Tensor Theory Introduction and definitions

In n-dimensional space Vn (called a "manifold" in mathematics), points are specified by assigning values to a set of n continuous real variables x 1, x2 ..... x n called the coordinates. In many cases these will run from - to +, but the range of some or all of these can be finite. Examples: In Euclidean space in three dimensions, we can use cartesian coordinates x, y and z, each of which runs from - to +. For a two dimensional Euclidean plane, Cartesians may again be employed, or we can use plane polar coordinates r, whose ranges are 0 to and 0 to 2 respectively. Coordinate transformations. The coordinates of points in the manifold may be assigned in a number of different ways. If we select two different sets of coordinates, x 1, x2 ..... x n and x 1 , x 2 , ..... x n , there will obviously be a connection between them of the form xr = f r (x 1 , x 2 .... x n ) r = 1, 2........n. (1)

where the f's are assumed here to be well behaved functions. Another way of expressing the same relationship is r = 1, 2........n. (2) x r = x r (x 1 , x 2 .... x n ) where f r ( x1 , x 2 .... xn ) , r = 1, 2......n. x r ( x1 , x 2 .... xn ) denotes the n functions Recall that if a variable z is a function of two variables x and y, i.e. z = f (x, y), then the connection between the differentials dx, dy and dz is

f f dz = dx + dy . x y

(3)

Extending this to several variables therefore, for each one of the new coordinates we have

r=1, 2........n.

(4)

The transformation of the differentials of the coordinates is therefore linear and homogeneous, which is not necessarily the case for the transformation of the coordinates themselves. Range and Summation Conventions. Equations such as (4) may be simplified by the use of two conventions: Range Convention: When a suffix is unrepeated in a term, it is understood to take all values in the range 1, 2, 3.....n. Summation Convention: When a suffix is repeated in a term, summation with respect to that suffix is understood, the range of summation being 1, 2, 3.....n. With these two conventions applying, equation (4) may be written as

. (5) Note that a repeated suffix is a "dummy" suffix, and can be replaced by any convenient alternative. For example, equation (5) could have been written as

. (6) where the summation with respect to s has been replaced by the summation with respect to m.

Contravariant vectors and tensors. Consider two neighbouring points P and Q in the manifold whose coordinates are xr and xr + dxr respectively. The vector

10

11

is then described by the quantities dxr which are the components of the vector in this coordinate system. In the dashed coordinates, the vector

12

r
13

is described by the components

14

15

which are related to dxr by equation (5), the differential coefficients being evaluated at P.

16

17

is an example of a contravariant vector. Defn. A set of n quantities T r associated with a point P are said to be the components of a contravariant vector if they transform, on change of coordinates, according to the equation

18

19

20

(7)

where the partial derivatives are evaluated at the point P. (Note that there is no requirement that the components of a contravariant tensor should be infinitesimal.) Defn. A set of n 2 quantities T rs associated with a point P are said to be the components of a contravariant tensor of the second order if they transform, on change of coordinates, according to the equation

21

22

23

(8)

Obviously the definition can be extended to tensors of higher order. A contravariant vector is the same as a contravariant tensor of first order. Defn. A contravariant tensor of zero order transforms, on change of coordinates, according to the equation

24


25


26

(9)

i.e. it is an invariant whose value is independent of the coordinate system used. Covariant vectors and tensors. Let be an invariant function of the coordinates, i.e. its value may depend on position P in the manifold but is independent of the coordinate system used. Then the partial derivatives of transform according to

27

28

29

(10) Here the transformation is similar to equation (7) except that the partial derivative involving the two sets of coordinates is the other way up. The partial derivatives of an invariant function provide an example of the components of a covariant vector.

30

Defn. A set of n quantities

T
31

T
32

associated with a point P are said to be the components of a

33

34

35

(11)

By convention, suffices indicating contravariant character are placed as superscripts, and those indicating covariant character as subscripts. Hence the reason for writing the coordinates as xr. (Note however that it is only the differentials of the coordinates, not the coordinates themselves, that always have tensor character. The latter may be tensors, but this is not always the case.) Extending the definition as before, a covariant tensor of the second order is defined by the transformation

36

37

38

(12) and similarly for higher orders.

39

Mixed tensors. These are tensors with at least one covariant suffix and one contravariant suffix. An example is the third order tensor

40

which transforms according to

41

42

43

(13) Another example is the Kronecker delta defined by

44

45

46

47

=
48

(14)

49

It is a tensor of the type indicated because (a) in an expression such as

50

51

, which involves summation with respect to m, there is only one non-zero contribution from the Kronecker delta, that for which m = t, and so

52

53

; (b) the coordinates in any coordinate system are necessarily independent of each other, so

54

55

; so these two properties taken together imply that

56

57

58

(15)

59

Notes. 1. The importance of tensors is that if a tensor equation is true in one set of

60

coordinates it is also true in any other coordinates. e.g. if

(which, since m and

61

n are unrepeated, implies that the equation is true for all m and n, not just for some

62


63

also, fro m the transformation law. This illustrates the fact that any tenso 2. A tensor may be defined at a single point P within the manifold, or along a curve, or throughout a subspace, or throughout the manifold itself. In the latter cases we speak of a tensor field.

Tensor algebra

64

Addition of tensors. Two tensors of the same type may be added together to give another tensