
c Thermal withstand (short time withstand current; rms value expressed in kA for
duration between 0,5 and 3 seconds, with a preferred value of 1 second),
characterizing maximum permissible heat dissipation.
C5
C6
Active equipment
This category comprises the equipment designed to clear short-circuit currents, i.e.
circuit breakers and fuses. This property is expressed by the breaking capacity and,
if required, the making capacity when a fault occurs.
c Breaking capacity (see Fig. C7 )
This basic characteristic of a fault interrupting device is the maximum current (rms
value expressed in kA) it is capable of breaking under the specific conditions defined
by the standards; in the IEC 60056 standard, it refers to the rms value of the AC
component of the short-circuit current. In some other standards, the rms value of the
sum of the 2 components (AC and DC) is specified, in which case, it is the
asymmetrical current.
The breaking capacity depends on other factors such as:
v Voltage
v R/X ratio of the interrupted circuit
v Power system natural frequency
v Number of breaking operations at maximum current, for example the cycle:
O - C/O - C/O (O = opening, C = closing)
v Device status after the test
The breaking capacity is a relatively complicated characteristic to define and it
therefore comes as no surprise that the same device can be assigned different
breaking capacities depending on the standard by which it is defined.
c Short-circuit making capacity
In general, this characteristic is implicitly defined by the breaking capacity because a
device should be able to close for a current that it can break.
Sometimes, the making capacity needs to be higher, for example for circuit breakers
protecting generators.
The making capacity is defined in terms of peak value (expressed in kA) because the
first asymmetric peak is the most demanding from an electrodynamic point of view.
For example, according to standard IEC 62271-100, a circuit breaker used in a
50 Hz power system must be able to handle a peak making current equal to
2.5 times the rms breaking current (2.6 times for 60 Hz systems).
Making capacity is also required for switches, and sometimes for disconnectors,
even if these devices are not able to clear the fault.
c Prospective short-circuit breaking current
Some devices have the capacity to limit the fault current to be interrupted.
Their breaking capacity is defined as the maximum prospective breaking current that
would develop during a solid short-circuit across the upstream terminals of the device.
Ba
Current (I)
IAC
ck
Device
Isolation of
two active
networks
Disconnector
Switch
Yes
No
Current switching
conditions
Normal Fault
No
No
Yes
No
Contactor
No
Yes
No
Circuit breaker
No
Yes
Yes
Fuse
No
No
Yes
Time (t)
IDC
IAC: Peak of the periodic component
IDC: Aperiodic component
Fig. C7 : Rated breaking current of a circuit breaker subjected
to a short-circuit as per IEC 60056
Main constrains
C7
C8
Earth faults on high-voltage systems can
produce dangerous voltage levels on
LV installations. LV consumers (and substation
operating personnel) can be safeguarded
against this danger by:
c Restricting the magnitude of HV earth-fault
currents
c Reducing the substation earthing resistance
to the lowest possible value
c Creating equipotential conditions at the
substation and at the consumers installation
Earthing systems
Earthing and equipment-bonding earth connections require careful consideration,
particularly regarding safety of the LV consumer during the occurrence of a short
circuit to earth on the HV system.
Earth electrodes
In general, it is preferable, where physically possible, to separate the electrode
provided for earthing exposed conductive parts of HV equipment from the electrode
intended for earthing the LV neutral conductor. This is commonly practised in rural
systems where the LV neutral-conductor earth electrode is installed at one or two
spans of LV distribution line away from the substation.
In most cases, the limited space available in urban substations precludes this
practice, i.e. there is no possibility of separating a HV electrode sufficiently from
a LV electrode to avoid the transference of (possibly dangerous) voltages to the
LV system.
Earth-fault current
Earth-fault current levels at high voltage are generally (unless deliberately restricted)
comparable to those of a 3-phase shortcircuit.
Such currents passing through an earth electrode will raise its voltage to a high
value with respect to remote earth (the earth surrounding the electrode will be
raised to a high potential; remote earth is at zero potential).
For example, 10,000 A of earth-fault current passing through an electrode with an
(unusually low) resistance of 0.5 ohms will raise its voltage to 5,000 V.
Providing that all exposed metal in the substation is bonded (connected together)
and then connected to the earth electrode, and the electrode is in the form of (or is
connected to) a grid of conductors under the floor of the substation, then there is no
danger to personnel, since this arrangement forms an equipotential cage in which
all conductive material, including personnel, is raised to the same potential.
Transferred potential
A danger exists however from the problem known as Transferred Potential. It will be
seen in Figure C9 that the neutral point of the LV winding of the HV/LV transformer
is also connected to the common substation earth electrode, so that the neutral
conductor, the LV phase windings and all phase conductors are also raised to the
electrode potential.
Low-voltage distribution cables leaving the substation will transfer this potential to
consumers installations. It may be noted that there will be no LV insulation failure
between phases or from phase to neutral since they are all at the same potential.
It is probable, however, that the insulation between phase and earth of a cable or
some part of an installation would fail.
Ba
Solutions
A first step in minimizing the obvious dangers of transferred potentials is to reduce
the magnitude of HV earth-fault currents. This is commonly achieved by earthing the
HV system through resistors or reactors at the star points of selected transformers(1),
located at bulk-supply substations.
A relatively high transferred potential cannot be entirely avoided by this means,
however, and so the following strategy has been adopted in some countries.
The equipotential earthing installation at a consumers premises represents a remote
earth, i.e. at zero potential. However, if this earthing installation were to be
connected by a low-impedance conductor to the earth electrode at the substation,
then the equipotential conditions existing in the substation would also exist at the
consumers installation.
ck
HV
LV
1
2
3
N
Fault
If
Consumer
If
Low-impedance interconnection
This low-impedance interconnection is achieved simply by connecting the neutral
conductor to the consumers equipotential installation, and the result is recognized as
the TN earthing system (IEC 60364) as shown in diagram A of Figure C10 next page.
The TN system is generally associated with a Protective Multiple Earthing (PME)
scheme, in which the neutral conductor is earthed at intervals along its length (every
3rd or 4th pole on a LV overhead-line distributor) and at each consumers service
position. It can be seen that the network of neutral conductors radiating from a
substation, each of which is earthed at regular intervals, constitutes, together with
the substation earthing, a very effective low-resistance earth electrode.
V= IfRs
Rs
C9
Ba
Rs value
B - IT-a
LV
HV
ck
Diagram
A - TN-a
HV
Cases A and B
LV
RS
C - TT-a
HV
Cases C and D
D - IT-b
LV
HV
LV
RS
F - IT-c
RS
LV
RN
Uw - Uo
Im
Where
Uw = the rated normal-frequency withstand
voltage for low-voltage equipment at
consumer installations
Uo = phase to neutral voltage at consumer's
installations
Im = maximum value of HV earth-fault current
RS
E - TT-b
HV
Rs i
Cases E and F
HV
LV
RS
RN
Rs i
Uws - U
Im
Where
Uws = the normal-frequency withstand voltage
for low-voltage equipments in the
substation (since the exposed conductive
parts of these equipments are earthed
via Rs)
U = phase to neutral voltage at the substation
for the TT(s) system, but the phase-tophase voltage for the IT(s) system
Im = maximum value of HV earth-fault current
In cases E and F the LV protective conductors (bonding exposed conductive parts) in the substation
are earthed via the substation earth electrode, and it is therefore the substation LV equipment (only)
that could be subjected to overvoltage.
Notes:
c For TN-a and IT-a, the HV and LV exposed conductive parts at the substation and those at the consumers installations, together with the
LV neutral point of the transformer, are all earthed via the substation electrode system.
c For TT-a and IT-b, the HV and LV exposed conductive parts at the substation, together with the LV neutral point of the transformer are earthed via
the substation electrode system.
c For TT-b and IT-c, the LV neutral point of the transformer is separately earthed outside of the area of influence of the substation earth electrode.
Uw and Uws are commonly given the (IEC 60364-4-44) value Uo + 1200 V, where Uo is the nominal phase-to-neutral voltage of the LV system
concerned.
Fig. C10 : Maximum earthing resistance Rs at a HV/LV substation to ensure safety during a short-circuit to earth fault on the high-voltage equipment for different
earthing systems
C10
The strategy in this case, is to reduce the resistance of the substation earth
electrode, such that the standard value of 5-second withstand-voltage-to-earth for
LV equipment and appliances will not be exceeded.
Practical values adopted by one national electrical power-supply authority, on its
20 kV distribution systems, are as follows:
c Maximum earth-fault current in the neutral connection on overheadline distribution
systems, or mixed (O/H line and U/G cable) systems, is 300 A
c Maximum earth-fault current in the neutral connection on underground systems is
1,000 A
The formula required to determine the maximum value of earthing resistance Rs at
the substation, to ensure that the LV withstand voltage will not be exceeded, is:
Uw Uo
in ohms (see cases C and D in Figure C10).
Im
Where
Uw = the lowest standard value (in volts) of short-term (5 s) withstand voltage for the
consumers installation and appliances = Uo + 1200 V (IEC 60364-4-44)
Uo = phase to neutral voltage (in volts) at the consumers LV service position
Im = maximum earth-fault current on the HV system (in amps). This maximum earth
fault current Im is the vectorial sum of maximum earth-fault current in the neutral
connection and total unbalanced capacitive current of the network.
A third form of system earthing referred to as the IT system in IEC 60364 is
commonly used where continuity of supply is essential, e.g. in hospitals, continuousprocess manufacturing, etc. The principle depends on taking a supply from an
unearthed source, usually a transformer, the secondary winding of which is
unearthed, or earthed through a high impedance (u1,000 ohms). In these cases, an
insulation failure to earth in the low-voltage circuits supplied from the secondary
windings will result in zero or negligible fault-current flow, which can be allowed to
persist until it is convenient to shut-down the affected circuit to carry out repair work.
Rs =
Ba
ck
All IT-earthed transformers, whether the neutral point is isolated or earthed through a
high impedance, are routinely provided with an overvoltage limiting device which will
automatically connect the neutral point directly to earth if an overvoltage condition
approaches the insulation-withstand level of the LV system.
In addition to the possibilities mentioned above, several other ways in which these
overvoltages can occur are described in Clause 3.1.
This kind of earth-fault is very rare, and when does occur is quickly detected and
cleared by the automatic tripping of a circuit breaker in a properly designed and
constructed installation.
Safety in situations of elevated potentials depends entirely on the provision of
properly arranged equipotential areas, the basis of which is generally in the form of a
widemeshed grid of interconnected bare copper conductors connected to verticallydriven copper-clad(1) steel rods.
The equipotential criterion to be respected is that which is mentioned in Chapter F
dealing with protection against electric shock by indirect contact, namely: that the
potential between any two exposed metal parts which can be touched simultaneously
by any parts the body must never, under any circumstances, exceed 50 V in dry
conditions, or 25 V in wet conditions.
Special care should be taken at the boundaries of equipotential areas to avoid steep
potential gradients on the surface of the ground which give rise to dangerous step
potentials.
This question is closely related to the safe earthing of boundary fences and is further
discussed in Sub-clause 3.1.
Overhead line
Single-line service
The substation is supplied by a single circuit tee-off from a HV distributor (cable or line).
In general, the HV service is connected into a panel containing a load-break/isolating
switch-fuse combination and earthing switches, as shown in Figure C11 .
In some countries a pole-mounted transformer with no HV switchgear or fuses
(at the pole) constitutes the substation. This type of HV service is very common in
rural areas.
Protection and switching devices are remote from the transformer, and generally
control a main overhead-line, from which a number of these elementary service lines
are tapped.
Ba
ck
Ring-main service
Underground cable
ring main
C11
Ba
ck
All IT-earthed transformers, whether the neutral point is isolated or earthed through a
high impedance, are routinely provided with an overvoltage limiting device which will
automatically connect the neutral point directly to earth if an overvoltage condition
approaches the insulation-withstand level of the LV system.
In addition to the possibilities mentioned above, several other ways in which these
overvoltages can occur are described in Clause 3.1.
This kind of earth-fault is very rare, and when does occur is quickly detected and
cleared by the automatic tripping of a circuit breaker in a properly designed and
constructed installation.
Safety in situations of elevated potentials depends entirely on the provision of
properly arranged equipotential areas, the basis of which is generally in the form of a
widemeshed grid of interconnected bare copper conductors connected to verticallydriven copper-clad(1) steel rods.
The equipotential criterion to be respected is that which is mentioned in Chapter F
dealing with protection against electric shock by indirect contact, namely: that the
potential between any two exposed metal parts which can be touched simultaneously
by any parts the body must never, under any circumstances, exceed 50 V in dry
conditions, or 25 V in wet conditions.
Special care should be taken at the boundaries of equipotential areas to avoid steep
potential gradients on the surface of the ground which give rise to dangerous step
potentials.
This question is closely related to the safe earthing of boundary fences and is further
discussed in Sub-clause 3.1.
Overhead line
Single-line service
The substation is supplied by a single circuit tee-off from a HV distributor (cable or line).
In general, the HV service is connected into a panel containing a load-break/isolating
switch-fuse combination and earthing switches, as shown in Figure C11 .
In some countries a pole-mounted transformer with no HV switchgear or fuses
(at the pole) constitutes the substation. This type of HV service is very common in
rural areas.
Protection and switching devices are remote from the transformer, and generally
control a main overhead-line, from which a number of these elementary service lines
are tapped.
Ba
ck
Ring-main service
Underground cable
ring main
C11
C12
Ba
High winds, ice formation, etc., can cause the conductors of overhead lines to touch
each other, thereby causing a momentary (i.e. not permanent) short-circuit fault.
Insulation failure due to broken ceramic or glass insulators, caused by air-borne
debris; careless use of shot-guns, etc., or again, heavily polluted insulator surfaces,
can result in a short-circuit to earth.
Many of these faults are self-clearing. For example, in dry conditions, broken
insulators can very often remain in service undetected, but are likely to flashover to
earth (e.g. to a metal supporting structure) during a rainstorm. Moreover, polluted
surfaces generally cause a flashover to earth only in damp conditions.
The passage of fault current almost invariably takes the form of an electric arc, the
intense heat of which dries the current path, and to some extent, re-establishes its
insulating properties. In the meantime, protective devices have usually operated to
clear the fault, i.e. fuses have blown or a circuit breaker has tripped.
Experience has shown that in the large majority of cases, restoration of supply by
replacing fuses or by re-closing a circuit breaker will be successful.
For this reason it has been possible to considerably improve the continuity of service
on HV overhead-line distribution networks by the application of automatic circuit
breaker reclosing schemes at the origin of the circuits concerned.
These automatic schemes permit a number of reclosing operations if a first attempt
fails, with adjustable time delays between successive attempts (to allow deionization of the air at the fault) before a final lock-out of the circuit breaker occurs,
after all (generally three) attempts fail.
Other improvements in service continuity are achieved by the use of remotelycontrolled section switches and by automatic isolating switches which operate in
conjunction with an auto-reclosing circuit breaker.
This last scheme is exemplified by the final sequence shown in Figure C14 next
page.
The principle is as follows: If, after two reclosing attempts, the circuit breaker trips,
the fault is assumed to be permanent, and, while the feeder is dead, the Automatic
Line Switch opens to isolate a section of the network, before the third (and final)
reclosure takes place.
ck
Paralleled underground
cable distributors
C13
Ba
ck
1- Cycle 1SR
O1
If
O2
In
Io
SR
O3
15 to 30 s
fault
Permanent fault
0.3 s
0.4 s
2 - Cycle 2SR
a - Fault on main feeder
O1
If
O2
In
Io
SR1 O3
15 to 30s
SR2 O4
15 to 30 s
fault
0.3 s
0.4 s
Permanent fault
0.45 s
0.4 s
In
Io
SR2
15 to 30 s
15 to 30 s
Fault
0.3 s
0.4 s
0.4 s
Opening of IACT
Fig. C14 : Automatic reclosing cycles of a circuit breaker controlling a radial HV distributor
C14
2.3 Implementation
2.4 Commissioning
Before any installation work is started, the official agreement of the power-supplier
must be obtained. The request for approval must include the following information,
largely based on the preliminary exchanges noted above:
c Location of the proposed substation
c One-line diagram of power circuits and connections, together with earthing-circuit
proposals
c Full details of electrical equipment to be installed, including performance
characteristics
c Layout of equipment and provision for metering components
c Arrangements for power-factor improvement if eventually required
c Arrangements provided for emergency standby power plant (HV or LV) if eventually
required
C15
C16
3 Protection aspect
The subject of protection in the electrical power industry is vast: it covers all aspects
of safety for personnel, and protection against damage or destruction of property,
plant, and equipment.
These different aspects of protection can be broadly classified according to the
following objectives:
c Protection of personnel and animals against the dangers of overvoltages and
electric shock, fire, explosions, and toxic gases, etc.
c Protection of the plant, equipment and components of a power system against the
stresses of short-circuit faults, atmospheric surges (lightning) and power-system
instability (loss of synchronism) etc.
c Protection of personnel and plant from the dangers of incorrect power-system
operation, by the use of electrical and mechanical interlocking. All classes of
switchgear (including, for example, tap-position selector switches on transformers,
and so on...) have well-defined operating limits. This means that the order in which
the different kinds of switching device can be safely closed or opened is vitally
important. Interlocking keys and analogous electrical control circuits are frequently
used to ensure strict compliance with correct operating sequences.
It is beyond the scope of a guide to describe in full technical detail the numerous
schemes of protection available to power-systems engineers, but it is hoped that the
following sections will prove to be useful through a discussion of general principles.
While some of the protective devices mentioned are of universal application,
descriptions generally will be confined to those in common use on HV and
LV systems only, as defined in Sub-clause 1.1 of this Chapter.
Direct-contact protection
The main form of protection against direct contact hazards is to contain all live parts
in housings of insulating material or in metallic earthed housings, by placing out of
reach (behind insulated barriers or at the top of poles) or by means of obstacles.
Where insulated live parts are housed in a metal envelope, for example transformers,
electric motors and many domestic appliances, the metal envelope is connected to
the installation protective earthing system.
For HV switchgear, the IEC standard 62271-200 (Prefabricated Metal Enclosed
switchgear and controlgear for voltages up to 52 kV) specifies a minimum Protection
Index (IP coding) of IP2X which ensures the direct-contact protection. Furthermore,
the metallic enclosure has to demonstrate an electrical continuity, then establishing
a good segregation between inside and ouside of the enclosure. Proper grounding of
the enclosure further participates to the electrical protection of the operators under
normal operating conditions.
For LV appliances this is achieved through the third pin of a 3-pin plug and socket.
Total or even partial failure of insulation to the metal, can raise the voltage of the
envelope to a dangerous level (depending on the ratio of the resistance of the leakage
path through the insulation, to the resistance from the metal envelope to earth).
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2005
3 Protection aspect
Indirect-contact protection
A person touching the metal envelope of an apparatus with a faulty insulation, as
described above, is said to be making an indirect contact.
An indirect contact is characterized by the fact that a current path to earth exists
(through the protective earthing (PE) conductor) in parallel with the shock current
through the person concerned.
Case of fault on L.V. system
Extensive tests have shown that, providing the potential of the metal envelope is not
greater than 50 V(1) with respect to earth, or to any conductive material within
reaching distance, no danger exists.
Indirect-contact hazard in the case of a HV fault
If the insulation failure in an apparatus is between a HV conductor and the metal
envelope, it is not generally possible to limit the rise of voltage of the envelope to
50 V or less, simply by reducing the earthing resistance to a low value. The solution
in this case is to create an equipotential situation, as described in Sub-clause 1.1
Earthing systems.
Transformer protection
Stresses due to the supply network
Some voltage surges can occur on the network such as :
c Atmospheric voltage surges
Atmospheric voltage surges are caused by a stroke of lightning falling on or near an
overhead line.
c Operating voltage surges
A sudden change in the established operating conditions in an electrical network
causes transient phenomena to occur. These is generally high frequency or damped
oscillation voltage surge wave.
For both voltage surges, the overvoltage protection device generally used is a
varistor (Zinc Oxide).
In most cases, voltage surges protection has no action on switchgear.
Stresses due to the load
Overloading is frequently due to the coincidental demand of a number of small loads,
or to an increase in the apparent power (kVA) demand of the installation, due to
expansion in an entreprise, with consequent building extensions, and so on. Load
increases raise the temperature of the wirings and of the insulation material. As a
result, temperature increases involve a reduction of the equipment working life.
Overload protection devices can be located on primary or secondary side of the
transformer.
The protection against overloading of a transformer is now provided by a digital relay
which acts to trip the circuit breaker on the secondary side of the transformer. Such
relay, generally called thermal overload relay, artificially simulates the temperature,
taking into account the time constant of the transformer. Some of them are able to
take into account the effect of harmonic currents due to non linear loads (rectifiers,
computer equipment, variable speed drives).This type of relay is also able to
predict the time before overload tripping and the waiting time after tripping. So, this
information is very helpful to control load shedding operation.
C17
3 Protection aspect
C18
Evidently the Buchholz devices mentioned above cannot be applied to this design; a
modern counterpart has been developed however, which measures:
c The accumulation of gas
c Overpressure
c Overtemperature
The first two conditions trip the upstream circuit breaker, and the third condition trips
the downstream circuit breaker of the transformer.
Internal phase-to-phase short circuit
Internal phase-to-phase short circuit must be detected and cleared by :
c 3 fuses on the primary side of the tranformer or
c An overcurrent relay that trips a circuit breaker upstream of the transformer
Internal phase-to-earth short circuit
This is the most common type of internal fault. It must be detected by an earth fault
relay. Earth fault current can be calculated with the sum of the 3 primary phase
currents (if 3 current transformers are used) or by a specific core current
transformer.
If a great sensitivity is needed, specific core current transformer will be prefered. In
such a case, a two current transformers set is sufficient (see Fig. C17 ).
Protection of circuits
Ba
ck
The protection of the circuits downstream of the transformer must comply with the
IEC 60364 requirements.
HV
LV
3
N
Overcurrent relay
E/F relay
3 Protection aspect
Time
Minimum pre-arcing
time of HV fuse
B/A u 1.35 at any
moment in time
D/C u 2 at any
current value
Circuit breaker
tripping
characteristic
Current
Basic interlocking
Ba
ck
U1
HV
LV
U2
Basic interlocking functions can be introduced in one given functionnal unit; some of
these functions are made mandatory by the IEC 62271-200, but some others are the
result of a choice from the user.
Considering access to a HV panel, it requires a certain number of operations which
shall be carried out in a pre-determined order. It is necessary to carry out operations
in the reverse order to restore the system to its former condition. Either proper
procedures, or dedicated interlocks, can ensure that the required operations are
performed in the right sequence. Then such accessible compartment will be
classified as accessible and interlocked or accessible by procedure. Even for
users with proper rigorous procedures, use of interlocks can provide a further help
for safety of the operators.
C19
3 Protection aspect
C20
Key interlocking
Beyond the interlocks available within a given functionnal unit (see also 4.2), the
most widely-used form of locking/interlocking depends on the principle of key transfer.
The principle is based on the possibility of freeing or trapping one or several keys,
according to whether or not the required conditions are satisfied.
These conditions can be combined in unique and obligatory sequences, thereby
guaranteeing the safety of personnel and installation by the avoidance of an
incorrect operational procedure.
Non-observance of the correct sequence of operations in either case may have
extremely serious consequences for the operating personnel, as well as for the
equipment concerned.
Note: It is important to provide for a scheme of interlocking in the basic design stage
of planning a HV/LV substation. In this way, the apparatuses concerned will be
equipped during manufacture in a coherent manner, with assured compatibility of
keys and locking devices.
Service continuity
For a given switchboard, the definition of the accessible compartments as well as their
access conditions provide the basis of the Loss of Service Continuity classification
defined in the standard IEC 62271-200. Use of interlocks or only proper procedure
does not have any influence on the service continuity. Only the request for accessing
a given part of the switchboard, under normal operation conditions, results in limiting
conditions which can be more or less severe regarding the continuity of the electrical
distribution process.
Interlocks in substations
In a HV/LV distribution substation which includes:
c A single incoming HV panel or two incoming panels (from parallel feeders) or two
incoming/outgoing ring-main panels
c A transformer switchgear-and-protection panel, which can include a load-break/
disconnecting switch with HV fuses and an earthing switch, or a circuit breaker and
line disconnecting switch together with an earthing switch
c A transformer compartment
Interlocks allow manuvres and access to different panels in the following conditions:
Basic interlocks, embedded in single functionnal units
c Operation of the load-break/isolating switch
v If the panel door is closed and the associated earthing switch is open
c Operation of the line-disconnecting switch of the transformer switchgear - and protection panel
v If the door of the panel is closed, and
v If the circuit breaker is open, and the earthing switch(es) is (are) open
c Closure of an earthing switch
v If the associated isolating switch(es) is (are) open(1)
c Access to an accessible compartment of each panel, if interlocks have been
specified
v If the isolating switch for the compartment is open and the earthing switch(es) for
the compartment is (are) closed
c Closure of the door of each accessible compartment, if interlocks have been
specified
v If the earthing switch(es) for the compartment is (are) closed
Functional interlocks involving several functional units or separate equipment
c Access to the terminals of a HV/LV transformer
v If the tee-off functional unit has its switch open and its earthing switch closed.
According to the possibility of back-feed from the LV side, a condition on the
LV main breaker can be necessary.
Practical example
In a consumer-type substation with LV metering, the interlocking scheme most
commonly used is HV/LV/TR (high voltage/ low voltage/transformer).
3 Protection aspect
Ba
ck
Note: The transformer in this example is provided with plug-on type HV terminal
connectors which can only be removed by unlocking a retaining device common to
all three phase connectors(1).
The HV load-break / disconnecting switch is mechanically linked with the
HV earthing switch such that only one of the switches can be closed, i.e. closure
of one switch automatically locks the closure of the other.
Initial conditions
c HV load-break/disconnection switch and LV circuit breaker are closed
c HV earthing switch locked in the open position by key O
c Key O is trapped in the LV circuit breaker as long as that circuit breaker is closed
Step 1
c Open LV CB and lock it open with key O
c Key O is then released
Step 2
c Open the HV switch
c Check that the voltage presence indicators extinguish when the HV switch is
opened
S
O
Step 3
c Unlock the HV earthing switch with key O and close the earthing switch
c Key O is now trapped
Step 4
The access panel to the HV fuses can now be removed (i.e. is released by closure of
the HV earthing switch). Key S is located in this panel, and is trapped when the HV
switch is closed
c Turn key S to lock the HV switch in the open position
c Key S is now released
HV fuses accessible
Step 5
Key S allows removal of the common locking device of the plug-type HV terminal
connectors on the transformer or of the common protective cover over the terminals,
as the case may be.
In either case, exposure of one or more terminals will trap key S in the interlock.
S
O
Transformer HV terminals accessible
Legend
ck
It may be noted that the upstream terminal of the load-break disconnecting switch
may remain alive in the procedure described as the terminals in question are located
in a separate non accessible compartment in the particular switchgear under
discussion. Any other technical solution with exposed terminals in the accessed
compartment would need further de-energisation and interlocks.
Ba
Key absent
Key free
Key trapped
Panel or door
C21
C22
4.1 General
A consumer substation with LV metering is an electrical installation connected to a
utility supply system at a nominal voltage of 1 kV - 35 kV, and includes a single
HV/LV transformer generally not exceeding 1,250 kVA.
Functions
The substation
All component parts of the substation are located in one room, either in an existing
building, or in the form of a prefabricated housing exterior to the building.
Connection to the HV network
Connection at HV can be:
c Either by a single service cable or overhead line, or
c Via two mechanically interlocked load-break switches with two service cables from
duplicate supply feeders, or
c Via two load-break switches of a ring-main unit
The transformer
Since the use of PCB(1)-filled transformers is prohibited in most countries,
the preferred available technologies are:
c Oil-immersed transformers for substations located outside premises
c Dry-type, vacuum-cast-resin transformers for locations inside premises, e.g.
multistoreyed buildings, buildings receiving the public, and so on...
Metering
Metering at low voltage allows the use of small metering transformers at modest cost.
Most tariff structures take account of transformer losses.
LV installation circuits
A low-voltage circuit breaker, suitable for isolation duty and locking off facilities, to:
c Supply a distribution board
c Protect the transformer against overloading and the downstream circuits against
short circuit faults.
One-line diagrams
The diagrams on the following page (see Fig. C21 ) represent the different methods
of HV service connection, which may be one of four types:
c Single-line service
c Single-line service (equipped for extension to form a ring main)
c Duplicate supply service
c Ring main service
Type of equipment
In addition of Ring Main Units discussed in section 1.2, all kinds of switchgear
arrangements are possible when using modular compartmented panels, and
provisions for later extensions are easily realized.
Compact substations of modular panels are particularly applicable in the following
cases:
c Open ring or radial network
c Severe climatic or heavily-polluted conditions (integral insulation)
c Insufficient space for classical switchboards
This type of equipment is distinguished by its reduced dimensions, its integrated
functions and by its operational flexibility.
(1) Polychlorinated biphenyl
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2005
C23
B
k
ac
Power supply
system
Service
connection
HV protection and
HV/LV transformation
Supplier/consumer
interface
Single-line service
LV metering
and isolation
Transformer
LV terminals
LV distribution
and protection
Downstream terminals
of LV isolator
Protection
Protection
Single-line service
(equipped for extension
to form a ring main)
Protection
Duplicatesupply
service
Ring main
service
Protection
Always permitted
Protection
+
Auto-changeover
switch
Automatic
LV standby
source
C24
Operations
c Operating handles, levers, etc. required for switching operations are grouped
together on a clearly illustrated panel
c All closing-operation levers are identical on all units (except those containing a
circuit breaker)
c Operation of a closing lever requires very little effort
c Opening or closing of a load-break/disconnecting switch can be by lever or by
push-button for automatic switches
c Conditions of switches (Open, Closed, Spring-charged), are clearly indicated
C25
C26
The insulating fluid also acts as a cooling medium; it expands as the load and/or the
ambient temperature increases, so that all liquid-filled transformers must be
designed to accommodate the extra volume of liquid without the pressure in the tank
becoming excessive.
There are two ways in which this pressure limitation is commonly achieved:
c Hermetically-sealed totally-filled tank (up to 10 MVA at the present time)
Developed by a leading French manufacturer in 1963, this method was adopted by the
national utility in 1972, and is now in world-wide service (see Fig. C24 ).
Expansion of the liquid is compensated by the elastic deformation of the oil-cooling
passages attached to the tank.
The total-fill technique has many important advantages over other methods:
v Oxydation of the dielectric liquid (with atmospheric oxygen) is entirely precluded
v No need for an air-drying device, and so no consequent maintenance (inspection
and changing of saturated dessicant)
v No need for dielectric-strength test of the liquid for at least 10 years
v Simplified protection against internal faults by means of a DGPT device is possible
v Simplicity of installation: lighter and lower profile (than tanks with a conservator)
and access to the HV and LV terminals is unobstructed
v Immediate detection of (even small) oil leaks; water cannot enter the tank
c Air-breathing conservator-type tank at atmospheric pressure
Expansion of the insulating liquid is taken up by a change in the level of liquid in an
expansion (conservator) tank, mounted above the transformer main tank, as shown
in Figure C25 . The space above the liquid in the conservator may be filled with air
which is drawn in when the level of liquid falls, and is partially expelled when the
level rises. When the air is drawn in from the surrounding atmosphere it is admitted
through an oil seal, before passing through a dessicating device (generally
containing silica-gel crystals) before entering the conservator. In some designs of
larger transformers the space above the oil is occupied by an impermeable air bag
so that the insulation liquid is never in contact with the atmosphere. The air enters
and exits from the deformable bag through an oil seal and dessicator, as previously
described. A conservator expansion tank is obligatory for transformers rated above
10 MVA (which is presently the upper limit for total-fill type transformers).
Choice of technology
As discussed above, the choice of transformer is between liquid-filled or dry type.
For ratings up to 10 MVA, totally-filled units are available as an alternative to
conservator-type transformers.
A choice depends on a number of considerations, including:
c Safety of persons in proximity to the transformer. Local regulations and official
recommendations may have to be respected
c Economic considerations, taking account of the relative advantages of each technique
The regulations affecting the choice are:
c Dry-type transformer:
v In some countries a dry-type transformer is obligatory in high apartment blocks
v Dry-type transformers impose no constraints in other situations
c Transformers with liquid insulation:
v This type of transformer is generally forbidden in high apartment blocks
v For different kinds of insulation liquids, installation restrictions, or minimum
protection against fire risk, vary according to the class of insulation used
v Some countries in which the use of liquid dielectrics is highly developed, classify
the several categories of liquid according to their fire performance. This latter is
assessed according to two criteria: the flash-point temperature, and the minimum
calorific power. The principal categories are shown in Figure C26 in which a
classification code is used for convenience.
As an example, French standard defines the conditions for the installation of liquidfilled transformers. No equivalent IEC standard has yet been established.
Ba
ck
The French standard is aimed at ensuring the safety of persons and property and
recommends, notably, the minimum measures to be taken against the risk of fire.
Code
Dielectric fluid
O1
K1
K2
K3
L3
Mineral oil
High-density hydrocarbons
Esters
Silicones
Insulating halogen liquids
Flash-point
(C)
< 300
> 300
> 300
> 300
-
C27
C28
Ba
ck
Class
of
dielectric
fluid
O1
No. of
litres above
which
measures
must be
taken
25
K1
K2
K3
L3
50
Locations
Chamber or enclosed area reserved to qualified
and authorized personnel, and separated from any
other building by a distance D
D>8m
4m<D<8m
D < 4 m(1) in the direction of occupied areas
No special
Interposition of
Fire-proof wall
measures
a fire-proof
(2 hour rating)
screen
against adjoining
(1 hour rating)
building
No special measures
Interposition of a
fire-proof screen
(1 hour rating)
No special measures
Other chambers
or locations(2)
Measures
(1 + 2)
or 3
or 4
No special
measures
Measures
(1A + 2 + 4)(3)
or 3
Measures
(1 + 2 + 5)
or 3
or (4 + 5)
Measures 1A
or 3
or 4
Measures 1
or 3
or 4
Measure 1: Arrangements such that if the dielectric escapes from the transformer, it will be completely contained (in a sump, by sills around the
transformer, and by blocking of cable trenches, ducts and so on, during construction).
Measure 1A: In addition to measure 1, arrange that, in the event of liquid ignition there is no possibility of the fire spreading (any combustible
material must be moved to a distance of at least 4 metres from the transformer, or at least 2 metres from it if a fire-proof screen [of 1 hour rating] is
interposed).
Measure 2: Arrange that burning liquid will extinguish rapidly and naturally (by providing a pebble bed in the containment sump).
Measure 3: An automatic device (gas, pressure & thermal relay, or Buchholz) for cutting off the primary power supply, and giving an alarm, if gas
appears in the transformer tank.
Measure 4: Automatic fire-detection devices in close proximity to the transformer, for cutting off primary power supply, and giving an alarm.
Measure 5: Automatic closure by fire-proof panels (1/2 hour minimum rating) of all openings (ventilation louvres, etc.) in the walls and ceiling of
the substation chamber.
Notes:
(1) A fire-proof door (rated at 2 hours) is not considered to be an opening.
(2) Transformer chamber adjoining a workshop and separated from it by walls, the fire-proof characteristics of which are not rated for 2 hours.
Areas situated in the middle of workshops the material being placed (or not) in a protective container.
(3) It is indispensable that the equipment be enclosed in a chamber, the walls of which are solid, the only orifices being those necessary for
ventilation purposes.
Fig. C27 : Safety measures recommended in ectrical installations using dielectric liquids of classes 01, K1, K2 or K3
Ventilation orifices
In the general case of cooling by natural air circulation (AN) the ventilation of the
chamber is arranged to remove the heat (produced by losses in the transformer) by
natural convection.
A good system of ventilation allows cool air to enter through an orifice of sectional
area S at floor level, and to leave the chamber through an orifice of sectional area S
on the opposite wall to that of the air entry and at a height H above the incoming-air
orifice, as shown in Figure C28 .
It is important to note that any restriction to the free flow of a sufficient volume of air
will result in a reduction of power available from the transformer, if the rated
temperature limit is not to be exceeded.
Natural ventilation
The formulae for calculating the sectional area of the ventilation orifices are as
follows:
0.18 P
and S = 1.1 S
H
Where
P = the sum of the no-load losses and the full-load losses expressed in kW
S = the sectional area of the incoming-air orifice (area of louvres or grill to be
deducted) expressed in mm2
S = the sectional area of the outgoing-air orifice (area of louvres or grill to be
deducted) expressed in mm2
H = height (centre to centre) of the outgoing air orifice above the incoming-air orifice,
expressed in metres.
S=
Ba
ck
S'
C29
C30
A consumer substation with HV metering is an
electrical installation connected to a utility
supply system at a nominal voltage of 1 kV 35 kV and generally includes a single HV/
LV transformer which exceeds 1,250 kVA,
or several smaller transformers.
The rated current of the HV switchgear does
not normally exceed 400 A.
5.1 General
Functions
The substation
According to the complexity of the installation and the manner in which the load is
divided, the substation:
c Might include one room containing the HV switchboard and metering panel(s),
together with the transformer(s) and low-voltage main distribution board(s),
c Or might supply one or more transformer rooms, which include local LV distribution
boards, supplied at HV from switchgear in a main substation, similar to that
described above.
These substations may be installed, either:
c Inside a building, or
c Outdoors in prefabricated housings.
Connection to the HV network
Connection at HV can be:
c Either by a single service cable or overhead line, or
c Via two mechanically interlocked load-break switches with two service cables from
duplicate supply feeders, or
c Via two load-break switches of a ring-main unit.
Metering
Before the installation project begins, the agreement of the power-supply utility
regarding metering arrangements must be obtained.
A metering panel will be incorporated in the HV switchboard. Voltage transformers
and current transformers, having the necessary metering accuracy, may be included
in the main incoming circuit breaker panel or (in the case of the voltage transformer)
may be installed separately in the metering panel.
Transformer rooms
If the installation includes a number of transformer rooms, HV supplies from the main
substation may be by simple radial feeders connected directly to the transformers, or
by duplicate feeders to each room, or again, by a ring-main, according to the degree
of supply availability desired.
In the two latter cases, 3-panel ring-main units will be required at each transformer
room.
Local emergency generators
Emergency standby generators are intended to maintain a power supply to essential
loads, in the event of failure of the power supply system.
Capacitors
Capacitors will be installed, according to requirements:
c In stepped HV banks at the main substation, or
c At LV in transformer rooms.
Transformers
For additional supply-security reasons, transformers may be arranged for automatic
changeover operation, or for parallel operation.
One-line diagrams
The diagrams shown in Figure C29 next page represent:
c The different methods of HV service connection, which may be one of four types:
v Single-line service
v Single-line service (equipped for extension to form a ring main)
v Duplicate supply service
v Ring main service
c General protection at HV, and HV metering functions
c Protection of outgoing HV circuits
c Protection of LV distribution circuits
C31
B
k
ac
Power supply
system
Service connection
Supplier/consumer
interface
HV protection
and metering
Downstream terminals of
HV isolator for the installation
Single-line service
Single-line service
(equipped for
extension to form
a ring main)
LV distribution
and protection
LV terminals of
transformer
Protection
LV
I nominal of
transformer u 45 A
A single transformer
Automatic LV/HV
standby source
Duplicatesupply
service
Protection
+ automatic
changeover
feature
Protection
Ring-main
service
Automatic LV
standby source
C32
Ba
ck
HV distribution
panels for
which standby
supply is
required
Automatic
changeover
panel
Busbar
transition
panel
To remainder
of the HV
switchboard
c Protection
To study the connection of generator set, the power supply utility needs some data
as follows :
v Power injected on the network
v Connection mode
v Short circuit current of the generator set
v Voltage unbalance of the generator
v etc.
Depending on the connection mode, dedicated uncoupling protection functions are
required :
v Undervoltage and overvoltage protection
v Underfrequency and overfrequency protection
v Zero sequence overvoltage protection
v Maximum time of coupling (for momentary coupling)
v Reverse real power
For safety reasons, the switchgear used for uncoupling must also be provided with
the characteristics of a disconnector (i.e total isolation of all active conductors
between the generator set and the power supply network).
c Control
When generators at a consumers substation operate in parallel with all the
generation of the utility power supply system, supposing the power system voltage is
reduced for operational reasons (it is common to operate HV systems within a range
of 5% of nominal voltage, or even more, where load-flow patterns require it), an
AVR set to maintain the voltage within 3% (for example) will immediately attempt
to raise the voltage by increasing the excitation current of the alternator.
Instead of raising the voltage, the alternator will simply operate at a lower power
factor than before, thereby increasing its current output, and will continue to do so,
until it is eventually tripped out by its overcurrent protective relays. This is a wellknown problem and is usually overcome by the provision of a constant powerfactor control switch on the AVR unit.
By making this selection, the AVR will automatically adjust the excitation current to
match whatever voltage exists on the power system, while at the same time
maintaining the power factor of the alternator constant at the pre-set value (selected
on the AVR control unit).
In the event that the alternator becomes decoupled from the power system, the AVR
must be automatically (rapidly) switched back to constant-voltage control.
C33
C34
Ba
ck
Voltage vectors
1
1
V12
2
N
3
2
3
2
Windings
correspondence
6 Constitution of
HV/LV distribution substations
HV/LV substations are constructed according to the magnitude of the load and the
kind of power system in question.
Substations may be built in public places, such as parks, residential districts, etc. or
on private premises, in which case the power supply authority must have
unrestricted access. This is normally assured by locating the substation, such that
one of its walls, which includes an access door, coincides with the boundary of the
consumers premises and the public way.
Ba
ck
LV connections
from
transformer
HV connections to transformer
(included in a panel or free-standing)
LV switchgear
2 incoming
HV panels
HV
switching
and
protection
panel
Current
transformers
provided by
power-supply
authority
Transformer
Oil sump
LV cable
trench
C35
6 Constitution of
HV/LV distribution substations
C36
Ba
ck
100
LV distribution
HV supply
Common earth busbar
for the substation
800 mini
Safety accessories
Meters
Earthing circuits
The substation must include:
c An earth electrode for all exposed conductive parts of electrical equipment in the
substation and exposed extraneous metal including:
v Protective metal screens
v Reinforcing rods in the concrete base of the substation
Substation lighting
Supply to the lighting circuits can be taken from a point upstream or downstream of
the main incoming LV circuit breaker. In either case, appropriate overcurrent
protection must be provided. A separate automatic circuit (or circuits) is (are)
recommended for emergency lighting purposes.
Operating switches, pushbuttons, etc. are normally located immediately adjacent to
entrances.
Lighting fittings are arranged such that:
c Switchgear operating handles and position indication markings are adequately
illuminated
c All metering dials and instruction plaques and so on, can be easily read
6 Constitution of
HV/LV distribution substations
These comprise a fenced area in which three or more concrete plinths are installed:
c For a ring-main unit, or one or more switch-fuse or circuit breaker unit(s)
c For one or more transformer(s), and
c For one or more LV distribution panel(s)
C37
6 Constitution of
HV/LV distribution substations
Ba
ck
C38
Lightning arresters
LV circuit breaker D1
Technical Series
......................
Electrical
installation guide
According to IEC International Standards
New edition
2005
http://theguide.merlin-gerin.com
This guide has been written for electrical Engineers who have to design,
realize, inspect or maintain electrical installations in compliance with
international Standards of the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC).
Which technical solution will guarantee that all relevant safety rules are
met? This question has been a permanent guideline for the elaboration of
this document.
An international Standard such as the IEC 60364 Electrical Installation in
Buldings specifies extensively the rules to comply with to ensure safety
and predicted operational characteristics for all types of electrical
installations. As the Standard must be extensive, and has to be applicable
to all types of products and the technical solutions in use worldwide, the
text of the IEC rules is complex, and not presented in a ready-to-use
order. The Standard cannot therefore be considered as a working
handbook, but only as a reference document.
The aim of the present guide is to provide a clear, practical and step-bystep explanation for the complete study of an electrical installation,
according to IEC 60364 and other relevant IEC Standards. Therefore, the
first chapter (B) presents the methodology to be used, and each chapter
deals with one out of the eight steps of the study. The two last chapter are
devoted to particular supply sources, loads and locations, and appendix
provides additional information. Special attention must be paid to the
EMC appendix, which is based on the broad and practical experience on
electromagnetic compatibility problems.
We all hope that you, the user, will find this handbook genuinely helpful.
Schneider Electric S.A.
Second edition
March 2005
This new edition has been published to take into account changes in
techniques, standards and regulations, in particular electrical installation
standard IEC 60364.
Price: 90
ISBN : 2-907314-47-5
N dpt lgal: 1er semestre 2005
Conseil Schneider Electric
All rights reserved for all the countries
We thank all the readers of the previous edition of this guide for their
comments that have helped improve the current edition.
We also thank the many people and organisations, to numerous to name
here, who have contributed in one way or another to the preparation of
this guide.
Foreword
Roland Talon, Chairman TC 64 - International Electrotechnical Commission
It is generally agreed that electrical equipment will provide the best
performance (safety, operation and service life) when it is properly
installed, which includes good co-ordination.
The task of Technical Committee 64 of the IEC (International
Electrotechnical Commission) is to develop and keep up-to-date
requirements for electrical installations. TC64 also has a Safety Pilot
Function for installations, equipment, products and systems. Delegates
from many National Committees work in TC 64, drawn from
manufacturers, laboratories, verification bodies, installers, and electrical
power supply companies...
with the consequence that IEC Standard 60364 is considered as the
definitive document on which to base the design and implementation of an
electrical installation.
Furthermore the electrical environment is increasingly complex, mainly
due to electromagnetic influences and other kinds of disturbances, and
the continuous operation of all equipment supplied by the electrical
installation has become a fundamental requirement.
Consequently designers, installers and consumers need guidance on the
selection and installation of electrical equipment.
With this in mind, Schneider Electric has developed this Electrical
Installation Guide. It has been prepared by engineers from Schneider
Electric who are very experienced in electrical installation technology and
possess excellent knowledge of consumer problems and requirements,
and of IEC Standard 60364 and other relevant IEC standards.
Last but not least, this Electrical Installation Guide has adopted the IEC
Standard 60364 as a basis and as a result facilitates and favours
international trade.
As TC 64 Chairman and formerly the representative of French Electrical
Contractors on TC64, it is my great pleasure and honour to introduce this
guide. I am sure it will prove very useful in the implementation of the
provisions of 60364 and in meeting consumers concerns.
Chapter D
Connection to the LV utility
distribution network
Contents
1
2
D2
D2
D10
D11
D15
D16
D1
Ba
ck
Country
Afghanistan
Algeria
50 1.5
Angola
50
60
Argentina
50 2
Armenia
50 5
Australia
50 0.1
Austria
Domestic (V)
Commercial (V)
Industrial (V)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
220/127 (e)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
220/127 (a)
10,000
5,500
6,600
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
240 (k)
120 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
415/240 (a)
240 (k)
380/220 (a)
50 0.1
230 (k)
Azerbaijan
50 0.1
Bahrain
50 0.1
208/120 (a)
240/120 (k)
415/240 (a)
240 (k)
Bangladesh
50 2
Barbados
50 6
Belarus
50
Belgium
50 5
Bolivia
50 0.5
230 (k)
Botswana
50 3
220 (k)
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
380/220 (a)
Brazil
60
220 (k)
127 (k)
220/380 (a)
127/220 (a)
Brunei
50 2
230
230
Bulgaria
50 0.1
220
220/240
410/220 (a)
220 (k)
230/115 (j)
115 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
220/127 (a)
127 (k)
230 (k)
230 (a)
3N, 400
400/230 (a)
120/208 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
415/240 (a)
440/250 (a)
440 (m)
410/220 (a)
230/115 (j)
200/115 (a)
220/115 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
230 (k)
230 (a)
3N, 400
Fig. D1 : Voltage of local LV network and their associated circuit diagrams (continued on next page)
400/230 (a)
120/208 (a)
380/220 (a)
22,000
11,000
6,600
415/240
440/250
5,000
380/220 (a)
11,000
415/240 (a)
240 (k)
11,000
410/220 (a)
230/400 (g)
230/155 (j)
380/220 (a)
6,600
10,000
11,000
15,000
400/230 (a)
380/220 (a)
13,800
11,200
220/380 (a)
127/220 (a)
11,000
68,000
1,000
690
380
Ba
ck
Country
Domestic (V)
Commercial (V)
Industrial (V)
Cambodia
Cameroon
Canada
220 (k)
220/260 (k)
120/240 (j)
220/300
220/260 (k)
347/600 (a)
480 (f)
240 (f)
120/240 (j)
120/208 (a)
Cape Verde
Chad
Chile
China
50 1
50 1
50 0.5
220
220 (k)
220 (k)
220 (k)
Colombia
60 1
Congo
50
Croatia
50
Cyprus
50 0.1
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
240 (k)
220
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
120/240 (g)
120 (k)
240/120 (j)
120 (k)
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
415/240
220/380
220/380 (a)
7,200/12,500
347/600 (a)
120/208
600 (f)
480 (f)
240 (f)
380/400
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
13,200
120/240 (g)
380/220 (a)
Czech Republic
50 1
230
500
230/400
Denmark
Djibouti
Dominica
Egypt
50 1
50
50
50 0.5
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
400/230 (a)
400/230 (a)
400/230 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
Estonia
50 1
Ethiopia
50 2.5
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/231 (a)
Falkland Islands
Fidji Islands
50 3
50 2
Finland
50 0.1
230 (k)
415/240 (a)
240 (k)
230 (k)
415/230 (a)
415/240 (a)
240 (k)
400/230 (a)
France
50 1
400/230 (a)
230 (a)
Gambia
Georgia
50
50 0.5
Germany
50 0.3
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
400/230
690/400
590/100
220/380
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
Ghana
Gibraltar
Greece
50 5
50 1
50
220/240
415/240 (a)
220 (k)
230
220/240
415/240 (a)
6,000
380/220 (a)
Granada
Hong Kong
50
50 2
230 (k)
220 (k)
Hungary
Iceland
50 5
50 0.1
220
230
400/230 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
220
230/400
120/240 (g)
120 (k)
220 (k)
Fig. D1 : Voltage of local LV network and their associated circuit diagrams (continued on next page)
400/230 (a)
11,000
415/240
400,000
220,000
110,000
35,000
22,000
10,000
6,000
3,000
400/230 (a)
400/230 (a)
400/230 (a)
66,000
33,000
20,000
11,000
6,600
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
15 000
380/231 (a)
415/230 (a)
11,000
415/240 (a)
690/400 (a)
400/230 (a)
20,000
10,000
230/400
380
380/220 (a)
20,000
10,000
6,000
690/400
400/230
415/240 (a)
415/240 (a)
22,000
20,000
15,000
6,600
400/230 (a)
11,000
386/220 (a)
220/380
230/400
D3
Ba
D4
ck
Country
Domestic (V)
Commercial (V)
Industrial (V)
India
50 1.5
440/250 (a)
230 (k)
440/250 (a)
230 (k)
Indonesia
50 2
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
Iran
50 5
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
Iraq
50
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
Ireland
50 2
230 (k)
400/230 (a)
Israel
50 0.2
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
Italy
50 0.4
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
400/230 (a)
Jamaica
50 1
Japan (east)
+ 0.1
- 0.3
200/100 (h)
200/100 (h)
(up to 50 kW)
Jordan
50
380/220 (a)
Kazakhstan
50
Kenya
Kirghizia
50
50
Korea (North)
60 +0, -5
380/220 (a)
400/230 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
220/127 (a)
127 (k)
240 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
220/127 (a)
127 (k)
220 (k)
11,000
400/230 (a)
440/250 (a)
150,000
20,000
380/220 (a)
20,000
11,000
400/231 (a)
380/220 (a)
11,000
6,600
3,000
380/220 (a)
20,000
10,000
400/230 (a)
22,000
12,600
6,300
400/230 (a)
20,000
15,000
10,000
400/230 (a)
4,000
2,300
220/110 (g)
140,000
60,000
20,000
6,000
200/100 (h)
400 (a)
Korea (South)
Kuwait
Laos
Lesotho
Latvia
60
50 3
50 8
Lebanon
Libya
50
50
Lithuania
50 0.5
Luxembourg
50 0.5
Macedonia
Madagascar
380/220 (a)
415/240 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
415/240 (a)
380/220 (a)
220/380 (a)
13,600
6,800
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
100/200 (j)
415/240 (a)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
400/230 (a)
220/127 (a)
230 (k)
127 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
50
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
50
220/110 (k)
380/220 (a)
50 0.4
100 (k)
240 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
220 (k)
230 (k)
127 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
Fig. D1 : Voltage of local LV network and their associated circuit diagrams (continued on next page)
415/240 (a)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
400/230 (a)
220/127 (a)
380/220 (a)
20,000
15,000
5,000
10,000
6,600
380/220 (a)
35,000
5,000
380/220
Ba
ck
Country
Domestic (V)
Commercial (V)
Industrial (V)
Malaysia
50 1
415/240 (a)
415/240 (a)
Malawi
50 2.5
240 (k)
415 (a)
230 (k)
400 (a)
Mali
50
220 (k)
127 (k)
Malta
Martinique
50 2
50
240 (k)
127 (k)
Mauritania
Mexico
50 1
60 0.2
230 (k)
127/220 (a)
220 (k)
120 (l)
400 (a)
230 (k)
380/220 (a)
220/127 (a)
220 (k)
127 (k)
415/240 (a)
220/127 (a)
127 (k)
400/230 (a)
127/220 (a)
220 (k)
120 (l)
Moldavia
50
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
Morocco
50 5
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
220/127 (a)
127 (k)
380/220 (a)
220/110 (a)
Mozambique
50
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
Nepal
50 1
220 (k)
Netherlands
50 0.4
230/400 (a)
230 (k)
440/220 (a)
220 (k)
230/400 (a)
New Zealand
50 1.5
Niger
50 1
Nigeria
50 1
230 (k)
220 (k)
400/230 (a)
380/220 (a)
Norway
50 2
230/400
230/400
Oman
50
240 (k)
Pakistan
50
230 (k)
50 2
240 (k)
415/240 (a)
240 (k)
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
415/240 (a)
240 (k)
Paraguay
50 0.5
220 (k)
60 0.16
110/220 (j)
Poland
50 0.1
230 (k)
400/230 (a)
Portugal
50 1
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
Qatar
50 0.1
415/240 (k)
15,000
5,000
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
415/240 (a)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
13,800
4,160
2,400
110/220 (h)
Fig. D1 : Voltage of local LV network and their associated circuit diagrams (continued on next page)
380/220 (a)
220/127 (a)
415/240 (a)
220/127 (a)
400/230 (a)
13,800
13,200
277/480 (a)
127/220 (b)
380/220 (a)
225,000
150,000
60,000
22,000
20,000
6,000
10,000
11,000
440/220 (a)
25,000
20,000
12,000
10,000
230/400
11,000
400/230 (a)
15,000
380/220 (a)
15,000
11,000
400/230 (a)
380/220 (a)
230/400
690
415/240 (a)
400/230 (a)
22,000
11,000
415/240 (a)
22,000
380/220 (a)
13,800
4,160
2,400
440 (b)
110/220 (h)
1,000
690/400
400/230 (a)
15,000
5,000
380/220 (a)
11,000
415/240 (a)
D5
Ba
D6
ck
Country
Domestic (V)
Commercial (V)
Industrial (V)
Romania
50 0.5
230 (k)
440/220
Russia
50 0.2
Rwanda
50 1
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
1,000
690/400
400/230
380/220 (a)
Saint Lucia
50 3
240 (k)
415/240 (a)
Samoa
San Marino
50 1
400/230
230/220
380
Saudi Arabia
60
220/127 (a)
220/127 (a)
380/220 (a)
50 2
50 5
240
220 (a)
127 (k)
415/240
380/220 (a)
220/127 (k)
50
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
Seychelles
50 1
400/230 (a)
400/230 (a)
Sierra Leone
50 5
230 (k)
Singapore
50
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
400/230 (a)
Slovakia
Slovenia
50 0.5
50 0.1
230
220 (k)
230
380/220 (a)
Somalia
50
South Africa
50 2.5
230 (k)
220 (k)
110 (k)
433/250 (a)
400/230 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
Spain
50 3
Sri Lanka
50 2
440/220 (j)
220/110 (j)
230 (k)
11,000
6,600
3,300
433/250 (a)
400/230 (a)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
220/127 (a) (e)
Sudan
50
240 (k)
Swaziland
50 2.5
230 (k)
Sweden
50 0.5
Switzerland
50 2
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
400/230 (a)
Syria
50
220 (k)
115 (k)
Tadzhikistan
50
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
220/127 (a)
127 (k)
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
415/240 (a)
240 (k)
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
400/230 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
200/115 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
Fig. D1 : Voltage of local LV network and their associated circuit diagrams (continued on next page)
15,000
6,600
380/220 (a)
11,000
415/240 (a)
15,000
380
11,000
7,200
380/220 (a)
415/240
90,000
30,000
6,600
10,000
6,600
380/220 (a)
11,000
400/230 (a)
11,000
400
22,000
6,600
400/230 (a)
230/400
10,000
6,600
380/220 (a)
440/220 (g)
220/110 (g)
11,000
6,600
3,300
500 (b)
380/220 (a)
15,000
11,000
380/220 (a)
11,000
400/230 (a)
415/240 (a)
11,000
400/230 (a)
6,000
400/230 (a)
20,000
10,000
3,000
1,000
690/500
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
Ba
ck
Country
Domestic (V)
Commercial (V)
Industrial (V)
Tanzania
50
400/230 (a)
400/230 (a)
Thailand
50
220 (k)
Togo
50
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
11,000
400/230 (a)
380/220 (a)
Tunisia
50 2
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
Turkmenistan
50
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
Turkey
50 1
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
220/127 (a)
127 (k)
380/220 (a)
Uganda
+ 0.1
240 (k)
415/240 (a)
Ukraine
+ 0.2 / - 1.5
50 1
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
220 (k)
United Kingdom
(except Northern
Ireland)
50 1
230 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
415/240 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
400/230 (a)
United Kingdom
(Including Northern
Ireland)
United States of
America
Charlotte
(North Carolina)
50 0.4
230 (k)
220 (k)
400/230 (a)
380/220 (a)
60 0.06
120/240 (j)
120/208 (a)
265/460 (a)
120/240 (j)
120/208 (a)
United States of
America
Detroit (Michigan)
60 0.2
120/240 (j)
120/208 (a)
480 (f)
120/240 (h)
120/208 (a)
United States of
America
Los Angeles (California)
United States of
America
Miami (Florida)
60 0.2
120/240 (j)
4,800
120/240 (g)
60 0.3
120/240 (j)
120/208 (a)
120/240 (j)
120/240 (h)
120/208 (a)
United States of
America New York
(New York)
60
120/240 (j)
120/208 (a)
120/240 (j)
120/208 (a)
240 (f)
United States of
America
Pittsburg
(Pennsylvania)
60 0.03
120/240 (j)
265/460 (a)
120/240 (j)
120/208 (a)
460 (f)
230 (f)
380/220 (a)
Fig. D1 : Voltage of local LV network and their associated circuit diagrams (continued on next page)
20,000
5,500
380/220 (a)
30,000
15,000
10,000
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
15,000
6,300
380/220 (a)
11,000
415/240 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
6,600
415/210 (a)
380/220 (a)
22,000
11,000
6,600
3,300
400/230 (a)
400/230 (a)
380/220 (a)
14,400
7,200
2,400
575 (f)
460 (f)
240 (f)
265/460 (a)
120/240 (j)
120/208 (a)
13,200
4,800
4,160
480 (f)
120/240 (h)
120/208 (a)
4,800
120/240 (g)
13,200
2,400
480/277 (a)
120/240 (h)
12,470
4,160
277/480 (a)
480 (f)
13,200
11,500
2,400
265/460 (a)
120/208 (a)
460 (f)
230 (f)
D7
Ba
ck
D8
Country
Domestic (V)
Commercial (V)
Industrial (V)
120/240 (j)
227/480 (a)
120/240 (j)
120/208 (a)
480 (f)
240 (f)
United States of
America
San Francisco
(California)
60 0.08
120/240 (j)
277/480 (a)
120/240 (j)
United States of
America
Toledo (Ohio)
60 0.08
120/240 (j)
120/208 (a)
277/480 (c)
120/240(h)
120/208 (j)
Uruguay
50 1
Vietnam
50 0.1
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
Yemen
Zambia
Zimbabwe
50
50 2.5
50
250 (k)
220 (k)
225 (k)
440/250 (a)
380/220 (a)
390/225 (a)
19,900
12,000
7,200
2,400
277/480 (a)
120/208 (a)
480 (f)
240 (f)
20,800
12,000
4,160
277/480 (a)
120/240 (g)
12,470
7,200
4,800
4,160
480 (f)
277/480 (a)
120/208 (a)
15,000
6,000
220 (b)
35,000
15,000
10,000
6,000
440/250 (a)
380 (a)
11,000
390/225 (a)
United States of
America
Portland (Oregon)
Circuit diagrams
Ba
ck
(j) Single-phase;
Three-wire:
Earthed mid point
(k) Single-phase;
Two-wire:
Earthed end of phase
(l) Single-phase;
Two-wire
Unearthed
(i) Three-phase
open delta:
Earthed junction
of phases
Vk
(m) Single-wire:
Earthed return (swer)
Fig. D1 : Voltage of local LV network and their associated circuit diagrams (concluded)
(n) DC:
Three-wire:
Unearthed
Ba
ck
System
120 V 1-phase 2-wire
120/240 V 1-phase 3-wire
120/208 V 3-phase 4-wire
220/380 V 3-phase 4-wire
230/400 V 3-phase 4-wire
240/415 V 3-phase 4-wire
kVA
7.2
14.4
22
80
83
86
Practices vary considerably from one power supply organization to another, and no
standardized values can be given.
Factors to be considered include:
c The size of an existing distribution network to which the new load is to be connected
c The total load already connected to the distribution network
c The location along the distribution network of the proposed new load, i.e. close to
the substation, or near the remote end of the distribution network, etc
In short, each case must be examined individually.
The load levels listed above are adequate for all normal domestic consumers, and
will be sufficient for the installations of many administrative, commercial and similar
buildings.
In practice, however:
c Large loads (e.g. > 300 kVA) require correspondingly large cables, so that, unless
the load centre is close to the substation, this method can be economically
unfavourable
c Many utilities prefer to supply loads exceeding 200 kVA (this figure varies with
different suppliers) at high voltage
For these reasons, dedicated supply lines at LV are generally applied (at 220/380 V
to 240/415 V) to a load range of 80 kVA to 250 kVA.
Consumers normally supplied at low voltage include:
c Domestic dwellings
c Shops and commercial buildings
c Small factories, workshops and filling stations
c Restaurants
c Farms, etc
D9
Ba
ck
4-way
link box
HV/LV
substation
Service
cable
Phase links
removed
Fig. D3 : Showing one of several ways in which a LV distribution network may be arranged for
radial branched-distributor operation, by removing (phase) links
This arrangement provides a very flexible system in which a complete substation can
be taken out of service, while the area normally supplied from it is fed from link
boxes of the surrounding substations.
Moreover, short lengths of distributor (between two link boxes) can be isolated for
fault-location and repair.
Where the load density requires it, the substations are more closely spaced, and
transformers up to 1,500 kVA are sometimes necessary.
Other forms of urban LV network, based on free-standing LV distribution pillars,
placed above ground at strategic points in the network, are widely used in areas of
lower load density. This scheme exploits the principle of tapered radial distributors in
which the distribution cable conductor size is reduced as the number of consumers
downstream diminish with distance from the substation.
In this scheme a number of large-sectioned LV radial feeders from the distribution
board in the substation supply the busbars of a distribution pillar, from which smaller
distributors supply consumers immediately surrounding the pillar.
Distribution in market towns, villages and rural areas generally has, for many years,
been based on bare copper conductors supported on wooden, concrete or steel
poles, and supplied from pole-mounted or ground-mounted transformers.
North and Central American practice differs fundamentally from that in Europe, in
that LV networks are practically nonexistent, and 3-phase supplies to domestic
premises in residential areas are rare.
The distribution is effectively carried out at high voltage in a way, which again differs
from standard European practices. The HV system is, in fact, a 3-phase 4-wire system
from which single-phase distribution networks (phase and neutral conductors) supply
numerous single-phase transformers, the secondary windings of which are centretapped to produce 120/240 V single-phase 3-wire supplies. The central conductors
provide the LV neutrals, which, together with the HV neutral conductors, are solidly
earthed at intervals along their lengths.
Each HV/LV transformer normally supplies one or several premises directly from the
transformer position by radial service cable(s) or by overhead line(s).
Many other systems exist in these countries, but the one described appears to be
the most common.
Figure D4 (next page) shows the main features of the two systems.
D11
This arrangement provides a very flexible system in which a complete substation can
be taken out of service, while the area normally supplied from it is fed from link
boxes of the surrounding substations.
Moreover, short lengths of distributor (between two link boxes) can be isolated for
fault-location and repair.
Where the load density requires it, the substations are more closely spaced, and
transformers up to 1,500 kVA are sometimes necessary.
Other forms of urban LV network, based on free-standing LV distribution pillars,
placed above ground at strategic points in the network, are widely used in areas of
lower load density. This scheme exploits the principle of tapered radial distributors in
which the distribution cable conductor size is reduced as the number of consumers
downstream diminish with distance from the substation.
In this scheme a number of large-sectioned LV radial feeders from the distribution
board in the substation supply the busbars of a distribution pillar, from which smaller
distributors supply consumers immediately surrounding the pillar.
Distribution in market towns, villages and rural areas generally has, for many years,
been based on bare copper conductors supported on wooden, concrete or steel
poles, and supplied from pole-mounted or ground-mounted transformers.
North and Central American practice differs fundamentally from that in Europe, in
that LV networks are practically nonexistent, and 3-phase supplies to domestic
premises in residential areas are rare.
The distribution is effectively carried out at high voltage in a way, which again differs
from standard European practices. The HV system is, in fact, a 3-phase 4-wire system
from which single-phase distribution networks (phase and neutral conductors) supply
numerous single-phase transformers, the secondary windings of which are centretapped to produce 120/240 V single-phase 3-wire supplies. The central conductors
provide the LV neutrals, which, together with the HV neutral conductors, are solidly
earthed at intervals along their lengths.
Each HV/LV transformer normally supplies one or several premises directly from the
transformer position by radial service cable(s) or by overhead line(s).
Many other systems exist in these countries, but the one described appears to be
the most common.
Figure D4 (next page) shows the main features of the two systems.
D11
Ba
ck
D12
13.8 kV / 2.4-4.16 kV
N
1
2
3
N
2.4 kV / 120-240 V
1 ph - 3 wire
distribution
transformer
1 ph HV / 230 V
service transformer
to isolated consumer(s)
(rural supplies)
HV (1)
Ph
N
1
1
N
HV (2)
Resistor replaced
by a Petersen
coil on O/H line
systems in some
countries
N
2
2
N
3 ph
HV / 230/400 V
4-wire distribution
transformer
N 1 2 3
LV distribution network
Note: At primary voltages greater than 72.5 kV in bulk-supply substations, it is common practice in some European countries
to use an earthed-star primary winding and a delta secondary winding. The neutral point on the secondary side is then
provided by a zigzag earthing reactor, the star point of which is connected to earth through a resistor.
Frequently, the earthing reactor has a secondary winding to provide LV 3-phase supplies for the substation. It is then referred
to as an earthing transformer.
Ba
ck
CB
A MCCB -moulded case circuit-breaker- which incorporates a sensitive residualcurrent earth-fault protective feature is mandatory at the origin of any LV installation
forming part of a TT earthing system. The reason for this feature and related
leakage-current tripping levels are discussed in Clause 3 of Chapter G.
A further reason for this MCCB is that the consumer cannot exceed his (contractual)
declared maximum load, since the overload trip setting, which is sealed by the
supply authority, will cut off supply above the declared value. Closing and tripping of
the MCCB is freely available to the consumer, so that if the MCCB is inadvertently
tripped on overload, or due to an appliance fault, supplies can be quickly restored
following correction of the anomaly.
In view of the inconvenience to both the meter reader and consumer, the location of
meters is nowadays generally outside the premises, either:
c In a free-standing pillar-type housing as shown in Figures D6 and D7
c In a space inside a building, but with cable termination and supply authoritys fuses
located in a flush-mounted weatherproof cabinet accessible from the public way, as
shown in Figure D8 next page
c For private domestic consumers, the equipment shown in the cabinet in Figure D5
is installed in a weatherproof cabinet mounted vertically on a metal frame in the front
garden, or flush-mounted in the boundary wall, and accessible to authorized
personnel from the pavement. Figure D9 (next page) shows the general
arrangement, in which removable fuse links provide the means of isolation
Ba
ck
M
F CB
A
In this kind of installation it is often necessary to place the main installation circuit
breaker some distance from the point of utilization, e.g. saw-mills, pumping stations,
etc.
Ba
ck
CB
M
F
D13
Ba
ck
D14
M
CB
The service cable terminates in a flushmounted wall cabinet which contains the
isolating fuse links, accessible from the public way. This method is preferred for
esthetic reasons, when the consumer can provide a suitable metering and mainswitch location.
Ba
ck
Interface
Utility
Service cable
Consumer
Installation
Isolation by
fuse links
Meter
Meter cabinet
Main
circuit
breaker
In the field of electronic metering, techniques have developed which make their use
attractive by utilities either for electricity metering and for billing purposes, the
liberalisation of the electricity market having increased the needs for more data
collection to be returned from the meters. For example electronic metering can also
help utilities to understand their customers consumption profiles. In the same way,
they will be useful for more and more power line communication and radio-frequency
applications as well.
In this area, prepayment systems are also more and more employed when
economically justified. They are based on the fact that for instance consumers
having made their payment at vending stations, generate tokens to pass the
information concerning this payment on to the meters. For these systems the key
issues are security and inter-operability which seem to have been addressed
successfully now. The attractiveness of these systems is due to the fact they not only
replace the meters but also the billing systems, the reading of meters and the
administration of the revenue collection.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2005
Practical application
With the HV/LV transformer correctly selected at its off-circuit tapping switch, an
unloaded transformer output voltage will be held within a band of 2% of its no-load
voltage output.
To ensure that the transformer can maintain the necessary voltage level when fully
loaded, the output voltage at no-load must be as high as possible without exceeding
the upper + 5% limit (adopted for this example). In present-day practice, the winding
ratios generally give an output voltage of about 104% at no-load(1), when nominal
voltage is applied at HV, or is corrected by the tapping switch, as described above.
This would result in a voltage band of 102% to 106% in the present case.
A typical LV distribution transformer has a short-circuit reactance voltage of 5%. If it
is assumed that its resistance voltage is one tenth of this value, then the voltage drop
within the transformer when supplying full load at 0.8 power factor lagging, will be:
V% drop = R% cos + X% sin
= 0.5 x 0.8 + 5 x 0.6
= 0.4 + 3 = 3.4%
The voltage band at the output terminals of the fully-loaded transformer will therefore
be (102 - 3.4) = 98.6% to (106 - 3.4) = 102.6%.
The maximum allowable voltage drop along a distributor is therefore 98.6 - 95 = 3.6%.
This means, in practical terms, that a medium-sized 230/400 V 3-phase 4-wire
distribution cable of 240 mm2 copper conductors would be able to supply a total load
of 292 kVA at 0.8 PF lagging, distributed evenly over 306 metres of the distributor.
Alternatively, the same load at the premises of a single consumer could be supplied
at a distance of 153 metres from the transformer, for the same volt-drop, and so on...
As a matter of interest, the maximum rating of the cable, based on calculations
derived from IEC 60287 (1982) is 290 kVA, and so the 3.6% voltage margin is not
unduly restrictive, i.e. the cable can be fully loaded for distances normally required in
LV distribution systems.
Furthermore, 0.8 PF lagging is appropriate to industrial loads. In mixed semiindustrial areas 0.85 is a more common value, while 0.9 is generally used for
calculations concerning residential areas, so that the volt-drop noted above may be
considered as a worst case example.
D15
No attempt will be made in this guide to discuss particular tariffs, since there appears
to be as many different tariff structures around the world as there are utilities.
Some tariffs are very complicated in detail but certain elements are basic to all of
them and are aimed at encouraging consumers to manage their power consumption
in a way which reduces the cost of generation, transmission and distribution.
D16
The two predominant ways in which the cost of supplying power to consumers can
be reduced, are:
c Reduction of power losses in the generation, transmission and distribution of
electrical energy. In principle the lowest losses in a power system are attained when
all parts of the system operate at unity power factor
c Reduction of the peak power demand, while increasing the demand at low-load
periods, thereby exploiting the generating plant more fully, and minimizing plant
redundancy
Reduction of losses
Although the ideal condition noted in the first possibility mentioned above cannot be
realized in practice, many tariff structures are based partly on kVA demand, as well
as on kWh consumed. Since, for a given kW loading, the minimum value of kVA
occurs at unity power factor, the consumer can minimize billing costs by taking steps
to improve the power factor of the load (as discussed in Chapter K). The kVA
demand generally used for tariff purposes is the maximum average kVA demand
occurring during each billing period, and is based on average kVA demands, over
fixed periods (generally 10, 30 or 60 minute periods) and selecting the highest of
these values. The principle is described below in principle of kVA maximum-demand
metering.
Meters
It will be appreciated that high-quality instruments and devices are necessary to
implement this kind of metering, when using classical electro-mechanical equipment.
Recent developments in electronic metering and micro-processors, together with
remote ripple-control(1) from an utility control centre (to change peak-period timing
throughout the year, etc.) are now operational, and facilitate considerably the
application of the principles discussed.
In most countries, some tariffs, as noted above, are partly based on kVA demand, in
addition to the kWh consumption, during the billing periods (often 3-monthly
intervals). The maximum demand registered by the meter to be described, is, in fact,
a maximum (i.e. the highest) average kVA demand registered for succeeding periods
during the billing interval.
Figure D10 shows a typical kVA demand curve over a period of two hours divided
into succeeding periods of 10 minutes. The meter measures the average value of
kVA during each of these 10 minute periods.
D17
Ba
ck
kVA
Maximum average value
during the 2 hour interval
Average values
for 10 minute
periods
t
0
2 hrs
5x
1
= 5 x 6 = 30 kVA
1
6
Every point around the dial will be similarly marked i.e. the figure for average kVA
will be 6 times greater than the kVAh value at any given point. Similar reasoning can
be applied to any other reset-time interval.
At the end of the billing period, the red indicator will be at the maximum of all the
average values occurring in the billing period.
The red indicator will be reset to zero at the beginning of each billing period. Electromechanical meters of the kind described are rapidly being replaced by electronic
instruments. The basic measuring principles on which these electronic meters
depend however, are the same as those described above.
Chapter E
Distribution in low-voltage
installations
Contents
1
2
3
4
LV distribution schemes
E2
1.1 Principles
E2
E9
E10
E13
Earthing schemes
2.1 Earthing connections
E17
E17
E18
E21
E23
E25
E26
E30
E30
E33
E38
E38
4.2 Classification
E38
E38
E41
E1
1 LV distribution schemes
1.1 Principles
Main LV distribution schemes
In a typical LV installation, distribution circuits originate at a main low-voltage
switchboard (MLVS) from which conductors supply loads via sub-distribution and/or
final distribution boards.
E2
LV distribution levels
For medium to large sites, three distribution levels are generally used to supply
LV power to all loads:
c Distribution from the main low-voltage switchboard (MLVS)
At this level, power from one or more MV/LV transformers connected to the
MV network of the electrical utility is distributed to:
v Different areas of the site: shops in a factory, homogeneous production areas in
industrial premises, floors in office buildings, etc.
v Centralised high-power loads such as air compressors and water cooling units in
industrial processes or air conditioners and lifts in office buildings
c Sub-distribution used to distribute electricity within each area
c Final distribution, used to supply the various loads
Basic topologies (see Fig. E1 )
All distribution schemes are combinations of two basic topologies:
c Star topology: Radial (or centralised) distribution
c Bus topology: Distribution using busways (also referred to as busbar trunking systems)
Ba
ck
Star
Bus
Ba
1 LV distribution schemes
ck
Repartition within
the different areas
(floor, factory shop,
etc.)
E3
Final distribution
Supply to loads
v Medium-sized sites (e.g. factory, office building) are generally connected to the
utilitys MV network (see Fig. E3 ). One or more transformers and their MLVSs supply
the entire site.
v Large industrial or infrastructure sites (e.g. airports) are generally connected to the
utilitys HV network. An MV distribution system supplies MV/LV substations located
at different points on the site as illustrated in Figure E4 next page.
Ba
ck
Electrical distribution
to the different areas
of the building
Repartition within
the different areas
(floor, factory shop,
etc.)
Final distribution
Supply to loads
Ba
1 LV distribution schemes
ck
Electrical distribution
to the different areas
of the building
E4
Repartition within
the different areas
(floor, factory shop,
etc.)
Final distribution
Supply to loads
M
Ba
ck
c Lighting
c Office computing:
PC, ink-jet printers
c Manual work stations, e.g.
in the clothing industry
1 LV distribution schemes
Ba
ck
MLVS
(main LV switchboard)
Sub-distribution board
(workshop A)
Power
final distribution
board
M
Process
E5
1 LV distribution schemes
E6
Ba
ck
MLVS
(main LV switchboard)
Second busway
Busway
Process
Ba
ck
MLVS
(main LV switchboard)
C
Sub-distribution
board (office C)
To heating final
distribution board
Lighting
busway
Socket-outlet
busway
Fig. E8 : Radial branched distribution using busways for final distribution to lighting and socket-outlets
1 LV distribution schemes
ck
Ba
MLVS
(main LV switchboard)
Process
Ba
ck
Feeders supplied
by MLVS
Feeders supplied
by busway
E7
1 LV distribution schemes
Ba
ck
E8
Feeders supplied
by MLVS
Feeders supplied
by busway
Feeders supplied
by MLVS
v Advantages
- Greater design flexibility, independence of main LV switchboard level design and
installation with respect to the sub-distribution level, higher energy availability for the
site
- Parallel sources ensure the availability of electrical power in the event of failure of
one of them. They also make it possible to take into account non-uniformity in the
distribution of load power requirements over the site.
Changing neutral systems
In large LV installations, two voltage levels are normally used:
c 380 V, 400 V or 415 V (or exceptionally 480 V), mainly for motors (process
applications)
c 220 V, 230 V or 240 V (or exceptionally 277 V) for lighting and socket-outlet circuits
When the neutral is not distributed, LV/LV transformers will be installed wherever a
neutral is required. These transformers provide galvanic isolation of the circuits,
making it possible to change the neutral system and improve the main isolation
characteristics (see Fig. E12 ).
Ba
ck
IT system
400 V / 230 V
transformer
Residual current
device
TT system for
lighting circuits
PE protective
earthing conductor
1 LV distribution schemes
E9
Division of installations
For high power requirements, several transformers can be used to separate
sensitive or disturbance-producing loads, for example:
c Computer systems, which are sensitive to voltage regulation (dips and peaks) and
to waveform distortion (harmonics)
c Circuits that create harmonics, such as discharge lamps, electric converters of
various kinds (thyristor-controlled rectifiers, inverters, motor-speed controllers, etc.)
c Circuits that create excessive voltage variations, such as large motors, arc
furnaces, etc.
c Circuits subject to insulation resistance variations
Replacement sources
Examples include duplicate supply from two MV/LV substations, emergency
generating units, private power stations, UPSs and self-contained emergency
lighting units.
Subdivision of circuits
Ba
ck
HV
LV
G
B
k
ac
Standby generator
and automatic source
changeover system
MV
MV
LV
LV
Non-essential loads
Essential loads
UPS
Essential
loads
Non-essential
loads
Essential
loads
Sensitive load
(computer, etc.)
Non-essential
loads
Fig. E13 : Essential and non-essential loads are separated, with automatic standby supplies
provided for essential loads
1 LV distribution schemes
E10
A second earth fault (if it occurs on a different phase or on a neutral conductor) will,
however, constitute a short-circuit fault, which will cause overcurrent relays to trip the
circuit(s). See section 2.3 of Chapter E for the choice of an earthing system.
Note: This system can be specified for safety installations
Ba
ck
The prime objective in any scheme of automatic protection against insulation faults,
over-loading, etc., is to trip the circuit breaker or blow the fuse(s) which control(s) the
faulted circuit only, leaving all other circuit breakers and fuses unaffected.
Closed
In radial branched installations, this means tripping the nearest upstream circuit
breaker or fuse(s), all downstream loads then being inevitably deprived of supply.
Closed
Open
The short-circuit (or overload) current will generally pass through one or more circuit
breaker(s) or fuse(s) upstream of the circuit breaker (or fuses) controlling the faulted
cable.
Discrimination means that none of the upstream protective devices through which
the fault (or overload) current flows will operate before the protective device controlling
the faulted circuit has operated. In general, discrimination is achieved by increasing
the operating time of protective devices as their location in a network becomes closer
to the power source. In this way, the failure to operate of the closest protective device
to the fault means that the next upstream device will operate in a slightly longer time.
1 LV distribution schemes
Overvoltages
The damaging effects of overvoltages can be avoided:
c For overvoltages at power-system frequency by:
v Assuring adequate overvoltage withstand capability for the equipment concerned
v The use of voltage limiting devices where required, in a properly co-ordinated
insulation scheme. These devices are always necessary in IT earthed systems
c For transient (generally impulse-type) overvoltages, by:
v Effective coordination of the insulation scheme
v Lightning arresters
Types of overvoltages as well as their consequences and possible solutions are
dealt with in Chapter J.
E11
1 LV distribution schemes
Solutions
In general, an installation cannot tolerate a significant percentage of harmonics: a
maximum value of 5%(1) is commonly used for voltage harmonics and 10%(1) for
current harmonics.
Harmonics can be attenuated by:
c Installing delta/star zig-zag LV/LV transformers to isolate the 3rd harmonic and odd
multiples of the 3rd-harmonic
c Installing filters
E12
High-frequency phenomena
Ba
ck
Disturbance
Reference
IEC 61000-4-2
IEC 61000-4-3
Level
Minimum
Level 3
Level 2
Electrostatic discharge
Radio-frequency
electromagnetic fields
Electrical fast transients
(contact bounce)
Surges
Transient overvoltages
Recommended
Level 4
Level 3
IEC 61000-4-4
Level 2
Level 4
IEC 61000-4-5
IEC 60060-2
At the origin
of the installation
Level 2
Level 4
10 kV
7.5 kV
7.5 kV
5 kV
80 A
200 A
Other cases
Current waves
(lightning, switch closing)
IEC 61643-1
690 V
400 V
690 V
400 V
8/20 s
1 LV distribution schemes
Ba
ck
Apart from perceptible (albeit very brief) cuts in power supply, imperceptible
interruptions of several milli-seconds are sufficient to interfere with the operation of
certain equipment. As previously noted, UPS systems are essential in these cases,
and are used together with the reserve-power source to ensure the utmost security.
HV
LV
Diesel
generator
Automatic
bypass
UPS
Fig. E18 : Examples of reserve power supplies: central storage battery (left) and dieselgenerator sets (right)
E13
1 LV distribution schemes
Principal specifications
For economic reasons, the following requirements are often mandatory:
c Supply interruption is not tolerated:
v In information technology (IT) systems
v In continuous-process operations, except for loads of high inertia that can tolerate
an interruption in the order of 1 second
c Period for conserving data in information technology (IT) systems: 10 minutes
c Autonomy, often expressed as a backup time, is desirable for reserve-power
supplies installations; it is a function of the economics related to operation beyond
the minimum requirement for the safety of personnel
E14
Ba
ck
Fields of application
Applications
Installation examples
Conditions
Allowable duration of break
Solutions
Technique employed
Programmable controllers
IT equipment
Telecommunications
- Data bank
- Process control and
monitoring
- IT services
- Banking, insurance
- Administration
- Management system of
production process
Interruptible sequential
process
Continuous
process
- Cold-working sequence
- Light machining
- Packaging assembly chain
- Nuclear
- Chemical
- Biological
- Thermal
- Heavy mechanical (high inertia)
Zero
i 1 second
i 15 seconds
i 15 minutes
1 minute
20 minutes
1 hour
Permanent if economical
c
c
c (1)
c (1)
No-break generator or
start-up and take-over
of load from the UPS
c (2)
c
c
c
Fig. E19 : Table showing the choice of reserve-power supply types according to application requirements and acceptable supply-interruption times
1 LV distribution schemes
An overall review of the many possibilities and associated constraints often leads to
an optimum solution based on a UPS scheme associated with a standby diesel
generator set. Batteries provide an uninterrupted supply of power during the start-up
and load pick-up time of the standby generator set (see Fig. E20 ).
Ba
ck
Emergency and/or
reserve power supply
Battery
UPS
Cold-start diesel
E15
Load pick-up (1)
Generators in
continuous operation
c
c
c
Installation constraints
Special location
(type of battery)
Special DC network
Periodic shut-downs
for checking and
maintenance work
Little upkeep required
4 to 5 years (2)
x 2 if installation
is permanent
Constant checking is
important (numerous
human errors)
Special location
(vibrations, noise, access required for maintenance, fire protection)
Fuel tanks
Starter, by batteries or
compressed air
Automatic synchronising
equipment
Automatic
Manual or automatic
Periodic startups
Automatic
Fixed maximum load
None
Unless batteries are
vented type
4 to 5 years
(for sealed batteries)
Typically 2 for 1
and 3 for 2
Integrated checks
Minor mechanical
constraints only, except
for clutch and coupling
shaft
5 to 10 years
x 2 where security
is important
Mechanical, particularly
clutch assembly and
coupling shaft
x 2 if the installation
is permanent
Mechanical and
synchronisation system
(1) A motor-generator set running continuously and equipped with a heavy flywheel
On the loss of normal supply, the pick-up of load generally requires less than 1 second
(2) Longer if the battery is of the vented type
(3) Before requiring a major overhaul
(4) A study of safety requirements allows the definition of an optimal scheme
(5) According to whether the set is pre-heated or not
Ba
ck
1 LV distribution schemes
Normal power
source
Diesel
generator
Protection and distribution
equipment (complementary)
Possible
transformer (1)
E16
Network 1
Network 2
Battery
charger
Battery
protection
box
Static
changeover
switch
Inverter
Manual maintenance
bypass switch
Protection and
distribution equipment
(complementary)
Fig. E21 : Example of a UPS / generating-set combination with an automatic changeover system
During UPS operation under normal conditions, AC power flows into the rectifier
section and a very small portion of the DC power at the output of the rectifier is used
to keep the battery fully charged. The remainder of the DC power is converted into
clean AC power for the load.
In the event of a changeover from normal supply to reserve-power generator supply,
it is important (particularly if the load to be supplied from the generator is large
compared to its rating) that damaging transient torques on the generator shaft and
couplings be avoided. Such torques occur for suddenly applied loads and are due to
the oscillating transient torque of the shaft and the steady load torque adding and
subtracting at the natural frequency of the shaft oscillations. To avoid this
phenomenon, the rectifier is controlled electronically to pass a low current initially
that is then gradually increased until the load is supplied entirely by the generator.
This operation lasts for 10-15 seconds.
UPS shutdown is also carried out gradually by similar controls on the rectifier
circuits.
A gradual application of load also avoids the possibility of large transient currents
and fluctuations in frequency, the latter being due to the inertia in the speedregulation governor system of the prime mover.
The rectifier in the conversion system creates harmonic currents which generally
means that the reserve-power generator has to be derated (i.e. an oversized
generator may have to be installed). This question should be discussed with the
UPS manufacturer.
In the example shown in Figure E21, the output from the UPS is synchronised with
the input supply to the rectifier so that, in the event of overloading or failure of the
UPS inverter, instantaneous closing of the static changeover switch will maintain
supply.
2 Earthing schemes
Ba
ck
Extraneous
conductive
parts
4
3
3
Main
protective
conductor
Heating
Water
4
Branched
protective
conductors
to individual
consumers
Connections
The main equipotential bonding system
The bonding is carried out by protective conductors and the aim is to ensure that, in
the event of an incoming extraneous conductor (such as a gas pipe, etc.) being
raised to some potential due to a fault external to the building, no difference of
potential can occur between extraneous-conductive-parts within the installation.
The bonding must be effected as close as possible to the point(s) of entry into the
building, and be connected to the main earthing terminal (6).
However, connections to earth of metallic sheaths of communications cables require
the authorisation of the owners of the cables.
Gas 5
2
1
E17
2 Earthing schemes
Ba
ck
E18
as extraneous-conductive-parts
Elements used in building construction
c Metal or reinforced concrete (RC):
v Steel-framed structure
v Reinforcement rods
v Prefabricated RC panels
c Surface finishes:
v Floors and walls in reinforced concrete
without further surface treatment
v Tiled surface
c Metallic covering:
v Metallic wall covering
Building services elements other than electrical
c Metal pipes, conduits, trunking, etc. for gas,
water and heating systems, etc.
c Related metal components (furnaces, tanks,
reservoirs, radiators)
c Metallic fittings in wash rooms, bathrooms,
toilets, etc.
c Metallised papers
as extraneous-conductive-parts
c Wooden-block floors
c Rubber-covered or linoleum-covered floors
c Dry plaster-block partition
c Brick walls
c Carpets and wall-to-wall carpeting
2 Earthing schemes
Ba
ck
E18
as extraneous-conductive-parts
Elements used in building construction
c Metal or reinforced concrete (RC):
v Steel-framed structure
v Reinforcement rods
v Prefabricated RC panels
c Surface finishes:
v Floors and walls in reinforced concrete
without further surface treatment
v Tiled surface
c Metallic covering:
v Metallic wall covering
Building services elements other than electrical
c Metal pipes, conduits, trunking, etc. for gas,
water and heating systems, etc.
c Related metal components (furnaces, tanks,
reservoirs, radiators)
c Metallic fittings in wash rooms, bathrooms,
toilets, etc.
c Metallised papers
as extraneous-conductive-parts
c Wooden-block floors
c Rubber-covered or linoleum-covered floors
c Dry plaster-block partition
c Brick walls
c Carpets and wall-to-wall carpeting
2 Earthing schemes
Earth
Earth
L1
L2
L3
N
PE
Ba
ck
Rn
Ba
ck
Neutral
Earth
Neutral
L1
L2
L3
PEN
Rn
Ba
ck
L1
L2
L3
N
PE
One point at the supply source is connected directly to earth. All exposed- and
extraneous-conductive-parts are connected to a separate earth electrode at the
installation. This electrode may or may not be electrically independent of the source
electrode. The two zones of influence may overlap without affecting the operation of
protective devices.
Rn
Ba
ck
5 x 50 mm2
L1
L2
L3
N
PE
PEN
PE
16 mm2
6 mm2
16 mm2
16 mm2
PEN
Bad
Bad
E19
2 Earthing schemes
Ba
ck
4 x 95 mm2
L1
L2
L3
PEN
16 mm2
E20
10 mm2
6 mm2
6 mm2
PEN
PEN
N
Correct
Incorrect
Correct
S < 10 mm 2
TNC prohibited
ck
Neutral
Isolated or
impedance-earthed
Earth
Ba
ck
MV/LV
R1
C1
C2
R2
R3
C3
Ba
Incorrect
Ba
ck
ck
MV/LV
MV/LV
Zct
Zs
2 Earthing schemes
Ba
ck
E21
Note: If the exposed conductive parts are earthed at a number of points, an RCD
must be installed for each set of circuits connected to a given earth electrode.
Main characteristics
c Simplest solution to design and install. Used in installations supplied directly by the
public LV distribution network.
c Does not require continuous monitoring during operation (a periodic check on the
RCDs may be necessary).
c Protection is ensured by special devices, the residual current devices (RCD),
which also prevent the risk of fire when they are set to i 500 mA.
c Each insulation fault results in an interruption in the supply of power, however the
outage is limited to the faulty circuit by installing the RCDs in series (selective RCDs)
or in parallel (circuit selection).
c Loads or parts of the installation which, during normal operation, cause high leakage
currents, require special measures to avoid nuisance tripping, i.e. supply the loads
with a separation transformer or use specific RCDs (see section 7.1 in chapter F).
The TN system:
c Technique for the protection of persons:
v Interconnection and earthing of exposed
conductive parts and the neutral are mandatory
v Interruption for the first fault using overcurrent
protection (circuit breakers or fuses)
Ba
ck
PEN
Ba
ck
N
PE
2 Earthing schemes
Main characteristics
c Generally speaking, the TN system:
v requires the installation of earth electrodes at regular intervals throughout the
installation
v Requires that the initial check on effective tripping for the first insulation fault be
carried out by calculations during the design stage, followed by mandatory
measurements to confirm tripping during commissioning
v Requires that any modification or extension be designed and carried out by a
qualified electrician
v May result, in the case of insulation faults, in greater damage to the windings of
rotating machines
v May, on premises with a risk of fire, represent a greater danger due to the higher
fault currents
E22
IT system:
c Protection technique:
v Interconnection and earthing of exposed
conductive parts
v Indication of the first fault by an insulation
monitoring device (IMD)
v Interruption for the second fault using
overcurrent protection (circuit breakers or fuses)
c Operating technique:
v Monitoring of the first insulation fault
v Mandatory location and clearing of the fault
v Interruption for two simultaneous insulation
faults
Ba
ck
Cardew
IMD
Main characteristics
c Solution offering the best continuity of service during operation
c Indication of the first insulation fault, followed by mandatory location and clearing,
ensures systematic prevention of supply outages
c Generally used in installations supplied by a private MV/LV or LV/LV transformer
c Requires maintenance personnel for monitoring and operation
c Requires a high level of insulation in the network (implies breaking up the network
if it is very large and the use of circuit-separation transformers to supply loads with
high leakage currents)
c The check on effective tripping for two simultaneous faults must be carried out by
calculations during the design stage, followed by mandatory measurements during
commissioning on each group of interconnected exposed conductive parts
c Protection of the neutral conductor must be ensured as indicated in section 7.2 of
Chapter G
2 Earthing schemes
Ba
ck
TT
TN-S
TN-C
IT1
IT2
Comments
Electrical characteristics
Fault current
Fault voltage
--
--
+
+
--
Touch voltage
+/- -
Protection
Protection of persons against indirect contact
Not
+
allowed
Overvoltages
Continuous overvoltage
+
-
+
+
+
+
+
-
Only the IT system avoids tripping for the first insulation fault
The TN-S, TNC and IT (2nd fault) systems generate high fault
currents which may cause phase voltage dips
Installation
Special devices
-/+
-/+
Number of cables
Maintenance
Cost of repairs
--
--
--
Installation damage
++
Transient overvoltage
Overvoltage if transformer breakdown
(primary/secondary)
Electromagnetic compatibility
Immunity to nearby lightning strikes
E23
Ba
ck
E24
2 Earthing schemes
Type of network
Very large network with high-quality earth electrodes
for exposed conductive parts (10 max.)
Very large network with low-quality earth electrodes
for exposed conductive parts (> 30 )
Disturbed area (storms)
(e.g. television or radio transmitter)
Network with high leakage currents (> 500 mA)
Advised
TN
Possible
TT, TN, IT (1)
or mixed
TN-S
TN
TT
IT (1)
TN-C
IT (2)
TN (4)
TT (5)
IT (4)
TT (3) (4)
TN (5) (6)
IT (6)
IT
TT
TN (7)
Type of loads
Loads sensitive to high fault currents (motors, etc.)
IT
TT
TN (8)
TN (9)
TT (9)
IT
TT (11)
IT (10)
TN-C (10)
IT (11)
TN-S
TN-C
IT (12 bis)
TT (12)
Miscellaneous
Supply via star-star connected power transformer (13)
TT
IT (15)
IT
without neutral
TN-S (15)
TT (15)
IT (13)
with neutral
TN-C (14)
TT (10)
TN-S
TN (11)
Not advised
TT (16)
LV
MV/LV
TT (17)
TT (19)
TN-S
TN-S
IT (20)
TT
TN-S, TT
TN (18)
IT (18)
TN-C
IT (19)
TN-C
(1) When the SEA is not imposed by regulations, it is selected according to the level of operating characteristics (continuity of service that is
mandatory for safety reasons or desired to enhance productivity, etc.)
Whatever the SEA, the probability of an insulation failure increases with the length of the network. It may be a good idea to break up the
network, which facilitates fault location and makes it possible to implement the system advised above for each type of application.
(2) The risk of flashover on the surge limiter turns the isolated neutral into an earthed neutral. These risks are high for regions with frequent
thunder storms or installations supplied by overhead lines. If the IT system is selected to ensure a higher level of continuity of service, the
system designer must precisely calculate the tripping conditions for a second fault.
(3) Risk of RCD nuisance tripping.
(4) Whatever the SEA, the ideal solution is to isolate the disturbing section if it can be easily identified.
(5) Risks of phase-to-earth faults affecting equipotentiality.
(6) Insulation is uncertain due to humidity and conducting dust.
(7) The TN system is not advised due to the risk of damage to the generator in the case of an internal fault. What is more, when generator sets
supply safety equipment, the system must not trip for the first fault.
(8) The phase-to-earth current may be several times higher than In, with the risk of damaging or accelerating the ageing of motor windings, or
of destroying magnetic circuits.
(9) To combine continuity of service and safety, it is necessary and highly advised, whatever the SEA, to separate these loads from the rest of
the installation (transformers with local neutral connection).
(10) When load equipment quality is not a design priority, there is a risk that the insulation resistance will fall rapidly. The TT system with RCDs
is the best means to avoid problems.
(11) The mobility of this type of load causes frequent faults (sliding contact for bonding of exposed conductive parts) that must be countered.
Whatever the SEA, it is advised to supply these circuits using transformers with a local neutral connection.
(12) Requires the use of transformers with a local TN system to avoid operating risks and nuisance tripping at the first fault (TT) or a double fault (IT).
(12 bis) With a double break in the control circuit.
(13) Excessive limitation of the phase-to-neutral current due to the high value of the zero-phase impedance (at least 4 to 5 times the direct
impedance). This system must be replaced by a star-delta arrangement.
(14) The high fault currents make the TN system dangerous. The TN-C system is forbidden.
(15) Whatever the system, the RCD must be set to n i 500 mA.
(16) An installation supplied with LV energy must use the TT system. Maintaining this SEA means the least amount of modifications on the
existing network (no cables to be run, no protection devices to be modified).
(17) Possible without highly competent maintenance personnel.
(18) This type of installation requires particular attention in maintaining safety. The absence of preventive measures in the TN system means
highly qualified personnel are required to ensure safety over time.
(19) The risks of breaks in conductors (supply, protection) may cause the loss of equipotentiality for exposed conductive parts. A TT system or
a TN-S system with 30 mA RCDs is advised and is often mandatory. The IT system may be used in very specific cases.
(20) This solution avoids nuisance tripping for unexpected earth leakage.
Fig. E38 : Influence of networks and loads on the selection of system earthing arrangements
2 Earthing schemes
Division of source
This technique concerns the use of several transformers instead of employing one
high-rated unit. In this way, a load that is a source of network disturbances (large
motors, furnaces, etc.) can be supplied by its own transformer.
The quality and continuity of supply to the whole installation are thereby improved.
The cost of switchgear is reduced (short-circuit current level is lower).
The cost-effectiveness of separate transformers must be determined on a case by
case basis.
Network islands
The creation of galvanically-separated islands by means of LV/LV transformers
makes it possible to optimise the choice of earthing methods to meet specific
requirements (see Fig. E39 and Fig. E40 ).
Ba
ck
MV/LV
IMD
IT system
LV/LV
TN-S system
Ba
ck
MV/LV
TN-S
LV/LV
LV/LV
IMD
IT
TN-S system
Hospital
IMD
IT
Operating room
Conclusion
The optimisation of the performance of the whole installation governs the choice of
earthing system.
Including:
c Initial investments, and
c Future operational expenditures, hard to assess, that can arise from insufficient
reliability, quality of equipment, safety, continuity of service, etc.
An ideal structure would comprise normal power supply sources, local reserve power
supply sources (see section 1.4 of Chapter E) and the appropriate earthing
arrangements.
E25
2 Earthing schemes
E26
2
where
L
L = length of the buried conductor in metres
= soil resistivity in ohm-metres
ohms by: R =
Installation methods
Three common types of installation will be discussed:
Buried ring (see Fig. E41 )
This solution is strongly recommended, particularly in the case of a new building.
The electrode should be buried around the perimeter of the excavation made for the
foundations. It is important that the bare conductor be in intimate contact with the soil
(and not placed in the gravel or aggregate hard-core, often forming a base for
concrete). At least four (widely-spaced) vertically arranged conductors from the
electrode should be provided for the installation connections and, where possible,
any reinforcing rods in concrete work should be connected to the electrode.
The conductor forming the earth electrode, particularly when it is laid in an
excavation for foundations, must be in the earth, at least 50 cm below the hard-core
or aggregate base for the concrete foundation. Neither the electrode nor the vertical
rising conductors to the ground floor, should ever be in contact with the foundation
concrete.
For existing buildings, the electrode conductor should be buried around the outside
wall of the premises to a depth of at least 1 metre. As a general rule, all vertical
connections from an electrode to above-ground level should be insulated for the
nominal LV voltage (600-1,000 V).
The conductors may be:
c Copper: Bare cable (u 25 mm2) or multiple-strip (u 25 mm2 and u 2 mm thick)
c Aluminium with lead jacket: Cable (u 35 mm2)
c Galvanised-steel cable: Bare cable (u 95 mm2) or multiple-strip (u 100 mm2
and u 3 mm thick)
The approximate resistance R of the electrode in ohms:
2
L
where
L = length of conductor in metres
= resistivity of the soil in ohm-metres (see Influence of the type of soil next page)
R=
For n rods: R =
1
nL
Ba
ck
Ba
ck
Lu3m
2 Earthing schemes
It is often necessary to use more than one rod, in which case the spacing between
them should exceed the depth to which they are driven, by a factor of 2 to 3.
The total resistance (in homogeneous soil) is then equal to the resistance of one rod,
divided by the number of rods in question. The approximate resistance R obtained in
ohms: if the distance separating the rods > 4L.
1
nL
where
L = the length of the rod in metres
= resistivity of the soil in ohm-metres (see Influence of the type of soil below)
n = the number of rods
R=
0.8
L
0.8
L
L = the perimeter of the plate in metres
= resistivity of the soil in ohm-metres (see Influence of the type of soil below)
R=
Ba
ck
Type of soil
Ba
ck
Ba
2 mm thickness (Cu)
ck
Type of soil
Fertile soil, compacted damp fill
Arid soil, gravel, uncompacted non-uniform fill
Stoney soil, bare, dry sand, fissured rocks
E27
2 Earthing schemes
E28
Ba
ck
t1
T
t2
Fig. E46 : Measurement of the resistance to earth of the earth electrode of an installation by
means of an ammeter
A = RT + Rt1 =
UTt1
i1
B = Rt1 + Rt 2 =
Ut1t 2
i2
C = Rt 2 + RT =
Ut 2T
i3
When the source voltage U is constant (adjusted to be the same value for each test)
then:
RT =
U 1 1 1
+
2 i1 i3 i2
2 Earthing schemes
In order to avoid errors due to stray earth currents (galvanic -DC- or leakage
currents from power and communication networks and so on) the test current should
be AC, but at a different frequency to that of the power system or any of its
harmonics. Instruments using hand-driven generators to make these measurements
usually produce an AC voltage at a frequency of between 85 Hz and 135 Hz.
The distances between the electrodes are not critical and may be in different
directions from the electrode being tested, according to site conditions. A number of
tests at different spacings and directions are generally made to cross-check the test
results.
c Use of a direct-reading earthing-resistance ohmmeter
These instruments use a hand-driven or electronic-type AC generator, together with
two auxiliary electrodes, the spacing of which must be such that the zone of
influence of the electrode being tested should not overlap that of the test electrode (C).
The test electrode (C) furthest from the electrode (X) under test, passes a current
through the earth and the electrode under test, while the second test electrode (P)
picks up a voltage. This voltage, measured between (X) and (P), is due to the test
current and is a measure of the contact resistance (of the electrode under test) with
earth. It is clear that the distance (X) to (P) must be carefully chosen to give accurate
results. If the distance (X) to (C) is increased, however, the zones of resistance of
electrodes (X) and (C) become more remote, one from the other, and the curve of
potential (voltage) becomes more nearly horizontal about the point (O).
In practical tests, therefore, the distance (X) to (C) is increased until readings taken
with electrode (P) at three different points, i.e. at (P) and at approximately 5 metres
on either side of (P), give similar values. The distance (X) to (P) is generally about
0.68 of the distance (X) to (C).
Ba
ck
VG
G
voltage-drop due
to the resistance
of electrode (X)
O
VG
voltage-drop due
to the resistance
of electrode (C)
a) the principle of measurement is based on assumed homogeneous soil conditions where the
zones of influence of electrodes C and X everlap, the location of test electrode P is difficult to
determine for satisfactory results.
b) showing the effect on the potential gradient when (X) and (C) are widely spaced. The location
of test electrode P is not critical and can be easily determined.
Fig. E46bis : Measurement of the resistance to the mass of earth of electrode (X) using an
earth-electrode-testing ohmmeter.
E29
E30
Fig. E47 : [a] A main LV switchboard - MLVS - (Prisma Plus P) with incoming circuits in the form
of busways - [b] A LV motor control centre - MCC - (Okken)
Fig. E49 : Final distribution boards [a] Prisma Plus G Pack; [b] Kaedra; [c] mini-Pragma
The new Prisma Plus G and P ranges of functional distribution boards from
Schneider Electric cover needs up to 3200 A and offer:
v Flexibility and ease in building distribution boards
v Certification of a distribution board complying with standard IEC 60439 and the
assurance of servicing under safe conditions
v Time savings at all stages, from design to installation, operation and modifications
or upgrades
v Easy adaptation, for example to meet the specific work habits and standards in
different countries
Figures E47a, E48 and E49 show examples of functional distribution boards ranging
for all power ratings and figure E47b shows a high-power industrial functional
distribution board.
c Main types of functional units
Three basic technologies are used in functional distribution boards.
v Fixed functional units (see Fig. E50 )
These units cannot be isolated from the supply so that any intervention for
maintenance, modifications and so on, requires the shutdown of the entire
distribution board. Plug-in or withdrawable devices can however be used to minimise
shutdown times and improve the availability of the rest of the installation.
v Disconnectable functional units (see Fig. E51 )
Each functional unit is mounted on a removable mounting plate and provided with a
means of isolation on the upstream side (busbars) and disconnecting facilities on the
downstream (outgoing circuit) side. The complete unit can therefore be removed for
servicing, without requiring a general shutdown.
v Drawer-type withdrawable functional units (see Fig. E52 )
The switchgear and associated accessories for a complete function are mounted on
a drawer-type horizontally withdrawable chassis. The function is generally complex
and often concerns motor control.
Isolation is possible on both the upstream and downstream sides by the complete
withdrawal of the drawer, allowing fast replacement of a faulty unit without deenergising the rest of the distribution board.
E31
Standards
Compliance with applicable standards is
essential in order to ensure an adequate
degree of dependability
Different standards
Certain types of distribution boards (in particular, functional distribution boards) must
comply with specific standards according to the application or environment involved.
The reference international standard is IEC 60439-1 type-tested and partially typetested assemblies
Ba
ck
Form 1
Form 2a
Form 2b
Form 3a
Busbar
Separation
Form 3b
Form 4a
Form 4b
The term cableway refers to conductors and/or cables together with the means of
support and protection, etc. for example : cable trays, ladders, ducts, trenches, and
so on are all cableways.
Conductor marking
Conductor identification must always respect the following three rules:
c Rule 1
The double colour green and yellow is strictly reserved for the PE and PEN
protection conductors.
c Rule 2
v When a circuit comprises a neutral conductor, it must be light blue or marked 1
for cables with more than five conductors
v When a circuit does not have a neutral conductor, the light blue conductor may be
used as a phase conductor if it is part of a cable with more than one conductor
c Rule 3
Phase conductors may be any colour except:
v Green and yellow
v Green
v Yellow
v Light blue (see rule 2)
E33
The term cableway refers to conductors and/or cables together with the means of
support and protection, etc. for example : cable trays, ladders, ducts, trenches, and
so on are all cableways.
Conductor marking
Conductor identification must always respect the following three rules:
c Rule 1
The double colour green and yellow is strictly reserved for the PE and PEN
protection conductors.
c Rule 2
v When a circuit comprises a neutral conductor, it must be light blue or marked 1
for cables with more than five conductors
v When a circuit does not have a neutral conductor, the light blue conductor may be
used as a phase conductor if it is part of a cable with more than one conductor
c Rule 3
Phase conductors may be any colour except:
v Green and yellow
v Green
v Yellow
v Light blue (see rule 2)
E33
Conductors in a cable are identified either by their colour or by numbers (see Fig. E54 ).
Ba
ck
E34
Number of Circuit
conductors
in circuit
1
2
5
>5
Fixed cableways
Insulated conductors
Protection or earth
Single-phase between phases
Single-phase between phase and neutral
Single-phase between phase and neutral
+ protection conductor
Three-phase without neutral
2 phases + neutral
2 phases + protection conductor
Single-phase between phase and neutral
+ protection conductor
Three-phase with neutral
Three-phase with neutral + protection conductor
2 phases + neutral + protection conductor
Three-phase with PEN conductor
Three-phase + neutral + protection conductor
BL: Black
c : As indicated in rule 3
Ph
Ph
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
Pn
PE
G/Y
LB
G/Y
c
LB
LB
G/Y
G/Y
LB
BL
BL
BL
BL
B
B
LB
PE
LB
G/Y
LB
LB
LB
G/Y
G/Y
c
c
c
LB
BL
B
BL
LB
c
c
c
G/Y
BL
B
LB
G/Y
c
c
LB
G/Y
BL
B
LB
G/Y
c
c
c
G/Y
BL
B
LB
G/Y
c
c
c
LB
G/Y
BL
B
BL
LB
G/Y
Protection conductor: G/Y - Other conductors: BL: with numbering
The number 1 is reserved for the neutral conductor if it exists
LB: Light blue
B: Brown
Note: If the circuit includes a protection conductor and if the available cable does not
have a green and yellow conductor, the protection conductor may be:
c A separate green and yellow conductor
c The blue conductor if the circuit does not have a neutral conductor
c A black conductor if the circuit has a neutral conductor
In the last two cases, the conductor used must be marked by green and yellow
bands or markings at the ends and on all visible lengths of the conductor.
Equipment power cords are marked similar to multi-conductor cables (see Fig. E55 ).
Distribution and installation methods (see Fig. E56 )
Distribution takes place via cableways that carry single insulated conductors or
cables and include a fixing system and mechanical protection.
Ba
ck
Final
distribution
board
Ba
ck
Floor subdistribution
board
Main LV switchboard
(MLVS)
Black conductor
Heating, etc.
E35
E36
E37
Fig. E61 : A busway for lighting distribution designed for suspended lighting fixtures: Canalis KB
(25 to 40 A)
Fig. E62 : A busway for lighting distribution designed for separate lighting fixtures:
Canalis KDP (20 A)
4 External influences
(IEC 60364-5-51)
4.2 Classification
Each condition of external influence is designated by a code comprising a group of
two capital letters and a number as follows:
First letter (A, B or C)
The first letter relates to the general category of external influence :
c A = environment
c B = utilisation
c C = construction of buildings
Second letter
The second letter relates to the nature of the external influence.
Number
The number relates to the class within each external influence.
Additional letter (optional)
Used only if the effective protection of persons is greater than that indicated by the
first IP digit.
When only the protection of persons is to be specified, the two digits of the IP code
are replaced by the Xs.
Example: IP XXB.
Example
For example the code AC2 signifies:
A = environment
AC = environment-altitude
AC2 = environment-altitude > 2,000 m
Ba
ck
Figure E63 below is from IEC 60364-5-51, which should be referred to if further
details are required.
Fig. E63 : List of external influences (taken from Appendix A of IEC 60364-5-51) (continued on next page)
Ba
ck
4 External influences
(IEC 60364-5-51)
Relative humidity %
Low
High
3
100
10
100
10
100
5
95
5
85
10
100
10
100
15
100
E39
Normal
Normal
Appropriate arrangements shall be made
Normal
May necessitate precaution (derating factors)
Outdoor or non-weather protected locations
IPX0
IPX1 or IPX2
IPX3
IPX4
IPX5
IPX6
IPX7
Fig. E63 : List of external influences (taken from Appendix A of IEC 60364-5-51) (continued on next page)
Ba
E40
ck
4 External influences
(IEC 60364-5-51)
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal
Fig. E63 : List of external influences (taken from Appendix A of IEC 60364-5-51) (concluded)
4 External influences
(IEC 60364-5-51)
E41
Note: the IP code applies to electrical equipment for voltages up to and including
72.5 kV.
ck
B a Element
Code letters
First
characteristic
numeral
Second
characteristic
numeral
Ba
ck
IP
Code letters
(International Protection)
First characteristic numeral
(numerals 0 to 6, or letter X)
Additional
letter
(optional)
Supplementary
letter
(optional)
Numerals
or letters
Against access to
hazardous parts with
(non-protected)
u 50 mm diameter
u 12.5 mm diameter
u 2.5 mm diameter
u 1.0 mm diameter
Dust-protected
Dust-tight
(non-protected)
Back of hand
Finger
Tool
Wire
Wire
Wire
IP
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
(non-protected)
Vertically dripping
Dripping (15 tilted)
Spraying
Splashing
Jetting
Powerful jetting
Temporary immersion
Continuous immersion
Against access to
hazardous parts with
A
B
C
D
H
M
S
W
back of hand
Finger
Tool
Wire
Supplementary information specific to:
High-voltage apparatus
Motion during water test
Stationary during water test
Weather conditions
4 External influences
(IEC 60364-5-51)
IK Code definition
Standard IEC 62262 defines an IK code that characterises the aptitude of equipment
to resist mechanical impacts on all sides (see Fig. E66 ).
Ba
E42
ck
IK code
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
Impact energy
(in Joules)
0
i 0.14
i 0.20
i 0.35
i 0.50
i 0.70
i1
i2
i5
i 10
i 20
AG code
AG1
AG2
AG3
AG4
Ba
ck
Technical rooms
Hallways
Workshops
30
31
54/55
Technical rooms
Hallways
07
08 (enclosure
with door)
10
IK recommendations
ck
Ba
Workshops
Chapter F
Protection against electric shocks
Contents
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
General
F2
F2
F3
F3
F4
F4
F5
F6
F6
F7
F8
F10
F13
F17
F17
F17
F19
F19
F20
F22
F25
F25
F25
F29
F30
F30
F31
F31
F32
F36
F37
F37
F38
8.1 Description
F38
F38
F1
1 General
Ba
ck
Duration of current
flow I (ms)
A
10,000
C 1 C2 C3
5,000
AC-4.1
AC-4.2
2,000
AC-4.3
1,000
500
AC-1
AC-2
AC-3
AC-4
200
100
50
20
Body current
Is (mA)
10
0.1 0.2
0.5
10
20
50
100 200
500
2,000
10,000
1,000
5,000
Fig. F1 : Zones time/current of effects of AC current on human body when passing from one hand to the other hand
1 General
Direct contact
A direct contact refers to a person coming into contact with a conductor which is live
in normal circumstances (see Fig. F2 ).
IEC 61140 standard has renamed protection against direct contact with the term
basic protection. The former name is at least kept for information.
Indirect contact
An indirect contact refers to a person coming into contact with an exposedconductive-part which is not normally alive, but has became alive accidentally (due
to insulation failure or some other cause).
The fault current raise the exposed-conductive-part to a voltage liable to be
hazardous which could be at the origin of a touch current through a person coming
into contact with this exposed-conductive-part (see Fig. F3 ).
IEC 61140 standard has renamed protection against indirect contact with the term
fault protection. The former name is at least kept for information.
ck
ck
Ba
Ba
1
1
PE
Id
Busbars
Insulation
failure
Is
Is
F3
Ba
ck
Fig. F4 : Inherent protection against direct contact by insulation of a 3-phase cable with outer
sheath
F5
F6
Ba
ck
Earth
connection
Uc
The greater the value of Uc, the greater the rapidity of supply disconnection required
to provide protection (see Fig. F8 ). The highest value of Uc that can be tolerated
indefinitely without danger to human beings is 50 Vac.
Ba
ck
Uo (V)
50 < Uo i 120
System TN or IT 0.8
TT
0.3
Uo > 400
0.1
0.04
Fig. F8 : Maximum safe duration of the assumed values of AC touch voltage (in seconds)
I n i
50
where RA is the resistance of the
RA
Principle
In this system all exposed-conductive-parts and extraneous-conductive-parts of the
installation must be connected to a common earth electrode. The neutral point of the
supply system is normally earthed at a pint outside the influence area of the
installation earth electrode, but need not be so. The impedance of the earth-fault
loop therefore consists mainly in the two earth electrodes (i.e. the source and
installation electrodes) in series, so that the magnitude of the earth fault current is
generally too small to operate overcurrent relay or fuses, and the use of a residual
current operated device is essential.
This principle of protection is also valid if one common earth electrode only is used,
notably in the case of a consumer-type substation within the installation area, where
space limitation may impose the adoption of a TN system earthing, but where all
other conditions required by the TN system cannot be fulfilled.
Protection by automatic disconnection of he supply used in TT system is by RCD of
50
sensitivity: I n i
R
A
where
RA is the resistance of the earth electrode for the installation
In is the rated residual operating current of the RCD
For temporary supplies (to work sites, ) and agricultural and horticultural premises,
the value of 50 V is replaced by 25 V.
Ba
ck
Uo(1) (V)
T (s)
50 < Uo i 120
0.3
120 < Uo i 230
0.2
230 < Uo i 400
0.07
Uo > 400
0.04
(1) Uo is the nominal phase to earth voltage
Fig. F10 : Maximum disconnecting time for AC final circuits not exceeding 32 A
Ba
ck
1
2
3
N
PE
Rn = 10
RA = 20
Uf
Substation
earth
electrode
Installation
earth
electrode
F7
Ba
ck
x In
Domestic
Industrial
Instantaneous
Type S
Instantaneous
Time-delay (0.06)
Time-delay (other)
1
2
5
0.3
0.15
0.04
0.5
0.2
0.15
0.3
0.15
0.04
0.5
0.2
0.15
According to manufacturer
>5
0.04
0.15
0.04
0.15
F8
Principle
In this system all exposed and extraneous-conductive-parts of the installation are
connected directly to the earthed point of the power supply by protective conductors.
As noted in Chapter E Sub-clause 2.2, the way in which this direct connection is
carried out depends on whether the TN-C, TN-S, or TN-C-S method of implementing
the TN principle is used. In figure F12 the method TN-C is shown, in which the
neutral conductor acts as both the Protective-Earth and Neutral (PEN) conductor. In
all TN systems, any insulation fault to earth results in a phase to neutral short-circuit.
High fault current levels allow to use overcurrent protection but can give rise to touch
voltages exceeding 50% of the phase to neutral voltage at the fault position during
the short disconnection time.
In practice for utility distribution network, earth electrodes are normally installed at
regular intervals along the protective conductor (PE or PEN) of the network, while
the consumer is often required to install an earth electrode at the service entrance.
On large installations additional earth electrodes dispersed around the premises are
often provided, in order to reduce the touch voltage as much as possible. In high-rise
apartment blocks, all extraneous conductive parts are connected to the protective
conductor at each level. In order to ensure adequate protection, the earth-fault
current
Uo
Uo
or 0.8
must be higher or equal to Ia, where:
Zc
Zs
c Uo = nominal phase to neutral voltage
c Id = the fault current
c Ia = current equal to the value required to operate the protective device in the time
specified
c Zs = earth-fault current loop impedance, equal to the sum of the impedances of the
source, the live phase conductors to the fault position, the protective conductors
from the fault position back to the source
c Zc = the faulty-circuit loop impedance (see conventional method Sub-clause 6.2)
Id =
Note: The path through earth electrodes back to the source will have (generally)
much higher impedance values than those listed above, and need not be considered.
Ba
ck
1
2
3
PEN
F
E
230
= 115 V and is hazardous;
2
The fault loop impedance Zs=ZAB + ZBC + ZDE + ZEN + ZNA.
If ZBC and ZDE are predominant, then:
The fault voltage Uf =
NS160
Zs = 2
35 mm2
50 m
35 mm2
D
Uf
Id =
L
= 64.3 m , so that
S
230
= 3,576 A ( 22 In based on a NS 160 circuit-breaker).
64.3x10-3
The instantaneous magnetic trip unit adjustment of the circuit-breaker is many time
less than this short-circuit value, so that positive operation in the shortest possible
time is assured.
Note: Some authorities base such calculations on the assumption that a voltage
drop of 20% occurs in the part of the impedance loop BANE.
This method, which is recommended, is explained in chapter F sub-clause 6.2
conventional method and in this example will give an estimated fault current of
F9
Ba
ck
Uo(1) (V)
T (s)
50 < Uo i 120
0.8
120 < Uo i 230
0.4
230 < Uo i 400
0.2
Uo > 400
0.1
(1) Uo is the nominal phase to earth voltage
Fig. F13 : Maximum disconnecting time for AC final circuits not exceeding 32 A
The instantaneous trip unit of a circuit breaker will eliminate a short-circuit to earth in
less than 0.1 second.
In consequence, automatic disconnection within the maximum allowable time will
always be assured, since all types of trip unit, magnetic or electronic, instantaneous
or slightly retarded, are suitable: Ia = Im. The maximum tolerance authorised by the
relevant standard, however, must always be taken into consideration. It is sufficient
Uo
Uo
determined by calculation (or estimated
or 0.8
Zs
Zc
on site) be greater than the instantaneous trip-setting current, or than the very shorttime tripping threshold level, to be sure of tripping within the permitted time limit.
The value of current which assures the correct operation of a fuse can be
ascertained from a current/time performance graph for the fuse concerned.
Uo
Uo
as determined above, must largely exceed that
or 0.8
Zs
Zc
necessary to ensure positive operation of the fuse. The condition to observe
ck
Ba
Ba
Uo
Uo
as indicated in Figure F15.
or 0.8
Zs
Zc
ck
tc = 0.4 s
1
2
Im
Ia Uo/Zs
Uo/Zs
Example: The nominal phase to neutral voltage of the network is 230 V and the
maximum disconnection time given by the graph in Figure F15 is 0.4 s.
The corresponding value of Ia can be read from the graph. Using the voltage (230 V)
and the current Ia, the complete loop impedance or the circuit loop impedance can
230
230
. This impedance value must never be
or Zc = 0.8
Ia
Ia
exceeded and should preferably be substantially less to ensure satisfactory fuse
operation.
be calculated from Zs =
F10
In practice, they are often installed in the the LV sub distribution and in many
countries, the automatic disconnection of final circuits shall be achieved by Residual
Current Devices.
On the occurrence of a true fault to earth, referred to as a first fault, the fault
current is very low, such that the rule Id x RA i 50 V (see F3.2) is fulfilled and no
dangerous fault voltages can occur.
In practice the current Id is low, a condition that is neither dangerous to personnel,
nor harmful to the installation.
However, in this system:
c A permanent monitoring of the insulation to earth must be provided, coupled with
an alarm signal (audio and/or flashing lights, etc.) operating in the event of a first
earth fault (see Fig. 16 )
c The rapid location and repair of a first fault is imperative if the full benefits of the
IT system are to be realised. Continuity of service is the great advantage afforded by
the system.
For a network formed from 1 km of new conductors, the leakage (capacitive)
impedance to earth Zf is of the order of 3,500 per phase. In normal operation, the
capacitive current(1) to earth is therefore:
Uo
230
=
= 66 mA per phase.
Zf 3,500
During a phase to earth fault, as indicated in Figure F17 opposite page, the current
passing through the electrode resistance RnA is the vector sum of the capacitive
currents in the two healthy phases. The voltages of the healthy phases have
(because of the fault) increased to e the normal phase voltage, so that the capacitive
currents increase by the same amount. These currents are displaced, one from the
other by 60, so that when added vectorially, this amounts to 3 x 66 mA = 198 mA,
i.e. in the present example.
The fault voltage Uf is therefore equal to 198 x 5 x 10-3 = 0.99 V, which is obviously
harmless.
The current through the short-circuit to earth is given by the vector sum of the
neutral-resistor current Id1 (=153 mA) and the capacitive current Id2 (198 mA).
Since the exposed-conductive-parts of the installation are connected directly to
earth, the neutral impedance Zct plays practically no part in the production of touch
voltages to earth.
Example: The nominal phase to neutral voltage of the network is 230 V and the
maximum disconnection time given by the graph in Figure F15 is 0.4 s.
The corresponding value of Ia can be read from the graph. Using the voltage (230 V)
and the current Ia, the complete loop impedance or the circuit loop impedance can
230
230
. This impedance value must never be
or Zc = 0.8
Ia
Ia
exceeded and should preferably be substantially less to ensure satisfactory fuse
operation.
be calculated from Zs =
F10
First fault
On the occurrence of a true fault to earth, referred to as a first fault, the fault
current is very low, such that the rule Id x RA i 50 V (see F3.2) is fulfilled and no
dangerous fault voltages can occur.
In practice the current Id is low, a condition that is neither dangerous to personnel,
nor harmful to the installation.
However, in this system:
c A permanent monitoring of the insulation to earth must be provided, coupled with
an alarm signal (audio and/or flashing lights, etc.) operating in the event of a first
earth fault (see Fig. 16 )
c The rapid location and repair of a first fault is imperative if the full benefits of the
IT system are to be realised. Continuity of service is the great advantage afforded by
the system.
For a network formed from 1 km of new conductors, the leakage (capacitive)
impedance to earth ZF is of the order of 3500 per phase. In normal operation, the
capacitive current(1) to earth is therefore:
Uo
230
=
= 66 mA per phase.
Zf 3,500
During a phase to earth fault, as indicated in Figure F17 opposite page, the current
passing through the electrode resistance RnA is the vector sum of the capacitive
currents in the two healthy phases. The voltages of the healthy phases have
(because of the fault) increased to e the normal phase voltage, so that the capacitive
currents increase by the same amount. These currents are displaced, one from the
other by 60, so that when added vectorially, this amounts to 3 x 66 mA = 198 mA,
i.e. in the present example.
The fault voltage Uf is therefore equal to 198 x 5 x 103 = 0.99 V, which is obviously
harmless.
The current through the short-circuit to earth is given by the vector sum of the
neutral-resistor current Id1 (=153 mA) and the capacitive current Id2 (198 mA).
Since the exposed-conductive-parts of the installation are concerned directly to
earth, the neutral impedance Zct plays practically no part in the production of touch
voltages to earth.
Ba
ck
Id1 + Id2
Id1
1
2
3
N
PE
B
Zf
Zct = 1,500
RnA = 5
F11
Id2
Uf
1st case
It concerns an installation in which all exposed conductive parts are bonded to a
common PE conductor, as shown in Figure F18.
In this case no earth electrodes are included in the fault current path, so that a high
level of fault current is assured, and conventional overcurrent protective devices are
used, i.e. circuit breakers and fuses.
The first fault could occur at the end of a circuit in a remote part of the installation,
while the second fault could feasibly be located at the opposite end of the installation.
For this reason, it is conventional to double the loop impedance of a circuit, when
calculating the anticipated fault setting level for its overcurrent protective device(s).
Where the system includes a neutral conductor in addition to the 3 phase
conductors, the lowest short-circuit fault currents will occur if one of the (two) faults is
from the neutral conductor to earth (all four conductors are insulated from earth in an
IT scheme). In four-wire IT installations, therefore, the phase-to-neutral voltage must
be used to calculate short-circuit protective levels i.e. 0.8
Uo
u I a (1) where
2 Zc
3 Uo
u I a (1)
2 Zc
Ba
ck
Id
K
Zct = 1,500
50 m
35 mm2
F12
RnA = 5
NS160
160 A
50 m
35 mm2
1
2
3
N
PE
RA
Fig. F18 : Circuit-breaker tripping on double fault situation when exposed-conductive-parts are
connected to a common protective conductor
c Protection by circuit-breaker
In the case shown in Figure F18, the adjustments of instantaneous and short-time
delay overcurrent trip unit must be decided. The times recommended here above
can be readily complied with. The short-circuit protection provided by the NS 160
circuit-breaker is suitable to clear a phase to phase short-circuit occurring at the load
ends of the circuits concerned.
Reminder: In an IT system, the two circuits involved in a phase to phase short-circuit
are assumed to be of equal length, with the same cross sectional area conductors,
the PE conductors being the same cross sectional area as the phase conductors. In
such a case, the impedance of the circuit loop when using the conventional method
(sub clause 6.2) will be twice that calculated for one of the circuits in the TN case,
shown in Chapter F sub clause 3.3.
L
in m where:
a
= resistance of copper rod 1 meter long of cross sectional area 1 mm2, in m
L = length of the circuit in meters
a = cross sectional area of the conductor in mm2
Ba
ck
The reason for this requirement is that the separate-group electrodes are bonded
through the earth so that the phase to phase short-circuit current will generally be
limited when passing through the earth bond by the electrode contact resistances
with the earth, thereby making protection by overcurrent devices unreliable. The
more sensitive RCDs are therefore necessary, but the operating current of the RCDs
must evidently exceed that which occurs for a first fault (see Fig. F19 ).
Leakage capacitance
First fault current
(F)
(A)
1
0.07
5
0.36
30
2.17
Note: 1 F is the 1 km typical leakage capacitance for
4-conductor cable.
Fig. F19 : Correspondence between the earth leakage capacitance and the first fault current
Ba
ck
Case 1
Case 2
RCD
N
RCD
PIM
RCD
PIM
Group
earth 1
Group
earth
Rn
RCD
RA
Rn
RA1
Group
earth 2
RA2
Fig. F20 : Application of RCDs when exposed-conductive-parts are earthed individually or by group on IT system
F13
Ba
ck
The reason for this requirement is that the separate-group electrodes are bonded
through the earth so that the phase to phase short-circuit current will generally be
limited when passing through the earth bond by the electrode contact resistances
with the earth, thereby making protection by overcurrent devices unreliable. The
more sensitive RCDs are therefore necessary, but the operating current of the RCDs
must evidently exceed that which occurs for a first fault (see Fig. F19 ).
Leakage capacitance
First fault current
(F)
(A)
1
0.07
5
0.36
30
2.17
Note: 1 F is the 1 km typical leakage capacitance for
4-conductor cable.
Fig. F19 : Correspondence between the earth leakage capacitance and the first fault current
Ba
ck
Case 1
Case 2
RCD
N
RCD
PIM
RCD
PIM
Group
earth 1
Group
earth
Rn
RCD
RA
Rn
RA1
Group
earth 2
RA2
Fig. F20 : Application of RCDs when exposed-conductive-parts are earthed individually or by group on IT system
F13
F14
IEC 60364-4-41 defines precisely the significance of the reference PELV. Protection
against direct contact hazards is generally necessary, except when the equipment
is in the zone of equipotential bonding, and the nominal voltage does not exceed
25 V rms, and the equipment is used in normally dry locations only, and large-area
contact with the human body is not expected. In all other cases, 6 V rms is the
maximum permitted voltage, where no direct contact protection is provided.
Ba
ck
230 V / 24 V
Ba
If a direct contact is made with one conductor, a very small current only will flow into
the person making contact, through the earth and back to the other conductor, via
the inherent capacitance of that conductor with respect to earth. Since the conductor
capacitance to earth is very small, the current is generally below the level of perception.
As the length of circuit cable increases, the direct contact current will progressively
increase to a point where a dangerous electric shock will be experienced.
ck
230 V/230 V
Even if a short length of cable precludes any danger from capacitive current, a low
value of insulation resistance with respect to earth can result in danger, since the
current path is then via the person making contact, through the earth and back to the
other conductor through the low conductor-to-earth insulation resistance.
For these reasons, relatively short lengths of well insulated cables are essential in
separation systems.
Transformers are specially designed for this duty, with a high degree of insulation
between primary and secondary windings, or with equivalent protection, such as an
earthed metal screen between the windings. Construction of the transformer is to
class II insulation standards.
Class II equipment
Symbol:
These appliances are also referred to as having double insulation since in class II
appliances a supplementary insulation is added to the basic insulation (see Fig. 23 ).
No conductive parts of a class II appliance must be connected to a protective conductor:
c Most portable or semi-fixed equipment, certain lamps, and some types of
transformer are designed to have double insulation. It is important to take particular
care in the exploitation of class II equipment and to verify regularly and often that the
class II standard is maintained (no broken outer envelope, etc.). Electronic devices,
radio and television sets have safety levels equivalent to class II, but are not formally
class II appliances
c Supplementary insulation in an electrical installation: IEC 60364-4-41(Sub-clause
413-2) and some national standards such as NF C 15-100 (France) describe in more
detail the necessary measures to achieve the supplementary insulation during
installation work.
Ba
ck
Active part
Basic insulation
Supplementary insulation
A simple example is that of drawing a cable into a PVC conduit. Methods are also
described for distribution boards.
c For distribution boards and similar equipment, IEC 60439-1 describes a set of
requirements, for what is referred to as total insulation, equivalent to class II
c Some cables are recognised as being equivalent to class II by many national standards
F15
ck
c The placing of equipment and obstacles must be such that simultaneous contact
with two exposed-conductive-parts or with an exposed conductive-part and an
extraneous-conductive-part by an individual person is not possible.
c No exposed protective conductor must be introduced into the chamber concerned.
c Entrances to the chamber must be arranged so that persons entering are not at
risk, e.g. a person standing on a conducting floor outside the chamber must not be
able to reach through the doorway to touch an exposed-conductive-part, such as a
lighting switch mounted in an industrial-type cast-iron conduit box, for example.
Insulated
walls
Ba
F16
Insulated
obstacles
2.5 m
Electrical
apparatus
Electrical
apparatus
Electrical
apparatus
Insulated floor
>2m
<2m
Fig. F24 : Protection by out-of arms reach arrangements and the interposition of non-conducting obstacles
Ba
ck
M
Conductive
floor
Insulating material
4 Protection of goods
due to insulation fault
The standards consider the damage (mainly fire) of goods due to insulation to be
high. Therefore, for location with high risk of fire, 300 mA Residual Current Devices
must be used. For the other locations, some standards relies on technique called
Ground Fault Protection (GFP).
RCDs are very effective devices to provide protection against fire risk due to
insulation fault. This type of fault current is actually too low to be detected by the
other protection (overcurrent, reverse time).
For TT, IT TN-S systems in which leakage current can appear, the use of 300 mA
sensitivity RCDs provides a good protection against fire risk due to this type of fault.
An investigation has shown that the cost of the fires in industrial and tertiary
buildings can be very great.
The analysis of the phenomena shows that fire risk due to electicity is linked to
overheating due to a bad coordination between the maximum rated current of the
cable (or isolated conductor) and the overcurrent protection setting.
Overheating can also be due to the modification of the initial method of installation
(addition of cables on the same support).
This overheating can be the origin of electrical arc in humid environment. These
electrical arcs evolve when the fault current-loop impedance is greater than 0.6
and exist only when an insulation fault occurs. Some tests have shown that a
300 mA fault current can induce a real risk of fire (see Fig. F26 ).
Ba
ck
Beginning of fire
Id << 300 mA
Humid dust
Some tests have shown that a very low leakage
current (a few mA) can evolve and, from 300 mA,
induce a fire in humid and dusty environment.
Ba
ck
RS system
SGR system
ZS system
L1
L1
L2
L3
N
L2
L3
N
R
PE
L1
L2
L3
N
F17
4 Protection of goods
due to insulation fault
Ba
ck
F18
Sub-distribution
Comments
Used
Often used
Rarely used
Ba
ck
F19
In
3A
1A
500 mA
300 mA
30 mA
Fig. F28 : The upper limit of resistance for an installation earthing electrode which must not be
exceeded, for given sensitivity levels of RCDs at UL voltage limits of 50 V and 25 V
ck
A
RCD
In each case, the sensitivity must be compatible with the resistance of the earth
electrode concerned.
B
RCD
RCD
Ba
Ba
ck
ck
RA1
RA2
Distant location
Ba
ck
Fire-risk
location
ck
RCDs of high sensitivity (i 30 mA) will afford both protection against indirect-contact
hazards, and the additional protection against the dangers of direct-contact.
Ba
F20
Ba
ck
Fire-risk
location
ck
RCDs of high sensitivity (i 30 mA) will afford both protection against indirect-contact
hazards, and the additional protection against the dangers of direct-contact.
Ba
F20
RCDs are mandatorily used at the origin of TT-earthed installations, where their
ability to discriminate with other RCDs allows selective tripping, thereby ensuring the
level of service continuity required.
F21
Fig. F35 : Domestic residual current circuit breakers (RCCBs) for earth leakage protection
F22
F22
Ba
ck
t (ms)
10,000
F23
1,000
500
300
250
200
150
130
100
II
60
40
selective RCDs
domestic s
and industrial
(settings I and II)
RCD 30 mA
general domestic
and industrial setting 0
Current
(mA)
1,000
300
60
500
600
30
150
15
100
10
1 1.5
10
100
500 1,000
(A)
Ba
ck
Protection
RCD 300 mA
type S
RCD
30 mA
c
Ba
c Level A: RCD time-delayed setting I (for industrial device) or type S (for domestic
device) for protection against indirect contacts
c Level B: RCD instantaneous, with high sensitivity on circuits supplying socketoutlets or appliances at high risk (washing machines, etc.) See also Chapter L
Clause 3
Note: The setting of upstream RCCB must comply with selectivity rules and take into
account all the downstream earth leakage currents.
RCCB 1 A
delay time 250 ms
RCCB 300 A
delay time 50 ms
or type S
D
RCCB
30 mA
Ba
ck
Withdrawable Masterpact
or Visucompact
HV/LV
F24
NS100 MA
Discont.
Vigicompact
NS100
Setting 1
300 mA
NC100L MA
intantaneous
300 mA
NC100
diff.
300 mA
selective
S
Leakage current
of the filter: 20 mA
Terminal
board
Fig. F41 : Typical 3-level installation, showing the protection of distribution circuits in a TT-earthed system. One motor is provided with specific protection
6 Implementation of
the TN system
Ba
ck
Certain conditions must be observed, as listed below and illustrated in Figure F42 .
1. PE conductor must be regularly connected to earth as much as possible.
2. The PE conductor must not pass through ferro-magnetic conduit, ducts, etc. or be
mounted on steel work, since inductive and/or proximity effects can increase the
effective impedance of the conductor.
3. In the case of a PEN conductor (a neutral conductor which is also used as a
protective conductor), connection must be made directly to the earth terminal of an
appliance (see 3 in Figure F42) before being looped to the neutral terminal of the
same appliance.
4. Where the conductor i 6 mm2 for copper or 10 mm2 for aluminium, or where a
cable is movable, the neutral and protective conductors should be separated (i.e. a
TN-S system should be adopted within the installation).
5. Earth faults may be cleared by overcurrent-protection devices, i.e. by fuses and
circuit breakers.
The foregoing list indicates the conditions to be respected in the implementation of a
TN scheme for the protection against indirect contacts.
5
2
2
5
PEN
1
5
PE N
4
TN-C system
TN-C-S system
RpnA
Notes:
c The TN scheme requires that the LV neutral of the HV/LV transformer, the exposed
conductive parts of the substation and of the installation, and the extraneous conductive
parts in the sub-station and installation, all be earthed to a common earthing system.
c For a substation in which the metering is at low-voltage, a means of isolation is required at
the origin of the LV installation, and the isolation must be clearly visible.
c A PEN conductor must never be interrupted under any circumstances. Control and
protective switchgear for the several TN arrangements will be:
v 3-pole when the circuit includes a PEN conductor,
v Preferably 4-pole (3 phases + neutral) when the circuit includes a neutral with a separate
PE conductor.
F25
6 Implementation of
the TN system
The reasoning behind these recommendations is that, for TN systems, the current
which must flow in order to raise the potential of an exposed conductive part to 50 V
or more is so high that one of two possibilities will occur:
c Either the fault path will blow itself clear, practically instantaneously, or
c The conductor will weld itself into a solid fault and provide adequate current to
operate overcurrent devices
To ensure correct operation of overcurrent devices in the latter case, a reasonably
accurate assessment of short-circuit earth-fault current levels must be determined at
the design stage of a project.
A rigorous analysis requires the use of phase-sequence-component techniques
applied to every circuit in turn. The principle is straightforward, but the amount of
computation is not considered justifiable, especially since the zero-phase-sequence
impedances are extremely difficult to determine with any reasonable degree of
accuracy in an average LV installation.
F26
Other simpler methods of adequate accuracy are preferred. Three practical methods
are:
c The method of impedances, based on the summation of all the impedances
(positive-phase-sequence only) around the fault loop, for each circuit
c The method of composition, which is an estimation of short-circuit current at
the remote end of a loop, when the short-circuit current level at the near end of the
loop is known
c The conventional method of calculating the minimum levels of earth-fault
currents, together with the use of tables of values for obtaining rapid results
These methods are only reliable for the case in which the cables that make up the
earth-fault-current loop are in close proximity (to each other) and not separated by
ferro-magnetic materials.
Method of impedances
I=
( R) + ( X )
2
where
(R) 2 = (the sum of all resistances in the loop)2 at the design stage of a project.
and (X) 2 = (the sum of all inductive reactances in the loop) 2
and U = nominal system phase-to-neutral voltage.
The application of the method is not always easy, because it supposes a knowledge
of all parameter values and characteristics of the elements in the loop. In many
cases, a national guide can supply typical values for estimation purposes.
Method of composition
This method permits the determination of the short-circuit current at the end of a loop
from the known value of short-circuit at the sending end, by means of the
approximate formula:
= SC
U
U+ ZS SC
where
Isc = upstream short-circuit current
I = end-of-loop short-circuit current
U = nominal system phase voltage
Zs = impedance of loop
Note: in this method the individual impedances are added arithmetically(1) as
opposed to the previous method of impedances procedure.
Conventional method
This method is generally considered to be sufficiently accurate to fix the upper limit
of cable lengths.
Principle
The principle bases the short-circuit current calculation on the assumption that the
voltage at the origin of the circuit concerned (i.e. at the point at which the circuit
protective device is located) remains at 80% or more of the nominal phase to neutral
voltage. The 80% value is used, together with the circuit loop impedance, to
compute the short-circuit current.
6 Implementation of
the TN system
This coefficient takes account of all voltage drops upstream of the point considered.
In LV cables, when all conductors of a 3-phase 4-wire circuit are in close proximity
(which is the normal case), the inductive reactance internal to and between
conductors is negligibly small compared to the cable resistance.
This approximation is considered to be valid for cable sizes up to 120 mm2.
Above that size, the resistance value R is increased as follows:
The maximum length of a circuit in a TN-earthed installation is given by the formula:
Value of resistance
R+15%
R+20%
R+25%
ck
0.8 Uo Sph
(1+ m) I a
Ba
F27
0.8 Uo Sph
Lmax =
(1+ m) I a
where:
Lmax = maximum length in metres
Uo = phase volts = 230 V for a 230/400 V system
= resistivity at normal working temperature in ohm-mm2/metre
(= 22.5 10-3 for copper; = 36 10-3 for aluminium)
Ia = trip current setting for the instantaneous operation of a circuit breaker, or
Ia = the current which assures operation of the protective fuse concerned, in the
specified time.
Sph
SPE
Sph = cross-sectional area of the phase conductors of the circuit concerned in mm2
SPE = cross-sectional area of the protective conductor concerned in mm2.
(see Fig. F43 )
m=
Tables
Ba
ck
B
PE
Imagn
Id
Equivalent tables for protection by Compact and Multi 9 circuit breakers (Merlin
Gerin) are included in the relevant catalogues.
SPE
Sph
Ba
3P + N or P + N
Conductor
material
Copper
Aluminium
Fig. F44 : Correction factor to apply to the lengths given in tables F44 to F47 for
TN systems
ck
Circuit
m=4
0.40
0.25
6 Implementation of
the TN system
Ba
ck
F28
Nominal
crosssectional
area
of
conductors
mm2 50
63
1.5 100 79
2.5 167 133
4
267 212
6
400 317
10
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
80
63
104
167
250
417
100
50
83
133
200
333
125
40
67
107
160
267
427
160
31
52
83
125
208
333
200
25
42
67
100
167
267
417
250
20
33
53
80
133
213
333
467
320
16
26
42
63
104
167
260
365
495
400
13
21
33
50
83
133
208
292
396
500
10
17
27
40
67
107
167
233
317
560
9
15
24
36
60
95
149
208
283
417
630
8
13
21
32
53
85
132
185
251
370
700
7
12
19
29
48
76
119
167
226
333
452
800
6
10
17
25
42
67
104
146
198
292
396
875
6
10
15
23
38
61
95
133
181
267
362
457
1000
5
8
13
20
33
53
83
117
158
233
317
400
435
1120
4
7
12
18
30
48
74
104
141
208
283
357
388
459
1250
4
7
11
16
27
43
67
93
127
187
263
320
348
411
1600 2000 2500 3200 4000 5000 6300 8000 10000 12500
5
8
13
21
33
52
73
99
146
198
250
272
321
400
4
7
10
17
27
42
58
79
117
158
200
217
257
320
5
8
13
21
33
47
63
93
127
160
174
206
256
4
6
10
17
26
36
49
73
99
125
136
161
200
5
8
13
21
29
40
58
79
100
109
128
160
4
7
11
17
23
32
47
63
80
87
103
128
5
8
13
19
25
37
50
63
69
82
102
4
7
10
15
20
29
40
50
54
64
80
5
8
12
16
23
32
40
43
51
64
4
7
9
13
19
25
32
35
41
51
Fig. F45 : Maximum circuit lengths (in metres) for different sizes of copper conductor and instantaneous-tripping-current settings for general-purpose circuit breakers
in 230/240 V TN system with m = 1
Circuits protected by Compact (1) or Multi 9 (1) circuit breakers for industrial or
domestic use (Fig. 46 to Fig. 48)
Ba
ck
Sph
mm2
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
4
300
500
800
1200
6
200
333
533
800
10
120
200
320
480
800
16
75
125
200
300
500
800
20
60
100
160
240
400
640
25
48
80
128
192
320
512
800
32
37
62
100
150
250
400
625
875
40
30
50
80
120
200
320
500
700
50
24
40
64
96
160
256
400
560
760
63
19
32
51
76
127
203
317
444
603
80
15
25
40
60
100
160
250
350
475
100
12
20
32
48
80
128
200
280
380
125
10
16
26
38
64
102
160
224
304
Fig. F46 : Maximum circuit lengths (in meters) for different sizes of copper conductor and rated currents for type B (2) circuit breakers in a 230/240 V single-phase or
three-phase TN system with m = 1
Ba
ck
Sph
mm2
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
4
150
250
400
600
6
100
167
267
400
667
10
60
100
160
240
400
640
16
37
62
100
150
250
400
625
875
20
30
50
80
120
200
320
500
700
25
24
40
64
96
160
256
400
560
760
32
18
31
50
75
125
200
312
437
594
40
15
25
40
60
100
160
250
350
475
50
12
20
32
48
80
128
200
280
380
63
9
16
25
38
63
101
159
222
301
80
7
12
20
30
50
80
125
175
237
100
6
10
16
24
40
64
100
140
190
125
5
8
13
19
32
51
80
112
152
Fig. F47 : Maximum circuit lengths (in metres) for different sizes of copper conductor and rated currents for type C (2) circuit breakers in a 230/240 V single-phase or
three-phase TN system with m = 1
(1) Merlin Gerin products.
(2) For the definition of type B and C circuit breakers refer to
chapter H clause 4.2.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2005
Ba
6 Implementation of
the TN system
ck
Sph
mm2
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
4
107
179
286
429
714
6
71
119
190
286
476
762
10
43
71
114
171
286
457
714
16
27
45
71
107
179
286
446
625
20
21
36
80
120
200
320
500
700
848
25
17
29
46
69
114
183
286
400
543
32
13
22
36
54
89
143
223
313
424
40
11
18
29
43
71
114
179
250
339
50
9
14
23
34
57
91
143
200
271
63
7
11
18
27
45
73
113
159
215
80
5
9
14
21
36
57
89
125
170
100
4
7
11
17
29
46
71
80
136
125
3
6
9
14
23
37
57
100
109
Fig. F48 : Maximum circuit lengths (in metres) for different sizes of copper conductor and rated currents for type D (1) circuit breakers in a 230/240 V single-phase or
three-phase TN system with m = 1
Example
A 3-phase 4-wire (230/400 V) installation is TN-C earthed. A circuit is protected by a
type B circuit breaker rated at 63 A, and consists of an aluminium cored cable with
50 mm2 phase conductors and a neutral conductor (PEN) of 25 mm2.
What is the maximum length of circuit, below which protection of persons against
indirect-contact hazards is assured by the instantaneous magnetic tripping relay of
the circuit breaker?
Figure F46 gives, for 50 mm2 and a 63 A type B circuit-breaker, 603 metres, to which
Ba
ck
Sph
= 2).
SPE
RA1
Protection must be provided against indirect contact by a RCD at the origin of any
circuit supplying an appliance or group of appliances, the exposed conductive parts
of which are connected to an independent earth electrode.
RA2
Distant location
The sensitivity of the RCD must be adapted to the earth electrode resistance (RA2 in
Figure F49 ). See specifications applicable to TT system.
F29
6 Implementation of
the TN system
When the earth-fault current is limited due to an inevitably high fault-loop impedance,
so that the overcurrent protection cannot be relied upon to trip the circuit within the
prescribed time, the following possibilities should be considered:
Suggestion 1 (see Fig. F52 )
c Install a circuit breaker which has a lower instantaneous magnetic tripping level, for
example:
2In i Irm i 4In
Ba
ck
This affords protection for persons on circuits which are abnormally long. It must be
checked, however, that high transient currents such as the starting currents of
motors will not cause nuisance trip-outs.
c Schneider Electric solutions
v Type G Compact (2Im i Irm i 4Im)
v Type B Multi 9 circuit breaker
Fire-risk
location
Ba
ck
Suggestion 3
Increase the size of the PE or PEN conductors and/or the phase conductors, to
reduce the loop impedance.
PE or PEN
2 i Irm i 4In
Suggestion 4
Add supplementary equipotential conductors. This will have a similar effect to that of
suggestion 3, i.e. a reduction in the earth-fault-loop resistance, while at the same
time improving the existing touch-voltage protection measures. The effectiveness of
this improvement may be checked by a resistance test between each exposed
conductive part and the local main protective conductor.
For TN-C installations, bonding as shown in Figure F54 is not allowed, and
suggestion 3 should be adopted.
ck
ck
Phases
Ba
Ba
Neutral
PE
The basic feature of the IT earthing system is that, in the event of a short-circuit to
earth fault, the system can continue to operate without interruption. Such a fault is
referred to as a first fault.
In this system, all exposed conductive parts of an installation are connected via
PE conductors to an earth electrode at the installation, while the neutral point of the
supply transformer is:
c Either isolated from earth
c Or connected to earth through a high resistance (commonly 1,000 ohms or more)
This means that the current through an earth fault will be measured in milli-amps,
which will not cause serious damage at the fault position, or give rise to dangerous
touch voltages, or present a fire hazard. The system may therefore be allowed to
operate normally until it is convenient to isolate the faulty section for repair work.
This enhances continuity of service.
In practice, the system earthing requires certain specific measures for its satisfactory
exploitation:
c Permanent monitoring of the insulation with respect to earth, which must signal
(audibly or visually) the occurrence of the first fault
c A device for limiting the voltage which the neutral point of the supply transformer
can reach with respect to earth
c A first-fault location routine by an efficient maintenance staff. Fault location is
greatly facilitated by automatic devices which are currently available
c Automatic high-speed tripping of appropriate circuit breakers must take place in
the event of a second fault occurring before the first fault is repaired. The second
fault (by definition) is an earth fault affecting a different live conductor than that of the
first fault (can be a phase or neutral conductor)(1).
The second fault results in a short-circuit through the earth and/or through
PE bonding conductors.
Ba
Examples
Cardew C
(2) Resistor
Impedance Zx
Vigilohm TR22A
or XM 200
Compact circuit breaker
or RCD-MS
Vigilohm system
Fig. F55 : Essential functions in IT schemes and examples with Merlin Gerin products
Ba
ck
HV/LV
L1
L2
L3
N
4
4
2 1
ck
3
5
F31
First-fault condition
The earth-fault current which flows under a first-fault condition is measured in milliamps.
The fault voltage with respect to earth is the product of this current and the
resistance of the installation earth electrode and PE conductor (from the faulted
component to the electrode). This value of voltage is clearly harmless and could
amount to several volts only in the worst case (1,000 earthing resistor will pass
230 mA(1) and a poor installation earth-electrode of 50 ohms, would give 11.5 V, for
example).
F32
Ba
Examples of equipment
c Manual fault-location (see Fig. F57 )
The generator may be fixed (example: XM100) or portable (example: GR10X
permitting the checking of dead circuits) and the receiver, together with the magnetic
clamp-type pick-up sensor, are portable.
ck
M ERLIN GERIN
XM100
XM100
P12
P50
P100
FF
ON/O
GR10X
RM10N
Ba
ck
M ERLIN GERIN
XM100
Torodal CTs
XM100
1 to 12 circuits
XD1
XD1
XD1
XD12
Ba
ck
M ERLIN GERIN
XM100
XM100
M ERLIN GERIN
M ERLIN GERIN
XL08
XL16
897
678
XD08
XD16
F33
F34
The detection level for earth-fault alarm will be set at a much lower level.
By way of an example, the two levels might be:
v New installation insulation level: 100 k
v Leakage current without danger: 500 mA (fire risk at > 500 mA)
v Indication levels set by the consumer:
- Threshold for preventive maintenance: 0.8 x 100 = 80 k
- Threshold for short-circuit alarm: 500
Notes:
v Following a long period of shutdown, during which the whole, or part of the installation
remains de-energized, humidity can reduce the general level of insulation resistance.
This situation, which is mainly due to leakage current over the damp surface of
healthy insulation, does not constitute a fault condition, and will improve rapidly as the
normal temperature rise of current-carrying conductors reduces the surface humidity.
v The PIM device (XM) can measure separately the resistive and the capacitive
current components of the leakage current to earth, thereby deriving the true
insulation resistance from the total permanent leakage current.
These methods are reliable only for the cases in which wiring and cables which
make up the fault-current loop are in close proximity (to each other) and are not
separated by ferro-magnetic materials.
Methods of impedances
This method as described in Sub-clause 6.2, is identical for both the IT and
TN systems of earthing.
Methods of composition
This method as described in Sub-clause 6.2, is identical for both the IT and
TN systems of earthing.
Conventional method (see Fig. F60 )
The principle is the same for an IT system as that described in Sub-clause 6.2 for a
TN system : the calculation of maximum circuit lengths which should not be exceeded
downstream of a circuit breaker or fuses, to ensure protection by overcurrent devices.
0.8 Uo 3 Sph
2 I a(1+ m)
It is clearly impossible to check circuit lengths for every feasible combination of two
concurrent faults.
Lmax =
All cases are covered, however, if the overcurrent trip setting is based on the
assumption that a first fault occurs at the remote end of the circuit concerned, while
the second fault occurs at the remote end of an identical circuit, as already
mentioned in Sub-clause 3.4. This may result, in general, in one trip-out only
occurring (on the circuit with the lower trip-setting level), thereby leaving the system
in a first-fault situation, but with one faulty circuit switched out of service.
0.8 Uo S1
2 I a(1+ m)
c For the case of a 3-phase 3-wire installation the second fault can only cause a
phase/phase short-circuit, so that the voltage to use in the formula for maximum
circuit length is e Uo.
The maximum circuit length is given by:
Lmax =
0.8 Uo 3 Sph
metres
2 I a(1+ m)
c For the case of a 3-phase 4-wire installation the lowest value of fault current will
occur if one of the faults is on a neutral conductor. In this case, Uo is the value to
use for computing the maximum cable length, and
Lmax =
0.8 Uo S1
metres
2 I a(1+ m)
Ba
ck
PE
Id
PE
Id
Id
Id
Distributed neutral
Fig. F60 : Calculation of Lmax. for an IT-earthed system, showing fault-current path for a double-fault condition
F35
Sph
SPE
SPE = cross-sectional area of PE conductor in mm2
S1 = S neutral if the circuit includes a neutral conductor
S1 = Sph if the circuit does not include a neutral conductor
m=
F36
Tables
The following tables have been established according to the conventional method
described above.
The tables give maximum circuit lengths, beyond which the ohmic resistance of the
conductors will limit the magnitude of the short-circuit current to a level below that
required to trip the circuit breaker (or to blow the fuse) protecting the circuit, with
sufficient rapidity to ensure safety against indirect contact. The tables take into
account:
c The type of protection: circuit breakers or fuses, operating-current settings
c Cross-sectional area of phase conductors and protective conductors
c Type of earthing scheme
c Correction factor: Figure F61 indicates the correction factor to apply to the lengths
given in tables F44 to F47, when considering an IT system
Ba
ck
Circuit
3 phases
3ph + N or 1ph + N
Conductor
material
Copper
Aluminium
Copper
Aluminium
m=4
0.34
0.21
0.20
0.12
Fig. F61 : Correction factor to apply to the lengths given in tables F45 to F48 for TN systems
Example
A 3-phase 3-wire 230/400 V installation is IT-earthed.
Ba
ck
(1) The tables are those shown in Sub-clause 6.2 (Figures F45
to F48). However, the table of correction factors (Figure F61)
which takes into account the ratio Sph/SPE, and of the type of
circuit (3-ph 3-wire; 3-ph 4-wire; 1-ph 2-wire) as well as
conductor material, is specific to the IT system, and differs
from that for TN.
(2) These cases are treated in detail in chapter N.
Ba
ck
Fire-risk
location
Ba
ck
PE or PEN
2 i Irm i 4In
Great length of cable
Phases
Ba
ck
ck
Ba
Neutral
PE
F37
8.1 Description
Principle
The essential features are shown schematically in Figure F67 below.
A magnetic core encompasses all the current-carrying conductors of an electric
circuit and the magnetic flux generated in the core will depend at every instant on the
arithmetical sum of the currents; the currents passing in one direction being
considered as positive (I1), while those passing in the opposite direction will be
negative (I2).
In a normally healthy circuit I1 + I2 = 0 and there will be no flux in the magnetic core,
and zero e.m.f. in its coil.
F38
An earth-fault current Id will pass through the core to the fault, but will return to the
source via the earth, or via protective conductors in a TN-earthed system.
The current balance in the conductors passing through the magnetic core therefore
no longer exists, and the difference gives rise to a magnetic flux in the core.
The difference current is known as the residual current and the principle is referred
to as the residual current principle.
The resultant alternating flux in the core induces an e.m.f. in its coil, so that a current
I3 flows in the tripping-device operating coil. If the residual current exceeds the value
Ba
ck
required to operate the tripping device either directly or via an electronic relay, then
the associated circuit breaker will trip.
I1
I2
I3
Every LV installation has a permanent leakage current to earth, which is either due to:
c Unbalance(1) of the intrinsic capacitance between live conductors and earth for
three-phase circuits or
c Capacitance between live conductors and earth for single-phase circuits
The larger the installation the greater its capacitance with consequently increased
leakage current.
The capacitive current to earth is sometimes increased significantly by filtering
capacitors associated with electronic equipment (automation, informatics and
computer-based systems, etc.).
Ba
Since RCDs complying with IEC and many national standards may operate within
the range 0.5 In - In for a nominal rating of In, the leakage current downstream
of a RCD must not exceed 0.5 In.
ck
100%
90%
F39
10%
t
ca.0.5 s
60%
Ba
ck
Energization
The initial energization of the capacitances mentioned above gives rise to highfrequency transient currents of very short duration, similar to that shown in
Figure F68 . The sudden occurrence of a first-fault on an IT-earthed system also
causes transient earth-leakage currents at high frequency, due to the sudden rise of
the two healthy phases to phase/phase voltage above earth.
The transient currents flow to earth via the capacitances of the installation surge
arresters or through an insulation failure.
Umax
Immunity to transients
Every RCD installed must have a minimum level of immunity to unwanted tripping in
conformity with the requirements of Figure F71 . RCDs type S or time-delay setting
levels I or II (see Fig. F38) cover all transient leakage currents, including those of
lightning arresters of a duration less than 40 ms.
0.5U
t
1.2 s
50 s
Ba
Ba
ck
0.9
0.5
0.1
t
Switching
Static
electricity
Radiated
waves
ck
Disturbance
Overvoltage
Transient
current
Type of test
1.2/50 s impulse
0.5 s/100 kHz impulse
8/20 s impulse
3 V/m
(1) For RCDs having In < 10 mA this test is not required (IEC 61008-1).
Note: Time-delayed RCDs are normally installed near the service position of installations,
where current surges of external origin are the most severe. The 5 kA peak test reflects this
high-performance duty requirement.
In practice, the levels shown in Figure F71 are complied with in design and
manufacturing specifications.
Type A Si RCDs avoid unwanted tripping in case of polluted network, lightning
effect, high frequency currents, DC components, transient, low operating
temperature (-25 C).
Ba
ck
F40
In the event of an earth fault downstream of a rectifier, the fault current can include a
DC component.
Ba
The risk depends on the level of insulation of the DC circuits in an appliance, and
each case must be considered individually. Problems of this kind generally concern
industrial applications.
ck
The IEC classifies RCDs according to their ability to function correctly in the
presence of d.c. components in the residual current.
c Class AC: Operates due to AC current only
c Class A: Operates if residual current consists of uni-directional pulses
c Class B: Operates on pure DC
Note: For general use Class AC RCDs are normally installed. Class A are available
for specific requirements as a special variation of Class AC devices.
The detector of residual current is a closed magnetic circuit (usually circular) of very
high magnetic permeability, on which is wound a coil of wire, the ensemble
constituting a toroidal (or ring-type) current transformer.
Because of its high permeability, any small deviation from perfect symmetry of the
conductors encompassed by the core, and the proximity of ferrous material (steel
enclosure, chassis members, etc.) can affect the balance of magnetic forces
sufficiently, at times of large load currents (motor-starting current, transformer
energizing current surge, etc.) to cause unwanted tripping of the RCD.
Ba
Unless particular measures are taken, the ratio of operating current In to maximum
phase current Iph (max.) is generally less than 1/1,000.
ck
This limit can be increased substantially (i.e. the response can be desensitized) by
adopting the measures shown in Figure F74 , and summarized in Figure F75 .
Ba
Diameter
(mm)
50 100
80 200
120 200
50
80
120
200
Sensitivity
diminution factor
3
2
2
6
4
3
3
2
ck
Measures
Ba
Rated current
The rated current of a RCCB is chosen according to the maximum sustained load
current it will carry.
ck
c If the RCCB is connected in series with, and downstream of a circuit breaker, the
rated current of both items will be the same, i.e. In u In1(1) (see Fig. F76a )
c If the RCCB is located upstream of a group of circuits, protected by circuit
breakers, as shown in Figure F76b , then the RCCB rated current will be given by:
In1
In
In
In1
In2
In3
In4
Ba
ck
DT40N
6.5
10
10
C60N
6.5
20
20
C60H
6.5
30
30
C60L
6.5
30
30
4.5
6
6
4.5
10
10
4.5
10
10
4.5
15
15
4.5
15
15
C120N
3
10
10
15
2
7
7
10
4P
400V
I 20A
IN-A 40A
IN-A 63A
I 100A
I 20A
IN-A 40A
IN-A 63A
NG 125NA
20A
8
63A
100A
30
30
20
20
6
30
30
20
20
125A
50
Fig. F77 : Typical manufacturers coordination table for RCCBs, circuit breakers, and fuses (Merlin Gerin products)
C120H
4.5
10
10
15
3
7
7
16
NG125N
4.5
15
15
15
3
15
15
25
NG125H
4.5
15
15
15
3
15
15
50
F41
Chapter G
The protection of circuits
Contents
2
3
4
General
G2
G2
G4
G4
G6
G6
G7
G11
2.1 General
G11
G12
G16
G22
G23
G23
G24
Short-circuit current
G27
G27
G28
G31
G32
G33
G33
G38
G40
G40
G41
G43
G44
G45
G45
G47
G47
G47
G1
1 General
G2
Ba
ck
Power demand:
- kVA to be supplied
- Maximum load current IB
Conductor sizing:
- Selection of conductor type and insulation
- Selection of method of installation
- Taking account of correction factors for
different environment conditions
- Determination of cross-sectional areas using
tables giving the current carrying capability
Fig. G1 : Flow-chart for the selection of cable size and protective device rating for a given circuit
1 General
Definitions
ck
Ba
Main distribution
board
80 A
60 A
50 A
100 A
Normal load
motor current
50 A
G3
1 General
I2t = k2 S2 which shows that the allowable heat generated is proportional to the
squared cross-sectional-area of the condutor.
where
t: Duration of short-circuit current (seconds)
S: Cross sectional area of insulated conductor (mm2)
I: Short-circuit current (A r.m.s.)
k: Insulated conductor constant (values of k2 are given in Figure G54 )
For a given insulated conductor, the maximum permissible current varies according
to the environment. For instance, for a high ambient temperature (a1 > a2), Iz1 is
less than Iz2 (see Fig. G5 ). means temperature.
G4
Ba
Note:
v ISC: 3-phase short-circuit current
v ISCB: rated 3-ph. short-circuit breaking current of the circuit breaker
v Ir (or Irth)(1): regulated nominal current level; e.g. a 50 A nominal circuit breaker
can be regulated to have a protective range, i.e. a conventional overcurrent tripping
level (see Fig. G6 opposite page) similar to that of a 30 A circuit breaker.
ck
t
Maximum
load
current
I2t cable
characteristic
The following methods are based on rules laid down in the IEC standards, and are
representative of the practices in many countries.
Circuit-breaker
tripping curve
General rules
I
IB Ir Iz
ISCB ICU
The conventional setting tripping time may be 1 hour or 2 hours according to local
standards and the actual value selected for I2. For fuses, I2 is the current (denoted
If) which will operate the fuse in the conventional time.
Ba
ck
Ba
I2t cable
ck
characteristic
a1 > a2
Fuse curve
Temporary
overload
5s
I2t = k2S2
I
IB
Ir cIz Iz
ck
Loads
Circuit cabling
Iz
Ba
1 General
cu
1.
45
im
um
ad
lo
lo
ad
Iz
cu
um
m
rre
nt
i
ax
M
M
nt
ax
rre
IB
IB
1.45 Iz
Iz
Isc
0
In
I2
ISCB
zone a
zone c
Protective device
g
3
fa -ph
ul s
t-c ho
ur r t
re -ci
nt rc
br uit
ea
ki
ng
ra
tin
re
ur
rc
C
tri onv
p e
cu nt
rre ion
nt al
I 2 ov
e
N
its om
re ina
gu l c
la ur
te re
d n
cu t I
rre n o
nt r
Ir
nt
zone b
IB i In i Iz zone a
I2 i 1.45 Iz zone b
ISCB u ISC zone c
c Its 3-phase short-circuit fault-current breaking rating is greater than the 3-phase
short-circuit current existing at its point of installation. This corresponds to zone c in
Figure G6.
Applications
G5
1 General
G6
Ba
ck
a
P
P2
P3
50 mm2
P4
10 mm2
25 mm2
Either
c The protective device P1 is calibrated to protect the cable S2 against overloads
and short-circuits
A
<3m
sc
B
P2
B
P3
Case (1)
Case (2)
Short-circuit
protective
device
s Overload
protective
device
Case (3)
Or
c Where the breaking of a circuit constitutes a risk, e.g.
v Excitation circuits of rotating machines
v circuits of large lifting electromagnets
v the secondary circuits of current transformers
No circuit interruption can be tolerated, and the protection of the cabling is of
secondary importance.
The following precautions should be taken to avoid the risk of short-circuits on the
paralleled cables:
c Additional protection against mechanical damage and against humidity, by the
introduction of supplementary protection
c The cable route should be chosen so as to avoid close proximity to combustible
materials
1 General
G7
B
k
ac
T1
Circuit 1
C1
G5
P = 500 kVA
U = 400 V
Q1
Switchboard 2
Ks = 1.00
ib = 826.8 A
B2
Q6
Circuit 5
C5
Q5
Q3
Switchboard 4
Ks = 1.00
ib = 250.0 A
B4
Circuit 6
Q12
C6
T6
P = 400 kVA
U = 400 V
Circuit 12
C12
Q7
L12
ku = 1.0
ib = 250.00 A
P = 147.22 kW
C7
Circuit 7
x1
Switchboard 8
Ks = 1.00
ib = 490.0 A
B8
Q9
Q10
Circuit 9
C9
Q11
Circuit 10
C10
L9
L10
L11
ku = 1.0
ib = 250.00 A
P = 147.22 kW
x1
Circuit 11
C11
ku = 1.0
ib = 160.00 A
P = 94.22 kW
x1
ku = 1.0
ib = 80.00 A
P = 47.11 kW
x1
1 General
Ba
G8
ck
1
500
1,000
6
0.0351
Busbars B2
Maximum load current (A)
Type
IT
No
400
50
0.351
2.293
10.333
23.3
1,374
PVC
Copper
30
Single
F
1
1
6 x 95
1 x 120
5
.122
.122
23
17
23
1,374
3P3D
NT 16
H 1 42 kA
Micrologic 5 A
1,600
Material
3-ph short-circuit current Ik3 (kA)
3-ph peak value of short-circuit current Ik (kA)
Resistance of busbar R (m)
Reactance of busbar X (m)
Circuit breaker Q6
3-ph short-circuit current upstream
of the circuit breaker Ik3 (kA)
Maximum load current (A)
Number of poles and protected poles
Circuit breaker
Type
Tripping unit type
Rated current (A)
Limit of discrimination (kA)
Cable C6
Maximum load current (A)
Type of insulation
Conductor material
Ambient temperature (C)
Single-core or multi-core cable
Installation method
Number of circuits in close proximity (table G20)
Other coefficient
Selected cross-sectional area (mm2)
Protective conductor
Length (m)
Voltage drop U (%)
Voltage drop U total (%)
3-phase short-circuit current Ik3 (kA)
1-phase-to-earth fault current Id (kA)
Specific sizing constraint
1,374
Standard on
edge
30
1m
2x5 mm x 63 mm
Copper
23
48
2.52
10.8
23
560
3P3D
NS800
N 50 kA
Micrologic 2.0
800
Total
560
PVC
Copper
30
Single
F
1
1
1 x 300
1 x 150
15
.38
.54
20
13.7
Overloads
Fig. G9 : Partial results of calculation carried out with Ecodial software (Merlin Gerin)
IB =
1,000 x 103
= 1,374 A per phase
3 x 420
Six single-core PVC-insulated copper cables in parallel will be used for each phase.
These cables will be laid on cable trays according to method F. The k correction
factors are as follows:
k1 = 1 (see table G15, temperature = 30 C)
k4 = 0.87 (see table G20)
Other correction factors are not relevant in this example.
The corrected load current is:
1,374
IB
=
= 1,579 A
k1 k4
0.87
Each conductor will therefore carry 263 A. Figure G23 indicates that the c.s.a. is
95 mm2.
I' B =
1 General
The resistances and the inductive reactances for the six conductors in parallel are,
for a length of 5 metres:
22.5 x 5
= 0.20 m (cable resistance: 22.5 m.mm2/m)
95 x 6
X = 0.08 x 5 = 0.40 m (cable reactance: 0.08 m/m)
R=
Dimensioning circuit C6
Circuit C6 supplies a 400 kVA 3-phase 400/400 V isolating transformer
400.103
= 550 A
420. 3
A single-core cable laid on a cable tray (without any other cable) in an ambient air
temperature of 30 C is proposed. The circuit breaker is set at 560 A
Primary current =
G9
Ba
ck
Circuits components
parts
500 MVA at
the HV source network
1 MVA transformer
Cable C1
Sub-total for Q1
Busbar B2
Cable C6
Sub-total for Q6
R (m)
X (m)
0.04
0.36
2.2
0.20
2.44
3.6
1.4
4.0
9.8
0.4
10.6
7.2
1.2
8.4
Z (m)
Ikmax (kA)
10.0
23
10.9
23
9.3
20
A single 120 mm2 conductor dimensioned for other reasons mentioned later is
therefore largely sufficient, provided that it also satisfies the requirements for
indirect-contact protection (i.e. that its impedance is sufficiently low).
For the circuit C6, the c.s.a. of its PE conductor should be:
29,300 x 0.2
= 92 mm2
143
In this case a 95 mm2 conductor may be adequate if the indirect-contact protection
conditions are also satisfied.
1 General
95
(The value in the denominator 630 x 11 = Im i.e. the current level at which the
instantaneous short-circuit magnetic trip of the 630 A circuit breaker operates).
The length of 15 metres is therefore fully protected by instantaneous overcurrent
devices.
Voltage drop
From Figure G29 it can be seen that:
c For the cable C1 (6 x 95mm2 per phase)
G10
U =
U =
U% = 0.72%
Ba
ck
Method of installation
Without Clipped
Conduit Cable trunking
fixings
direct
(including
skirting trunking,
flush floor trunking)
+
+
+
+
+
+
Bare conductors
Insulated conductors
Sheathed
Multi-core
cables
(including
armoured
Single-core 0
+
and
mineral
insulated)
+ Permitted.
Not permitted.
0 Not applicable, or not normally used in practice.
Cable
Cable ladder
ducting Cable tray
Cable brackets
On
Support
insulators wire
+
+
+
+
0
G11
Ba
ck
Method of installation
Without Clipped
Conduit Cable trunking
fixings
direct
(including
skirting trunking,
flush floor trunking)
+
+
+
+
+
+
Bare conductors
Insulated conductors
Sheathed
Multi-core
cables
(including
armoured
Single-core 0
+
and
mineral
insulated)
+ Permitted.
Not permitted.
0 Not applicable, or not normally used in practice.
Cable
Cable ladder
ducting Cable tray
Cable brackets
On
Support
insulators wire
+
+
+
+
0
G11
Ba
ck
The number given in this table refer to the different wiring systems considered.
(see also Fig. G13 )
G12
Situations
Method of installation
Without With
Conduit
fixings
fixings
Cable trunking
Cable
(including
ducting
skirting trunking,
flush floor trunking)
43
Cable ladder
cable tray,
cable brackets
On
Support
insulators wire
70, 71
0
Building voids
40, 46,
15, 16
15, 16,
41, 42
Cable channel
56
56
54, 55
44, 45
Buried in ground
Embedded in structure
72, 73
57, 58
0
3
70, 71
1, 2,
44, 45
Surface mounted
20, 21
59, 60
4, 5
6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14
6, 7,
36
22, 23
10, 11
8, 9
33, 34
30, 31, 32
36
35
33, 34
0
Overhead
Immersed
80
80
Not permitted.
0 Not applicable, or not normally used in practice.
Ba
ck
Item No.
Methods of installation
Description
Reference method of
installation to be used to
obtain current-carrying
capacity
A1
A2
B1
B2
20
On unperforated tray
Room
Room
30
0.3 D e
0.3 D e
Fig. G13 : Examples of methods of installation (part of table 52-3 of IEC 60364-5-52) (continued on next page)
G13
Ba
ck
Item No.
Description
Reference method of
installation to be used to
obtain current-carrying
capacity
On perforated tray
E or F
36
70
71
31
Methods of installation
0.3 D e
0.3 D e
G14
Fig. G13 : Examples of methods of installation (part of table 52-3 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Ba
c k Type of insulation
Polyvinyl-chloride (PVC)
Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) and ethylene
propylene rubber (EPR)
Mineral (PVC covered or bare exposed to touch)
Mineral (bare not exposed tto touch and not in
contact with combustible material)
Temperature limit C
70 at the conductor
90 at the conductor
70 at the sheath
105 at the seath
Fig. G14 : Maximum operating temperatures for types of insulation (table 52-4 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Correction factors:
In order to take environnement or special conditions of installation into acccount,
correction factors have been introduced.
The cross sectional area of cables is determined using the rated load current IB
divided by different correction factors, k1, k2, ...:
I' B =
IB
k1 k 2 ...
Ba
ck
Ambient temperature C
10
15
20
25
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
Insulation
PVC
1.22
1.17
1.12
1.06
0.94
0.87
0.79
0.71
0.61
0.50
-
Fig. G15 : Correction factors for ambient air temperatures other than 30 C to be applied to the
current-carrying capacities for cables in the air (from table A.52-14 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Ba
ck
Ground temperature C
10
15
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
Insulation
PVC
1.10
1.05
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.77
0.71
0.63
0.55
0.45
-
Fig. G16 : Correction factors for ambient ground temperatures other than 20 C to be applied to
the current-carrying capacities for cables in ducts in the ground (from table A.52-15 of
IEC 60364-5-52)
G15
Ba
ck
1
1.18
1.5
1.1
2
1.05
2.5
1
3
0.96
Fig. G17 : Correction factors for cables in buried ducts for soil thermal resistivities other than 2.5
K.m/W to be applied to the current-carrying capacities for reference method D (table of IEC
60364-5-52)
G16
Ba
ck
Based on experience, a relationship exist between the soil nature and resistivity.
Then, empiric values of correction factors k3 are proposed in Figure G18 ,
depending on the nature of soil.
Nature of soil
Very wet soil (saturated)
Wet soil
Damp soil
Dry soil
Very dry soil (sunbaked)
k3
1.21
1.13
1.05
1.00
0.86
7
0.54
8
0.52
9
0.50
12
0.45
Reference methods
1.00
0.85
0.79
0.75
0.73
0.72
0.72
0.71
0.70
0.95
0.81
0.72
0.68
0.66
0.64
0.63
0.62
0.61
No further reduction
factor for more than
nine circuits or
multi-core cables
1.00
0.88
0.82
0.77
0.75
0.73
0.73
0.72
0.72
1.00
0.87
0.82
0.80
0.80
0.79
0.79
0.78
0.78
Ba
16
0.41
20
0.38
Fig. G19 : Reduction factors for groups of more than one circuit or of more than one multi-core cable (table A.52-17 of IEC 60364-5-52)
ck
Arrangement
(cables touching)
Bunched in air, on a
surface, embedded or
enclosed
Single layer on wall, floor
or unperforated tray
Single layer fixed directly
under a wooden ceiling
Single layer on a
perforated horizontal or
vertical tray
Single layer on ladder
support or cleats etc.
Methods A to F
Method C
Methods E and F
Ba
ck
Figure G20 gives the values of correction factor k4 for different configurations of
unburied cables or conductors, for groups of more than one circuit of single-core
cables in free air.
Method of installation
Perforated
trays
Number
of tray
Touching
31
20 mm
Number of three-phase
circuits
1
0.98
0.91
0.87
0.96
0.87
0.81
0.95
0.85
0.78
Use as a
multiplier to
rating for
Three cables in
horizontal
formation
G17
Touching
Vertical
perforated
trays
31
Ladder
supports,
cleats, etc...
32
Touching
33
34
Perforated
trays
20 mm
31
2D e
De
20 mm
Vertical
perforated
trays
0.96
0.86
Three cables in
vertical
formation
0.95
0.84
1.00
0.97
0.96
0.98
0.93
0.89
0.97
0.90
0.86
1.00
0.98
0.96
0.97
0.93
0.89
0.96
0.92
0.86
1.00
0.91
0.89
1.00
0.90
0.86
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.97
0.95
0.93
0.96
0.94
0.90
225 mm
31
De
Spaced
225 mm
Three cables in
horizontal
formation
Three cables in
trefoil formation
2D e
Ladder
supports,
cleats, etc...
32
2D e
De
33
34
20 mm
Fig. G20 : Reduction factors of group of more than one circuit of single-core cables to be applied to reference rating for one circuit of single-core cables in free air Method of installation F. (table A.52.21 of IEC 60364-5-52)
k
ac
BNumber
of circuits
2
3
4
5
6
a
0.25 m
0.5 m
0.90
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.70
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.80
0.80
Multi-core cables
G18
Single-core cables
Fig. G21 : Reduction factors for more than one circuit, single-core or multi-core cables laid
directly in the ground. Installation method D. (table 52-18 of IEC 60364-5-52)
c Harmonic current
The current-carrying capacity of three-phase, 4-core or 5-core cables is based on
the assumption that only 3 conductors are fully loaded.
However, when harmonic currents are circulating, the neutral current can be
significant, and even higher than the phase currents. This is due to the fact that the
3rd harmonic currents of the three phases do not cancel each other, and sum up in
the neutral conductor.
This of course affects the current-carrying capacity of the cable, and a correction
factor noted here k5 shall be applied.
In addition, if the 3rd harmonic percentage h3 is greater than 33%, the neutral current
is greater than the phase current and the cable size selection is based on the neutral
current. The heating effect of harmonic currents in the phase conductors has also to
be taken into account.
Ba
ck
The values of k5 depending on the 3rd harmonic content are given in Figure G22 .
Correction factor
Size selection is based
on phase current
1.0
0.86
0.86
1.0
Fig. G22 : Correction factors for harmonic currents in four-core and five-core cables (table
D.52.1 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Ba
ck
Nominal
cross-sectional
area of conductors
(mm2)
1
Copper
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
300
Aluminium
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
300
Installation methods
A1
A2
B1
B2
13.5
18
24
31
42
56
73
89
108
136
164
188
216
245
286
328
13
17.5
23
29
39
52
68
83
99
125
150
172
196
223
261
298
15.5
21
28
36
50
68
89
110
134
171
207
239
-
15
20
27
34
46
62
80
99
118
149
179
206
-
17.5
24
32
41
57
76
96
119
144
184
223
259
299
341
403
464
18
24
31
39
52
67
86
103
122
151
179
203
230
258
297
336
14
18.5
24
32
43
57
70
84
107
129
149
170
194
227
261
13.5
17.5
23
31
41
53
65
78
98
118
135
155
176
207
237
16.5
22
28
39
53
70
86
104
133
161
186
-
15.5
21
27
36
48
62
77
92
116
139
160
-
18.5
25
32
44
59
73
90
110
140
170
197
227
259
305
351
18.5
24
30
40
52
66
80
94
117
138
157
178
200
230
260
Fig. G23 : Current-carrying capacities in amperes for different methods of installation, PVC insulation, three loaded conductors, copper or aluminium, conductor
temperature: 70 C, ambient temperature: 30 C in air, 20 C in ground (table A.52.4 of IEC 60364-5-52)
G19
Ba
ck
c Unburied cables:
G20
Reference
methods
A1
A2
B1
B2
C
E
F
1
Size (mm2)
Copper
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
70
35
120
150
185
240
Aluminium
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
70
35
120
150
185
240
3 XLPE 2 XLPE
3 XLPE 2 XLPE
3 PVC 2 PVC
3 XLPE
2 PVC
3 XLPE 2 XLPE
3 PVC
2 PVC 3 XLPE
3 PVC
2 PVC
3 PVC
5
6
7
8
9
13
17.5
23
29
39
52
68
-
13.5
18
24
31
42
56
73
-
14.5
19.5
26
34
46
61
80
-
15.5
21
28
36
50
68
89
110
134
171
207
239
-
17
23
31
40
54
73
95
117
141
179
216
249
285
324
380
18.5
25
34
43
60
80
101
126
153
196
238
276
318
362
424
13.5
27
36
46
63
85
110
137
167
213
258
299
344
392
461
22
30
40
51
70
94
119
147
179
229
278
322
371
424
500
23
31
42
54
75
100
127
158
192
246
298
346
395
450
538
24
33
45
58
80
107
135
169
207
268
328
382
441
506
599
26
36
49
63
86
115
149
185
225
289
352
410
473
542
641
161
200
242
310
377
437
504
575
679
13.5
17.5
23
31
41
53
-
14
18.5
24
32
43
57
-
15
20
26
36
48
63
-
16.5
22
28
39
53
70
86
104
133
161
186
-
18.5
25
32
44
58
73
90
110
140
170
197
226
256
300
19.5
26
33
46
61
78
96
117
150
183
212
245
280
330
21
28
36
49
66
83
103
125
160
195
226
261
298
352
23
31
39
54
73
90
112
136
174
211
245
283
323
382
24
32
42
58
77
97
120
146
187
227
263
304
347
409
26
35
45
62
84
101
126
154
198
241
280
324
371
439
28
38
49
67
91
108
135
164
211
257
300
346
397
470
121
150
184
237
289
337
389
447
530
3 PVC
2 PVC
2 PVC
3 PVC
3 PVC
2 XLPE
2 XLPE
3 XLPE
2 XLPE
2 PVC 3 XLPE
2 XLPE
10
11
12
13
ck
Correction factors are given in Figure G24b for groups of several circuits or multicore cables:
Ba
Arrangement
Embedded or enclosed
Single layer on walls,
floors or on unperforated
trays
Single layer fixed directly
under a ceiling
Single layer on perforated
horizontal trays or on vertical trays
Single layer on cable
ladder supports or cleats, etc...
G21
Fig. G24b : Reduction factors for groups of several circuits or of several multi-core cables
(table B.52-3 of IEC 60364-5-52)
c Buried cables:
ck
B aInstallation Size
method
mm2
D
Copper
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
300
D
Aluminium
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
300
18
24
31
39
52
67
86
103
122
151
179
203
230
258
297
336
26
34
44
56
73
95
121
146
173
213
252
287
324
363
419
474
22
29
37
46
61
79
101
122
144
178
211
240
271
304
351
396
22
29
36
48
62
80
96
113
140
166
189
213
240
277
313
18.5
24
30
40
52
66
80
94
117
138
157
178
200
230
260
26
34
42
56
73
93
112
132
163
193
220
249
279
322
364
22
29
36
47
61
78
94
112
138
164
186
210
236
272
308
C
Correction factor
35
1
40
0.97
45
0.93
50
0.90
55
0.86
Where 3rd harmonic currents are circulating, the neutral conductor may be carrying a
significant current and the corresponding additional power losses must be taken into
account.
Figure G26b represents the maximum admissible phase and neutral currents (per
unit) in a high power busbar trunking system as functions and the 3rd hamonic level.
Ba
ck
1.4
G22
Ba
ck
A correction factor has to be applied for higher temperature. The correction factor
applicable to medium and high power range (up to 4,000 A) is given in Figure G26a .
Neutral conductor
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
Phase conductor
0.4
0.2
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Fig. G26b : Maximum admissible currents (p.u.) in a busbar trunking system as functions of the
3rd harmonic level.
The impedance of circuit conductors is low but not negligible: when carrying load
current there is a voltage drop between the origin of the circuit and the load
terminals. The correct operation of a load (a motor, lighting circuit, etc.) depends on
the voltage at its terminals being maintained at a value close to its rated value. It is
necessary therefore to determine the circuit conductors such that at full-load current,
the load terminal voltage is maintained within the limits required for correct
performance.
This section deals with methods of determining voltage drops, in order to check that:
c They comply with the particular standards and regulations in force
c They can be tolerated by the load
c They satisfy the essential operational requirements
Ba
ck
Type of installations
A low-voltage service connection from
a LV public power distribution network
Consumers HV/LV substation supplied
from a public distribution HV system
Lighting
circuits
3%
Other uses
(heating and power)
5%
6%
8%
Fig. G26 : Maximum voltage-drop between the service-connection point and the point of utilization
Ba
ck
HV consumer
LV consumer
8% (1)
5% (1)
Load
G23
R=
for copper
for aluminium
S c.s.a. in mm2
36 mm2 / km
S c.s.a. in mm2
ck
Ba
G24
R=
22.5 mm2 / km
Circuit
in %
100 U
Un
100 U
Vn
100 U
Un
Simplified table
Calculations may be avoided by using Figure G29 opposite page, which gives, with
an adequate approximation, the phase-to-phase voltage drop per km of cable per
ampere, in terms of:
c Kinds of circuit use: motor circuits with cos close to 0.8, or lighting with a cos
close to 1.
c Type of cable; single-phase or 3-phase
Voltage drop in a cable is then given by:
K x IB x L
K is given by the table,
IB is the full-load current in amps,
L is the length of cable in km.
The column motor power cos = 0.35 of Figure G29 may be used to compute the
voltage drop occurring during the start-up period of a motor (see example no. 1 after
the Figure G29).
Ba
ck
c.s.a. in mm2
Cu
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
300
Al
10
16
25
35
50
70
120
150
185
240
300
400
500
Single-phase circuit
Motor power
Normal service Start-up
Lighting
Lighting
cos = 0.8
24
14.4
9.1
6.1
3.7
2.36
1.5
1.15
0.86
0.64
0.48
0.39
0.33
0.29
0.24
0.21
cos = 1
30
18
11.2
7.5
4.5
2.8
1.8
1.29
0.95
0.64
0.47
0.37
0.30
0.24
0.19
0.15
cos = 0.8
20
12
8
5.3
3.2
2.05
1.3
1
0.75
0.56
0.42
0.34
0.29
0.25
0.21
0.18
cos = 1
25
15
9.5
6.2
3.6
2.4
1.5
1.1
0.77
0.55
0.4
0.31
0.27
0.2
0.16
0.13
cos = 0.35
10.6
6.4
4.1
2.9
1.7
1.15
0.75
0.6
0.47
0.37
0.30
0.26
0.24
0.22
0.2
0.19
cos = 0.35
9.4
5.7
3.6
2.5
1.5
1
0.65
0.52
0.41
0.32
0.26
0.23
0.21
0.19
0.17
0.16
Fig. G29 : Phase-to-phase voltage drop U for a circuit, in volts per ampere per km
Examples
Example 1 (see Fig. G30 )
A three-phase 35 mm2 copper cable 50 metres long supplies a 400 V motor taking:
c 100 A at a cos = 0.8 on normal permanent load
c 500 A (5 In) at a cos = 0.35 during start-up
The voltage drop at the origin of the motor cable in normal circumstances (i.e. with
the distribution board of Figure G30 distributing a total of 1,000 A) is 10 V phase-tophase.
Ba
ck
Solution:
c Voltage drop in normal service conditions:
1,000 A
U% = 100
Un
Table G29 shows 1 V/A/km so that:
U for the cable = 1 x 100 x 0.05 = 5 V
U total = 10 + 5 = 15 V = i.e.
400 V
50 m / 35 mm2 Cu
IB = 100 A
(500 A during start-up)
15
x 100 = 3.75%
400
This value is less than that authorized (8%) and is satisfactory.
c Voltage drop during motor start-up:
Ucable = 0.52 x 500 x 0.05 = 13 V
Owing to the additional current taken by the motor when starting, the voltage drop at
the distribution board will exceed 10 Volts.
Supposing that the infeed to the distribution board during motor starting is
900 + 500 = 1,400 A then the voltage drop at the distribution board will increase
approximately pro rata, i.e.
10 x 1,400
= 14 V
1,000
U distribution board = 14 V
U for the motor cable = 13 V
U total = 13 + 14 = 27 V i.e.
Fig. G30 : Example 1
27
x 100 = 6.75%
400
a value which is satisfactory during motor starting.
G25
U% = 100
Un
Figure G29 shows 0.55 V/A/km
U line = 0.55 x 150 x 0.05 = 4.125 V phase-to-phase
which gives:
G26
4 x 125
= 2.38 V phase to neutral.
3
9.6 V
x 100 = 4.2%
230 V
This value is satisfactory, being less than the maximum permitted voltage drop of 6%.
Ba
ck
50 m / 70 mm2 Cu
IB = 150 A
20 m / 2.5 mm2 Cu
IB = 20 A
4 Short-circuit current
I n x 100
Usc
where I n =
P x 103
and :
U20 3
Ba
ck
Transformer rating
(kVA)
Usc in %
Oil-immersed
50 to 750
800 to 3,200
4
6
Cast-resin
dry type
6
6
Fig. G32 : Typical values of Usc for different kVA ratings of transformers with HV windings i 20 kV
c Example
400 kVA transformer, 420 V at no load
Usc = 4%
In =
400 x 103
= 550 A
420 x 3
I sc =
550 x 100
= 13.7 kA
4
Isc2
Isc3
Ba
ck
It is assumed that all transformers are supplied from the same HV network, in which
case the values obtained from Figure G33 when added together will give a slightly
higher fault-level value than would actually occur.
Other factors which have not been taken into account are the impedance of the
busbars and of the circuit breakers.
The conservative fault-current value obtained however, is sufficiently accurate for
basic installation design purposes. The choice of circuit breakers and incorporated
protective devices against short-circuit fault currents is described in Chapter H Subclause 4.4.
4 Short-circuit current
I sc =
U20
3 ZT
where
U20 = phase-to-phase voltage of the open circuited secondary windings of the power
supply transformer(s).
ZT = total impedance per phase of the installation upstream of the fault location (in )
Method of calculating ZT
Each component of an installation (HV network, transformer, cable, circuit breaker,
busbar, and so on...) is characterized by its impedance Z, comprising an element of
resistance (R) and an inductive reactance (X). It may be noted that capacitive
reactances are not important in short-circuit current calculations.
G28
The parameters R, X and Z are expressed in ohms, and are related by the sides of a
right angled triangle, as shown in the impedance diagram of Figure G35 .
The method consists in dividing the network into convenient sections, and to
calculate the R and X values for each.
Where sections are connected in series in the network, all the resistive elements in
the section are added arithmetically; likewise for the reactances, to give RT and XT.
The impedance (ZT) for the combined sections concerned is then calculated from
Z T = RT 2 + X T 2
Any two sections of the network which are connected in parallel, can, if
predominantly both resistive (or both inductive) be combined to give a single
equivalent resistance (or reactance) as follows:
Let R1 and R2 be the two resistances connected in parallel, then the equivalent
resistance R3 will be given by:
R1 x R2
X1 x X2
or for reactances X 3 =
R1 + R2
X1 + X2
It should be noted that the calculation of X3 concerns only separated circuit without
mutual inductance. If the circuits in parallel are close togother the value of X3 will be
notably higher.
R3 =
Ba
ck
Psc
250 MVA
500 MVA
Uo (V)
420
420
Ra (m)
0.07
0.035
Xa (m)
0.7
0.351
Fig. G36 : The impedance of the HV network referred to the LV side of the HV/LV transformer
c
Ba
A formula which makes this deduction and at the same time converts the impedance
to an equivalent value at LV is given, as follows:
U02
Psc
where
Zs = impedance of the HV voltage network, expessed in milli-ohms
Uo = phase-to-phase no-load LV voltage, expressed in volts
Psc = HV 3-phase short-circuit fault level, expressed in kVA
Zs =
Z
X
Figure G36 gives values for Ra and Xa corresponding to the most common HV(1)
short-circuit levels in utility power-supply networks, namely, 250 MVA and 500 MVA.
4 Short-circuit current
The transformer windings resistance Rtr can be derived from the total losses as
follows:
Pcu = 3 I n2 x Rtr so that Rtr =
Pcu x 103
in milli-ohms
3 I n2
where
Pcu = total losses in watts
In = nominal full-load current in amps
Rtr = resistance of one phase of the transformer in milli-ohms (the LV and
corresponding HV winding for one LV phase are included in this resistance value).
Ba
ck
Rated
Power
(kVA)
100
160
200
250
315
400
500
630
800
1,000
1,250
1,600
2,000
Oil-immersed
Usc (%)
Rtr (m)
Xtr (m)
Ztr (m)
Cast-resin
Usc (%)
Rtr (m)
Xtr (m)
Ztr (m)
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
6
6
6
6
6
59.5
41.0
33.2
26.7
21.5
16.9
13.6
10.8
12.9
10.3
8.3
6.5
5.2
70.6
44.1
35.3
28.2
22.4
17.6
14.1
11.2
13.2
10.6
8.5
6.6
5.3
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
99.1
63.5
51.0
41.0
32.6
25.8
20.7
16.4
13.0
10.4
8.3
6.5
5.2
105.8
66.2
52.9
42.3
33.6
26.5
21.2
16.8
13.2
10.6
8.5
6.6
5.3
37.9
16.2
11.9
9.2
6.2
5.1
3.8
2.9
2.9
2.3
1.8
1.4
1.1
37.0
18.6
14.1
10.7
8.0
6.1
4.6
3.5
2.6
1.9
1.5
1.1
0.9
Fig. G37 : Resistance, reactance and impedance values for typical distribution 400 V transformers with HV windings i 20 kV
c Circuit conductors
The resistance of a conductor is given by the formula: Rc =
L
S
where
= the resistivity constant of the conductor material at the normal operating
temperature being:
v 22.5 m.mm2/m for copper
v 36 m.mm2/m for aluminium
L = length of the conductor in m
S = c.s.a. of conductor in mm2
(1) Up to 36 kV
(2) For 50 Hz systems, but 0.18 m/m length at 60 Hz
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2005
G29
4 Short-circuit current
Cable reactance values can be obtained from the manufacturers. For c.s.a. of less
than 50 mm2 reactance may be ignored. In the absence of other information, a value
of 0.08 m/metre may be used (for 50 Hz systems) or 0.096 m/metre (for 60 Hz
systems). For prefabricated bus-trunking and similar pre-wired ducting systems, the
manufacturer should be consulted.
c Motors
At the instant of short-circuit, a running motor will act (for a brief period) as a
generator, and feed current into the fault.
In general, this fault-current contribution may be ignored. However, for more precise
calculation, particularly in the case of large motors and/or numerous smaller motors,
the total contribution can be estimated from the formula:
Iscm = 3.5 In from each motor i.e. 3.5mIn for m similar motors operating concurrently.
The motors concerned will be the 3-phase motors only; single-phase-motor
contribution being insignificant.
c Fault-arc resistance
Short-circuit faults generally form an arc which has the properties of a resistance.
The resistance is not stable and its average value is low, but at low voltage this
resistance is sufficient to reduce the fault-current to some extent. Experience has
shown that a reduction of the order of 20% may be expected. This phenomenon will
effectively ease the current-breaking duty of a CB, but affords no relief for its faultcurrent making duty.
G30
Ba
ck
X (m)
Ra
= 0.1
Xa
Xa = 0.995 Za; Za =
Rtr =
Circuit breaker
Busbars
Circuit conductors(2)
M
R (m)
Supply network
Figure G33
Transformer
Figure G34
Motors
Three-phase short
circuit current in kA
Pcu x 103
3 I n2
Ztr 2 Rtr 2
with Ztr =
U202 Usc
x
Pn 100
XD = 0.15 m/pole
XB = 0.15 m/m
Cables: Xc = 0.08 m/m
U20
I sc =
3
RT 2 + XT 2
Fig. G38 : Recapitulation table of impedances for different parts of a power-supply system
U202
Psc
4 Short-circuit current
Ba
ck
R (m)
LV installation
X (m)
RT (m)
XT (m)
420
I sc =
3
HV network
Psc = 500 MVA
Transformer
20 kV/420 V
Pn = 1000 kVA
Usc = 5%
Pcu = 13.3 x 103 watts
Single-core cables
5 m copper
4 x 240 mm2/phase
Main
circuit breaker
Busbars
10 m
Three-core cable
100 m
95 mm2 copper
Three-core cable
20 m
10 mm2 copper
final circuits
0.035
0.351
2.24
8.10
Rc =
22.5 5
x
= 0.12
4
240
Xc = 0.08 x 5 = 0.40
RT 2 + XT 2
2.41
8.85
Isc1 = 26 kA
RD = 0
XD = 0.15
RB = 0
XB = 1.5
2.41
10.5
Isc2 = 22 kA
G31
Rc = 22.5 x
100
= 23.68
95
Xc = 100 x 0.08 = 8
26.1
18.5
Isc3 = 7.4 kA
Rc = 22.5 x
20
= 45
10
Xc = 20 x 0.08 = 1.6
71.1
20.1
Isc4 = 3.2 kA
Fig. G39 : Example of short-circuit current calculations for a LV installation supplied at 400 V (nominal) from a 1,000 kVA HV/LV transformer
Ba
ck
400 V
Isc = 28 kA
47,5 mm2, Cu
20 m
In this case 30 kA is the nearest to 28 kA on the high side. The value of short-circuit
current at the downstream end of the 20 metre circuit is given at the intersection of
the vertical column in which the length is located, and the horizontal row corresponding
to the upstream Isc (or nearest to it on the high side).
Isc = ?
IB = 55 A
The procedure for aluminium conductors is similar, but the vertical column must be
ascended into the middle section of the table.
IB = 160 A
4 Short-circuit current
1.6 2.3
1.2 1.8 2.5
1.5 2.1 2.9
1.8 2.6 3.7
2.2 3.1 4.4
2.3 3.2 4.6
2.5 3.5 5.0
2.9 4.2 5.9
3.4 4.9 6.9
3.7 5.3 7.5
4.4 6.2 8.8
Isc downstream
(in kA)
93
90
87
84
82
79
75
74
71
66
65
63
57
56
55
48
47
46
39
38
38
34
34
33
29
29
29
25
24
24
20
20
19.4
14.8 14.8 14.7
9.9 9.9 9.8
7.0 6.9 6.9
5.0 5.0 5.0
4.0 4.0 4.0
3.0 3.0 3.0
2.0 2.0 2.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
ck
G32
c.s.a. of phase
conductors (mm2)
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
47.5
70
95
120
150
185
240
300
2x120
2x150
2x185
553x120
3x150
3x185
Isc upstream
(in kA)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
7
5
4
3
2
1
Ba
1.1
1.2 1.7
1.8 2.6
2.2 3.0 4.3
1.7 2.4 3.4 4.9 6.9
1.3 1.9 2.7 3.8 5.4 7.6 10.8
1.9 2.7 3.8 5.3 7.5 10.6 15.1
1.8 2.6 3.6 5.1 7.2 10.2 14.4 20
2.7 3.8 5.3 7.5 10.7 15.1 21
30
2.6 3.6 5.1 7.2 10.2 14.5 20
29
41
3.2 4.6 6.5 9.1 12.9 18.3 26
37
52
3.5 5.0 7.0 9.9 14.0 19.8 28
40
56
4.2 5.9 8.3 11.7 16.6 23
33
47
66
5.2 7.3 10.3 14.6 21
29
41
58
83
6.2 8.8 12.4 17.6 25
35
50
70
99
6.5 9.1 12.9 18.3 26
37
52
73
103
7.0 9.9 14.0 20
28
40
56
79
112
8.3 11.7 16.6 23
33
47
66
94
133
9.7 13.7 19.4 27
39
55
77
110 155
10.5 14.9 21
30
42
60
84
119 168
12.5 17.6 25
35
50
70
100 141 199
1.5
2.4
3.6
6.1
9.7
15.2
21
29
43
58
73
79
94
117
140
146
159
187
219
238
281
1.3
2.1
3.4
5.2
8.6
13.8
21
30
41
60
82
103
112
133
165
198
206
224
265
309
336
398
1.8
3.0
4.9
7.3
12.2
19.4
30
43
58
85
115
146
159
187
233
280
292
317
375
438
476
562
2.6
4.3
6.9
10.3
17.2
27
43
60
82
120
163
206
224
265
330
396
412
448
530
619
672
3.6
6.1
9.7
14.6
24
39
61
85
115
170
231
291
317
374
466
561
583
634
749
5.2
8.6
13.7
21
34
55
86
120
163
240
326
412
448
529
659
7.3
12.1
19.4
29
49
78
121
170
231
340
461
10.3
17.2
27
41
69
110
172
240
326
14.6
24
39
58
97
155
243
340
461
21
34
55
82
137
220
343
480
82
75
68
61
53
45
37
33
28
24
19.2
14.5
9.8
6.9
4.9
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
22
22
21
20
20
18.3
16.8
15.8
14.7
13.4
11.8
9.9
7.4
5.6
4.3
3.5
2.7
1.9
1.0
17.0
16.7
16.3
15.8
15.2
14.5
13.5
12.9
12.2
11.2
10.1
8.7
6.7
5.2
4.0
3.3
2.6
1.8
1.0
12.6
12.5
12.2
12.0
11.6
11.2
10.6
10.2
9.8
9.2
8.4
7.4
5.9
4.7
3.7
3.1
2.5
1.8
0.9
9.3
9.2
9.1
8.9
8.7
8.5
8.1
7.9
7.6
7.3
6.8
6.1
5.1
4.2
3.4
2.9
2.3
1.7
0.9
6.7
6.7
6.6
6.6
6.5
6.3
6.1
6.0
5.8
5.6
5.3
4.9
4.2
3.6
3.0
2.6
2.1
1.6
0.9
4.9
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.7
4.6
4.5
4.5
4.4
4.2
4.1
3.8
3.4
3.0
2.5
2.2
1.9
1.4
0.8
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.3
3.3
3.2
3.2
3.1
2.9
2.7
2.4
2.1
1.9
1.6
1.3
0.8
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.3
2.3
2.2
2.0
1.9
1.7
1.6
1.4
1.1
0.7
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.6
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.0
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.6
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.5
1.1
1.6
1.9 2.7
2.2 3.1 4.3
1.7 2.4 3.4 4.8 6.8
1.7 2.4 3.4 4.7 6.7 9.5
1.6 2.3 3.2 4.6 6.4 9.1 12.9
2.4 3.4 4.7 6.7 9.5 13.4 19.0
2.3 3.2 4.6 6.4 9.1 12.9 18.2 26
2.9 4.1 5.8 8.1 11.5 16.3 23
32
3.1 4.4 6.3 8.8 12.5 17.7 25
35
3.7 5.2 7.4 10.4 14.8 21
30
42
4.6 6.5 9.2 13.0 18.4 26
37
52
5.5 7.8 11.1 15.6 22
31
44
62
5.8 8.1 11.5 16.3 23
33
46
65
6.3 8.8 12.5 17.7 25
35
50
71
7.4 10.5 14.8 21
30
42
59
83
9.2 13.0 18.4 26
37
52
74
104
8.6 12.2 17.3 24
34
49
69
97
9.4 13.3 18.8 27
37
53
75
106
11.1 15.7 22
31
44
63
89
125
13.8 19.5 28
39
55
78
110 156
1.5
2.3
3.8
6.1
9.6
13.4
18.2
27
36
46
50
59
73
88
92
100
118
147
138
150
177
220
1.4
2.2
3.2
5.4
8.7
13.5
18.9
26
38
51
65
71
83
104
125
130
141
167
208
195
212
250
312
1.9
3.1
4.6
7.7
12.2
19.1
27
36
54
73
92
100
118
147
177
184
200
236
294
275
299
354
441
2.7
4.3
6.5
10.8
17.3
27
38
51
76
103
130
141
167
208
250
260
282
334
415
389
423
500
623
3.8
6.1
9.2
15.3
24
38
54
73
107
145
184
199
236
294
353
367
399
472
587
551
598
707
5.4
8.6
13.0
22
35
54
76
103
151
205
259
282
333
415
499
519
7.6
12.2
18.3
31
49
76
107
145
214
290
367
399
471
10.8
17.3
26
43
69
108
151
205
303
411
15.3
24
37
61
98
153
214
290
428
22
35
52
86
138
216
302
410
77
71
64
58
51
43
36
32
27
23
18.8
14.3
9.7
6.9
4.9
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
70
65
59
54
48
41
34
30
27
23
18.4
14.1
9.6
6.8
4.9
3.9
3.0
2.0
1.0
62
58
54
49
44
38
32
29
25
22
17.8
13.7
9.4
6.7
4.9
3.9
2.9
2.0
1.0
54
51
47
44
39
35
30
27
24
21
17.0
13.3
9.2
6.6
4.8
3.9
2.9
2.0
1.0
45
43
40
38
35
31
27
24
22
19.1
16.1
12.7
8.9
6.4
4.7
3.8
2.9
2.0
1.0
37
35
34
32
29
27
24
22
20
17.4
14.9
11.9
8.5
6.2
4.6
3.7
2.9
1.9
1.0
29
28
27
26
24
22
20
18.8
17.3
15.5
13.4
11.0
8.0
6.0
4.5
3.6
2.8
1.9
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.4
1.6
1.9
2.3
2.2
2.3
2.8
3.5
1.6
2.0
2.0
2.2
2.6
3.3
3.1
3.3
3.9
4.9
2.3
2.8
2.9
3.1
3.7
4.6
4.3
4.7
5.5
6.9
2.6
3.3
3.9
4.1
4.4
5.2
6.5
6.1
6.6
7.8
9.8
Note: for a 3-phase system having 230 V between phases, divide the above lengths by e
Fig. G40 : Isc at a point downstream, as a function of a known upstream fault-current value and the length and c.s.a. of the intervening conductors,
in a 230/400 V 3-phase system
ck
Figures G42 to G44 show some common arrangements where overload and
short-circuit protections are achieved by separate devices.
Ba
G33
aM fuses
(no protection
against overload)
As shown in Figures G42 and G43, the most common circuits using separate
devices control and protect motors.
Figure G44a constitutes a derogation in the basic protection rules, and is generally
used on circuits of prefabricated bustrunking, lighting rails, etc.
k
Protection to be provided
Circuit breaker D
Cable overload
Motor overload
Downstream short-circuit
Variable speed drive overload
Overvoltage
Undervoltage
Loss of phase
Upstream short-circuit
S1
Internal fault
ck
Ba
Load with
incorporated
overload
protection
S2 < S1
Fig. G44a : Circuit breaker D provides protection against shortcircuit faults as far as and including the load
(self protection)
Additional protection
Not necessary if (1)
Not necessary if (2)
Circuit breaker
(short-circuit tripping)
Circuit breaker
(short-circuit and
overload tripping)
RCD u 300 mA
RCD i 30 mA
ck
c
Ba
Ba
Conditions to be fulfilled
The protective device must therefore satisfy the two following conditions:
c Its fault-current breaking rating must be greater than Isc, the 3-phase short-circuit
current at its point of installation
c Elimination of the minimum short-circuit current possible in the circuit, in a time tc
compatible with the thermal constraints of the circuit conductors, where:
K 2S 2
(valid for tc < 5 seconds)
I scmin2
tc i
G34
Ba
ck
t=
k2 S2
I2
Im
Fig. G45 : Protection by circuit breaker
Ba
ck
t=
k2 S2
I2
Ia
Fig. G46 : Protection by aM-type fuses
Ba
ck
t=
Ia
Fig. G47 : Protection by gl-type fuses
k2 S2
I2
0.8 U Sph
2I m
Ba
ck
G35
P
0.8 U
Load
Using the conventional method, the voltage at the point of protection P is assumed
to be 80% of the nominal voltage during a short-circuit fault, so that 0.8 U = Isc Zd,
where:
Zd = impedance of the fault loop
Isc = short-circuit current (ph/ph)
U = phase-to-phase nominal voltage
For cables i 120 mm2, reactance may be neglected, so that
Zd =
2L (1)
Sph
where:
= resistivity of copper(2) at the average temperature during a short-circuit,
Sph = c.s.a. of a phase conductor in mm2
L = length in metres
The condition for the cable protection is Im i Isc with Im = magnetic trip current
setting of the CB.
This leads to Im i
0.8 U Sph
0.8 U
wich gives L i
2m
Zd
with U = 400 V
= 1.25 x 0.018 = 0.023 .mm2/m(3)
Lmax = maximum circuit length in metres
Lmax =
k Sph
Im
3,333 Sph
Im
c If Sn for the neutral conductor < Sph, then
Lmax =
Lmax = 6,666
Sph 1
Sph
where m =
I m 1+ m
Sn
For larger c.s.a.s than those listed, reactance values must be combined with those
of resistance to give an impedance. Reactance may be taken as 0.08 m/m for
cables (at 50 Hz). At 60 Hz the value is 0.096 m/m.
Ba
G36
ck
Operating current
level Im of the
instantaneous
magnetic tripping
element (in A)
50
63
80
100
125
160
200
250
320
400
500
560
630
700
800
875
1000
1120
1250
1600
2000
2500
3200
4000
5000
6300
8000
10000
12500
1.5
100
79
63
50
40
31
25
20
16
13
10
9
8
7
6
6
5
4
4
2.5
167
133
104
83
67
52
42
33
26
21
17
15
13
12
10
10
8
7
7
5
4
4
267
212
167
133
107
83
67
53
42
33
27
24
21
19
17
15
13
12
11
8
7
5
4
6
400
317
250
200
160
125
100
80
63
50
40
36
32
29
25
23
20
18
16
13
10
8
6
5
4
10
417
333
267
208
167
133
104
83
67
60
63
48
42
38
33
30
27
21
17
13
10
8
7
5
4
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
427
333
267
213
167
133
107
95
85
76
67
61
53
48
43
33
27
21
17
13
11
8
7
5
4
417
333
260
208
167
149
132
119
104
95
83
74
67
52
42
33
26
21
17
13
10
8
7
467
365
292
233
208
185
167
146
133
117
104
93
73
58
47
36
29
23
19
15
12
9
495
396
317
283
251
226
198
181
158
141
127
99
79
63
49
40
32
25
20
16
13
417
370
333
292
267
233
208
187
146
117
93
73
58
47
37
29
23
19
452
396
362
317
283
253
198
158
127
99
79
63
50
40
32
25
457
400
357
320
250
200
160
125
100
80
63
50
40
32
435
388
348
272
217
174
136
109
87
69
54
43
35
459
411
321
257
206
161
128
103
82
64
51
41
400
320
256
200
160
128
102
80
64
51
Fig. G49 : Maximum circuit lengths in metres for copper conductors (for aluminium, the lengths must be multiplied by 0.62)
Figures G50 to G52 opposite page give maximum circuit length (Lmax) in metres for:
c 3-phase 4-wire 400 V circuits (i.e. with neutral) and
c 1-phase 2-wire 230 V circuits
protected in both cases by domestic-type circuit breakers or with circuit breakers
having similar tripping/current characteristics.
In other cases, apply correction factors to the lengths indicated. These factors are
given in Figure G53 opposite page.
Ba
ck
Rated current of
circuit breakers (in A)
6
10
16
20
25
32
40
50
63
80
100
125
50
760
603
475
380
304
Fig. G50 : Maximum length of copper-conductor circuits in metres protected by B-type circuit breakers
Ba
ck
Rated current of
circuit breakers (in A)
6
10
16
20
25
32
40
50
63
80
100
125
G37
50
760
594
475
380
302
238
190
152
Ba
ck
Fig. G51 : Maximum length of copper-conductor circuits in metres protected by C-type circuit breakers
Rated current of
circuit breakers (in A)
1
2
3
4
6
10
16
20
25
32
40
50
63
80
100
125
50
848
679
543
424
339
271
215
170
136
109
Fig. G52 : Maximum length of copper-conductor circuits in metres protected by D-type circuit breakers
Ba
ck
Circuit detail
3-phase 3-wire 400 V circuit or 1-phase 2-wire 400 V circuit (no neutral)
1-phase 2-wire (phase and neutral) 230 V circuit
3-phase 4-wire 230/400 V circuit or 2-phase 3-wire 230/400 V circuit
(i.e with neutral)
Sph / S neutral = 1
Sph / S neutral = 2
1.73
1
1
0.67
Fig. G53 : Correction factor to apply to lengths obtained from Figures G49 to G52
Note: IEC 60898 accepts an upper short-circuit-current tripping range of 10-50 In for
type D circuit breakers. European standards, and Figure G52 however, are based on
a range of 10-20 In, a range which covers the vast majority of domestic and similar
installations.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2005
Examples
Example 1
In a 1-phase 2-wire installation the protection is provided by a 50 A circuit breaker
type NS80HMA, the instantaneous short circuit current trip, is set at 500 A (accuracy
of 20%), i.e. in the worst case would require 500 x 1,2 = 600 A to trip. The cable
c.s.a. = 10 mm2 and the conductor material is copper.
In Figure G49, the row Im = 500 A crosses the column c.s.a. = 10 mm2 at the value
for Lmax of 67 m. The circuit breaker protects the cable against short-circuit faults,
therefore, provided that its length does not exceed 67 metres.
Example 2
In a 3-phase 3-wire 400 V circuit (without neutral), the protection is provided by a
220 A circuit breaker type NS250N with an instantaneous short-circuit current trip
unit type MA set at 2,000 A ( 20%), i.e. a worst case of 2,400 A to be certain of
tripping. The cable c.s.a. = 120 mm2 and the conductor material is copper.
In Figure G49 the row Im = 2,000 A crosses the column c.s.a. = 120 mm2 at the
value for Lmax of 200 m. Being a 3-phase 3-wire 400 V circuit (without neutral), a
correction factor from Figure G53 must be applied. This factor is seen to be 1.73.
The circuit breaker will therefore protect the cable against short-circuit current,
provided that its length does not exceed 200 x 1.73= 346 metres.
G38
Thermal constraints
When the duration of short-circuit current is brief (several tenths of a second up to
five seconds maximum) all of the heat produced is assumed to remain in the
conductor, causing its temperature to rise. The heating process is said to be
adiabatic, an assumption that simplifies the calculation and gives a pessimistic
result, i.e. a higher conductor temperature than that which would actually occur,
since in practice, some heat would leave the conductor and pass into the insulation.
For a period of 5 seconds or less, the relationship I2t = k2S2 characterizes the time in
seconds during which a conductor of c.s.a. S (in mm2) can be allowed to carry a
current I, before its temperature reaches a level which would damage the
surrounding insulation.
The factor k2 is given in Figure G54 below.
Ba
ck
Insulation
PVC
XLPE
The method of verification consists in checking that the thermal energy I2t per ohm
of conductor material, allowed to pass by the protecting circuit-breaker (from
manufacturers catalogues) is less than that permitted for the particular conductor (as
given in Figure G55 below).
Aluminium
0.0130
0.0361
0.0924
0.2079
0.5776
1.4786
3.6100
7.0756
13.032
XLPE
Copper
0.0460
0.1278
0.3272
0.7362
2.0450
5.2350
12.7806
25.0500
46.133
ck
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
PVC
Copper
0.0297
0.0826
0.2116
0.4761
1.3225
3.3856
8.2656
16.2006
29.839
Ba
S (mm2)
Aluminium
0.0199
0.0552
0.1414
0.3181
0.8836
2.2620
5.5225
10.8241
19.936
Fig. G55 : Maximum allowable thermal stress for cables I2t (expressed in ampere2 x second x 106)
Example
Is a copper-cored XLPE cable of 4 mm2 c.s.a. adequately protected by a
C60N circuit breaker?
Figure G55 shows that the I2t value for the cable is 0.3272 x 106, while the maximum
let-through value by the circuit breaker, as given in the manufacturers catalogue, is
considerably less (< 0.1.106 A2s).
The cable is therefore adequately protected by the circuit breaker up to its full rated
breaking capability.
Electrodynamic constraints
For all type of circuit (conductors or bus-trunking), it is necessary to take
electrodynamic effects into account.
To withstand the electrodynamic constraints, the conductors must be solidly fixed
and the connection must me strongly tightened.
For bus-trunking, rails, etc. it is also necessary to verify that the electrodynamic
withstand performance is satisfactory when carrying short-circuit currents. The peak
value of current, limited by the circuit breaker or fuse, must be less than the busbar
system rating. Tables of coordination ensuring adequate protection of their products
are generally published by the manufacturers and provide a major advantage of
such systems.
G39
G40
Connection
Ba
ck
PE
PE conductors must:
c Not include any means of breaking the continuity of the circuit (such as a switch,
removable links, etc.)
c Connect exposed conductive parts individually to the main PE conductor, i.e. in
parallel, not in series, as shown in Figure G56
c Have an individual terminal on common earthing bars in distribution boards.
TT scheme
The PE conductor need not necessarily be installed in close proximity to the live
conductors of the corresponding circuit, since high values of earth-fault current are
not needed to operate the RCD-type of protection used in TT installations.
Correct
PE
IT and TN schemes
The PE or PEN conductor, as previously noted, must be installed as close as
possible to the corresponding live conductors of the circuit and no ferro-magnetic
material must be interposed between them. A PEN conductor must always be
connected directly to the earth terminal of an appliance, with a looped connection
from the earth terminal to the neutral terminal of the appliance (see Fig. G57 ).
c TN-C scheme (the neutral and PE conductor are one and the same, referred to as
a PEN conductor)
The protective function of a PEN conductor has priority, so that all rules governing
PE conductors apply strictly to PEN conductors
c TN-C to TN-S transition
The PE conductor for the installlation is connected to the PEN terminal or bar (see
Fig. G58 ) generally at the origin of the installation. Downstream of the point of
separation, no PE conductor can be connected to the neutral conductor.
Incorrect
Ba
ck
PEN
Ba
ck
PEN
PE
Types of materials
Materials of the kinds mentioned below in Figure G59 can be used for PE conductors,
provided that the conditions mentioned in the last column are satisfied.
Ba
ck
c
Ba
Simplified
method (1)
Adiabatic method
c.s.a. of phase
conductors Sph (mm2)
Minimum c.s.a. of
PE conductor (mm2)
Sph i 16
16 < Sph i 25
25 < Sph i 35
35 < Sph i 50
Sph > 50
Sph (2)
16
Sph /2
Any size
SPE/PEN =
I t
2
Minimum c.s.a. of
PEN conductor (mm2)
Cu
Al
Sph (3) Sph (3)
16
25
Sph /2
Sph /2
(3) (4)
(1) Data valid if the prospective conductor is of the same material as the line conductor. Otherwise, a correction factor must be applied.
(2) When the PE conductor is separated from the circuit phase conductors, the following minimum values must be respected:
c 2.5 mm2 if the PE is mechanically protected
c 4 mm2 if the PE is not mechanically protected
(3) For mechanical reasons, a PEN conductor, shall have a cross-sectional area not less than 10 mm2 in copper or 16 mm2 in aluminium.
(4) Refer to table G55 for the application of this formula.
G41
G42
Sph
2
Note: when, in a TT scheme, the installation earth electrode is beyond the zone of
influence of the source earthing electrode, the c.s.a. of the PE conductor can be
limited to 25 mm2 (for copper) or 35 mm2 (for aluminium).
Sph > 35 mm2 SPE =
The neutral cannot be used as a PEN conductor unless its c.s.a. is equal to or larger
than 10 mm2 (copper) or 16 mm2 (aluminium).
Moreover, a PEN conductor is not allowed in a flexible cable. Since a PEN conductor
functions also as a neutral conductor, its c.s.a. cannot, in any case, be less than that
necessary for the neutral, as discussed in Subclause 7.1 of this Chapter.
This c.s.a. cannot be less than that of the phase conductors unless:
c The kVA rating of single-phase loads is less than 10% of the total kVA load, and
c Imax likely to pass through the neutral in normal circumstances, is less than the
current permitted for the selected cable size.
Furthermore, protection of the neutral conductor must be assured by the protective
devices provided for phase-conductor protection (described in Sub-clause 7.2 of this
Chapter).
Values of factor k to be used in the formulae
These values are identical in several national standards, and the temperature rise
ranges, together with factor k values and the upper temperature limits for the
different classes of insulation, correspond with those published in IEC 60724 (1984).
The data presented in Figure G61 are those most commonly needed for LV installation
design.
k values
Copper
Aluminium
115
76
143
94
ck
Conductors of a
multi-core-cable
Copper
Aluminium
Steel
160
30
143
95
52
Cross-linked-polyethylene
(XLPE)
Ethylene-propylene-rubber
(EPR)
250
30
176
116
64
Ba
Nature of insulation
Polyvinylchloride (PVC)
Fig. G61 : k factor values for LV PE conductors, commonly used in national standards and
complying with IEC 60724
All phase and neutral conductors upstream of the main incoming circuit breaker
controlling and protecting the MGDB are protected by devices at the HV side of the
transformer. The conductors in question, together with the PE conductor, must be
dimensioned accordingly. Dimensioning of the phase and neutral conductors from
the transformer is exemplified in Sub-clause 1.6 of this chapter (for circuit C1 of the
system illustrated in Fig. G8).
Recommended conductor sizes for bare and insulated PE conductors from the
transformer neutral point, shown in Figure G62 , are indicated below in Figure G63 .
The kVA rating to consider is the sum of all (if more than one) transformers
connected to the MGDB.
Ba
G43
ck
PE
MGDB
Main earth bar
for the LV installation
The table indicates the c.s.a. of the conductors in mm2 according to:
c The nominal rating of the HV/LV transformer(s) in kVA
c The fault-current clearance time by the HV protective devices, in seconds
c The kinds of insulation and conductor materials
If the HV protection is by fuses, then use the 0.2 seconds columns.
In IT schemes, if an overvoltage protection device is installed (between the
transformer neutral point and earth) the conductors for connection of the device
should also be dimensioned in the same way as that described above for
PE conductors.
Ba
Conductor
material
Copper t(s)
Aluminium t(s)
c.s.a. of PE
conductors
SPE (mm2)
Bare
conductors
0.2
0.5
0.2
25
25
25
25
25
35
25
35
35
50
50
70
50
70
70
95
70
120
95
120
95
150
0.5
25
35
50
70
70
95
120
150
150
185
185
PVC-insulated
conductors
0.2
0.5
0.2
0.5
25
25
25
25
25
50
25
35
50
35
50
70
35
50
95
50
70
95
70
95
120
70
95
150
95
120
185
95
120
185
120
150
240
XLPE-insulated
conductors
0.2
0.5
0.2
0.5
25
25
25
25
25
35
25
25
50
25
35
50
35
50
70
35
50
95
50
70
95
70
95
120
70
95
150
70
120
150
95
120
185
Fig. G63 : Recommended c.s.a. of PE conductor between the HV/LV transformer and the
MGDB, as a function of transformer ratings and fault-clearance times.
ck
Transformer
rating in kVA
(230/400 V
output)
i 100
160
200
250
315
400
500
630
800
1,000
1,250
G44
If it connects two exposed conductive parts (M1 and M2 in Figure G64 ) its c.s.a.
must be at least equal to that of the smaller of the two PE conductors (for M1 and
M2). Equipotential conductors which are not incorporated in a cable, should be
protected mechanically by conduits, ducting, etc. wherever possible.
Other important uses for supplementary equipotential conductors concern the
reduction of the earth-fault loop impedance, particulary for indirect-contact protection
schemes in TN- or IT-earthed installations, and in special locations with increased
electrical risk (refer to IEC 60364-4-41).
Ba
SPE2
SPE1
SPE1
SLS
M1
SLS
M2
ck
M1
Metal structures
(conduits, girders)
The c.s.a. and the protection of the neutral conductor, apart from its current-carrying
requirement, depend on several factors, namely:
c The type of earthing system, TT, TN, etc.
c The harmonic currents
c The method of protection against indirect contact hazards according to the
methods described below
The color of the neutral conductor is statutorily blue. PEN conductor, when insulated,
shall be marked by one of the following methods :
c Green-and-yellow throughout its length with, in addition, light blue markings at the
terminations, or
c Light blue throughout its length with, in addition, green-and-yellow markings at the
terminations
Ba
ck
I1 H1
I1 H3
I2 H1
I2 H3
I3 H1
I3 H3
IN =
Ik H1
k H3
3 IH3
Fig. G65a : Triplen harmonics are in phase and cumulate in the Neutral
G45
Figure G65b shows the load factor of the neutral conductor as a function of the
percentage of 3rd harmonic.
Ba
ck
INeutral
IPhase
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
G46
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
i 3 (%)
0
20
40
60
80
100
Fig. G65b : Load factor of the neutral conductor vs the percentage of 3rd harmonic
Reduction factors for harmonic currents in four-core and five-core cables with
four cores carrying current
The basic calculation of a cable concerns only cables with three loaded conductors
i.e there is no current in the neutral conductor. Because of the third harmonic
current, there is a current in the neutral. As a result, this neutral current creates an
hot environment for the 3 phase conductors and for this reason, a reduction factor
for phase conductors is necessary (see Fig. G66 ).
Reduction factors, applied to the current-carrying capacity of a cable with three
loaded conductors, give the current-carrying capacity of a cable with four loaded
conductors, where the current in the fourth conductor is due to harmonics. The
reduction factors also take the heating effect of the harmonic current in the phase
conductors into account.
c Where the neutral current is expected to be higher than the phase current, then the
cable size should be selected on the basis of the neutral current
c Where the cable size selection is based on a neutral current which is not
significantly higher than the phase current, it is necessary to reduce the tabulated
current carrying capacity for three loaded conductors
c If the neutral current is more than 135% of the phase current and the cable size is
selected on the basis of the neutral current then the three phase conductors will not
be fully loaded. The reduction in heat generated by the phase conductors offsets the
heat generated by the neutral conductor to the extent that it is not necessary to apply
any reduction factor to the current carrying capacity for three loaded conductors.
ck
B a Third harmonic content
of phase current
(%)
0 - 15
15 - 33
33 - 45
> 45
Reduction factor
Size selection is based on
phase current
1.0
0.86
-
Fig. G66 : Reduction factors for harmonic currents in four-core and five-core cables
(according to IEC 60364-5-52)
Examples
Consider a three-phase circuit with a design load of 37 A to be installed using fourcore PVC insulated cable clipped to a wall, installation method C. From Figure G24,
a 6 mm2 cable with copper conductors has a current-carrying capacity of 40 A and
hence is suitable if harmonics are not present in the circuit.
c If 20 % third harmonic is present, then a reduction factor of 0,86 is applied and the
design load becomes: 37/0.86 = 43 A.
For this load a 10 mm2 cable is necessary.
c If 40 % third harmonic is present, the cable size selection is based on the neutral
current which is: 37 x 0,4 x 3 = 44,4 A and a reduction factor of 0,86 is applied,
leading to a design load of: 44.4/0.86 = 51.6 A.
For this load a 10 mm2 cable is suitable.
c If 50 % third harmonic is present, the cable size is again selected on the basis of
the neutral current, which is: 37 x 0,5 x 3 = 55,5 A .In this case the rating factor is
1 and a 16 mm2 cable is required.
G47
Ba
ck
TT
TN-C
TN-S
IT
Single-phase
(Phase-Neutral)
N
or
N (B)
or
Single-phase
(Phase-Phase)
(A)
(A)
or
or
G48
Three-phase
four wires
Sn u Sph
N (B)
or
Three-phase
four wires
Sn < Sph
N (B)
or
(A) Authorized for TT or TN-S systems if a RCD is installed at the origin of the circuit or upstream of it, and if no artificial
neutral is distributed downstream of its location
(B) The neutral overcurrent protection is not necessary:
c If the neutral conductor is protected against short-circuits by a device placed upstream, or,
c If the circuit is protected by a RCD which sensitivity is less than 15% of the neutral admissible current.
Fig. G67 : The various situations in which the neutral conductor may appear
Continuity of supply
Discrimination
guarantees co-ordination
between the operating
characteristics of serialconnected circuitbreakers. Should a fault
occurs downstream, only
the circuit-breaker
placed immediately
upstream from the fault
will trip.
Direct connection of
the Canalis KT busbar
trunking on the
Masterpact 3200 A
circuit-breaker
SM6
Sepam
Masterpact
Compact
Multi 9
Prisma Plus
Protection relays
Protection switchgear
from 100 to 6300 A
Training
General contents
Distribution in low-voltage
installations
The switchgear
EMC guidelines
Ap
General contents
B
C
B2
B4
B10
B15
B21
C14
3 Protection aspect
C16
C22
C30
C35
C2
D2
D16
1 LV distribution schemes
E2
2 Earthing schemes
E17
E30
E38
F2
F4
F6
F17
F19
F25
F31
F38
G2
G11
G23
4 Short-circuit current
G27
G33
G40
G45
The switchgear
1 The basic functions of LV switchgear
H2
2 The switchgear
H5
3 Choice of switchgear
H10
4 Circuit breaker
H11
General contents
J
K
M
N
J2
J6
3 Standards
J11
J14
K2
K5
K7
K10
K12
K15
K18
K20
K21
K24
L2
2 Standards
L3
3 General
L4
L6
L11
L14
7 Detection devices
L16
L17
M2
M11
M24
4 Lighting circuits
M27
5 Asynchronous motors
M42
N2
N8
Appendix
EMC guidelines
1 Electrical distribution
Ap2
Ap3
3 Implementation
Ap5
Ap14
5 Wiring recommendations
Ap20
Chapter H
The switchgear
Contents
1
2
3
4
H2
H2
1.2 Isolation
H3
H4
The switchgear
H5
H5
H9
Choice of switchgear
H10
H10
H10
Circuit breaker
H11
H11
H13
H15
H18
H22
H28
H1
H - The switchgear
National and international standards define the manner in which electric circuits of
LV installations must be realized, and the capabilities and limitations of the various
switching devices which are collectively referred to as switchgear.
Ba
ck
H2
Electrical protection
against
c Overload currents
c Short-circuit currents
c Insulation failure
Isolation
Control
c Functional switching
c Emergency switching
c Emergency stopping
c Switching off for
mechanical maintenance
H - The switchgear
1.2 Isolation
The aim of isolation is to separate a circuit or apparatus (such as a motor, etc.) from
the remainder of a system which is energized, in order that personnel may carry out
work on the isolated part in perfect safety.
In principle, all circuits of an LV installation shall have means to be isolated.
In practice, in order to maintain an optimum continuity of service, it is preferred to
provide a means of isolation at the origin of each circuit.
An isolating device must fulfil the following requirements:
c All poles of a circuit, including the neutral (except where the neutral is a PEN
conductor) must open(1)
c It must be provided with a locking system in open position with a key (e.g. by
means of a padlock) in order to avoid an unauthorized reclosure by inadvertence
c It must comply with a recognized national or international standard
(e.g. IEC 60947-3) concerning clearance between contacts, creepage distances,
overvoltage withstand capability, etc.:
Other requirements apply:
v Verification that the contacts of the isolating device are, in fact, open.
The verification may be:
- Either visual, where the device is suitably designed to allow the contacts to be seen
(some national standards impose this condition for an isolating device located at the
origin of a LV installation supplied directly from a HV/LV transformer)
- Or mechanical, by means of an indicator solidly welded to the operating shaft of the
device. In this case the construction of the device must be such that, in the
eventuality that the contacts become welded together in the closed position, the
indicator cannot possibly indicate that it is in the open position
v Leakage currents. With the isolating device open, leakage currents between the
open contacts of each phase must not exceed:
- 0.5 mA for a new device
- 6.0 mA at the end of its useful life
v Voltage-surge withstand capability, across open contacts. The isolating device,
when open must withstand a 1.2/50 s impulse, having a peak value of 6, 8 or 12 kV
according to its service voltage, as shown in Figure H2 . The device must satisfy
these conditions for altitudes up to 2,000 metres. Correction factors are given in
IEC 60664-1 for altitudes greater than 2,000 metres.
Consequently, if tests are carried out at sea level, the test values must be increased
by 23% to take into account the effect of altitude. See standard IEC 60947.
Ba
ck
Service (nominal
voltage
(V)
230/400
400/690
690/1,000
Impulse withstand
peak voltage category
(for 2,000 metres)
(kV)
III
IV
4
6
6
8
8
12
Fig. H2 : Peak value of impulse voltage according to normal service voltage of test specimen.
The degrees III and IV are degrees of pollution defined in IEC 60664-1
H3
H - The switchgear
Functional control
This control relates to all switching operations in normal service conditions for
energizing or de-energizing a part of a system or installation, or an individual piece
of equipment, item of plant, etc.
Switchgear intended for such duty must be installed at least:
c At the origin of any installation
c At the final load circuit or circuits (one switch may control several loads)
Marking (of the circuits being controlled) must be clear and unambiguous.
In order to provide the maximum flexibility and continuity of operation, particularly
where the switching device also constitutes the protection (e.g. a circuit breaker or
switch-fuse) it is preferable to include a switch at each level of distribution, i.e. on
each outgoing way of all distribution and subdistribution boards.
The manuvre may be:
c Either manual (by means of an operating lever on the switch) or
c Electric, by push-button on the switch or at a remote location (load-shedding and
reconnection, for example)
H4
These switches operate instantaneously (i.e. with no deliberate delay), and those
that provide protection are invariably omni-polar(1).
The main circuit breaker for the entire installation, as well as any circuit breakers
used for change-over (from one source to another) must be omni-polar units.
H - The switchgear
2 The switchgear
Ba
ck
Ba
ck
Example
A 100 A load-break switch of category AC-23 (inductive load) must be able:
c To make a current of 10 In (= 1,000 A) at a power factor of 0.35 lagging
c To break a current of 8 In (= 800 A) at a power factor of 0.45 lagging
c To withstand short duration short-circuit currents when closed
Ba
ck
Utilization category
Frequent
Infrequent
operations
operations
AC-20A
AC-20B
AC-21A
AC-21B
AC-22A
AC-22B
AC-23A
AC-23B
Typical applications
Cos
Making
current x In
Breaking
current x In
0.95
1.5
1.5
0.65
H5
H - The switchgear
2 The switchgear
H6
Ba
ck
Example:
A 150 A contactor of category AC3 must have a minimum current-breaking capability
of 8 In (= 1,200 A) and a minimum current-making rating of 10 In (= 1,500 A) at a
power factor (lagging) of 0.35.
Ba
ck
Discontactor(1)
Control
circuit
Power
circuit
Ba
ck
Fuses exist with and without fuse-blown mechanical indicators. Fuses break a
circuit by controlled melting of the fuse element when a current exceeds a given
value for a corresponding period of time; the current/time relationship being
presented in the form of a performance curve for each type of fuse. Standards define
two classes of fuse:
c Those intended for domestic installations, manufactured in the form of a cartridge
for rated currents up to 100 A and designated type gG in IEC 60269-1 and 3
c Those for industrial use, with cartridge types designated gG (general use); and gM
and aM (for motor-circuits) in IEC 60269-1 and 2
H - The switchgear
2 The switchgear
The main differences between domestic and industrial fuses are the nominal voltage
and current levels (which require much larger physical dimensions) and their faultcurrent breaking capabilities. Type gG fuse-links are often used for the protection of
motor circuits, which is possible when their characteristics are capable of
withstanding the motor-starting current without deterioration.
A more recent development has been the adoption by the IEC of a fuse-type gM for
motor protection, designed to cover starting, and short-circuit conditions. This type of
fuse is more popular in some countries than in others, but at the present time the
aM fuse in combination with a thermal overload relay is more-widely used.
A gM fuse-link, which has a dual rating is characterized by two current values. The
first value In denotes both the rated current of the fuse-link and the rated current of
the fuseholder; the second value Ich denotes the time-current characteristic of the
fuse-link as defined by the gates in Tables II, III and VI of IEC 60269-1.
These two ratings are separated by a letter which defines the applications.
For example: In M Ich denotes a fuse intended to be used for protection of motor
circuits and having the characteristic G. The first value In corresponds to the
maximum continuous current for the whole fuse and the second value Ich
corresponds to the G characteristic of the fuse link. For further details see note at the
end of sub-clause 2.1.
An aM fuse-link is characterized by one current value In and time-current
characteristic as shown in Figure H14 next page.
Important: Some national standards use a gI (industrial) type fuse, similar in all
main essentails to type gG fuses.
Type gI fuses should never be used, however, in domestic and similar installations.
ck
ck
t
Minimum
pre-arcing
time curve
1 hour
Ba
Ba
In i 4 A
4 < In < 16 A
16 < In i 63 A
63 < In i 160 A
160 < In i 400 A
400 < In
Fuse-blow
curve
Inf I2
Rated current(1)
In (A)
Conventional
fusing current
I2
Conventional
time (h)
1.5 In
2.1 In
1.5 In
1.9 In
1.25 In
1.6 In
1.25 In
1.6 In
1.25 In
1.6 In
1.25 In
1.6 In
Fig. H13 : Zones of fusing and non-fusing for LV types gG and gM class fuses (IEC 60269-1
and 60269-2-1)
H7
H - The switchgear
2 The switchgear
c The two examples given above for a 32 A fuse, together with the foregoing notes
on standard test requirements, explain why these fuses have a poor performance in
the low overload range
c It is therefore necessary to install a cable larger in ampacity than that normally
required for a circuit, in order to avoid the consequences of possible long term
overloading (60% overload for up to one hour in the worst case)
By way of comparison, a circuit breaker of similar current rating:
c Which passes 1.05 In must not trip in less than one hour; and
c When passing 1.25 In it must trip in one hour, or less (25% overload for up to one
hour in the worst case)
Class aM (motor) fuses
These fuses afford protection against short-circuit currents only and must
necessarily be associated with other switchgear (such as discontactors or circuit
breakers) in order to ensure overload protection < 4 In. They are not therefore
autonomous. Since aM fuses are not intended to protect against low values of
overload current, no levels of conventional non-fusing and fusing currents are fixed.
The characteristic curves for testing these fuses are given for values of fault current
exceeding approximately 4 In (see Fig. H14 ), and fuses tested to IEC 60269 must
give operating curves which fall within the shaded area.
Note: the small arrowheads in the diagram indicate the current/time gate values
for the different fuses to be tested (IEC 60269).
H8
Ba
ck
This limitation of current reduces significantly the thermal and dynamic stresses
which would otherwise occur, thereby minimizing danger and damage at the fault
position. The rated short-circuit breaking current of the fuse is therefore based on the
rms value of the AC component of the prospective fault current.
Minimum
pre-arcing
time curve
Reminder
Short-circuit currents initially contain DC components, the magnitude and duration of
which depend on the XL/R ratio of the fault current loop.
Fuse-blown
curve
Close to the source (HV/LV transformer) the relationship Ipeak / Irms (of
AC component) immediately following the instant of fault, can be as high as 2.5
(standardized by IEC, and shown in Figure H16 next page).
4 In
x In
Fig. H14 : Standardized zones of fusing for type aM fuses (all
current ratings)
Ba
ck
I
Prospective
fault-current peak
rms value of the AC
component of the
prospective fault curent
Current peak
limited by the fuse
0.01 s
Tf Ta
Ttc
0.005 s
0.02 s
H - The switchgear
Ba
2 The switchgear
overload protection for the motor is not provided by the fuse, and so a separate
thermal-type relay is always necessary when using gM fuses. The only advantage
offered by gM fuses, therefore, when compared with aM fuses, are reduced physical
dimensions and slightly lower cost.
ck
Prospective fault
current (kA) peak
100
20
(b)
10
Single units of switchgear do not, in general, fulfil all the requirements of the three
basic functions, viz: Protection, control and isolation.
160A
Nominal
100A fuse
50A ratings
Where the installation of a circuit breaker is not appropriate (notably where the
switching rate is high, over extended periods) combinations of units specifically
designed for such a performance are employed. The most commonly-used
combinations are described below.
(a)
Peak current
cut-off
characteristic
curves
2
1
(c)
50
10 20
50 100
AC component of prospective
fault current (kA) rms
Ba
ck
Ba
Ba
ck
ck
ck
The current range for these devices is limited to 100 A maximum at 400 V 3-phase,
while their principal use is in domestic and similar installations. To avoid confusion
between the first group (i.e. automatic tripping) and the second group, the term
switch-fuse should be qualified by the adjectives automatic or non-automatic.
Fuse disconnector + discontactor
Fuse - switch-disconnector + discontactor
As previously mentioned, a discontactor does not provide protection against shortcircuit faults. It is necessary, therefore, to add fuses (generally of type aM) to perform
this function. The combination is used mainly for motor control circuits, where the
disconnector or switch-disconnector allows safe operations such as:
c The changing of fuse links (with the circuit isolated)
c Work on the circuit downstream of the discontactor (risk of remote closure of the
discontactor)
Ba
ck
The fuse-disconnector must be interlocked with the discontactor such that no opening
or closing manuvre of the fuse disconnector is possible unless the discontactor is
open ( Figure H20 ), since the fuse disconnector has no load-switching capability.
A fuse-switch-disconnector (evidently) requires no interlocking ( Figure H21 ).
The switch must be of class AC22 or AC23 if the circuit supplies a motor.
Circuit-breaker + contactor
Circuit-breaker + discontactor
These combinations are used in remotely controlled distribution systems in which the
rate of switching is high, or for control and protection of a circuit supplying motors.
H9
H - The switchgear
3 Choice of switchgear
Isolation
Switchgear
item
H10
Isolator (or
disconnector)(4)
Switch(5)
Residual
device
(RCCB)(5)
Switchdisconnector
Contactor
Remote control
switch
Fuse
Circuit
breaker(5)
Circuit breaker
disconnector(5)
Residual
and overcurrent
circuit breaker
(RCBO)(5)
Point of
installation
(general
principle)
Control
Functional
Emergency
switching
Emergency
stop
(mechanical)
Switching for
mechanical
maintenance
Electrical protection
Overload
Short-circuit
Differential
c
c
c
c
c
c (1)
c (1)
c (1) (2)
c (1) (2)
c
c
c (1)
c (1) (2)
c
c
c (1)
c (1)
c (1) (2)
c
c
c (1)
c (1) (2)
c
c
c
c
c (1)
c (1) (2)
c (1)
c (1) (2)
Origin of each
circuit
In general at the
incoming circuit
to every
distribution
board
At the supply
point to each
machine
and/or on the
machine
concerned
At the supply
point to each
machine
Origin of each
circuit
Origin of each
circuit
Origin of circuits
where the
earthing system
is appropriate
TN-S, IT, TT
c (3)
Ba
ck
H - The switchgear
4 Circuit breaker
As shown in Figure H23 the circuit breaker/ disconnector is the only item of
switchgear capable of simultaneously satisfying all the basic functions necessary in
an electrical installation.
Moreover, it can, by means of auxiliary units, provide a wide range of other
functions, for example: indication (on-off - tripped on fault); undervoltage tripping;
remote control etc. These features make a circuit-breaker/ disconnector the basic
unit of switchgear for any electrical installation.
Ba
ck
Functions
Isolation
Control
Protection
Functional
Emergency switching
Switching-off for mechanical
maintenance
Overload
Short-circuit
Insulation fault
Undervoltage
Remote control
Indication and measurement
Possible conditions
c
c
c (With the possibility of a tripping
coil for remote control)
c
c
c
c (With differential-current relay)
c (With undervoltage-trip coil)
c Added or incorporated
c (Generally optional with an
electronic tripping device)
Standards
Ba
ck
Fool-proof mechanical
indicator
Latching mechanism
For industrial LV installations the relevant IEC standards are, or are due to be:
c 60947-1: general rules
c 60947-2: part 2: circuit breakers
c 60947-3: part 3: switches, disconnectors, switch-disconnectors and fuse
combination units
c 60947-4: part 4: contactors and motor starters
c 60947-5: part 5: control-circuit devices and switching elements
c 60947-6: part 6: multiple function switching devices
c 60947-7: part 7: ancillary equipment
For domestic and similar LV installations, the appropriate standard is IEC 60898, or
an equivalent national standard.
Description
Figure H24 shows schematically the main parts of a LV circuit breaker and its four
essential functions:
c The circuit-breaking components, comprising the fixed and moving contacts and
the arc-dividing chamber
c The latching mechanism which becomes unlatched by the tripping device on
detection of abnormal current conditions
This mechanism is also linked to the operation handle of the breaker.
c A trip-mechanism actuating device:
v Either: a thermal-magnetic device, in which a thermally-operated bi-metal strip
detects an overload condition, while an electromagnetic striker pin operates at
current levels reached in short-circuit conditions, or
v An electronic relay operated from current transformers, one of which is installed on
each phase
c A space allocated to the several types of terminal currently used for the main
power circuit conductors
Domestic circuit breakers (see Fig. H25 next page) complying with IEC 60898 and
similar national standards perform the basic functions of:
c Isolation
c Protection against overcurrent
H11
H - The switchgear
4 Circuit breaker
As shown in Figure H23 the circuit breaker/ disconnector is the only item of
switchgear capable of simultaneously satisfying all the basic functions necessary in
an electrical installation.
Moreover, it can, by means of auxiliary units, provide a wide range of other
functions, for example: indication (on-off - tripped on fault); undervoltage tripping;
remote control etc. These features make a circuit-breaker/ disconnector the basic
unit of switchgear for any electrical installation.
Ba
ck
Functions
Isolation
Control
Protection
Functional
Emergency switching
Switching-off for mechanical
maintenance
Overload
Short-circuit
Insulation fault
Undervoltage
Remote control
Indication and measurement
Possible conditions
c
c
c (With the possibility of a tripping
coil for remote control)
c
c
c
c (With differential-current relay)
c (With undervoltage-trip coil)
c Added or incorporated
c (Generally optional with an
electronic tripping device)
Standards
Ba
ck
Fool-proof mechanical
indicator
Latching mechanism
For industrial LV installations the relevant IEC standards are, or are due to be:
c 60947-1: general rules
c 60947-2: part 2: circuit breakers
c 60947-3: part 3: switches, disconnectors, switch-disconnectors and fuse
combination units
c 60947-4: part 4: contactors and motor starters
c 60947-5: part 5: control-circuit devices and switching elements
c 60947-6: part 6: multiple function switching devices
c 60947-7: part 7: ancillary equipment
For domestic and similar LV installations, the appropriate standard is IEC 60898, or
an equivalent national standard.
Description
Figure H24 shows schematically the main parts of a LV circuit breaker and its four
essential functions:
c The circuit-breaking components, comprising the fixed and moving contacts and
the arc-dividing chamber
c The latching mechanism which becomes unlatched by the tripping device on
detection of abnormal current conditions
This mechanism is also linked to the operation handle of the breaker.
c A trip-mechanism actuating device:
v Either: a thermal-magnetic device, in which a thermally-operated bi-metal strip
detects an overload condition, while an electromagnetic striker pin operates at
current levels reached in short-circuit conditions, or
v An electronic relay operated from current transformers, one of which is installed on
each phase
c A space allocated to the several types of terminal currently used for the main
power circuit conductors
Domestic circuit breakers (see Fig. H25 next page) complying with IEC 60898 and
similar national standards perform the basic functions of:
c Isolation
c Protection against overcurrent
H11
H - The switchgear
4 Circuit breaker
Some models can be adapted to provide sensitive detection (30 mA) of earthleakage current with CB tripping, by the addition of a modular block, while other
models (RCBOs, complying with IEC 61009 and CBRs complying with IEC 60947-2
Annex B) have this residual current feature incorporated as shown in Figure H26 .
Apart from the above-mentioned functions further features can be associated with
the basic circuit breaker by means of additional modules, as shown in Figure H27 ;
notably remote control and indication (on-off-fault).
Ba
ck
2
3
4
5
H12
O--OFF
O--OFF
O-OFF
Moulded-case type industrial circuit breakers complying with IEC 60947-2 are now
available, which, by means of associated adaptable blocks provide a similar range of
auxiliary functions to those described above (see Figure H28 ).
Heavy-duty industrial circuit breakers of large current ratings, complying with
IEC 60947-2, have numerous built-in communication and electronic functions
(see Figure H29 ).
In addition to the protection functions, the Micrologic unit provides optimized
functions such as measurement (including power quality functions), diagnosis,
communication, control and monitoring.
Fig. H26 : Domestic-type circuit breaker as above (Fig. H25)
with incorparated protection against electric shocks
Ba
ck
OF2
SDE
SD
OF1
OF2
SDE
SD
OF1
Fig. H29 : Examples of heavy-duty industrial circuit breakers. The Masterpact provides many
automation features in its Micrologic tripping module
H - The switchgear
4 Circuit breaker
Frame-size rating
A circuit breaker which can be fitted with overcurrent tripping units of different current
level-setting ranges, is assigned a rating which corresponds to the highest currentlevel-setting tripping unit that can be fitted.
Example
A NS630N circuit breaker can be equipped with 4 electronic trip units from 150 A to
630 A. The size of the circuit breaker is 630 A.
Ba
ck
0.4 In
Rated current of
the tripping unit
In
Adjustment
range
360 A
The thermal-trip relays are generally adjustable from 0.7 to 1.0 times In, but when
electronic devices are used for this duty, the adjustment range is greater; typically
0.4 to 1 times In.
Circuit breaker
frame-size rating
Overload trip
current setting
Ir
160 A
Apart from small circuit breakers which are very easily replaced, industrial circuit
breakers are equipped with removable, i.e. exchangeable, overcurrent-trip relays.
Moreover, in order to adapt a circuit breaker to the requirements of the circuit it
controls, and to avoid the need to install over-sized cables, the trip relays are
generally adjustable. The trip-current setting Ir or Irth (both designations are in
common use) is the current above which the circuit breaker will trip. It also
represents the maximum current that the circuit breaker can carry without tripping.
That value must be greater than the maximum load current IB, but less than the
maximum current permitted in the circuit Iz (see chapter G, sub-clause 1.3).
400 A
630 A
(1) Current-level setting values which refer to the currentoperated thermal and instantaneous magnetic tripping
devices for over-load and short-circuit protection.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2005
H13
H - The switchgear
4 Circuit breaker
Ba
ck
H14
Type of
protective
relay
Overload
protection
Short-circuit protection
Domestic
breakers
IEC 60898
Thermalmagnetic
Ir = In
Low setting
type B
3 In i Im i 5 In
Standard setting
type C
5 In i Im i 10 In
Modular
industrial(2)
circuit breakers
Thermalmagnetic
Ir = In
fixed
Low setting
type B or Z
3.2 In i fixed i 4.8 In
Standard setting
type C
7 In i fixed i 10 In
High setting
type D or K
10 In i fixed i 14 In
Industrial(2)
circuit breakers
IEC 60947-2
Thermalmagnetic
Ir = In fixed
Adjustable:
0.7 In i Ir i In
Electronic
Long delay
0.4 In i Ir i In
Fixed: Im = 7 to 10 In
Adjustable:
- Low setting : 2 to 5 In
- Standard setting: 5 to 10 In
Short-delay, adjustable
1.5 Ir i Im i 10 Ir
Instantaneous (I) fixed
I = 12 to 15 In
(1) 50 In in IEC 60898, which is considered to be unrealistically high by most European manufacturers (Merlin Gerin = 10 to 14 In).
(2) For industrial use, IEC standards do not specify values. The above values are given only as being those in common use.
Fig. H31 : Tripping-current ranges of overload and short-circuit protective devices for LV circuit breakers
Ba
ck
t (s)
Ba
ck
t (s)
Ir
Im
I(A)
Ii
Icu
I(A)
Im
Icu
current setting
H - The switchgear
4 Circuit breaker
Isolating feature
A circuit breaker is suitable for isolating a circuit if it fulfills all the conditions
prescribed for a disconnector (at its rated voltage) in the relevant standard (see subclause 1.2). In such a case it is referred to as a circuit breaker-disconnector and
marked on its front face with the symbol
All Multi 9, Compact NS and Masterpact LV switchgear of Merlin Gerin manufacture
is in this category.
Icu (rated ultimate s.c. breaking capacity) and Ics (rated service s.c. breaking
capacity) are defined in IEC 60947-2 together with a table relating Ics with Icu for
different categories of utilization A (instantaneous tripping) and B (time-delayed
tripping) as discussed in subclause 4.3.
Tests for proving the rated s.c. breaking capacities of CBs are governed by
standards, and include:
c Operating sequences, comprising a succession of operations, i.e. closing and
opening on short-circuit
c Current and voltage phase displacement. When the current is in phase with the
supply voltage (cos for the circuit = 1), interruption of the current is easier than that
at any other power factor. Breaking a current at low lagging values of cos is
considerably more difficult to achieve; a zero power-factor circuit being (theoretically)
the most onerous case.
In practice, all power-system short-circuit fault currents are (more or less) at lagging
power factors, and standards are based on values commonly considered to be
representative of the majority of power systems. In general, the greater the level of
fault current (at a given voltage), the lower the power factor of the fault-current loop,
for example, close to generators or large transformers.
Figure H34 below extracted from IEC 60947-2 relates standardized values of cos
to industrial circuit breakers according to their rated Icu.
c Following an open - time delay - close/open sequence to test the Icu capacity of a
CB, further tests are made to ensure that:
v The dielectric withstand capability
v The disconnection (isolation) performance and
v The correct operation of the overload protection
have not been impaired by the test.
Ba
ck
Icu
cos
6 kA < Icu i 10 kA
0.5
10 kA < Icu i 20 kA
0.3
20 kA < Icu i 50 kA
0.25
50 kA < Icu
0.2
Fig. H34 : Icu related to power factor (cos ) of fault-current circuit (IEC 60947-2)
H15
H - The switchgear
4 Circuit breaker
Ba
ck
t (s)
I(A)
Im
H16
Ba
ck
t (s)
Icm is the highest instantaneous value of current that the circuit breaker can
establish at rated voltage in specified conditions. In AC systems this instantaneous
peak value is related to Icu (i.e. to the rated breaking current) by the factor k, which
depends on the power factor (cos ) of the short-circuit current loop (as shown in
Figure H37 ).
Ba
ck
Icu
cos
Icm = kIcu
6 kA < Icu i 10 kA
0.5
1.7 x Icu
10 kA < Icu i 20 kA
0.3
2 x Icu
20 kA < Icu i 50 kA
0.25
2.1 x Icu
50 kA i Icu
0.2
2.2 x Icu
Fig. H37 : Relation between rated breaking capacity Icu and rated making capacity Icm at
different power-factor values of short-circuit current, as standardized in IEC 60947-2
I(A)
Im
Icw
Icu
Icu of 100 kA. The peak value of its rated making capacity Icm will be
H - The switchgear
4 Circuit breaker
Fault-current limitation
The fault-current limitation capacity of a CB concerns its ability, more or less
effective, in preventing the passage of the maximum prospective fault-current,
permitting only a limited amount of current to flow, as shown in Figure H38 .
The current-limitation performance is given by the CB manufacturer in the form of
curves (see Fig. H39 ).
c Diagram (a) shows the limited peak value of current plotted against the rms value
of the AC component of the prospective fault current (prospective fault-current
refers to the fault-current which would flow if the CB had no current-limiting
capability)
c Limitation of the current greatly reduces the thermal stresses (proportional I2t) and
this is shown by the curve of diagram (b) of Figure H39, again, versus the rms value
of the AC component of the prospective fault current.
LV circuit breakers for domestic and similar installations are classified in certain
standards (notably European Standard EN 60 898). CBs belonging to one class (of
current limiters) have standardized limiting I2t let-through characteristics defined by
that class.
In these cases, manufacturers do not normally provide characteristic performance
curves.
H17
Ba
ck
a)
b)
Limited
current
peak
(kA)
Limited
current
peak
(A2 x s)
4,5.105
22
n
rre
cu s
c
d
i
ite ist
m r
-li acte
n
o r
N ha
c
2.105
Prospective AC
component (rms)
150 kA
Prospective AC
component (rms)
150 kA
k
ac
Icc
Prospectice
fault-current peak
Limited
current peak
Prospectice
fault-current
Limited
current
tc
Example
On a system having a prospective shortcircuit current of 150 kA rms, a Compact L
circuit breaker limits the peak current to less than 10% of the calculated prospective
peak value, and the thermal effects to less than 1% of those calculated.
Cascading of the several levels of distribution in an installation, downstream of a
limiting CB, will also result in important savings.
H - The switchgear
4 Circuit breaker
H18
Ba
ck
Ambient
temperature
Single CB
in free air
Temperature of air
surrouding the
circuit breakers
Ambient
temperature
ck
Ba
60 C
0.85
1.74
2.37
3.24
5.30
7.80
13.5
16.8
20.7
27.5
33.2
40.5
49.2
60 C
144
180
225
50 C
152
190
238
55 C
147
185
231
Fig. H41 : Examples of tables for the determination of derating/uprating factors to apply to CBs
with uncompensated thermal tripping units, according to temperature
H - The switchgear
4 Circuit breaker
Example
What rating (In) should be selected for a C60 N?
c Protecting a circuit, the maximum load current of which is estimated to be 34 A
c Installed side-by-side with other CBs in a closed distribution box
c In an ambient temperature of 50 C
A C60N circuit breaker rated at 40 A would be derated to 35.6 A in ambient air at
50 C (see Fig. H41). To allow for mutual heating in the enclosed space, however,
the 0.8 factor noted above must be employed, so that, 35.6 x 0.8 = 28.5 A, which is
not suitable for the 34 A load.
A 50 A circuit breaker would therefore be selected, giving a (derated) current rating
of 44 x 0.8 = 35.2 A.
L1
Withdrawable with
horizontal plugs
Withdrawable with
on-edge plugs
In (A)
Maximum
adjustment Ir
In (A)
Maximum
adjustment Ir
40C
45C
50C
55C
60C
2,000
1
2,000
1
2,000
1
1,980
0.99
1,890
0.95
2,000
1
200
1
1,900
0.95
1,850
0.93
1,800
0.90
Coeff. In (A)
1 2,000
NW20 withdrawable with
horizontal plugs
0.95 1,890
NW20 L1 withdrawable
with on edge plugs
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Fig. H42 : Derating of Masterpact NW20 circuit breaker, according to the temperature
ck
0.90 1,800
Ba
H19
H - The switchgear
4 Circuit breaker
Tripping unit
Low setting
type B
Applications
c Sources producing low short-circuitcurrent levels
(standby generators)
c Long lengths of line or cable
Standard setting
type C
High setting
type D or K
12 In
type MA
ck
Ba
Type
I
t
H20
I
t
I
Fig. H43 : Different tripping units, instantaneous or short-time-delayed
H - The switchgear
4 Circuit breaker
Ba
Note: The essential conditions for the successful operation of 3-phase transformers
in parallel may be summarized as follows:
1. the phase shift of the voltages, primary to secondary, must be the same in all units
to be paralleled.
2. the open-circuit voltage ratios, primary to secondary, must be the same in all units.
3. the short-circuit impedance voltage (Zsc%) must be the same for all units.
For example, a 750 kVA transformer with a Zsc = 6% will share the load correctly
with a 1,000 kVA transformer having a Zsc of 6%, i.e. the transformers will be loaded
automatically in proportion to their kVA ratings. For transformers having a ratio of
kVA ratings exceeding 2, parallel operation is not recommended.
ck
Figure H46 indicates, for the most usual arrangement (2 or 3 transformers of equal
kVA ratings) the maximum short-circuit currents to which main and principal CBs
(CBM and CBP respectively, in Figure H45) are subjected. It is based on the
following hypotheses:
c The short-circuit 3-phase power on the HV side of the transformer is 500 MVA
c The transformers are standard 20/0.4 kV distribution-type units rated as listed
c The cables from each transformer to its LV circuit breaker comprise 5 metres of
single core conductors
c Between each incoming-circuit CBM and each outgoing-circuit CBP there is
1 metre of busbar
c The switchgear is installed in a floormounted enclosed switchboard, in an ambientair temperature of 30 C
250 kVA
20 kV/400 V
Compact
NS400N
Ba
ck
HV
HV
Tr1
Tr2
LV
A1
Tr3
LV
A2
CBM
B1
CBM
B2
CBP
HV
LV
A3
CBM
B3
CBP
Ba
ck
Rated current In of
principal circuit breaker
(CPB) 250A
NS250H
NS250H
NS250H
NS250H
NS250H
NS250H
NS250H
NS250H
NS250H
NS250L
NS250L
NS250L
NS250L
NS250L
Fig. H46 : Maximum values of short-circuit current to be interrupted by main and principal circuit breakers (CBM and CBP respectively), for several transformers in parallel
H21
H - The switchgear
4 Circuit breaker
H22
Ba
ck
3 Tr
800 kVA
20 kV/400 V
CBM
CBP1
400 A
CBP2
100 A
CBP3
200 A
H - The switchgear
4 Circuit breaker
H22
Ba
ck
3 Tr
800 kVA
20 kV/400 V
CBM
CBP1
400 A
CBP2
100 A
CBP3
200 A
H - The switchgear
4 Circuit breaker
Conditions of implementation
Most national standards admit the cascading technique, on condition that the
amount of energy let through by the limiting CB is less than the energy all
downstream CBs and components are able to withstand without damage.
In practice this can only be verified for CBs by tests performed in a laboratory. Such
tests are carried out by manufacturers who provide the information in the form of
tables, so that users can confidently design a cascading scheme based on the
combination of recommended circuit breaker types. As an example, Figure H48
indicates the cascading possibilities of circuit-breaker types C60, DT40N, C120 and
NG125 when installed downstream of current-limiting CBs NS 250 N, H or L for a
230/400 V or 240/415 V 3-phase installation.
Ba
ck
Short-circuit
breaking capacity
of the upstream
(limiter) CBs
Possible short-circuit
breaking capacity of
the downstream CBs
(benefiting from the
cascading technique)
kA rms
150
50
35
150
70
40
36
30
25
20
15
NS250L
NS250H
NS250N
NG125L
NG125L
C60L i 40
NG125N
C60L
C60H
C120N/H
NG125N
C60H
C60L 50-63
C60N
C120N/H
DT40N
DT40N
C60N
C60L i 40
C60N/H
C60L 50-63
C60N
C120N/H
DT40N
Advantages of cascading
The current limitation benefits all downstream circuits that are controlled by the
current-limiting CB concerned.
The principle is not restrictive, i.e. current-limiting CBs can be installed at any point
in an installation where the downstream circuits would otherwise be inadequately
rated.
The result is:
c Simplified short-circuit current calculations
c Simplification, i.e. a wider choice of downstream switchgear and appliances
c The use of lighter-duty switchgear and appliances, with consequently lower cost
c Economy of space requirements, since light-duty equipment have generally a
maller volume
Ba
ck
A
Isc
0
Total discrimination
Ir B
0
Isc B
Partial discrimination
B only opens A and B open
Ir B
Is
Isc
Isc
Isc B
Is = discrimination limit
H23
H - The switchgear
4 Circuit breaker
Ba
ck
I
Ir B
Ir A Isc B Im A
Ba
ck
H24
Im A Isc B
Ir A
B only opens
Isc A
A and B open
I
Im B
a)
I
Ir B
Principle: When a very high level short-circuit current is detected by the two circuitsbreaker A and B, their contacts open simultaneously. As a result, the current is
highly limited.
c The very high arc-energy at level B induces the tripping of circuit breaker B
c Then, the arc-energy is limited at level A and is not sufficient to induce the tripping
of A
As a rule of thumb, the discrimination between Compact NS is total if the size ratio
between A and B is greater than 2.5.
Im A Isc B
Current-level discrimination
b)
A
t
B
Isc B
c)
Isc B
Im A
Ii A
delayed
instantaneous
Current-level discrimination is achieved with circuits breakers, preferably currentlimiting, and stepped current-level settings of the instantaneous magnetic-trip
elements.
c The downstream circuit-breaker is not a current-limiter device
Total discrimination in this situation is practically impossible because
Isc A Isc B, so that both circuit-breakers will generally trip simultaneously. In this
case discrimination is partial, and limited to the Im of the upstream circuit-breaker.
See fig. H51.
c The downstream circuit-breaker is a current-limiting device
Improvement in discriminative tripping can be obtained by using a current limiter for
circuit-breaker B. For a short-circuit downstream of B, the limited level of peak
current IB would operate the (suitably adjusted) magnetic trip unit of B, but would be
insufficient to cause circuit breaker A to trip.
Note: All LV breakers (considered here) have some inherent degree of current
limitation, even those that are not classified as current-limiting. This accounts for the
curved characteristic shown for the standard circuit-breaker A in Figure H53
opposite page. Careful calculation and testing is necessary, however, to ensure
satisfactory performance of this arrangement.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2005
H - The switchgear
4 Circuit breaker
I peak
Fault
upstream
of B
c
Ba
Current limitation
curves
(see note)
B
Fault
downstream
of B
Isc
prospective (rms)
Isc
Fig. H53 : Downstream limiting circuit breaker B
t
A
B
Ba
ck
Only B opens
Im A
A and B open
Ii A
delayed instantaneous
Example
Circuit breaker A: Compact NS250 N fitted with a trip unit which includes a SD
feature.
Ir = 250 A, magnetic trip set at 2,000 A
Circuit breaker B: Compact NS100N
Ir = 100 A
The Merlin Gerin distribution catalogue indicates a discrimination limit of 3,000 A (an
improvement over the limit of 2,500 A obtained when using a standard tripping unit).
Time-based discrimination
This technique requires:
c The introduction of time-delays into the tripping mechanisms of CBs
c CBs with adequate thermal and mechanical withstand capabilities at the high
current levels and time delays considered
Two circuit breakers A and B in series (i.e. carrying the same current) are
discriminative if the current-breaking period of downstream circuit-breaker B is less
than the non-tripping time of circuit breaker A.
(1) Short-delay
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2005
H25
H - The switchgear
4 Circuit breaker
Ba
ck
t
A
B
Non tripping
time of A
Current-breaking
time for B
H26
Only B opens
Ir B
I
Icc B
Icc
H - The switchgear
4 Circuit breaker
Ba
ck
Pilot wire
B
Inter-locking
order
H27
Fig. H56 : Logic discrimination
Ba
ck
63 A
Full-load current
1,760 A
3-phase
short-circuit
current level
31.4 kA
1,250 kVA
20 kV / 400 V
Compact
NS2000
set at 1,800 A
H - The switchgear
4 Circuit breaker
Ba
ck
t
(s)
NS 2000
set at
1,800 A
1,000
H28
200
100
Minimum pre-arcing
curve for 63 A HV fuses
(current referred to the
secondary side of the
transformer)
10
1
6
8
0.220
0.1
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
0.050
Step 1
0.01
1,800 A
Ir
10 kA
Isc maxi
31.4 kA
Chapter J
Protection against voltage surges
Contents
1
2
3
4
General
J2
J2
J2
J4
J5
J6
J6
J8
Standards
J11
J11
J11
J11
J13
J14
J14
J16
J16
J17
J1
1 General
Ba
ck
Voltage
Irms
J2
Ba
ck
Voltage (V or kV)
U max
50 %
t
Rise time (tf)
Voltage surge duration (T)
1 General
c Throughout the world, every year, thousands of people are struck by lightning and
countless animals are killed
c Lightning also causes a large number of fires, most of which break out on farms
(destroying buildings or putting them out of use)
c Lightning also affects transformers, electricity meters, household appliances, and
all electrical and electronic installations in the residential sector and in industry.
c Tall buildings are the ones most often struck by lightning
c The cost of repairing damage caused by lightning is very high
c It is difficult to evaluate the consequences of disturbance caused to computer or
telecommunications networks, faults in PLC cycles and faults in regulation systems.
Furthermore, the losses caused by a machine being put out of use can have financial
consequences rising above the cost of the equipment destroyed by the lightning.
Characteristics of lightning discharge
Figure J3 shows the values given by the lighting protection committee (Technical
Committee 81) of the I.E.C. As can be seen, 50 % of lightning strokes are of a force
greater than 33 kA and 5 % are greater than 85 kA. The energy forces involved are
thus very high.
Ba
ck
Beyond peak
probability
P%
95
50
5
Current
peak
I (kA)
7
33
85
Gradient
S (kA/s)
9.1
24
65
Total
duration
T (s)
0.001
0.01
1.1
Number of
discharges
n
1
2
6
Fig. J3 : Lightning discharge values given by the IEC lightning protection committee
J3
1 General
Ba
ck
These overvoltages have the same frequency as the network (50, 60 or 400 Hz);
and can be caused by:
c Phase/frame or phase/earth insulating faults on a network with an insulated or
impedant neutral, or by the breakdown of the neutral conductor. When this happens,
single phase devices will be supplied in 400 V instead of 230 V.
c A cable breakdown. For example, a medium voltage cable which falls on a low
voltage line
c The arcing of a high or medium voltage protective spark-gap causing a rise in
earth potential during the action of the protection devices. These protection devices
follow automatic switching cycles which will recreate a fault if it persists
Normal voltage
230/400 V
J4
Transient overvoltage
Normal voltage
230/400 V
Ba
Voltage surge
coefficient
Duration
Front gradient
or frequency
Industrial frequency
(insulation fault)
Operation
i 1.7
2 to 4
Long
30 to 1,000 ms
Short
1 to 100 ms
Industrial frequency
(50-60-400 Hz)
Average
1 to 200 kHz
Atmospheric
>4
Very short
1 to 100 s
Very high
1 to 1,000 kV/s
ck
1 General
ck
Common mode voltage surges occur between the live parts and the earth:
phase/earth or neutral/earth (see Fig. J6 ).
They are especially dangerous for devices whose frame is earthed due to the risk of
dielectric breakdown.
Ba
Ph
Equipment
Imc
Voltage surge
common mode
Imc
J5
Differential mode
Differential mode voltage surges circulate between live conductors: Phase to phase
or phase to neutral (see Fig. J7 ). They are especially dangerous for electronic
equipment, sensitive computer equipment, etc.
Ba
ck
Imd
Ph
U voltage surge
differential mode
Imd
Equipment
Two major types of protection devices are used to suppress or limit voltage surges:
they are referred to as primary protection devices and secondary protection devices.
J6
Ba
ck
Copper strip
down conductor
Test clamp
Crow-foot earthing
ck
These wires are stretched over the structure to be protected (see Fig. J9 ). They are
used for special structures: rocket launch pads, military applications and lightning
protection cables for overhead high voltage power lines (see Fig. J10 ).
Ba
Metal post
d > 0.1 h
J7
h
Ba
ck
i/2
i/2
Lightning
protection
wires
Ba
ck
J8
Fig. J11 : Example of protection using the meshed cage (Faraday cage) principle
Power supply
Installation to be protected
Serial
protection
Ba
ck
Up
Transformers
They reduce voltage surges by inductor effect and make certain harmonics
disappear by coupling. This protection is not very effective.
Filters
Based on components such as resistors, inductance coils and capacitors they are
suitable for voltage surges caused by industrial and operation disturbance
corresponding to a clearly defined frequency band. This protection device is not
suitable for atmospheric disturbance.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2005
Ba
ck
J8
Fig. J11 : Example of protection using the meshed cage (Faraday cage) principle
Power supply
Installation to be protected
Serial
protection
Ba
ck
Up
Transformers
They reduce voltage surges by inductor effect and make certain harmonics
disappear by coupling. This protection is not very effective.
Filters
Based on components such as resistors, inductance coils and capacitors they are
suitable for voltage surges caused by industrial and operation disturbance
corresponding to a clearly defined frequency band. This protection device is not
suitable for atmospheric disturbance.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2005
Wave absorbers
They are essentially made up of air inductance coils which limit the voltage surges,
and surge arresters which absorb the currents. They are extremely suitable for
protecting sensitive electronic and computing equipment. They only act against
voltage surges. They are nonetheless extremely cumbersome and expensive.
Network conditioners and static uninterrupted power supplies (UPS)
These devices are essentially used to protect highly sensitive equipment, such as
computer equipment, which requires a high quality electrical power supply. They can
be used to regulate the voltage and frequency, stop interference and ensure a
continuous electrical power supply even in the event of a mains power failure (for the
UPS). On the other hand, they are not protected against large, atmospheric type
voltage surges against which it is still necessary to use surge arresters.
Power supply
Installation to
be protected
Up
J9
Ba
ck
Parallel
protection
ck
Main characteristics
c The rated voltage of the protection device must correspond to the network voltage
at the installation terminals
c When there is no voltage surge, a leakage current should not go through the
protection device which is on standby
c When a voltage surge above the allowable voltage threshold of the installation to
be protected occurs, the protection device abruptly conducts the voltage surge
current to the earth by limiting the voltage to the desired protection level Up
(see Fig. J14 ).
Ba
U (V)
Up
I (A)
When the voltage surge disappears, the protection device stops conducting and
returns to standby without a holding current. This is the ideal U/I characteristic curve:
c The protection device response time (tr) must be as short as possible to protect
the installation as quickly as possible
c The protection device must have the capacity to be able to conduct the energy
caused by the foreseeable voltage surge on the site to be protected
c The surge arrester protection device must be able to withstand the rated current
In.
Ba
MV/LV
ck
Overvoltage
limiter
PIM
Permanent
insulation
monitor
J10
c LV surge arresters
This term designates very different devices as far as technology and use are
concerned. Low voltage surge arresters come in the form of modules to be installed
inside LV switchboard. There are also plug-in types and those that protect power
outlets. They ensure secondary protection of nearby elements but have a small flow
capacity. Some are even built into loads although they cannot protect against strong
voltage surges
c Low current surge arresters or overvoltage protectors
These protect telephone or switching networks against voltage surges from the
outside (lightning), as well as from the inside (polluting equipment, switchgear
switching, etc.)
Low current voltage surge arresters are also installed in distribution boxes or
built into loads.
3 Standards
J11
3 Standards
Ba
ck
The SPD is characterised by Uc, Up, In and Imax (see Fig. J16 )
Up
Uc
In
< 1 mA
J12
Imax
ck
c To test the surge arrester, standardized voltage and current waves have been
defined that are specific to each country:
v Voltage wave
e.g. 1.2/50 s (see Fig. J17 )
Ba
V
Maxi
100 %
50 %
t
1,2
(s)
50
v Current wave
Example 8/20 s (see Fig. J18 )
Ba
ck
Maxi
100 %
50 %
t
(s)
20
3 Standards
120-240
-
8
6
4
Values subject to system engineers
J13
Specially
protected
equipment
(impulse
withstand
category I)
0.8
1.5
2.5
Ba
230/440(2)
277/480(2)
400/690
1,000
ck
Nominal voltage of
the installation(1) V
Three-phase Single-phase
systems(2)
systems with
middle point
Fig. J19 : Choosing equipment for the installation according to IEC 60364
ck
Where
R: load risk
S: equipment sensitivity
C: equipment cost
I: unavailability of equipment and consequences
Ba
J14
c Equipment sensitivity
It is due to the impulse withstand voltage of the equipment to be
protected (Ui):
S=1
High impulse
withstand (4 kV)
equipment
Distribution cabinets
power point sockets,
motors, transformers...
S=2
Normal impulse
withstand (2.5 kV)
equipment
All household
electrical appliances
dishwasher, refrigerators,
ovens, portable tools
S=3
Low impulse
withstand (1.5 kV)
equipment
Electronic circuit
equipment, televisions,
HIFI systems video
recorders, alarms,
computers and
telecommunications
C=2
Average cost
2 to 20 kUS$
C=3
High cost
> 20 kUS$
c Equipment cost
C=1
Low cost
< 2 kUS$
I=2
Partial interruption
of operations
(acceptable
financial consequences)
I=3
No interruption
of operations
(unacceptable
financial
consequences)
ck
d: Coefficient taking into account the location of the overhead line and the
installation.
Ba
Underground
MV supply
Underground
LV supply
J15
Pole-mounted
MV/LV substation
overhead power
supply
2
Overhead
LV supply
1
LV: The length in kilometres of the bare or twisted overhead low voltage power lines
supplying the installation
LV = 0
LV = 0.2
LV = 0.4
LV = 0.6
LV = 0.8
LV = 1
UnderL = 100 to 199 m L = 200 to 299 m L = 300 to 399 m L = 400 to 499 m L > 500 m
ground or
twisted
cables
Length of the overhead low voltage line 1
MV: Parameter depending on the MV network supplying the MV/LV substation
MV = 0
Underground MV/LV substation power
supply
MV = 1
Overhead or mainly overhead MV/LV
substation power supply
d: Coefficient taking into account the location of the overhead line and the installation
d
Building, MV, LV or
telephone line
location
d=0
Entirely
surrounded
by structures
d = 0.5
Several
nearby
structures
d = 0.75
Open or
flat land
d=1
On a peak, near water
in a mountainous area, near
a lightning conductor
Ba
I =1
30- 40 kA
15 kA(1)
15 kA(1)
I =2
65 kA
30-40 kA
15 kA(1)
ck
R = 8 or 9
R = 6 or 7
R 5
I=3
65 kA
65 kA
30-40 kA
J16
Ba
TT
u 1.5 Uo
TN-S
u 1.1 Uo
u 1.1 Uo
15 kA (1)
u 1.1 Uo
30-40 kA
TN-C
u 1.1 Uo
IT
u 1.732 Uo
ck
Earthing systems
Uc value in the common mode
(phase-earth, neutral-earth protection)
Uc value in the differential mode
(phase-neutral protection)
u 1.1 Uo
TT
TN-S
TN-C
IT
distributed
neutral
345/360 V 345/264 V 253/264 V 398/415 V
IT non
distributed
neutral
398/415 V
1P
3P
3P
1P + N
3P + N
1P + N
3P + N
1P + N
3P + N
1P + N
3P + N
1P + N
3P + N
1P + N
3P + N
1P + N
3P + N
1P + N
3P + N
1P + N
3P + N
1P
3 x 1P
3 x 1P
ck
After having chosen the surge protective device(s) needed to protect the installation,
the appropriate disconnection circuit-breaker is to be chosen from the table below:
c Its breaking capacity must be compatible with the installations short-circuit current
c Each live conductor must be protected, for example: a surge arrester 1P+N must
be associated with a 2-pole disconnection circuit-breaker (2 protected poles).
Ba
J17
Chapter K
Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
Contents
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
K2
K2
K2
K3
K4
K5
K5
K5
K7
K7
K7
K9
K10
K10
K10
K11
K12 K1
K12
K12
K14
K14
K15
K15
K16
K18
K18
K19
K20
K21
K21
K21
K23
K24
K24
K25
K2
Wattless (capacitive) currents have the reverse effect on voltage levels and
produce voltage-rises in power systems.
The power (kW) associated with active energy is usually represented by the letter P.
The reactive power (kvar) is represented by Q. Inductively-reactive power is
conventionally positive (+ Q) while capacitively-reactive power is shown as a
negative quantity (- Q).
The apparent power S (kVA) is a combination of P and Q (see Fig. K1 ).
Sub-clause 1.3 shows the relationship between P, Q, and S.
ck
S
(kVA)
Ba
ck
Ba
Q
(kvar)
P
(kW)
Fig. K1 : An electric motor requires active power P and reactive power Q from the power system
Ba
ck
V
P = VI cos (kW)
S = VI (kVA)
Q = VI sin (kvar)
P = Active power
Q = Reactive power
S = Apparent power
K3
Type of
circuit
S = VI
P = VI cos
Q = VI sin
S = UI
10 kVA
P = UI cos
5 kW
Q = UI sin
8.7 kvar
ck
P = e UI cos Q = e UI sin
56 kW
33 kvar
Ba
Reactive power
Q (kvar)
Pn
51
= 56 kW
0.91
S = apparent power
K4
S=
P
56
=
= 65 kVA
cos 0.86
ck
P = 56 kW
Q = 33 kvar
S=
65
kV
c Incandescent lamps
c Fluorescent lamps (uncompensated)
c Fluorescent lamps (compensated)
c Discharge lamps
c Ovens using resistance elements
c Induction heating ovens (compensated)
c Dielectric type heating ovens
c Resistance-type soldering machines
c Fixed 1-phase arc-welding set
c Arc-welding motor-generating set
c Arc-welding transformer-rectifier set
c Arc furnace
cos
0.17
0.55
0.73
0.80
0.85
1.0
0.5
0.93
0.4 to 0.6
1.0
0.85
0.85
0.8 to 0.9
0.5
0.7 to 0.9
0.7 to 0.8
0.8
tan
5.80
1.52
0.94
0.75
0.62
0
1.73
0.39
2.29 to 1.33
0
0.62
0.62
0.75 to 0.48
1.73
1.02 to 0.48
1.02 to 0.75
0.75
Fig. K6 : Values of cos and tan for commonly-used plant and equipment
ck
Ba
0%
25%
50%
75%
100%
Ba
tan =
Q (kvarh)
P (kWh)
Ba
ck
Multiplying factor
for the cross-sectional
area of the cable core(s)
1.25
1.67
2.5
cos
0.8
0.6
0.4
K5
K6
Ba
ck
IL - IC
IC
C
IL
IL
IC
C
IL
IL
IC
C
IL IR
IR + IL
Load
ck
Ba
This is indicated in Figure K8 (a) and (b) which show the flow of the reactive
components of current only.
In this figure:
R represents the active-power elements of the load
L represents the (inductive) reactive-power elements of the load
C represents the (capacitive) reactive-power elements of the power-factor correction
equipment (i.e. capacitors).
In diagram (c) of Figure K9, the active-power current component has been added,
and shows that the (fully-compensated) load appears to the power system as having
a power factor of 1.
In general, it is not economical to fully compensate an installation.
Figure K9 uses the power diagram discussed in sub-clause 1.3 (see Fig. K3) to
illustrate the principle of compensation by reducing a large reactive power Q to a
smaller value Q by means of a bank of capacitors having a reactive power Qc.
In doing so, the magnitude of the apparent power S is seen to reduce to S.
Load
IR
An inductive load having a low power factor requires the generators and
transmission/distribution systems to pass reactive current (lagging the system
voltage by 90 degrees) with associated power losses and exaggerated voltage
drops, as noted in sub-clause 1.1. If a bank of shunt capacitors is added to the load,
its (capacitive) reactive current will take the same path through the power system as
that of the load reactive current. Since, as pointed out in sub-clause 1.1, this
capacitive current Ic (which leads the system voltage by 90 degrees) is in direct
phase opposition to the load reactive current (IL), the two components flowing
through the same path will cancel each other, such that if the capacitor bank is
sufficiently large and Ic = IL there will be no reactive current flow in the system
upstream of the capacitors.
It will be seen from diagram (b) of Figure K9 , that the capacitor bank C appears to
be supplying all the reactive current of the load. For this reason, capacitors are
sometimes referred to as generators of lagging vars.
Load
IL - IC = 0
'
Example:
A motor consumes 100 kW at a power factor of 0.75 (i.e. tan = 0.88). To improve
the power factor to 0.93 (i.e. tan = 0.4), the reactive power of the capacitor bank
must be : Qc = 100 (0.88 - 0.4) = 48 kvar
The selected level of compensation and the calculation of rating for the capacitor
bank depend on the particular installation. The factors requiring attention are
explained in a general way in clause 5, and in clauses 6 and 7 for transformers and
motors.
Note: Before starting a compensation project, a number of precautions should be
observed. In particular, oversizing of motors should be avoided, as well as the noload running of motors. In this latter condition, the reactive energy consumed by a
motor results in a very low power factor ( 0.17); this is because the kW taken by the
motor (when it is unloaded) are very small.
Q'
S'
Q
S
Qc
K7
K8
K9
Ba
ck
CT In / 5 A cl 1
Varmetric
relay
Ba
ck
K10
no.1
Principle
Capacitor banks are connected to busbars of each local distribution board, as shown
in Figure K14.
Ba
ck
A significant part of the installation benefits from this arrangement, notably the feeder
cables from the main distribution board to each of the local distribution boards at
which the compensation measures are applied.
Advantages
The compensation by sector:
c Reduces the tariff penalties for excessive consumption of kvars
c Reduces the apparent power kVA demand, on which standing charges are usually
based
c Relieves the supply transformer, which is then able to accept more load if
necessary
c The size of the cables supplying the local distribution boards may be reduced, or
will have additional capacity for possible load increases
c Losses in the same cables will be reduced
no. 1
no. 2
no. 2
Comments
c Reactive current still flows in all cables downstream of the local distribution boards
c For the above reason, the sizing of these cables, and the power losses in them,
are not improved by compensation by sector
c Where large changes in loads occur, there is always a risk of overcompensation
and consequent overvoltage problems
K11
K12
General principle
An approximate calculation is generally adequate for most practical cases, and may
be based on the assumption of a power factor of 0.8 (lagging) before compensation.
In order to improve the power factor to a value sufficient to avoid tariff penalties (this
depends on local tariff structures, but is assumed here to be 0.93) and to reduce
losses, volt-drops, etc. in the installation, reference can be made to Figure K15 next
page.
From the figure, it can be seen that, to raise the power factor of the installation from
0.8 to 0.93 will require 0.355 kvar per kW of load. The rating of a bank of capacitors
at the busbars of the main distribution board of the installation would be
Q (kvar) = 0.355 x P (kW).
This simple approach allows a rapid determination of the compensation capacitors
required, albeit in the global, partial or independent mode.
Example
It is required to improve the power factor of a 666 kVA installation from 0.75 to
0.928. The active power demand is 666 x 0.75 = 500 kW.
In Figure K17, the intersection of the row cos = 0.75 (before correction) with the
column cos = 0.93 (after correction) indicates a value of 0.487 kvar of
compensation per kW of load.
For a load of 500 kW, therefore, 500 x 0.487 = 244 kvar of capacitive compensation
is required.
Note: this method is valid for any voltage level, i.e. is independent of voltage.
Ba
ck
Before
compensation
tan
2.29
2.22
2.16
2.10
2.04
1.98
1.93
1.88
1.83
1.78
1.73
1.69
1.64
1.60
1.56
1.52
1.48
1.44
1.40
1.37
1.33
1.30
1.27
1.23
1.20
1.17
1.14
1.11
1.08
1.05
1.02
0.99
0.96
0.94
0.91
0.88
0.86
0.83
0.80
0.78
0.75
0.72
0.70
0.67
0.65
0.62
0.59
0.57
0.54
0.51
0.48
cos
0.40
0.41
0.42
0.43
0.44
0.45
0.46
0.47
0.48
0.49
0.50
0.51
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
0.60
0.61
0.62
0.63
0.64
0.65
0.66
0.67
0.68
0.69
0.70
0.71
0.72
0.73
0.74
0.75
0.76
0.77
0.78
0.79
0.80
0.81
0.82
0.83
0.84
0.85
0.86
0.87
0.88
0.89
0.90
kvar rating of capacitor bank to install per kW of load, to improve cos (the power factor) or tan ,
to a given value
tan
0.75
0.59
0.48
0.46
0.43
0.40
0.36
0.33
0.29
0.25
0.20
0.14
0.0
cos
0.80
1.557
1.474
1.413
1.356
1.290
1.230
1.179
1.130
1.076
1.030
0.982
0.936
0.894
0.850
0.809
0.769
0.730
0.692
0.665
0.618
0.584
0.549
0.515
0.483
0.450
0.419
0.388
0.358
0.329
0.299
0.270
0.242
0.213
0.186
0.159
0.132
0.105
0.079
0.053
0.026
0.86
1.691
1.625
1.561
1.499
1.441
1.384
1.330
1.278
1.228
1.179
1.232
1.087
1.043
1.000
0.959
0.918
0.879
0.841
0.805
0.768
0.733
0.699
0.665
0.633
0.601
0.569
0.538
0.508
0.478
0.449
0.420
0.392
0.364
0.336
0.309
0.82
0.255
0.229
0.202
0.176
0.150
0.124
0.098
0.072
0.046
0.020
0.90
1.805
1.742
1.681
1.624
1.558
1.501
1.446
1.397
1.343
1.297
1.248
1.202
1.160
1.116
1.075
1.035
0.996
0.958
0.921
0.884
0.849
0.815
0.781
0.749
0.716
0.685
0.654
0.624
0.595
0.565
0.536
0.508
0.479
0.452
0.425
0.398
0.371
0.345
0.319
0.292
0.266
0.240
0.214
0.188
0.162
0.136
0.109
0.083
0.054
0.028
0.91
1.832
1.769
1.709
1.651
1.585
1.532
1.473
1.425
1.370
1.326
1.276
1.230
1.188
1.144
1.103
1.063
1.024
0.986
0.949
0.912
0.878
0.843
0.809
0.777
0.744
0.713
0.682
0.652
0.623
0.593
0.564
0.536
0.507
0.480
0.453
0.426
0.399
0.373
0.347
0.320
0.294
0.268
0.242
0.216
0.190
0.164
0.140
0.114
0.085
0.059
0.031
0.92
1.861
1.798
1.738
1.680
1.614
1.561
1.502
1.454
1.400
1.355
1.303
1.257
1.215
1.171
1.130
1.090
1.051
1.013
0.976
0.939
0.905
0.870
0.836
0.804
0.771
0.740
0.709
0.679
0.650
0.620
0.591
0.563
0.534
0.507
0.480
0.453
0.426
0.400
0.374
0.347
0.321
0.295
0.269
0.243
0.217
0.191
0.167
0.141
0.112
0.086
0.058
0.93
1.895
1.831
1.771
1.713
1.647
1.592
1.533
1.485
1.430
1.386
1.337
1.291
1.249
1.205
1.164
1.124
1.085
1.047
1.010
0.973
0.939
0.904
0.870
0.838
0.805
0.774
0.743
0.713
0.684
0.654
0.625
0.597
0.568
0.541
0.514
0.487
0.460
0.434
0.408
0.381
0.355
0.329
0.303
0.277
0.251
0.225
0.198
0.172
0.143
0.117
0.089
0.94
1.924
1.840
1.800
1.742
1.677
1.628
1.567
1.519
1.464
1.420
1.369
1.323
1.281
1.237
1.196
1.156
1.117
1.079
1.042
1.005
0.971
0.936
0.902
0.870
0.837
0.806
0.775
0.745
0.716
0.686
0.657
0.629
0.600
0.573
0.546
0.519
0.492
0.466
0.440
0.413
0.387
0.361
0.335
0.309
0.283
0.257
0.230
0.204
0.175
0.149
0.121
0.95
1.959
1.896
1.836
1.778
1.712
1.659
1.600
1.532
1.497
1.453
1.403
1.357
1.315
1.271
1.230
1.190
1.151
1.113
1.076
1.039
1.005
0.970
0.936
0.904
0.871
0.840
0.809
0.779
0.750
0.720
0.691
0.663
0.634
0.607
0.580
0.553
0.526
0.500
0.474
0.447
0.421
0.395
0.369
0.343
0.317
0.291
0.264
0.238
0.209
0.183
0.155
0.96
1.998
1.935
1.874
1.816
1.751
1.695
1.636
1.588
1.534
1.489
1.441
1.395
1.353
1.309
1.268
1.228
1.189
1.151
1.114
1.077
1.043
1.008
0.974
0.942
0.909
0.878
0.847
0.817
0.788
0.758
0.729
0.701
0.672
0.645
0.618
0.591
0.564
0.538
0.512
0.485
0.459
0.433
0.407
0.381
0.355
0.329
0.301
0.275
0.246
0.230
0.192
0.97
2.037
1.973
1.913
1.855
1.790
1.737
1.677
1.629
1.575
1.530
1.481
1.435
1.393
1.349
1.308
1.268
1.229
1.191
1.154
1.117
1.083
1.048
1.014
0.982
0.949
0.918
0.887
0.857
0.828
0.798
0.769
0.741
0.712
0.685
0.658
0.631
0.604
0.578
0.552
0.525
0.499
0.473
0.447
0.421
0.395
0.369
0.343
0.317
0.288
0.262
0.234
0.98
2.085
2.021
1.961
1.903
1.837
1.784
1.725
1.677
1.623
1.578
1.529
1.483
1.441
1.397
1.356
1.316
1.277
1.239
1.202
1.165
1.131
1.096
1.062
1.030
0.997
0.966
0.935
0.905
0.876
0.840
0.811
0.783
0.754
0.727
0.700
0.673
0.652
0.620
0.594
0.567
0.541
0.515
0.489
0.463
0.437
0.417
0.390
0.364
0.335
0.309
0.281
0.99
2.146
2.082
2.022
1.964
1.899
1.846
1.786
1.758
1.684
1.639
1.590
1.544
1.502
1.458
1.417
1.377
1.338
1.300
1.263
1.226
1.192
1.157
1.123
1.091
1.058
1.007
0.996
0.966
0.937
0.907
0.878
0.850
0.821
0.794
0.767
0.740
0.713
0.687
0.661
0.634
0.608
0.582
0.556
0.530
0.504
0.478
0.450
0.424
0.395
0.369
0.341
1
2.288
2.225
2.164
2.107
2.041
1.988
1.929
1.881
1.826
1.782
1.732
1.686
1.644
1.600
1.559
1.519
1.480
1.442
1.405
1.368
1.334
1.299
1.265
1.233
1.200
1.169
1.138
1.108
1.079
1.049
1.020
0.992
0.963
0.936
0.909
0.882
0.855
0.829
0.803
0.776
0.750
0.724
0.698
0.672
0.645
0.620
0.593
0.567
0.538
0.512
0.484
Fig. K15 : kvar to be installed per kW of load, to improve the power factor of an installation
K13
K14
The rating of the installed capacitor bank is generally chosen to be slightly larger
than that calculated.
Certain manufacturers can provide slide rules especially designed to facilitate these
kinds of calculation, according to particular tariffs. These devices and accompanying
documentation advice on suitable equipment and control schemes, as well as
drawing attention to constraints imposed by harmonic voltages on the power system.
Such voltages require either over dimensioned capacitors (in terms of heatdissipation, voltage and current ratings) and/or harmonic-suppression inductors or
filters.
Ba
ck
P = 85.4 kW
'
Q'
Cos = 0.7
Cos '= 0.95
S = 122 kVA
S' = 90 kVA
Q = 87.1 kvar
Qc = 56 kvar
Q' = 28.1 kvar
S'
Q
S
Qc
(1) In the billing period, during the hours for which reactive
energy is charged for the case considered above:
Qc =
15,996 kvarh
= 73 kvar
220 h
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2005
Ba
ck
tan
cos
0.00
0.20
0.29
0.36
0.43
0.48
0.54
0.59
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.86
0.91
0.96
1.02
1
0.98
0.96
0.94
0.92
0.90
0.88
0.86
0.84
0.82
0.80
0.78
0.76
0.74
0.72
0.70
500
500
490
480
470
460
450
440
430
420
410
400
390
380
370
360
350
630
630
617
605
592
580
567
554
541
529
517
504
491
479
466
454
441
800
800
784
768
752
736
720
704
688
672
656
640
624
608
592
576
560
1000
1000
980
960
940
920
900
880
860
840
820
800
780
760
740
720
700
1250
1250
1225
1200
1175
1150
1125
1100
1075
1050
1025
1000
975
950
925
900
875
1600
1600
1568
1536
1504
1472
1440
1408
1376
1344
1312
1280
1248
1216
1184
1152
1120
2000
2000
1960
1920
1880
1840
1800
1760
1720
1680
1640
1600
1560
1520
1480
1440
1400
Fig. K17 : Active-power capability of fully-loaded transformers, when supplying loads at different values of power factor
100
= 143 kVA
0.7
Ba
ck
S2
Q2
Q
P1
P2
S1
Qm = S2 P2
Qm
P
K15
Leakage reactance
Secondary
winding
Primary
winding
ck
Ba
Perfect transformer
Magnetizing
reactance
Ba
ck
XL
Example:
A 630 kVA transformer with a short-circuit reactance voltage of 4% is fully loaded.
E
Source
V
Load
E
V
IXL
'
I sin
I
I sin '
The 3-phase kvar losses are 630 x 0.04 = 25.2 kvar (or, quite simply, 4% of
630 kVA).
At half load i.e. I = 0.5 pu the losses will be
0.52 x 0.04 = 0.01 pu = 630 x 0.01 = 6.3 kvar and so on...
This example, and the vector diagram of Figure K20 show that:
c The power factor at the primary side of a loaded transformer is different (normally
lower) than that at the secondary side (due to the absorption of vars)
c Full-load kvar losses due to leakage reactance are equal to the transformer
percentage reactance (4% reactance means a kvar loss equal to 4% of the kVA rating
of the transformer)
c kvar losses due to leakage reactance vary according to the current
(or kVA loading) squared
Ba
ck
K17
Fig. K21 : Reactive power consumption of distribution transformers with 20 kV primary windings
Ba
ck
E (Input voltage)
IXL
I
V (Load voltage)
Load
current
I0 Compensation current
Ba
ck
K18
Ba
ck
Before
compensation
After
compensation
Transformer
Power
made
available
Active
power
Motor
750
10
12.5
16
17
21
28
30
37
43
52
61
71
79
98
106
117
Figure K24 : Maximum kvar of power factor correction applicable to motor terminals without risk
of self excitation
Ba
Reactive
power
supplied
by capacitor
ck
Speed in rpm
750
1000
1500
3000
Reduction factor
0.88
0.90
0.91
0.93
c
Ba
If this precaution is not taken, then self excitation to very high voltages is likely to
occur, since all other banks of capacitors in the installation will effectively be in
parallel with those of the high-inertia motors.
The protection scheme for these motors should therefore include an overvoltage
tripping relay, together with reverse-power checking contacts (the motor will feed
power to the rest of the installation, until the stored inertial energy is dissipated).
If the capacitor bank associated with a high inertia motor is larger than that
recommended in Figure K24, then it should be separately controlled by a circuit
breaker or contactor, which trips simultaneously with the main motor-controlling
circuit breaker or contactor, as shown in Figure K26 .
Closing of the main contactor is commonly subject to the capacitor contactor being
previously closed.
K19
8 Example of an installation
before and after power-factor
correction
kVA
kW
kvar
630 kVA
kVA=kW+kvar
kVA
kW
630 kVA
ck
(1)
kVA=kW+kvar
Ba
400 V
400 V
cos = 0.75
b Reactive energy is supplied through the
transformer and via the installation wiring
b The transformer, circuit breaker, and cables
must be over-dimensioned
cos = 0.928
b Reactive energy is supplied by the capacitor
bank
K20
250 kvar
cos = 0.75
workshop
cos = 0.75
workshop
Note: In fact, the cos of the workshop remains at 0.75 but cos for all the
installation upstream of the capacitor bank to the transformer LV terminals
is 0.928.
As mentioned in Sub-clause 6.2 the cos at the HV side of the transformer
will be slightly lower (2), due to the reactive power losses in the transformer.
Fig. K27 : Technical-economic comparison of an installation before and after power-factor correction
Ba
ck
Harmonic distortion of the voltage wave frequently produces a peaky wave form, in
which the peak value of the normal sinusoidal wave is increased. This possibility,
together with other overvoltage conditions likely to occur when countering the effects
of resonance, as described below, are taken into account by increasing the
insulation level above that of standard capacitors. In many instances, these two
counter measures are all that is necessary to achieve satisfactory operation.
Countering the effects of resonance
Capacitors are linear reactive devices, and consequently do not generate harmonics.
The installation of capacitors in a power system (in which the impedances are
predominantly inductive) can, however, result in total or partial resonance occurring
at one of the harmonic frequencies.
Ihar
The harmonic order ho of the natural resonant frequency between the system
inductance and the capacitor bank is given by
ho =
Harmonic
generator
Filter
Ssc
Q
where
Ssc = the level of system short-circuit kVA at the point of connection of the capacitor
Q = capacitor bank rating in kvar; and ho = the harmonic order of the natural
frequency fo i.e.
fo
f
for a 50 Hz system, or o for a 60 Hz system.
50
60
K21
For example: ho =
Ssc
may give a value for ho of 2.93 which shows that the
Q
ck
The closer a natural frequency approaches one of the harmonics present on the
system, the greater will be the (undesirable) effect. In the above example, strong
resonant conditions with the 3rd harmonic component of a distorted wave would
certainly occur.
In such cases, steps are taken to change the natural frequency to a value which will
not resonate with any of the harmonics known to be present. This is achieved by the
addition of a harmonic-suppression inductor connected in series with the capacitor
bank.
Is
Ihar
On 50 Hz systems, these reactors are often adjusted to bring the resonant frequency
of the combination, i.e. the capacitor bank + reactors to 190 Hz. The reactors are
adjusted to 228 Hz for a 60 Hz system. These frequencies correspond to a value for
ho of 3.8 for a 50 Hz system, i.e. approximately mid-way between the 3rd and 5th
harmonics.
Iact
Active
filter
Harmonic
generator
Linear
load
c
Ba
Active filters are based on power electronic technology. They are generally installed
in parallel with the non linear load.
Is
Ihar
Iact
Active
filter
Harmonic
generator
In this arrangement, the presence of the reactor increases the fundamentalfrequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz) current by a small amount (7-8%) and therefore the
voltage across the capacitor in the same proportion.
This feature is taken into account, for example, by using capacitors which are
designed for 440 V operation on 400 V systems.
K22
fo
it can be seen that fo = 50 ho = 50 x 2.93 = 146.5 Hz
50
Hybride filter
Linear
load
Active filters analyse the harmonics drawn by the load and then inject the same
harmonic current to the load with the appropriate phase. As a result, the harmonic
currents are totally neutralised at the point considered. This means they no longer
flow upstream and are no longer supplied by the source.
A main advantage of active conditioners is that they continue to guarantee efficient
harmonic compensation even when changes are made to the installation. They are
also exceptionally easy to use as they feature:
c Auto-configuration to harmonic loads whatever their order of magnitude
c Elimination of overload risks
c Compatibility with electrical generator sets
c Connection to any point of the electrical network
c Several conditioners can be used in the same installation to increase depollution
efficiency (for example when a new machine is installed)
Active filters may provide also power factor correction.
This type of filter combines advantages of passive and active filter. One frequency
can be filtered by passive filter and all the other frequencies are filtered by active
filter.
Ba
ck
Applications
with total power of non
linear loads (variable speed
drive, UPS, rectifier)
Power factor correction
Necessity of reducing the
harmonic distorsion in
voltage for sensitive loads
Necessity of reducing
the harmonic distorsion
in current to avoid cable
overload
Necessity of being in
accordance with strict
limits of harmonic
rejected
Passive filter
Industrial
greater than
200 kVA
Active filter
Tertiary
lower than
200 kVA
Hybrid filter
Industrial
greater than
200 kVA
No
No
Fig. K31 : Selection of the most suitable technology depending on the application
Ba
Gh i
Ssc
120
Standard capacitors
ck
Ssc
Ssc
i Gh i
120
70
Gh >
Gh > 0.60 Sn
Filters
Fig. K32 : Choice of solutions for limiting harmonics associated with a LV capacitor bank
supplied via transformer(s)
K23
10 Implementation of capacitor
banks
Ba
K24
ck
a)
HRC fuse
Discharge
resistor
Metallic
disc
Overpressure disconnect
device
b)
Electrical characteristics
Standard
Operating range
Rated voltage
Rated frequency
Capacitance tolerance
Temperature range
Maximum temperature
(up to 65 kvar)
Average temperature over
24 h
Average annual
temperature
Minimum temperature
Insulation level
Permissible current overload
Permissible voltage overload
10 Implementation of capacitor
banks
In =
Q
with:
Un 3
v Q: kvar rating
v Un: Phase-to-phase voltage (kV)
The permitted range of applied voltage at fundamental frequency, plus harmonic
components, together with manufacturing tolerances of actual capacitance (for a
declared nominal value) can result in a 50% increase above the calculated value of
current. Approximately 30% of this increase is due to the voltage increases, while a
further 15% is due to the range of manufacturing tolerances, so that
1.3 x 1.15 = 1.5
All components carrying the capacitor current therefore, must be adequate to cover
this worst-case condition, in an ambient temperature of 50 C maximum. In the
case where temperatures higher than 50 C occur in enclosures, etc. derating of the
components will be necessary.
Protection
The size of the circuit breaker can be chosen in order to allow the setting of long
time delay at:
c 1.36 x In for standard type
c 1.50 x In for H type
c 1.12 x In for SAH type (tuned at 2.7 f)(1)
c 1.19 x In for SAH type (tuned at 3.8 f)
c 1.31 x In for SAH type (tuned at 4.3 f)
Short time delay setting (short-circuit protection) must be insensitive to inrush
current. The setting will be 10 x In for standard type, H type and SAH type.
Example 1
50 kvar 400V 50 Hz standard type
In =
50, 000
(400 x 1.732)
= 72 A
In = 72 A
Long time delay setting: 1.31 x 72 = 94 A
Short time delay setting: 10 x In = 720 A
Upstream cables
Figure K34 next page gives the minimum cross section area of the upstream cable
for Rectiphase capacitors.
K25
10 Implementation of capacitor
banks
Ba
ck
Bank power
(kvar)
230 V
400 V
5
10
10
20
15
30
20
40
25
50
30
60
40
80
50
100
60
120
70
140
90-100
180
200
120
240
150
250
300
180-210
360
245
420
280
480
315
540
350
600
385
660
420
720
Copper
cross- section
(mm2)
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
2 x 95
2 x 120
2 x 150
2 x 185
2 x 240
2 x 300
3 x 150
3 x 185
Aluminium
cross- section
(mm2)
16
16
16
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
185
240
2 x 95
2 x 120
2 x 150
2 x 185
2 x 240
2 x 300
3 x 185
3 x 240
3 x 240
3 x 300
Fig K34 : Cross-section of cables connecting medium and high power capacitor banks(1)
K26
Voltage transients
High-frequency voltage and current transients occur when switching a capacitor
bank into service. The maximum voltage peak does not exceed (in the absence of
harmonics) twice the peak value of the rated voltage when switching uncharged
capacitors.
In the case of a capacitor being already charged at the instant of switch closure,
however, the voltage transient can reach a maximum value approaching 3 times the
normal rated peak value.
This maximum condition occurs only if:
c The existing voltage at the capacitor is equal to the peak value of rated voltage,
and
c The switch contacts close at the instant of peak supply voltage, and
c The polarity of the power-supply voltage is opposite to that of the charged
capacitor
In such a situation, the current transient will be at its maximum possible value, viz:
Twice that of its maximum when closing on to an initially uncharged capacitor, as
previously noted.
For any other values of voltage and polarity on the pre-charged capacitor, the
transient peaks of voltage and current will be less than those mentioned above.
In the particular case of peak rated voltage on the capacitor having the same polarity
as that of the supply voltage, and closing the switch at the instant of supply-voltage
peak, there would be no voltage or current transients.
Where automatic switching of stepped banks of capacitors is considered, therefore,
care must be taken to ensure that a section of capacitors about to be energized is
fully discharged.
The discharge delay time may be shortened, if necessary, by using discharge
resistors of a lower resistance value.
Chapter L
Detection and filtering of
harmonics
Contents
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
L2
Standards
L3
General
L4
L6
4.1 Resonance
L6
L6
L7
L9
L10
L11
L11
L11
L11
L12
L12
L13
L14
L14
L14
L15
Detection devices
L16
L17
L17
L18
L20
L20
L1
L2
2 Standards
Ba
ck
EHV
2
2
1.5
1.5
1
1
0.7
0.7
0.1
+ 25/h
Order h
2
4
6
8
10
12
> 12
LV
2
1
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.2
0.2
MV
1.5
1
0.5
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
EHV
1.5
1
0.5
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
L3
3 General
Origin of harmonics
Devices and systems that cause harmonics are present in all sectors, i.e. industrial,
commercial and residential. Harmonics are caused by non-linear loads (i.e. loads
that draw current with a waveform that is not the same as that of the supply voltage).
Examples of non-linear loads are:
c Industrial equipment (welding machines, arc furnaces, induction furnaces,
rectifiers)
c Variable-speed drives for asynchronous or DC motors
c UPSs
c Office equipment (computers, photocopy machines, fax machines, etc.)
c Home appliances (television sets, micro-wave ovens, fluorescent lighting)
c Certain devices involving magnetic saturation (transformers)
Disturbances caused by non-linear loads: harmonic current and voltage
Non-linear loads draw harmonic currents that flow in the distribution network.
Harmonic voltages are caused by the flow of harmonic currents through the
impedances of the supply circuits (transformer and distribution network for situations
similar to that shown in Figure L2 ).
Ba
ck
Zh
B
Ih
L4
Non-linear
load
Fig. L2 : Single-line diagram showing the impedance of the supply circuit for a harmonic of order h
3 General
Ba
Zl
ck
Non-linear
load
I 50 Hz
Fig. L3 : Installation supplying a non-linear load, where only the phenomena concerning the
50 Hz frequency (fundamental frequency) are shown
Ba
ck
Zh
Ih
Vh
Non-linear
load
Vh = Harmonic voltage
= Zh x Ih
Fig. L4 : Same installation, where only the phenomena concerning the frequency of harmonic
order h are shown
Supply of the non-linear load creates the flow of a current I50Hz (shown in figure L3),
to which is added each of the harmonic currents Ih (shown in figure L4),
corresponding to each harmonic order h.
Still considering that the loads reinject harmonic current upstream into the
distribution network, it is possible to create a diagram showing the harmonic currents
in the network (see Fig. L5 ).
Ba
ck
Iha
Backup power
supply
Rectifier
Arc furnace
Welding machine
L5
Ihb
Variable-speed drive
Power-factor
correction
Ihd
Fluorescent or
discharge lamps
Ihe
MV/LV
Harmonic
disturbances to
distribution network
and other users
Linear loads
(do not create
harmonics)
Note in the diagram that though certain loads create harmonic currents in the distribution
network, other loads can absorb the harmonic currents.
4.1 Resonance
The simultaneous use of capacitive and inductive devices in distribution networks
results in parallel or series resonance manifested by very high or very low
impedance values respectively. The variations in impedance modify the current and
voltage in the distribution network. Here, only parallel resonance phenomena, the
most common, will be discussed.
Consider the following simplified diagram (see Fig. L6 ) representing an installation
made up of:
c A supply transformer
c Linear loads
c Non-linear loads drawing harmonic currents
c Power factor correction capacitors
For harmonic analysis, the equivalent diagram (see Fig. L7 ) is shown below.
Impedance Z is calculated by:
jLs
1-LsC 2
neglecting R and where:
Ls = Supply inductance (upstream network + transformer + line)
C = Capacitance of the power factor correction capacitors
R = Resistance of the linear loads
Ih = Harmonic current
Z =
2
Resonance occurs when the denominator 1-LsC tends toward zero. The
corresponding frequency is called the resonance frequency of the circuit. At that
frequency, impedance is at its maximum and high amounts of harmonic voltages
appear with the resulting major distortion in the voltage. The voltage distortion is
accompanied, in the Ls+C circuit, by the flow of harmonic currents greater than
those drawn by the loads.
Ba
ck
Ih
Non-linear
load
Capacitor
bank
Linear
load
Irms
THD =
1
I1
it may be deduced that: Irms = I1 1+ THD2
ck
Ba
L6
The distribution network and the power factor correction capacitors are subjected to
high harmonic currents and the resulting risk of overloads. To avoid resonance, antiharmonic coils can be installed in series with the capacitors.
Ls
Ih
Z
Fig. L7 : Equivalent diagram of the installation shown in
Figure L6
Ba
ck
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
THD
(%)
Joules losses
Irms
Fig. L8 : Increase in rms current and Joule losses as a function of the THD
Orders of magnitude
c A virtually rectangular supply voltage provokes a 20% increase in losses
c A supply voltage with harmonics u5 = 8% (of U1, the fundamental voltage),
u7 = 5%, u11 = 3%, u13 = 1%, i.e. total harmonic distortion THDu equal to 10%,
results in additional losses of 6%
Losses in transformers
Harmonic currents flowing in transformers provoke an increase in the copper
losses due to the Joule effect and increased iron losses due to eddy currents. The
harmonic voltages are responsible for iron losses due to hysteresis.
It is generally considered that losses in windings increase as the square of the THDi
and that core losses increase linearly with the THDu.
In utility-distribution transformers, where distortion levels are limited, losses increase
between 10 and 15%.
Losses in capacitors
The harmonic voltages applied to capacitors provoke the flow of currents
proportional to the frequency of the harmonics. These currents cause additional
losses.
Example
A supply voltage has the following harmonics:
Fundamental voltage U1, harmonic voltages u5 = 8% (of U1), u7 = 5%, u11 = 3%,
u13 = 1%, i.e. total harmonic distortion THDu equal to 10%. The amperage of the
current is multiplied by 1.19. Joule losses are multiplied by 1.192, i.e. 1.4.
L7
Transformers
c The curve presented below (see Fig. L9 ) shows the typical derating required for a
transformer supplying electronic loads
Ba
ck
kVA
(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
%
Electronic
load
10
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Example
If the transformer supplies an overall load comprising 40% of electronic loads, it
must be derated by 40%.
c Standard UTE C15-112 provides a derating factor for transformers as a function of
the harmonic currents.
L8
k=
Th =
1
40
Ih
I1
Typical values:
c Current with a rectangular waveform (1/h spectrum (1)): k = 0.86
c Frequency-converter current (THD 50%): k = 0.80
Asynchronous machines
Standard IEC 60892 defines a weighted harmonic factor (Harmonic voltage factor)
for which the equation and maximum value are provided below.
HVF =
13
h= 2
Uh
i 0.02
h2
Example
A supply voltage has a fundamental voltage U1 and harmonic voltages u3 = 2% of
U1, u5 = 3%, u7 = 1%. The THDu is 3.7% and the HVF is 0.018. The HVF value is
very close to the maximum value above which the machine must be derated.
Practically speaking, for supply to the machine, a THDu of 10% must not be
exceeded.
Capacitors
According to IEC 60831-1 standard, the rms current flowing in the capacitors must
not exceed 1.3 times the rated current.
Using the example mentioned above, the fundamental voltage U1, harmonic
voltages u5 = 8% (of U1), u7 = 5%, u11 = 3%, u13 = 1%, i.e. total harmonic
Irms
distortion THDu equal to 10%, the result is
= 1.19 , at the rated voltage. For a
I1
Irms
voltage equal to 1.1 times the rated voltage, the current limit
= 1.3 is reached
I1
and it is necessary to resize the capacitors.
Neutral conductors
Consider a system made up of a balanced three-phase source and three identical
single-phase loads connected between the phases and the neutral (see Fig. L10 ).
Figure L11 shows an example of the currents flowing in the three phases and the
resulting current in the neutral conductor.
In this example, the current in the neutral conductor has an rms value that is higher
than the rms value of the current in a phase by a factor equal to the square root of 3.
The neutral conductor must therefore be sized accordingly.
Ba
(A)
ck
Ir
Is
It
L9
t
In
t (ms)
0
Ba
ck
20
40
Fig. L11 : Example of the currents flowing in the various conductors connected to a three-phase
load (In = Ir + Is + It)
Ir
Load
Is
Load
In
Distortion of the supply voltage can disturb the operation of sensitive devices:
c Regulation devices (temperature)
c Computer hardware
c Control and monitoring devices (protection relays)
Harmonics cause disturbances in control circuits (low current levels). The level of
distortion depends on the distance that the power and control cables run in parallel,
the distance between the cables and the frequency of the harmonics.
Oversizing of equipment
c Derating of power sources (generators, transformers and UPSs) means they must
be oversized
c Conductors must be sized taking into account the flow of harmonic currents. In
addition, due the the skin effect, the resistance of these conductors increases with
frequency. To avoid excessive losses due to the Joule effect, it is necessary to
oversize conductors
c Flow of harmonics in the neutral conductor means that it must be oversized as well
Examples
Given the economic consequences for the installations mentioned below, it was
necessary to install harmonic filters.
Computer centre for an insurance company
In this centre, nuisance tripping of a circuit breaker was calculated to have cost
100 k per hour of down time.
Pharmaceutical laboratory
Harmonics caused the failure of a generator set and the interruption of a longduration test on a new medication. The consequences were a loss estimated at
17 M.
Metallurgy factory
A set of induction furnaces caused the overload and destruction of three
transformers ranging from 1500 to 2500 kVA over a single year. The cost of the
interruptions in production were estimated at 20 k per hour.
Factory producing garden furniture
The failure of variable-speed drives resulted in production shutdowns estimated at
10 k per hour.
P
S
P1
S1
Where
P1 = active power of the fundamental
S1 = apparent power of the fundamental
The cos concerns exclusively the fundamental frequency and therefore differs
from the power factor PF when there are harmonics in the installation.
Reactive power
Reactive power is defined exclusively in terms of the fundamental, i.e.
Q = U1 x I1 x sin1
Distortion power
When harmonics are present, the distortion power D is defined as
D = (S2 - P2 - Q2)1/2 where S is the apparent power.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2005
L11
uh (%) = 100
Uh
U1
or
ih (%) = 100
Ih
I1
Harmonic spectrum
By representing the amplitude of each harmonic order with respect to its frequency,
it is possible to obtain a graph called the harmonic spectrum.
Figure L12 shows an example of the harmonic spectrum for a rectangular signal.
Rms value
The rms value of the voltage and current can be calculated as a function of the rms
value of the various harmonic orders.
Irms =
I h2
h=1
L12
and
Urms =
Uh2
h=1
Ba
ck
U(t)
The term THD means Total Harmonic Distortion and is a widely used notion in
defining the level of harmonic content in alternating signals.
Definition of THD
For a signal y, the THD is defined as:
THD =
H%
yh2
h= 2
y1
33
20
h
0
THDi =
Ih2
h= 2
I1
I rms
THD i =
1
I1
Uh2
THD u =
h= 2
U1
Consequently : PF =
as:
P U1.I1.cos1
S
U1.Irms
I1
1
=
Irms
1+ THD12
hence: PF
cos1
1+ THD12
The disturbing device is located by measuring the THDi on the incomer and each
outgoer of the various circuits and thus following the harmonic trail.
ck
PF
cos
Below are a number of THDi values and the corresponding phenomena in the
installation:
c THDi under 10% - normal situation, no risk of malfunctions
c 10 to 50% - significant harmonic pollution with a risk of temperature rise and the
resulting need to oversize cables and sources
c Higher than 50% - major harmonic pollution, malfunctions are probable. In-depth
analysis and the installation of attenuation devices are required
1.2
0.8
0.6
Power factor PF
Used to evaluate the necessary oversizing for the power source of the installation.
0.4
Crest factor
Used to characterise the aptitude of a generator (or UPS) to supply high
instantaneous currents. For example, computer equipment draws highly distorted
current for which the crest factor can reach 3 to 5.
0.2
THDi
(%)
0
50
100
150
THDu = 0
L13
L14
Operating mode
The current and voltage are studied:
c At the supply source
c On the busbars of the main distribution switchboard (or on the MV busbars)
c On each outgoing circuit in the main distribution switchboard (or on the
MV busbars)
For the measurements, it is necessary to know the precise operating conditions of
the installation and particularly the status of the capacitor banks (operating, not
operating, the number of disconnected steps).
Analysis results
c Determine any necessary derating of equipment in the installation or
c Quantify any necessary harmonic protection and filtering systems to be installed in
the distribution network
c Enable comparison between the measured values and the reference values of the
utility (maximum harmonic values, acceptable values, reference values)
L15
7 Detection devices
Measurements are the first step in gaining control over harmonic pollution.
Depending on the conditions in each installation, different types of equipment
provide the necessary solution.
Power-monitoring units
Power Meter and Circuit Monitor in the PowerLogic System
These products offer high-performance measurement capabilities for low and
medium-voltage distribution networks. They are digital units that include powerquality monitoring functions.
PowerLogic System is a complete offer comprising Power Meter (PM) and Circuit
Monitor (CM). This highly modular offer covers needs ranging from the most simple
(Power Meter) up to highly complex requirements (Circuit Monitor). These products
can be used in new or existing installations where the level of power quality must be
excellent. The operating mode can be local and/or remote.
Depending on its position in the distribution network, a Power Meter provides an initial
indication on power quality. The main measurements carried out by a Power Meter are:
c Current and voltage THD
c Power factor
Depending on the version, these measurements can be combined with timestamping and alarm functions.
A Circuit Monitor (see Fig. L14 ) carries out a detailed analysis of power quality and
also analyses disturbances on the distribution network. The main functions of a
Circuit Monitor are:
c Measurement of over 100 electrical parameters
c Storage in memory and time-stamping of minimum and maximum values for each
electrical parameter
c Alarm functions tripped by electrical parameter values
c Recording of event data
c Recording of current and voltage disturbances
c Harmonic analysis
c Waveform capture (disturbance monitoring)
Micrologic - a power-monitoring unit built into the circuit breaker
For new installations, the Micrologic H control unit (see Fig. L15 ), an integral part of
Masterpact power circuit breakers, is particularly useful for measurements at the
head of an installation or on large outgoing circuits.
L16
The Micrologic H control unit offers precise analysis of power quality and detailed
diagnostics on events. It is designed for operation in conjunction with a switchboard
display unit or a supervisor. It can:
c Measure current, voltage, active and reactive power
c Measure current and voltage THD
c Display the amplitude and phase of current and voltage harmonics up to the 51st order
c Carry out waveform capture (disturbance monitoring)
The functions offered by the Micrologic H control unit are equivalent to those of a
Circuit Monitor.
8 Solutions to attenuate
harmonics
Ba
ck
Z2
Sensitive
loads
Z1
Non-linear
loads
Where impedance
Z 1 < Z2
Fig. L16 : Non-linear loads positioned as far upstream as possible (recommended layout)
L17
Group the non-linear loads
When preparing the single-line diagram, the non-linear devices should be separated
from the others (see Fig. L17 ). The two groups of devices should be supplied by
different sets of busbars.
Ba
ck
Sensitive
loads
Yes
Line impedances
No
Non-linear
load 1
Non-linear
load 2
Fig. L17 : Grouping of non-linear loads and connection as far upstream as possible
(recommended layout)
8 Solutions to attenuate
harmonics
Ba
ck
Non-linear
loads
MV
network
Linear
loads
ck
Ba
Fig. L19 : A Dyd transformer blocks propagation of the 5th and 7th harmonics to the upstream
network
Install reactors
L18
Ba
8 Solutions to attenuate
harmonics
Passive filters
ck
Typical applications
c Industrial installations with a set of non-linear loads representing more than
200 kVA (variable-speed drives, UPSs, rectifiers, etc.)
c Installations requiring power-factor correction
c Installations where voltage distortion must be reduced to avoid disturbing sensitive
loads
c Installations where current distortion must be reduced to avoid overloads
I har
Operating principle
An LC circuit, tuned to each harmonic order to be filtered, is installed in parallel with
the non-linear load (see Fig. L20 ). This bypass circuit absorbs the harmonics, thus
avoiding their flow in the distribution network.
Generally speaking, the passive filter is tuned to a harmonic order close to the order
to be eliminated. Several parallel-connected branches of filters can be used if a
significant reduction in the distortion of a number of harmonic orders is required.
Filter
Non-linear
load
Ba
ck
Operating principle
These systems, comprising power electronics and installed in series or parallel with
the non-linear load, compensate the harmonic current or voltage drawn by the load.
Figure L21 shows a parallel-connected active harmonic conditioner (AHC)
compensating the harmonic current (Ihar = -Iact).
Is
I har
The AHC injects in opposite phase the harmonics drawn by the non-linear load, such
that the line current Is remains sinusoidal.
Iact
Hybrid filters
AHC
Non-linear
load
Linear
load
Typical applications
c Industrial installations with a set of non-linear loads representing more than
200 kVA (variable-speed drives, UPSs, rectifiers, etc.)
c Installations requiring power-factor correction
c Installations where voltage distortion must be reduced to avoid disturbing sensitive
loads
c Installations where current distortion must be reduced to avoid overloads
c Installations where strict limits on harmonic emissions must be met
Ba
ck
Operating principle
Passive and active filters are combined in a single system to constitute a hybrid filter
(see Fig. L22 ). This new filtering solution offers the advantages of both types of
filters and covers a wide range of power and performance levels.
Is
I har
Iact
AHC
Non-linear
load
Hybride filter
Linear
load
Selection criteria
Passive filter
It offers both power-factor correction and high current-filtering capacity.
Passive filters also reduce the harmonic voltages in installations where the supply
voltage is disturbed. If the level of reactive power supplied is high, it is advised to
turn off the passive filter at times when the percent load is low.
Preliminary studies for a filter must take into account the possible presence of a
power factor correction capacitor bank which may have to be eliminated.
Active harmonic conditioners
They filter harmonics over a wide range of frequencies and can adapt to any type of
load.
On the other hand, power ratings are low.
Hybrid filters
They combine the performance of both active and passive filters.
L19
8 Solutions to attenuate
harmonics
L20
Passive filters
Passive filters are made up of coils and capacitors set up in resonant circuits tuned
to the specific harmonic order that must be eliminated.
A system may comprise a number of filters to eliminate several harmonic orders.
Suitable for 400 V three-phase voltages, the power ratings can reach:
c 265 kvar / 470 A for harmonic order 5
c 145 kvar / 225 A for harmonic order 7
c 105 kvar / 145 A for harmonic order 11
Passive filters can be created for all voltage and current levels.
Active filters
c SineWave active harmonic conditioners
v Suitable for 400 V three-phase voltages, they can deliver between 20 and 120 A
per phase
v SineWave covers all harmonic orders from 2 to 25. Conditioning can be total or
target specific harmonic orders
v Attenuation: THDi load / THDi upstream greater than 10 at rated capacity
v Functions include power factor correction, conditioning of zero-sequence
harmonics, diagnostics and maintenance system, parallel connection, remote
control, Ibus/RS485 communication interface
c Accusine active filters
v Suitable for 400 and 480 V three-phase voltages, they can filter between 50 and
30 A per phase
v All harmonic orders up to 50 are filtered
v Functions include power factor correction, parallel connection, instantaneous
response to load variations
Hybrid filters
These filters combine the advantages of both a passive filter and the SineWave
active harmonic conditioner in a single system.
Chapter M
Particular sources and loads
Contents
1
2
M1
M1
M5
M5
M10
M11
M11
M12
2.3 Batteries
M15
3
4
5
M18
M20
M22
M22
M24
M24
M24
M25
M25
Lighting circuits
M27
M27
M29
M34 M1
M40
Asynchronous motors
M42
M42
5.2 Standards
M44
5.3 Applications
M45
M49
Most industrial and large commercial electrical installations include certain important
loads for which a power supply must be maintained, in the event that the utility
electrical supply fails:
c Either, because safety systems are involved (emergency lighting, automatic fireprotection equipment, smoke dispersal fans, alarms and signalization, and so on) or
c Because it concerns priority circuits, such as certain equipment, the stoppage of
which would entail a loss of production, or the destruction of a machine tool, etc.
One of the current means of maintaining a supply to the so-called priority loads, in
the event that other sources fail, is to install a diesel generator set connected, via a
change-over switch, to an emergency-power standby switchboard, from which the
priority services are fed (see Fig. M1 ).
Ba
ck
HV
LV
Change-over switch
Non-priority circuits
Priority circuits
M2
Ba
ck
Un, In
Pn
R
Thermal
motor
S
T
N
Ba
ck
t (s)
1,000
Overload protection
The generator protection curve must be analysed (see Fig. M3 ).
Standards and requirements of applications can also stipulate specific overload
conditions. For example:
100
30
I
0 1.1 1.2 1.5
In
5
Overloads
ck
3
2
1
t
>1h
30 s
Ba
I/In
1.1
1.5
10
The setting possibilities of the overload protection devices (or Long Time Delay) will
closely follow these requirements.
Note on overloads
c For economic reasons, the thermal motor of a replacement set may be strictly sized
for its nominal power. If there is an active power overload, the diesel motor will stall.
The active power balance of the priority loads must take this into account
c A production set must be able to withstand operating overloads:
v One hour overload
v One hour 10% overload every 12 hours (Prime Power)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2005
Ba
ck
I rms
1
3 In
1 - Subtransient conditions
2 - Transient conditions
3 - Steady state conditions
In
Generator with serial
excitation
0.3 In
0
t (s)
0
10 to 20 ms
0.1 to 0.3 s
Fault appears
c Subtransient phase
When a short-circuit appears at the terminals of a generator, the current is first made
at a relatively high value of around 6 to 12 In during the first cycle (0 to 20 ms).
The amplitude of the short-circuit output current is defined by three parameters:
v The subtransient reactance of the generator
v The level of excitation prior to the time of the fault and
v The impedance of the faulty circuit.
The short-circuit impedance of the generator to be considered is the subtransient
reactance xd expressed in % by the manufacturer. The typical value is 10 to 15%.
We determine the subtransient short-circuit impedance of the generator:
X d(ohms) =
Un2 x d
where S = 3 Un I n
100 S
c Transient phase
The transient phase is placed 100 to 500 ms after the time of the fault. Starting from
the value of the fault current of the subtransient period, the current drops to 1.5 to
2 times the current In.
The short-circuit impedance to be considered for this period is the transient
reactance xd expressed in % by the manufacturer. The typical value is 20 to 30%.
c Steady state phase
The steady state occurs after 500 ms.
When the fault persists, the output voltage collapses and the exciter regulation seeks
to raise this output voltage. The result is a stabilised sustained short-circuit current:
v If generator excitation does not increase during a short-circuit (no field
overexcitation) but is maintained at the level preceding the fault, the current
stabilises at a value that is given by the synchronous reactance Xd of the generator.
The typical value of xd is greater than 200%. Consequently, the final current will be
less than the full-load current of the generator, normally around 0.5 In.
v If the generator is equipped with maximum field excitation (field overriding) or with
compound excitation, the excitation surge voltage will cause the fault current to
increase for 10 seconds, normally to 2 to 3 times the full-load current of the generator.
M3
Ba
ck
(kVA)
xd
xd
xd
75
10.5
21
280
200
10.4
15.6
291
400
12.9
19.4
358
800
10.5
18
280
1,600
18.8
33.8
404
2,500
19.1
30.2
292
Resistances are always negligible compared with reactances. The parameters for
the short-circuit current study are:
c Value of the short-circuit current at generator terminals
Short-circuit current amplitude in transient conditions is:
I sc3 =
In 1
(Xd in ohms)
X d 3
or
In
100 (xd in%)
x d
Un is the generator phase-to-phase output voltage.
I sc3 =
Note: This value can be compared with the short-circuit current at the terminals of a
transformer. Thus, for the same power, currents in event of a short-circuit close to a
generator will be 5 to 6 times weaker than those that may occur with a transformer
(main source).
This difference is accentuated still further by the fact that generator set power is
normally less than that of the transformer (see Fig. M6 ).
Ba
M4
ck
Source 1
MV
2,000 kVA
GS
LV
42 kA
500 kVA
2.5 kA
NC
NC
D1
NO
D2
Main/standby
Non-priority circuits
Priority circuits
Fig M6 : Example of a priority services switchboard supplied (in an emergency) from a standby
generator set
When the LV network is supplied by the Main source 1 of 2,000 kVA, the short-circuit
current is 42 kA at the main LV board busbar. When the LV network is supplied by
the Replacement Source 2 of 500 kVA with transient reactance of 30%, the shortcircuit current is made at approx. 2.5 kA, i.e. at a value 16 times weaker than with
the Main source.
Safety of people
In the IT (2nd fault) and TN grounding systems, protection of people against indirect
contacts is provided by the STD protection of circuit-breakers. Their operation on a
fault must be ensured, whether the installation is supplied by the main source
(Transformer) or by the replacement source (generator set).
Calculating the insulation fault current
Zero-sequence reactance formulated as a% of Uo by the manufacturer xo.
The typical value is 8%.
The phase-to-neutral single-phase short-circuit current is given by:
Un 3
2 X d + X o
The insulation fault current in the TN system is slightly greater than the three phase
fault current. For example, in event of an insulation fault on the system in the
previous example, the insulation fault current is equal to 3 kA.
If =
Capacitor bank
An off-load generator connected to a capacitor bank may self-excite, consequently
increasing its overvoltage.
The capacitor banks used for power factor regulation must therefore be disconnected.
This operation can be performed by sending the stopping setpoint to the regulator
(if it is connected to the system managing the source switchings) or by opening the
circuit-breaker supplying the capacitors.
If capacitors continue to be necessary, do not use regulation of the power factor
relay in this case (incorrect and over-slow setting).
M5
If the sum of the motor power is high, simultaneous start-up of loads generates a
high pick-up current that can be damaging: large voltage drop, due to the high value
of the generator set transient and subtransient reactances (20% to 30%), with a risk
of:
c Non-starting of motors
c Temperature rise linked to the prolonged starting time due to the voltage drop
c Tripping of the thermal protection devices
Moreover, the network and the actuators are disturbed by the voltage drop.
Application (see Fig. M7 )
A generator supplies a set of motors.
Generator short-circuit characteristics: Pn = 130 kVA at a power factor of 0.8,
In = 150 A
xd = 20% (for example) hence Isc = 750 A.
c The Pmotors is 45 kW (45% of generator power)
Calculating voltage drop at start-up:
S Motors = 45 kW, Im = 81 A, hence a starting current Id = 480 A for 2 to 20 s.
Voltage drop on the busbar for simultaneous motor starting:
U I d I n
=
in %
U I sc I n
U = 55%
which is not tolerable for motors (failure to start).
c the Pmotors is 20 kW (20% of generator power)
Calculating voltage drop at start-up:
Motors = 20 kW, Im = 35 A, hence a starting current Id = 210 A for 2 to 20 s.
Voltage drop on the busbar:
U I d I n
=
in %
U I sc I n
U = 10%
which is high but tolerable (depending on the type of loads).
Ba
ck
M6
PLC
F
F
Remote control 1
Remote control 2
Motors
Resistive loads
Restarting tips
c If the Pmax of the largest motor >
1
Pn , a progressive starter must be
3
Ba
ck
Electrical utility
HV incomer
NC
NO
Mains 2
feeder
By-pass
Mains 1
feeder
M7
Uninterruptible
power supply
Non-sensitive
load
Sensitive feeders
UPS power
UPS inrush power must allow for:
c Nominal power of the downstream loads. This is the sum of the apparent powers
Pa absorbed by each application. Furthermore, so as not to oversize the installation,
the overload capacities at UPS level must be considered (for example: 1.5 In for
1 minute and 1.25 In for 10 minutes)
c The power required to recharge the battery: This current is proportional to the
autonomy required for a given power. The sizing Sr of a UPS is given by:
Sr = 1.17 x Pn
Figure M9 next page defines the pick-up currents and protection devices for
supplying the rectifier (Mains 1) and the standby mains (Mains 2).
ck
40
60
80
100
120
160
200
250
300
400
500
600
800
Ba
Nominal power
Pn (kVA)
Fig M9 : Pick-up current for supplying the rectifier and standby mains
Ba
M8
ck
Mains 1
GS starting
t (s)
UPS charger
starting
20 ms
5 to 10 s
(%) =
Uh2
U1
Sr
the generator relative short-circuit voltage, brought to
Sg
rectifier power, i.e. t = f(URcc).
We define U Rcc(%) = X d
Ba
ck
18
Without filter
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
With filter
(incorporated)
4
3
2
1
0
0
10
11
12
U'Rcc = X''dSr
Sg
15
500 kVA
12
Note: With an upstream transformer of 630 kVA on the 300 kVA UPS without filter,
the 5% ratio would be obtained.
The result is that operation on generator set must be continually monitored for
harmonic currents.
If voltage harmonic distortion is too great, use of a filter on the network is the most
effective solution to bring it back to values that can be tolerated by sensitive loads.
Sg = 351 x
M9
Parallel operation
As generator sets generate energy in parallel on the same load, they must be
synchronised properly (voltage, frequency) and load distribution must be balanced
properly. This function is performed by the regulator of each Generator Set (thermal
and excitation regulation). The parameters (frequency, voltage) are monitored before
connection: if the values of these parameters are correct, connection can take place.
Ba
ck
MV incomer
Ba
Generator no. 1
ck
F
HV busbar
Generator no. 2
Protected
area
RS
RS
M10
PE
Unprotected
area
PE
LV
PEN
PE
PEN
Phases
Ba
ck
PE
MV incomer
F
HV busbar
Generator Set operating as a load (see Fig. M13 and Fig. M14 )
One of the parallel-connected generator sets may no longer operate as a generator
but as a motor (by loss of its excitation for example). This may generate overloading
of the other generator set(s) and thus place the electrical installation out of operation.
To check that the generator set really is supplying the installation with power
(operation as a generator), the proper flow direction of energy on the coupling
busbar must be checked using a specific reverse power check. Should a fault
occur, i.e. the set operates as a motor, this function will eliminate the faulty set.
Grounding of connected generator sets may lead to circulation of earth fault currents
(triplen harmonics) by connection of neutrals for common grounding (grounding
system of the TN or TT type). Consequently, to prevent these currents from flowing
between the generator sets, we recommend the installation of a decoupling
resistance in the grounding circuit.
(1) The system is in TN-C for sets seen as the generator and
in TN-S for sets seen as loads
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2005
ck
Note that the only way of ensuring availability of power with respect to utility outages
is to provide, in addition to the above measures, an autonomous alternate source, at
least for priority loads (see Fig. M15 ).
Ba
M11
2.5 kA
Non-priority circuits
Alternate source
Priority circuits
This source takes over from the utility in the event of a problem, but two factors must
be taken into account:
c The transfer time (time required to take over from the utility) which must be
acceptable to the load
c The operating time during which it can supply the load
The quality of electrical power is determined by the elimination of the disturbances at
the load terminals.
An alternate source is a means to ensure the availability of power at the load
terminals, however, it does not guarantee, in many cases, the quality of the power
supplied with respect to the above disturbances.
M12
Ba
ck
Usage
This configuration is in fact a compromise between an acceptable level of protection
against disturbances and cost. It can be used only with low power ratings (< 2 kVA).
It operates without a real static switch, so a certain time is required to transfer the
load to the inverter. This time is acceptable for certain individual applications, but
incompatible with the performance required by more sophisticated, sensitive systems
(large computer centers, telephone exchanges, etc.).
What is more, the frequency is not regulated and there is no bypass.
Note: In normal mode, the power supplying the load does not flow through the
inverter, which explains why this type of UPS is sometimes called Off-line. This
term is misleading, however, because it also suggests not supplied by utility power,
when in fact the load is supplied by the utility via the AC input during normal operation.
That is why standard IEC 62040 recommends the term passive standby.
AC input
Charger
Battery
Inverter
Filter/
conditioner
Normal mode
Battery backup mode
Load
ck
Ba
Normal
AC input
Bypass
AC input
Usage
This configuration is not well suited to regulation of sensitive loads in the medium to
high-power range because frequency regulation is not possible.
For this reason, it is rarely used other than for low power ratings.
Battery
Normal mode
Battery backup mode
Bypass mode
Operating principle
The inverter is connected in parallel with the AC input in a standby configuration, but
also charges the battery. It thus interacts (reversible operation) with the AC input
source (see Fig. M17 ).
c Normal mode
The load is supplied with conditioned power via a parallel connection of the AC input
and the inverter. The inverter operates to provide output-voltage conditioning and/or
charge the battery. The output frequency depends on the AC-input frequency.
c Battery backup mode
When the AC input voltage is outside specified tolerances for the UPS or the utility
power fails, the inverter and the battery step in to ensure a continuous supply of
power to the load following a transfer without interruption using a static switch which
also disconnects the AC input to prevent power from the inverter from flowing upstream.
The UPS continues to operate on battery power until the end of battery backup time
or the utility power returns to normal, which provokes transfer of the load back to the
AC input (normal mode).
c Bypass mode
This type of UPS may be equipped with a bypass. If one of the UPS functions fails,
the load can be transferred to the bypass AC input (supplied with utility or standby
power, depending on the installation).
Load
Operating principle
The inverter is connected in series between the AC input and the application.
c Normal mode
During normal operation, all the power supplied to the load passes through the
rectifier/charger and inverter which together perform a double conversion (AC-DCAC), hence the name.
c Battery backup mode
When the AC input voltage is outside specified tolerances for the UPS or the utility
power fails, the inverter and the battery step in to ensure a continuous supply of
power to the load following a transfer without interruption using a static switch.
The UPS continues to operate on battery power until the end of battery backup time
or utility power returns to normal, which provokes transfer of the load back to the
AC input (normal mode).
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2005
M13
c Bypass mode
This type of UPS is generally equipped with a static bypass, sometimes referred to
as a static switch (see Fig. M18 ).
The load can be transferred without interruption to the bypass AC input (supplied
with utility or standby power, depending on the installation), in the event of the
following:
v UPS failure
v Load-current transients (inrush or fault currents)
v Load peaks
However, the presence of a bypass assumes that the input and output frequencies
are identical and if the voltage levels are not the same, a bypass transformer is
required.
For certain loads, the UPS must be synchronized with the bypass power to ensure
load-supply continuity. What is more, when the UPS is in bypass mode, a
disturbance on the AC input source may be transmitted directly to the load because
the inverter no longer steps in.
Note: Another bypass line, often called the maintenance bypass, is available for
maintenance purposes. It is closed by a manual switch.
Ba
ck
Normal
AC input
Bypass
AC input
Battery
Static
switch
(static
bypass)
Inverter
Manual
maintenance
bypass
M14
Load
Normal mode
Battery backup mode
Bypass mode
Usage
In this configuration, the time required to transfer the load to the inverter is negligible
due to the static switch.
Also, the output voltage and frequency do not depend on the input voltage and
frequency conditions. This means that the UPS, when designed for this purpose, can
operate as a frequency converter.
Practically speaking, this is the main configuration used for medium and high power
ratings (from 10 kVA upwards).The rest of this chapter will consider only this
configuration.
Note: This type of UPS is often called on-line, meaning that the load is continuously
supplied by the inverter, regardless of the conditions on the AC input source. This
term is misleading, however, because it also suggests supplied by utility power,
when in fact the load is supplied by power that has been reconstituted by the doubleconversion system. That is why standard IEC 62040 recommends the term double
conversion.
2.3 Batteries
Selection of battery type
A battery is made up of interconnected cells which may be vented or of the
recombination type.
There are two main families of batteries:
c Nickel-cadmium batteries
c Lead-acid batteries
c Vented cells (lead-antimony): They are equipped with ports to
v Release to the atmosphere the oxygen and hydrogen produced during the different
chemical reactions
v Top off the electrolyte by adding distilled or demineralized water
c Recombination cells (lead, pure lead, lead-tin batteries): The gas recombination
rate is at least 95% and they therefore do not require water to be added during
service life
By extension, reference will be made to vented or recombination batteries
(recombination batteries are also often called sealed batteries).
The main types of batteries used in conjunction with UPSs are:
c Sealed lead-acid batteries, used 95% of the time because they are easy to
maintain and do not require a special room
c Vented lead-acid batteries
c Vented nickel-cadmium batteries
The above three types of batteries may be proposed, depending on economic
factors and the operating requirements of the installation, with all the available
service-life durations.
Capacity levels and backup times may be adapted to suit the users needs.
The proposed batteries are also perfectly suited to UPS applications in that they are
the result of collaboration with leading battery manufacturers.
Selection table
Figure M19 next page sums up the main characteristics of the various types of
batteries.
Increasingly, recombination batteries would seem to be the market choice for the
following reasons:
c No maintenance
c Easy implementation
c Installation in all types of rooms (computer rooms, technical rooms not specifically
intended for batteries, etc.)
In certain cases, however, vented batteries are preferred, notably for:
c Long service life
c Long backup times
c High power ratings
Vented batteries must be installed in special rooms complying with precise
regulations and require appropriate maintenance.
M15
Ba
ck
Sealed lead-acid
Vented lead-acid
Nickel-cadmium
Service life
Compact
5 or 10 years
5 or 10 years
5 or 10 years
+
+
++
Operatingtemperature
tolerances
+
++
+++
Frequency
of
maintenance
Low
Medium
High
Special
room
Cost
No
Yes
no
Low medium
Low
High
Ba
ck
Installation methods
Depending on the UPS range, the battery capacity and backup time, the battery is:
c Sealed type and housed in the UPS cabinet
c Sealed type and housed in one to three cabinets
c Vented or sealed type and rack-mounted. In this case the installation method may be
v On shelves (see Fig. M20 )
This installation method is possible for sealed batteries or maintenance-free vented
batteries which do not require topping up of their electrolyte.
v Tier mounting (see Fig. M21 )
This installation method is suitable for all types of batteries and for vented batteries
in particular, as level checking and filling are made easy.
v In cabinets (see Fig. M22 )
This installation method is suitable for sealed batteries. It is easy to implement and
offers maximum safety.
Ba
ck
M16
Ba
ck
This component can disturb the operation of certain protection devices, notably
RCDs used for the protection of persons.
Advantages and
disadvantages
TT system
c Disconnection for first
insulation fault
TN system
c Disconnection for first insulation fault
ck
IT system
c Signaling of first insulation fault
c Locating and elimination of first fault
c Disconnection for second insulation fault
c Interconnection and earthing of
conductive parts
c Surveillance of first fault using an
insulation monitoring device (IMD)
c Second fault results in circuit interruption
(circuit breaker or fuse)
c Solution offering the best continuity of
service (first fault is signalled)
c Requires competent surveillance
personnel (location of first fault)
Ba
Type of arrangement
Operation
Ba
ck
T0
T0 neutral
IMD 1
CB0
Earth 1
CB1
CB2
T1
T2
T1 neutral
T2 neutral
Bypass
neutral
Q1
Q4S
Q3BP
M17
UPS exposed
conductive
parts
Q5N
UPS output
IMD 2
Downstream
neutral
Earth 2
CB3
Earth
3
Load
exposed
conductive
parts
Fig. M24 : The essential points that must be connected in system earthing arrangements
Circuit-breaker selection
ck
Ba
Ir
Ir
down- upstream
stream
100
GE
CB2 curve
CB3 curve
10
Im
downstream
Im
upstream
Generator
short-circuit
Thermal limit
of static power
0.01
CB2
M18
CB1
CB2
CB3
0.001
0.1
Energizing of
a transformer
10
Energizing of all
loads downstream
of UPS
100
I/In of upstream
circuit breaker
The trip unit of CB3 muqt be set not to trip for the overcurrent when the load is energized
CB3
If bypass power is not used to handle overloads, the UPS current must trip the CB3 circuit
breaker with the highest rating
Ir
downstream
Uc
For distant short-circuits, the CB3 unit setting must not result in a dangerous touch voltage.
If necessary, install an RCD
Rating
The selected rating (rated current) for the circuit breaker must be the one just above
the rated current of the protected downstream cable.
Breaking capacity
The breaking capacity must be selected just above the short-circuit current that can
occur at the point of installation.
Ir and Im thresholds
The table below indicates how to determine the Ir (overload ; thermal or longtime)
and Im (short circuit ; magnetic or short time) thresholds to ensure discrimination,
depending on the upstream and downstream trip units.
Remark (see Fig. M26 )
c Time discrimination must be implemented by qualified personnel because time
delays before tripping increase the thermal stress (I2t) downstream (cables, semiconductors, etc.). Caution is required if tripping of CB2 is delayed using the Im
threshold time delay
c Energy discrimination does not depend on the trip unit, only on the circuit breaker
Ba
Ir upstream /
Ir downstream
Im upstream /
Im downstream
Im upstream /
Im downstream
ratio
All types
> 1.6
>3
ratio
Magnetic
>2
>2
ratio
Electronic
>1.5
>1.5
ck
Type of downstream
circuit
Fig. M26 : Ir and Im thresholds depending on the upstream and downstream trip units
M19
Ba
ck
Irms
3 In
Generator with
over-excitation
In
Generator with
series excitation
0.3 In
t
Subtransient
conditions 10 to 20 ms
Transient conditions
100 to 300 ms
Ba
ck
Iu
SW
Static switch
Mains 1
I1
Iu
Load
Rectifier/
charger
Inverter
Mains 2
Ib
Battery
capacity C10
Fig.M28 : Current to be taken into account for the selection of the wire connections
M20
Temperature rise
Permissible temperature rise in cables is limited by the withstand capacity of cable
insulation.
Temperature rise in cables depends on:
c The type of core (Cu or Al)
c The installation method
c The number of touching cables
Standards stipulate, for each type of cable, the maximum permissible current.
Voltage drops
The maximum permissible voltage drops are:
c 3% for AC circuits (50 or 60 Hz)
c 1% for DC circuits
Selection tables
Figure M29 indicates the voltage drop in percent for a circuit made up of 100 meters
of cable. To calculate the voltage drop in a circuit with a length L, multiply the value
in the table by L/100.
c Sph: Cross section of conductors
c In: Rated current of protection devices on circuit
Three-phase circuit
If the voltage drop exceeds 3% (50-60 Hz), increase the cross section of conductors.
DC circuit
If the voltage drop exceeds 1%, increase the cross section of conductors.
Ba
ck
50
2.6
3.2
4.0
70
1.9
2.3
2.9
3.6
95
1.3
1.6
2.2
2.7
3.3
120
1.0
1.3
1.6
2.2
2.7
3.4
150
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.6
2.2
2.7
3.4
185
0.7
0.8
1.1
1.3
1.7
2.1
2.8
3.4
4.3
240
300
0.9
1.2
1.4
1.9
2.3
2.9
3.6
4.4
6.5
0.9
1.2
1.5
1.9
2.4
3.0
3.8
4.7
240
0.5
0.6
0.6
1.0
1.3
1.6
2.1
2.6
3.3
4.2
5.3
300
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.8
1.0
1.3
1.6
2.1
2.7
3.4
4.2
5.3
Fig. M29 : Voltage drop in percent for [a] three-phase circuits and [b] DC circuits
M21
Example
Consider a 70-meter 400 V three-phase circuit, with copper conductors and a rated
current of 600 A.
Standard IEC 60364 indicates, depending on the installation method and the load, a
minimum cross section.
We shall assume that the minimum cross section is 95 mm2.
It is first necessary to check that the voltage drop does not exceed 3%.
The table for three-phase circuits on the following page indicates, for a 600 A current
flowing in a 300 mm2 cable, a voltage drop of 3% for 100 meters of cable, i.e. for
70 meters:
70
= 2.1%
100
Therefore less than 3%
3x
10
= 0.53%
100
Therefore less than 3%
5.3 x
M22
The UPSs can communicate with electrical and computing environment. They can
receive some data and provide information on their operation in order:
c To optimize the protection
For example, the UPS provides essential information on operating status to the
computer system (load on inverter, load on static bypass, load on battery, low
battery warning)
c To remotely control
The UPS provides measurement and operating status information to inform and
allow operators to take specific actions
c To manage the installation
The operator has a building and energy management system which allow to obtain
and save information from UPSs, to provide alarms and events and to take actions.
This evolution towards compatibilty between computer equipment and UPSs has the
effect to incorporate new built-in UPS functions.
Anti-harmonic filter
The UPS system includes a battery charger which is controlled by thyristors or
transistors. The resulting regularly-chopped current cycles generate harmonic
components in the power-supply network.
These indesirable components are filtered at the input of the rectifier and for most
cases this reduces the harmonic current level sufficiently for all practical purposes.
In certain specific cases however, notably in very large installations, an additional
filter circuit may be necessary.
Fig. M30b : UPS unit achieving disponibility and quality of computer system power supply
M23
Ba
Ba
ck
ck
I 1st peak
10 to 25 In
5s
M24
In
20
ms
I
Ir
Im
Ii
RMS value of
the 1st peak
Ba
ck
10In 14In
rms value of
the 1st peak
The protective device on the supply circuit for a LV/LV transformer must avoid the
possibility of incorrect operation due to the magnetizing inrush current surge, noted
above.It is necessary to use therefore:
c Selective (i.e. slighly time-delayed) circuit breakers of the type Compact NS STR
(see Fig. M32 ) or
c Circuit breakers having a very high magnetic-trip setting, of the types Compact NS
or Multi 9 curve D (see Fig. M33 )
Ba
Example
A 400 V 3-phase circuit is supplying a 125 kVA 400/230 V transformer (In = 180 A)
for which the first inrush current peak can reach 12 In, i.e. 12 x 180 = 2,160 A.
This current peak corresponds to a rms value of 1,530 A.
A compact NS 250N circuit breaker with Ir setting of 200 A and Im setting at 8 x Ir
would therefore be a suitable protective device.
ck
NS250N
Trip unit
STR 22E
3 x 70 mm2
400/230 V
125 kVA
Note: The primary protection is sometimes provided by fuses, type aM. This practice
has two disadvantages:
c The fuses must be largely oversized (at least 4 times the nominal full-load rated
current of the transformer)
c In order to provide isolating facilities on the primary side, either a load-break switch
or a contactor must be associated with the fuses.
6.3
110
8
130
10
150
12.5 16
160 170
20
270
25
310
250
320
390
500
600
840
800
1180 1240 1530 1650 2150 2540 3700 3700 5900 5900 6500 7400 9300 9400 11400 13400
4.5
4.5
4.5
5.5
5.5
5.5
5.5
5.5
4.5
5.5
4.5
5.5
8
105
400
5
10
115
530
5
12.5
120
635
5
16
140
730
4.5
20
150
865
4.5
25
175
1065
4.5
31.5
200
1200
4
40
215
1400
4
50
265
1900
5
63
305
2000
5
80
450
2450
4.5
100
450
3950
5.5
125
525
3950
5
160
635
4335
5
50
410
63
460
80
520
100
570
125
680
160
680
200
790
250
950
4.5
5.5
5.5
ck
1-phase
kVA rating
No-load losses (W)
Full-load losses (W)
Short-circuit voltage (%)
31.5 40
350 350
Ba
3-phase
kVA rating
No-load
losses (W)
Full-load
losses (W)
Short-circuit
voltage (%)
Ba
Cricuit breaker
curve D or K
Size
(A)
0.16
0.32
0.63
1.0
2.0
3.2
5.0
6.3
8.0
10
13
16
20
25
32
40
C60, NG125
C60, NG125
C60, NG125
C60, NG125
C60, NG125
C60, C120, NG125
C60, C120, NG125
C60, C120, NG125
C60, C120, NG125
C60, C120, NG125
C60, C120, NG125
C60, C120, NC100, NG125
C60, C120, NC100, NG125
C120, NC100, NG125
C120, NC100, NG125
C120, NG125
0.5
1
2
3
6
10
16
20
25
32
40
50
63
80
100
125
M25
Circuit breaker
Trip unit
NS100N/H/L
NS100N/H/L
NS100N/H/L
NS100N/H/L
NS100N/H/L
NS160N/H/L
NS160N/H/L
NS250N/H/L
NS250N/H/L
TM16D
TM05D
TM40D
TM63D
TM80D
TM100D
TM125D
TM160D
TM200D
400/415 V 3-ph
912
1416
2228
3544
4556
5569
6987
89111
111139
ck
Circuit breaker
Trip unit
Setting
Ir max
NS100N/H/L
NS100N/H/L
NS160N/H/L
NS250N/H/L
NS400N/H
NS400L
NS630N/H/L
NS800N/H - NT08H1
NS800N/H - NT08H1 - NW08N1/H1
NS1000N/H - NT10H1 - NW10N1/H1
NS1250N/H - NT12H1 - NW12N1/H1
NS1600N/H - NT16H1 - NW16N1/H1
NW20N1/H1
NW25N2/H3
NW32N2/H3
STR22SE 40
STR22SE 100
STR22SE 160
STR22SE 250
STR23SE / 53UE 400
STR23SE / 53UE 400
STR23SE / 53UE 630
Micrologic 5.0/6.0/7.0
Micrologic 5.0/6.0/7.0
Micrologic 5.0/6.0/7.0
Micrologic 5.0/6.0/7.0
Micrologic 5.0/6.0/7.0
Micrologic 5.0/6.0/7.0
Micrologic 5.0/6.0/7.0
Micrologic 5.0/6.0/7.0
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.6
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
400/415 V 3-ph
1122
2756
4490
70139
111195
111166
175250
175436
222554
277693
346866
4431,108
5541,385
6901,730
8862,217
Ba
ck
Ba
M26
4 Lighting circuits
b-
Fluorescent tubes dissipate less heat and have a longer service life than
incandescent lamps, but they do need an ignition device called a starter and a
device to limit the current in the arc after ignition. This device called ballast is
usually a choke placed in series with the arc.
Compact fluorescent lamps are based on the same principle as a fluorescent tube.
The starter and ballast functions are provided by an electronic circuit (integrated in
the lamp) which enables the use of smaller tubes folded back on themselves.
Compact fluorescent lamps (see Fig. M35 ) were developed to replace incandescent
lamps: They offer significant energy savings (15 W against 75 W for the same level
of brightness) and an increased service life.
M27
4 Lighting circuits
Ba
ck
M28
Technology
Standard
incandescent
Application
- Domestic use
- Localized decorative
lighting
Halogen
incandescent
- Spot lighting
- Intense lighting
Fluorescent tube
Compact
fluorescent lamp
- Domestic use
- Offices
- Replacement of
incandescent lamps
- Workshops, halls, hangars
- Factory floors
HP mercury vapor
High-pressure
sodium
Low-pressure
sodium
Metal halide
- Outdoors
- Large halls
- Outdoors
- Emergency lighting
- Large areas
- Halls with high ceilings
LED
Technology
Standard incandescent
Halogen incandescent
Fluorescent tube
Compact fluorescent lamp
HP mercury vapor
High-pressure sodium
Low-pressure sodium
Metal halide
LED
Power (watt)
3 1,000
5 500
4 56
5 40
40 1,000
35 1,000
35 180
30 2,000
0.05 0.1
Advantages
- Direct connection without
intermediate switchgear
- Reasonable purchase price
- Compact size
- Instantaneous lighting
- Good color rendering
- Direct connection
- Instantaneous efficiency
- Excellent color rendering
- High luminous efficiency
- Average color rendering
Disadvantages
- Low luminous efficiency and
high electricity consumption
- Significant heat dissipation
- Short service life
Efficiency (lumen/watt)
10 15
15 25
50 100
50 80
25 55
40 140
100 185
50 115
10 30
4 Lighting circuits
Switching on the lamp gradually can also reduce, or even eliminate, the current peak
on ignition.
ck
a]
As the lamp current is distorted by the electronic switching, harmonic currents are
produced. The 3rd harmonic order is predominant, and the percentage of 3rd
harmonic current related to the maximum fundamental current (at maximum power)
is represented on Figure M39 .
300
200
100
0
t (s)
Note that in practice, the power applied to the lamp by a dimmer switch can only
vary in the range between 15 and 85% of the maximum power of the lamp.
-100
-200
Ba
-300
0.01
ck
i3 (%)
0.02
50.0
b]
45.0
300
40.0
200
35.0
100
30.0
t (s)
25.0
20.0
-100
15.0
-200
10.0
-300
0
0.01
5.0
0.02
Power (%)
0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
100.0
Fig. M39 : Percentage of 3rd harmonic current as a function of the power applied to an
incandescent lamp using an electronic dimmer switch
M29
4 Lighting circuits
According to IEC standard 61000-3-2 setting harmonic emission limits for electric or
electronic systems with current i 16 A, the following arrangements apply:
c Independent dimmers for incandescent lamps with a rated power less than or
equal to 1 kW have no limits applied
c Otherwise, or for incandescent lighting equipment with built-in dimmer or dimmer
built in an enclosure, the maximum permissible 3rd harmonic current is equal to
2.30 A
b]
c]
Ballast
M30
Lamp
Lamp
Ballast
Lamp
Ballast
Lamp
Comments
Single connection
Risk of overcurrents for control
devices
Choose capacitors with high
operating voltage (450 to 480 V)
Avoids flicker
ck
Ballast
Ba
a]
Fig. M41 : The various compensation layouts: a] parallel; b] series; c] dual series also called
duo and their fields of application
The compensation capacitors are therefore sized so that the global power factor is
greater than 0.85. In the most common case of parallel compensation, its capacity is
on average 1 F for 10 W of active power, for any type of lamp. However, this
compensation is incompatible with dimmer switches.
The layout for parallel compensation creates constraints on ignition of the lamp.
Since the capacitor is initially discharged, switch-on produces an overcurrent. An
overvoltage also appears, due to the oscillations in the circuit made up of the
capacitor and the power supply inductance.
The following example can be used to determine the orders of magnitude.
4 Lighting circuits
175 x 10-6
C
= 230 2
= 350 A
L
150 x 10-6
I c = Vmax
The theoretical peak current at switch-on can therefore reach 27 times the peak
current during normal operation.
The shape of the voltage and current at ignition is given in Figure M42 for switch
closing at the line supply voltage peak.
ck
(V)
Ba
600
400
200
0
t (s)
-200
-400
-600
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
M31
(A)
300
200
100
0
t (s)
-100
-200
-300
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
In reality, the constraints are usually less severe, due to the impedance of the cables.
Ignition of fluorescent tubes in groups implies one specific constraint. When a group
of tubes is already switched on, the compensation capacitors in these tubes which
are already energized participate in the inrush current at the moment of ignition of a
second group of tubes: they amplify the current peak in the control switch at the
moment of ignition of the second group.
4 Lighting circuits
The table in Figure M43 , resulting from measurements, specifies the magnitude of
the first current peak, for different values of prospective short-circuit current Isc. It is
seen that the current peak can be multiplied by 2 or 3, depending on the number of
tubes already in use at the moment of connection of the last group of tubes.
ck
Number of tubes
connected
14
14
14
14
Ba
Number of tubes
already in use
0
14
28
42
Isc = 6,000 A
320
575
624
632
Fig. M43 : Magnitude of the current peak in the control switch of the moment of ignition of a
second group of tubes
M32
Since the arc is supplied in optimum voltage conditions, this results in energy
savings of 5 to 10% and increased lamp service life. Moreover, the efficiency of the
electronic ballast can exceed 93%, whereas the average efficiency of a magnetic
device is only 85%.
The power factor is high (> 0.9).
The electronic ballast is also used to provide the light dimming function. Varying the
frequency in fact varies the current magnitude in the arc and hence the luminous
intensity.
Inrush current
Ba
ck
The main constraint that electronic ballasts bring to line supplies is the high inrush
current on switch-on linked to the initial load of the smoothing capacitors
(see Fig. M45 ).
Technology
Rectifier with PFC
Rectifier with choke
Magnetic ballast
Duration
i 1 ms
i 5 ms
5 to 10 ms
Fig. M45 : Orders of magnitude of the inrush current maximum values, depending on the
technologies used
4 Lighting circuits
In reality, due to the wiring impedances, the inrush currents for an assembly of
lamps is much lower than these values, in the order of 5 to 10 In for less than 5 ms.
Unlike magnetic ballasts, this inrush current is not accompanied by an overvoltage.
Harmonic currents
For ballasts associated with high-power discharge lamps, the current drawn from
the line supply has a low total harmonic distortion (< 20% in general and < 10% for
the most sophisticated devices). Conversely, devices associated with low-power
lamps, in particular compact fluorescent lamps, draw a very distorted current
(see Fig. M46 ). The total harmonic distortion can be as high as 150%. In these
conditions, the rms current drawn from the line supply equals 1.8 times the current
corresponding to the lamp active power, which corresponds to a power factor of 0.55.
Ba
ck
(A)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
t (s)
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
0
0.02
In order to balance the load between the different phases, lighting circuits are usually
connected between phases and neutral in a balanced way. In these conditions, the
high level of third harmonic and harmonics that are multiple of 3 can cause an
overload of the neutral conductor. The least favorable situation leads to a neutral
current which may reach e times the current in each phase.
Harmonic emission limits for electric or electronic systems are set by IEC standard
61000-3-2. For simplification, the limits for lighting equipment are given here only for
harmonic orders 3 and 5 which are the most relevant (see Fig. M47 ).
ck
3
5
Active input
power > 25W
% of fundamental
current
30
10
Ba
Harmonic
order
Leakage currents
Electronic ballasts usually have capacitors placed between the power supply
conductors and the earth. These interference-suppressing capacitors are
responsible for the circulation of a permanent leakage current in the order of 0.5 to
1 mA per ballast. This therefore results in a limit being placed on the number of
ballasts that can be supplied by a Residual Current Differential Safety Device (RCD).
At switch-on, the initial load of these capacitors can also cause the circulation of a
current peak whose magnitude can reach several amps for 10 s. This current peak
may cause unwanted tripping of unsuitable devices.
M33
4 Lighting circuits
High-frequency emissions
Electronic ballasts are responsible for high-frequency conducted and radiated
emissions.
The very steep rising edges applied to the ballast output conductors cause current
pulses circulating in the stray capacities to earth. As a result, stray currents circulate
in the earth conductor and the power supply conductors. Due to the high frequency
of these currents, there is also electromagnetic radiation. To limit these HF emissions,
the lamp should be placed in the immediate proximity of the ballast, thus reducing
the length of the most strongly radiating conductors.
The different power supply modes (see Fig. M48 )
Ba
Other device
Dimmer switch
Transformer
Magnetic ballast and starter
Electronic converter
Electronic ballast
Electronic dimmer +
ballast
ck
Technology
Standard incandescent
Halogen incandescent
ELV halogen incandescent
Fluorescent tube
Electronic ballast
M34
This characteristic is the first one that should be defined when creating an
installation, otherwise it is highly probable that overload protection devices will trip
and users may often find themselves in the dark.
It is evident that their determination should take into account the consumption of all
components, especially for fluorescent lighting installations, since the power
consumed by the ballasts has to be added to that of the tubes and bulbs.
The solution
For incandescent lighting, it should be remembered that the line voltage can be more
than 10% of its nominal value, which would then cause an increase in the current
drawn.
For fluorescent lighting, unless otherwise specified, the power of the magnetic
ballasts can be assessed at 25% of that of the bulbs. For electronic ballasts, this
power is lower, in the order of 5 to 10%.
The thresholds for the overcurrent protection devices should therefore be calculated
as a function of the total power and the power factor, calculated for each circuit.
Overcurrents at switch-on
The risk
The devices used for control and protection of lighting circuits are those such as
relays, triac, remote-control switches, contactors or circuit-breakers.
The main constraint applied to these devices is the current peak on energization.
This current peak depends on the technology of the lamps used, but also on the
installation characteristics (supply transformer power, length of cables, number of
lamps) and the moment of energization in the line voltage period. A high current
peak, however fleeting, can cause the contacts on an electromechanical control
device to weld together or the destruction of a solid state device with semiconductors.
4 Lighting circuits
High-frequency emissions
Electronic ballasts are responsible for high-frequency conducted and radiated
emissions.
The very steep rising edges applied to the ballast output conductors cause current
pulses circulating in the stray capacities to earth. As a result, stray currents circulate
in the earth conductor and the power supply conductors. Due to the high frequency
of these currents, there is also electromagnetic radiation. To limit these HF emissions,
the lamp should be placed in the immediate proximity of the ballast, thus reducing
the length of the most strongly radiating conductors.
The different power supply modes (see Fig. M48 )
Ba
Other device
Dimmer switch
Transformer
Magnetic ballast and starter
Electronic converter
Electronic ballast
Electronic dimmer +
ballast
ck
Technology
Standard incandescent
Halogen incandescent
ELV halogen incandescent
Fluorescent tube
Electronic ballast
M34
This characteristic is the first one that should be defined when creating an
installation, otherwise it is highly probable that overload protection devices will trip
and users may often find themselves in the dark.
It is evident that their determination should take into account the consumption of all
components, especially for fluorescent lighting installations, since the power
consumed by the ballasts has to be added to that of the tubes and bulbs.
The solution
For incandescent lighting, it should be remembered that the line voltage can be more
than 10% of its nominal value, which would then cause an increase in the current
drawn.
For fluorescent lighting, unless otherwise specified, the power of the magnetic
ballasts can be assessed at 25% of that of the bulbs. For electronic ballasts, this
power is lower, in the order of 5 to 10%.
The thresholds for the overcurrent protection devices should therefore be calculated
as a function of the total power and the power factor, calculated for each circuit.
Overcurrents at switch-on
The risk
The devices used for control and protection of lighting circuits are those such as
relays, triac, remote-control switches, contactors or circuit-breakers.
The main constraint applied to these devices is the current peak on energization.
This current peak depends on the technology of the lamps used, but also on the
installation characteristics (supply transformer power, length of cables, number of
lamps) and the moment of energization in the line voltage period. A high current
peak, however fleeting, can cause the contacts on an electromechanical control
device to weld together or the destruction of a solid state device with semiconductors.
4 Lighting circuits
Two solutions
Because of the inrush current, the majority of ordinary relays are incompatible with
lighting device power supply. The following recommendations are therefore usually
made:
c Limit the number of lamps to be connected to a single device so that their total
power is less than the maximum permissible power for the device
c Check with the manufacturers what operating limits they suggest for the devices.
This precaution is particularly important when replacing incandescent lamps with
compact fluorescent lamps
By way of example, the table in Figure M49 indicates the maximum number of
compensated fluorescent tubes that can be controlled by different devices with 16 A
rating. Note that the number of controlled tubes is well below the number
corresponding to the maximum power for the devices.
18
36
58
204
102
63
ck
Number of tubes
corresponding
to the power
16 A x 230 V
Ba
Fig. M49 : The number of controlled tubes is well below the number corresponding to the
maximum power for the devices
But a technique exists to limit the current peak on energization of circuits with
capacitive behavior (magnetic ballasts with parallel compensation and electronic
ballasts). It consists of ensuring that activation occurs at the moment when the line
voltage passes through zero. Only solid state switches with semi-conductors offer
this possibility (see Fig. M50a ). This technique has proved to be particularly useful
when designing new lighting circuits.
More recently, hybrid technology devices have been developed that combine a solid
state switch (activation on voltage passage through zero) and an electromechanical
contactor short-circuiting the solid state switch (reduction of losses in the semiconductors) (see Fig. M50b ).
Fig. M50 : Standard CT+ contactor [a], CT+ contactor with manual override, pushbutton for
selection of operating mode and indicator lamp showing the active operating mode [b], and TL +
remote-control switch [c] (Merlin Gerin brand)
M35
4 Lighting circuits
ELV Halogen
Uncompensated
fluorescent lamp
Compensated
fluorescent lamp
Dual compensated
fluorescent lamp
Fluorescent lamp
with electronic ballast
M36
LP Sodium
HP Sodium,
Metal halide
TL 16A
40
25
20
16
8
1600 W
5
3
1
1
1500 W
70
28
19
14
1400 W
70
35
21
1300 W
50
25
16
930 W
56
28
17
2000 W
80
40
26
1300 W
40
20
13
1300 W
24
15
10
7
1300 W
5
3
1
1300 W
TL 32A
106
66
53
42
21
4260 W
13
8
4
2
4000 W
180
74
50
37
3700 W
186
73
55
3400 W
133
66
42
2400 W
148
74
45
5300 W
212
106
69
3400 W
106
53
34
3400 W
63
40
26
18
3400 W
13
8
3
3400 W
Fig. M51 : Maximum number of lamps connected to remote-control switches Merlin Gerin
TL 16 A and TL32 A
ck
Halogen incandescent
Ba
Type of lamp
Standard incandescent
4 Lighting circuits
Standard
incandescent
Halogen
incandescent
ELV Halogen
Uncompensated
fluorescent lamp
Compensated
fluorescent lamp
Dual compensated
fluorescent lamp
Fluorescent lamp
with electronic
ballast
Dual fluorescent
lamp with electronic
ballast
LP Sodium
HP Sodium,
Metal halide
Lamp
power (W)
40
60
75
100
150
200
300
500
1000
20
50
75
100
18
36
58
18
36
58
2x18
2x36
2x58
18
36
58
2x18
2x36
2x58
18
35
55
90
135
180
70
150
250
400
1000
GC16A
CT16A
38
30
25
19
12
10
7
4
2
15
10
8
6
22
20
13
15
15
10
30
17
10
74
38
25
36
20
12
14
3
3
2
1
1
6
6
2
2
1
GC25A
CT25A
57
45
38
28
18
14
10
6
3
23
15
12
9
30
28
17
20
20
15
46
25
16
111
58
37
55
30
19
21
5
5
4
2
2
9
9
4
3
2
GC40A
CT40A
115
85
70
50
35
26
18
10
6
42
27
23
18
70
60
35
40
40
30
80
43
27
222
117
74
111
60
38
40
10
10
8
5
4
18
18
8
6
4
GC63A
CT63A
172
125
100
73
50
37
25
15
8
63
42
35
27
100
90
56
60
60
43
123
67
42
333
176
111
166
90
57
60
15
15
11
7
6
25
25
12
9
6
ck
Type of lamp
Ba
Fig. M52 : Maximum number of lamps connected to Telemecanique GC and Merlin Gerin CT
contactors
M37
4 Lighting circuits
Electronic
ballast
ck
Magnetic ballast
without
compensation
Magnetic ballast
with
compensation
Tube
CB current rating (A)
power (W) 1
2
3
18
4
9
14
36
2
4
7
58
1
3
4
18
7
14
21
36
3
7
10
58
2
4
6
2x18
3
7
10
2x36
1
3
5
2x58
1
2
3
18
5
11
17
36
4
8
13
58
2
5
10
2x18
4
8
13
2x36
2
5
8
2x58
1
5
5
Ba
Equipment
6
29
14
9
42
21
13
21
10
6
35
26
20
26
15
11
10
49
24
15
70
35
21
35
17
10
58
43
33
43
26
18
16
78
39
24
112
56
34
58
26
17
93
71
58
71
44
30
20
98
49
30
140
70
43
70
35
21
117
90
68
90
55
38
25
122
61
38
175
87
54
87
43
27
146
113
85
113
69
47
32
157
78
48
225
112
69
112
56
34
186
144
109
144
88
61
40
196
98
60
281
140
87
140
70
43
230
179
136
179
110
76
50
63
80
100
351
175
109
175
87
54
290
226
171
226
137
95
443
221
137
221
110
68
366
284
215
184
173
120
562
281
174
281
140
87
703
351
218
351
175
109
Fig. M53 : Maximum number of ballasts connected to Merlin Gerin C60N/C120 circuit breakers
M38
Lamp type
Incandescend lamp
with dimmer
ELV halogen lamp
Typical power
100 W
Setting mode
Light dimmer
Typical H3 level
5 to 45 %
25 W
5%
Fluorescent tube
100 W
< 25 W
> 25 W
100 W
Electronic ELV
transformer
Magnetic ballast
Electronic ballast
+ PFC
Magnetic ballast
Electrical ballast
Discharge lamp
10 %
85 %
30 %
10 %
30 %
Ba
ck
The solution
Firstly, the use of a neutral conductor with a small cross-section (half) should be
prohibited, as requested by Installation standard IEC 60364, section 52353.
As far as overcurrent protection devices are concerned, it is necessary to provide
4-pole circuit-breakers with protected neutral (except with the TN-C system for which
the PEN, a combined neutral and protection conductor, should not be cut).
This type of device can also be used for the breaking of all poles necessary to
supply luminaires at the phase-to-phase voltage in the event of a fault.
A breaking device should therefore interrupt the phase and Neutral circuit
simultaneously.
4 Lighting circuits
Fig. M55 : s.i. residual current devices with immunity against impulse currents (Merlin Gerin brand)
Overvoltages
The risk
As illustrated in earlier sections, switching on a lighting circuit causes a transient
state which is manifested by a significant overcurrent. This overcurrent is
accompanied by a strong voltage fluctuation applied to the load terminals connected
to the same circuit.
These voltage fluctuations can be detrimental to correct operation of sensitive loads
(micro-computers, temperature controllers, etc.)
The Solution
It is advisable to separate the power supply for these sensitive loads from the
lighting circuit power supply.
M39
4 Lighting circuits
c The solution
Special methods can be used to reduce voltage fluctuations. Nonetheless, it is
advisable, wherever possible, to supply lighting circuits via a separate line supply.
The use of electronic ballasts is recommended for demanding applications
(hospitals, clean rooms, inspection rooms, computer rooms, etc).
Emergency lighting
These schemes include illuminated emergency exit signs and direction indications,
as well as general lighting.
Emergency exit indication
In areas accommodating more than 50 persons, luminous directional indications to
the nearest emergency exits must be provided.
M40
4 Lighting circuits
M41
5 Asynchronous motors
M42
Ba
ck
I" = 8 to 12 In
Id = 5 to 8 In
In = rated current of the motor
Basic functions
Isolating facility
It is necessary to isolate the circuits, partially or totally, from their power supply
network for satety of personnel during maintenance work. Isolation function is
provided by disconnectors. This function can be included in other devices designed
to provide isolation such as disconnector/circuit breaker.
td
1 to 10s
Motor control
The motor control function is to make and break the motor current. In case of manual
control, this function can be provided by motor-circuit breakers or switches.
In case of remote control, this function can be provided by contactors, starters or CPS.
20 to
30 ms
I
In
Id
I"
5 Asynchronous motors
Complementary protections
c Thermal protection by direct winding temperature measurement
Provided by thermal sensors incorporated inside the windings of the motor and
associated relays.
c Thermal protection by indirect winding temperature determination
Provided by multifunction relays through current measurement and taking into
account the characteristics of the motors (e.g.: thermal time constant).
c Permanent insulation-resistance monitoring relays or residual current differential
relays
They provide detection and protection against earth leakage current and short circuit
to earth, allowing maintenance operation before destruction of the motor.
c Specific motor protection functions
Such as protection against too long starting period or stalled rotor, protection against
unbalanced, loss or permutation of phases, earth fault protection, no load protection,
rotor blocked (during start or after); pre alarm overheating indication,
communication, can also be provided by multifunction relays.
M43
5 Asynchronous motors
5.2 Standards
The motor control and protection can be achieved in different way:
c By using an association of a SCPD (Short-Circuit-Protective-Device) and
electromechanical devices such as
v An electromechanical starters fulfilling the standard IEC 60947-4-1
v A semiconductor starter fulfilling the standard IEC 60947-4-2
v A variable speed drives fulfilling the standard series IEC 61800
c By using a CPS, single device covering all the basic functions, and fulfilling the
standard IEC 60947-6-2
In this document, only the motor circuits including association of electromechanical
devices such as, starters and protection against short-circuit, are considered. The
devices meeting the standard 60947-6-2, the semiconductor starters and the variable
speed drives will be considered only for specific points.
A motor circuit will meet the rules of the IEC 60947-4-1 and mainly:
c The co-ordination between the devices of the motor circuit
c The tripping class of the thermal relays
c The category of utilization of the contactors
c The insulation co-ordination
Note: The first and last points are satisfied inherently by the devices meeting the
IEC 60947-6-2 because they provide a continuity of service.
M44
Ba
ck
Utilization category
AC-1
AC-2
AC-3
AC-4
Application characteristics
Non-inductive (or slightly inductive) loads:
cos u 0.95 (heating, distribution)
Starting and switching off of slip-ring motors
Cage motors: Starting, and switching off motors
during running
Cage motors: Starting, plugging, inching
Note: These utilization categories are adapted to the devices meeting the other
standards. For example AC-3 becomes AC-53 for the semiconductor starters
(IEC 60947-4-2) and becomes AC-43 for CPSs (IEC 60947-6-2).
5 Asynchronous motors
5.3 Applications
The control and protection of a motor can consist of one, two, three or four different
devices which provide one or several functions.
In the case of the combination of several devices, co-ordination between them
is essential in order to provide optimized protection of the motor application.
To protect a motor circuit, many parameters must be taken into account. They
depend on:
c The application (type of driven machine, safety of operation, number of operations,
etc.)
c The continuity performance requested by the application
c The standards to be enforced to provide security and safety.
The electrical functions to be provided are quite different:
c Start, normal operation and stop without unexpected tripping while maintaining
control requirements, number of operations, durability and safety requirements
(emergency stops), as well as circuit and motor protection, disconnection (isolation)
for safety of personnel during maintenance work.
M45
5 Asynchronous motors
5.3 Applications
The control and protection of a motor can consist of one, two, three or four different
devices which provide one or several functions.
In the case of the combination of several devices, co-ordination between them
is essential in order to provide optimized protection of the motor application.
To protect a motor circuit, many parameters must be taken into account. They
depend on:
c The application (type of driven machine, safety of operation, number of operations,
etc.)
c The continuity performance requested by the application
c The standards to be enforced to provide security and safety.
The electrical functions to be provided are quite different:
c Start, normal operation and stop without unexpected tripping while maintaining
control requirements, number of operations, durability and safety requirements
(emergency stops), as well as circuit and motor protection, disconnection (isolation)
for safety of personnel during maintenance work.
M45
5 Asynchronous motors
c Better protection for the starter in case of overcurrent and in particular for impedant
short-circuit (1) corresponding to currents up to about 30 times In of motor (see Fig. M58 ).
c Possibility of adding RCD:
v Prevention of risk of fire (sensitivity 500 mA)
v Protection against destruction of the motor (short-circuit of laminations) by the
early detection of earth fault currents (sensitivity 300 mA to 30 A)
Ba
ck
t
1.05 to 1.20 In
Circuit
breaker
Magnetic
relay
Operating curve
of thermal relay
End of
start-up
period
Contactor
Thermal
relay
1 to
10 s
20 to
30 ms
In
Is
I" magn.
Fig. M58 : Tripping characteristics of a circuit breaker + contactor + thermal relay (1)
Conclusion
The combination of a circuit breaker + contactor + thermal relay for the control and
protection of motor circuits is eminently appropriate when:
c The maintenance service for an installation is reduced, which is generally the case
in tertiary and small and medium sized industrial sites
c The job specification calls for complementary functions
c There is an operational requirement for a load breaking facility in the event of need
of maintenance.
M46
Ba
ck
Compact
type MA
Icc ext.
I
(1) In the majority of cases, short-circuit faults occur at the
motor, so that the current is limited by the cable and the wiring
of the starter and are called impedant short-circuits
Fig. M59 : The thermal-withstand limit of the thermal relay must be to the right of the CB
magnetic-trip characteristic
5 Asynchronous motors
c The overcurrent breaking capability of the contactor must be greater than the
current corresponding to the setting of the circuit breaker magnetic trip relay.
c When submitted to a short-circuit current, the contactor and its thermal relay must
perform in accordance with the requirements corresponding to the specified type of
co-ordination.
ck
Complementary protections
Ba
Ba
ck
Ba
ck
This type of protection is essential for emergency systems motors, especially when
installed in humid and/or dusty locations. Such protection avoids the destruction of a
motor by short-circuit to earth during starting (one of the most frequently-occuring
incidents) by giving a warning informing that maintenance work is necessary to
restore the motor to a satisfactory operationnal condition.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2005
M47
5 Asynchronous motors
Example of application:
Fire-protection system sprinklers pumps, irrigation pumps for seasonal operation,
etc.
Example: a Vigilohm SM21 (Merlin Gerin) monitors the insulation of a motor, and
signals audibly and visually any abnormal reduction of the insulation resistance level.
Furthermore, this relay can prevent any attempt to start the motor, if necessary
(see Fig. M63 ).
Ba
ck
SM21
MERLIN GERIN
SM20
IN
OUT
ck
For example, RH99M relay (Merlin Gerin) provides (see Fig. M64 ):
c 5 sensitivities (0,3, 1, 3, 10, 30 A)
c Possibility of discrimination or to take into account of particular operational by
virtue of 3 possible time delays (0, 90, 250 ms)
c Automatic operation if the circuit from the current transformer to the relay is broken
c Protected against fault operations
c Insulation ofDC circuit components: Class A
Ba
M48
Limitative protections
Residual current diffential protective devices (RCDs) can be very sensitive and
detect low values of leakage current which occur when the insulation to earth of an
installation deteriorates (by physical damage, contamination, excessive humidity,
and so on). Some versions of RCDs, with dry contacts, specially designed for such
applications, provide the following:
c To avoid the destruction of a motor (by perforation and short-circuiting of the
laminations of the stator) caused by an eventual arcing fault to earth. This protection
can detect incipient fault conditions by operating at leakage currents in the range of
300 mA to 30 A, according to the size of the motor (approx sensitivity: 5% In)
c To reduce the risk of fire: sensitivity i 500 mA
RH99M
MERLIN GERIN
5 Asynchronous motors
The importance of limiting the voltage drop at the motor terminals during
start-up
In order to have a motor starting and accelerating to its normal speed in the
appropriate time, the torque of the motor must exceed the load torque by at least
70%. However, the starting current is much higher than the full-load current of the
motor. As a result, if the voltage drop is very high, the motor torque will be
excessively reduced (motor torque is proportional to U2) and it will result, for extreme
case, in failure to start.
Example:
c With 400 V maintained at the terminals of a motor, its torque would be 2.1 times
that of the load torque
c For a voltage drop of 10% during start-up, the motor torque would be
2.1 x 0.92 = 1.7 times the load torque, and the motor would accelerate to its rated
speed normally
c For a voltage drop of 15% during start-up, the motor torque would be
2.1 x 0.852 = 1.5 times the load torque, so that the motor starting time would
be longer than normal
In general, a maximum allowable voltage drop of 10% is recommended during
start-up of the motor.
Single phase
Dwellings
Others
Dwellings
Others
Three phase
ck
Location
Ba
Type of motor
Fig. M65 : Maximum permitted values of starting current for direct-on-line LV motors (230/400 V)
ck
Dwellings
Others Overhead
line network
Underground
cable network
Type of motor
Single phase 230 V
(kW)
Ba
Location
1.4
3
Other methods
of starting (kW)
11
22
5.5
22
45
Fig. M66 : Maximum permitted power ratings for LV direct-on-line starting motors
Since, even in areas supplied by one power utility only, weak areas of the network
exist as well as strong areas, it is always advisable to secure the agreement of the
power supplier before acquiring the motors for a new project.
Other (but generally more costly) alternative starting arrangements exist, which
reduce the large starting currents of direct-on-line motors to acceptable levels; for
example, star-delta starters, slip-ring motor, soft start electronic devices, etc.
M49
Chapter N
Residential and similar premises
and special locations
Contents
1
2
3
N1
1.1 General
N1
N1
N4
1.4 Circuits
N6
N7
N8
N8
N11
N11
N12
N1
1.1 General
Related standards
Most countries have national regulations and-or standards governing the rules to be
strictly observed in the design and realization of electrical installations for residential
and similar premises. The relevant international standard is the publication
IEC 60364.
Ba
ck
Enclosure
Service connection
Distribution board
N2
Lightning protection
Incoming-supply
circuit breaker
Combi surge arrester
Overcurrent
protection
and isolation
Protection against
direct and indirect
contact,
and protection
against fire
Differential
MCB
Differential load
switch
Remote control
Remote control switch
TL 16 A
Energy management
Programmable thermostat
THP
Contactors, off-peak
or manual control CT
On installations which are TN earthed, the supply utilities usually protect the
installation simply by means of sealed fuse cut-outs immediately upstream of the
meter(s) (see Fig. N2 ). The consumer has no access to these fuses.
Ba
ck
Meter
Fuse
or
Circuit breaker
depending on
earthing system
Distribution
board
Lightning arresters
The installation of lightning arresters at the service position of a LV installation is
strongly recommended for installations which include sensitive (e.g electronic)
equipment.
N3
Ba
ck
300 mA
30 mA
Diverse
circuits
Socket-outlets
circuit
30 mA
Bathroom and/or
shower room
N4
Incoming supply circuit breaker with instantaneous differential
relay
In this case:
c An insulation fault to earth could result in a shutdown of the entire installation
c Where a lightning arrester is installed, its operation (i.e. discharging a voltage
surge to earth) could appear to an RCD as an earth fault, with a consequent
shutdown of the installation
Recommendation of suitable Merlin Gerin components
c Incoming supply circuit breaker with 300 mA differential and
c High sensitivity 30 mA RCD (for example differential circuit breaker 1P + N type
Declic Vigi) on the circuits supplying socket outlets
c High sensitivity 30 mA RCD (for example differential load switch type IDclic) on
circuits to bathrooms, shower rooms, laundry rooms, etc. (lighting, heating, socket
outlets)
Ba
ck
300 mA - type S
Ba
ck
30 mA
30 mA
30 mA
Bathroom and/or
shower room
Fig. N6 : Installation with incoming-supply circuit breaker having short time delay differential
protection, type S
300 mA
30 mA
30 mA
30 mA
Bathroom and/or
shower room
Socket-outlet
circuit
Diverse
circuits
High-risk circuit
(dish-washing
machine)
N5
Ba
1.4 Circuits
Subdivision
National standards commonly recommend the subdivision of circuits according to the
number of utilization categories in the installation concerned (see Fig. N8 ):
c At least 1 circuit for lighting. Each circuit supplying a maximum of 8 lighting points
c At least 1 circuit for socket-outlets rated 10/16 A, each circuit supplying a
maximum of 8 sockets. These sockets may be single or double units (a double unit
is made up of two 10/16 A sockets mounted on a common base in an embedded
box, identical to that of a single unit
c 1 circuit for each appliance such as water heater, washing machine, dish-washing
machine, cooker, refrigerator, etc. Recommended numbers of 10/16 A (or similar)
socket-outlets and fixed lighting points, according to the use for which the various
rooms of a dwelling are intended, are indicated in Figure N9
ck
Lighting
Heating
Washing Cooking
machine apparatus
N6
Minimum number
of 10/16 A socket-outlets
5
3
ck
Socketoutlets
Maximum number
of fixed lighting points
1
1
Ba
Room function
Living room
Bedroom, lounge,
bureau, dining room
Kitchen
2
4 (1)
Bathroom, shower room 2
1 or 2
Entrance hall, box room
1
1
WC, storage space
1
Laundry room
1
(1) Of which 2 above the working surface and 1 for a specialized circuit: in addition
an independent socket-outlet of 16 A or 20 A for a cooker and a junction box or
socket-outlet for a 32 A specialized circuit
Fig N9 : Recommended minimum number of lighting and power points in residential premises
Protective conductors
IEC and most national standards require that each circuit includes a protective
conductor. This practice is strongly recommended where class I insulated appliances
and equipment are installed, which is the general case.
The protective conductors must connect the earthing-pin contact in each socketoutlet, and the earthing terminal in class I equipment, to the main earthing terminal at
the origin of the installation.
Furthermore, 10/16 A (or similarly sized) socket-outlets must be provided with
shuttered contact orifices.
Ba
ck
Type of circuit
single-phase 230 V
1 ph + N or 1 ph + N + PE
Fixed lighting
c. s. a. of the
conductors
Maximum power
Protective device
1.5 mm2
(2.5 mm2)
2,300 W
Circuit breaker
Fuse
16 A
10 A
2.5 mm2
(4 mm2)
4,600 W
Circuit breaker
Fuse
25 A
20 A
2.5 mm2
(4 mm2)
4,600 W
Circuit breaker
Fuse
25 A
20 A
Dish-washing machine
2.5 mm2
(4 mm2)
4,600 W
Circuit breaker
Fuse
25 A
20 A
Clothes-washing machine
2.5 mm2
(4 mm2)
4,600 W
Circuit breaker
Fuse
25 A
20 A
6 mm2
(10 mm2)
7,300 W
Circuit breaker
Fuse
40 A
32 A
1.5 mm2
(2.5 mm2)
2,300 W
Circuit breaker
Fuse
16 A
10 A
10/16 A
Individual-load circuits
Water heater
(1) In a 230/400 V 3-phase circuit, the c. s. a. is 4 mm2 for copper or 6 mm2 for aluminium, and protection is provided by a 32 A
circuit breaker or by 25 A fuses.
Fig. N11 : C. s. a. of conductors and current rating of the protective devices in residential installations (the c. s. a. of aluminium conductors are shown in brackets)
N7
Installation rules
Three principal rules must be respected:
1 - It is imperative that the three lengths of cable used for the installation of the surge
arrester each be less than 50 cm i.e.:
c the live conductors connected to the isolating switch
c from the isolating switch to the surge arrester
c from the surge arrester to the main distribution board (MDB) earth bar (not to
be confused with the main protective-earth (PE) conductor or the main earth
terminal for the installation.The MDB earth bar must evidently be located in the
same cabinet as the surge arrester.
2 - It is necessary to use an isolating switch of a type recommended by the
manufacturer of the surge arrester.
3 - In the interest of a good continuity of supply it is recommended that the
circuit-breaker be of the time-delayed or selective type.
Bathrooms and showers rooms are areas of high risk, because of the very low
resistance of the human body when wet or immersed in water.
Precaution to be taken are therefore correspondingly rigorous, and the regulations
are more severe than those for most other locations.
The relevant standard is IEC 60364-7-701.
Precautions to observe are based on three aspects:
c The definition of zones, numbered 0,1, 2, 3 in which the placement (or exclusion)
of any electrical device is strictly limited or forbidden and, where permitted, the
electrical and mechanical protection is prescribed
c The establishment of an equipotential bond between all exposed and extraneous
metal parts in the zones concerned
c The strict adherence to the requirements prescribed for each particular zones, as
tabled in clause 3
Zone 1*
Zone 1*
Zone 2
Zone 3
Zone 0
Zone 2
Zone 3
Zone 0
0.60 m
2.40 m
2.40 m
0.60 m
Zone 1
Zone 3
2.25 m
Zone 1
Zone 0
2.40 m
ck
0.60 m
Ba
N8
Zone 2
Zone 0
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 0
Zone 1
Zone 3
Zone 2
Zone 3
2.40 m
0.60 m
2.40 m
0.60 m
Zone 2
Zone 1
Zone 3
2.25 m
Zone 1
ck
Zone 0
Ba
2.40 m
0.60 m
Ba
ck
Fixed shower
head (1)
Fixed shower
head (1)
0.60 m
Zone 1
0.60 m
Zone 2
0.60 m
Zone 1
0.60 m
Zone 2
Zone 3
Zone 1
2.40 m
2.40 m
Zone 3
Zone 3
Zone
2
N9
2.25 m
(1) When the shower head is at the end of a flexible tube, the vertical central axis of
a zone passes through the fixed end of the flexible tube
Ba
ck
0.60 m
Prefabricated
shower
cabinet
0.60 m
Fig. N15 : No switch or socket-outlet is permitted within 60 cm of the door opening of a shower
cabinet
Ba
ck
Classes
of external
influences
AD 3
BB 2
BC 3
Classes
of external
influences
AD 3
BB 2
BC 3
Zone 3
Dressing cubicles (zone 2)
AD 3
BB 3
BC 3
AD 7
BB 3
BC 3
AD 3
WC BB 2
BC 3
Ba
ck
Classes
of external
influences
Classes
of external
influences
h < 1.10m
AD 5
1.10m < h < 2.25m
AD 3
BB 3
BC 3
h < 1.10m
AD 5
1.10m < h < 2.25m
AD 3
BB 3
BC 3
Dressing cubicles
AD 7
BB 3
BC 3
Zone 2
Zone 1
WC
AD 3
BB 2
BC 3
Ba
ck
Classes
of external
influences
Classes
of external
influences
AD 3
BB 2
BC 3
h < 1.10m
AD 5
1.10m < h < 2.25m
AD 3
BB 3
BC 3
Dressing room
Zone 2
N10
h < 1.10m
AD 5
1.10m < h < 2.25m
AD 3
BB 3
BC 3
Zone 2
Zone 1
AD 7
BB 3
BC 3
Ba
ck
To the earth
electrode
Metallic pipes
hi2m
Water-drainage
piping
Socket-outlet
Gaz
Radiator
Lighting
Metal bath
Equipotential conductors
for a bathroom
Metal
door-frame
N11
3 Recommendations applicable to
special installations and locations
Figure N19 below summarizes the main requirements prescribed in many national
and international standards.
Note: Section in brackets refer to sections of IEC 60364-7
IP
level
20
Domestic dwellings
and other habitations
Bathrooms or shower
rooms (section 701)
Zone 0
c TT or TN-S systems
c Differential protection
v 300 mA if the earth electrode
resistance is i 80 ohms instantaneous
or short time delay (type S)
v 30 mA if the earth electrode
resistance is u 500 ohms
c surge arrester at the origin of the
installation if
v supply is from overhead line with bare
conductors, and if
v the keraunic level > 25
c a protective earth (PE) conductor
on all circuits
Supplementary equipotential bonding
in zones 0, 1, 2 and 3
SELV 12 V only
27
Zone 1
SELV 12 V
25
Zone 2
SELV 12 V or 30 mA RCD
24
Zone 3
Swimming baths
(section 702)
Zone 0
Wiring
and cables
28
Class II
limited to
strict minimum
Class II
limited to
strict minimum
Class II
limited to
strict minimum
Zone 2
22
(indoor)
24
(outdoor)
24
Class II
Conventional voltage limit UL
reduced to 25 V
Conventional voltage limit UL
reduced to 25 V
Protection against fire risks
by 500 mA RCDs
44
Special appliances
Special aplliances
Water heater
Special appliances
Water heater
Class II luminaires
Class II
limited to
strict minimum
Class II
limited to
strict minimum
25
Saunas
(section 703)
Work sites
(section 704)
Agricultural and
horticultural
establishments
(section 705)
Restricted conductive
locations (section 706)
Installation
materials
Zone 1
N12
Socket-outlets
21
Switchgear
ck
Protection principles
Ba
Locations
Special appliances
Special appliances
Mechanically
protected
35
2x
Fig. N19 : Main requirements prescribed in many national and international standards (continued on opposite page)
Adapted to temperature
Protection by
30 mA RCDs
Protection by
30 mA RCDs
Protection of:
c Portable tools by:
v SELV or
v Electrical separation
c Hand-held lamps
v By SELV
c Fixed equipement by
v SELV
v Electrical separation
v 30 mA RCDs
v Special supplementary
equipotential bonding
3 Recommendations applicable to
special installations and locations
Fountains
(section 702)
Data processing
(section 707)
Caravan park
(section 708)
Medical locations
(section 710)
Exhibitions, shows and
stands (section 711)
Balneotherapy
(cure-centre baths)
Motor-fuel filling
stations
Motor vehicules
TT or TN-S systems
IP
level
Wiring
and cables
55
Flexible cable of
25 metres
length
Switchgear
4x
Socket-outlets
Installation
materials
ck
Protection principles
Ba
Locations
Socket-outlets
shall be placed
at a height of
0.80 m to 1.50 m
from the ground.
Protection of
circuits by
30 mA RCDs
(one per 6
socket-outlets)
Protection of
circuits by
30 mA RCDs
(one per 6
socket-outlets)
Protection by
30 mA RCDs
Protection by
30 mA RCDs
Limited to the
necessary minimum
Protection by RCDs or by
electrical separation
External lighting
installations
(section 714)
Mobile or transportable The use of TN-C system is not
units (section 717)
permitted inside any unit
23
Protection by
30 mA RCDs
30 mA RCDs
must be used for
all socket-outlets
supplying
equipment
outside the unit
N13
Fig. N19 : Main requirements prescribed in many national and international standards (concluded)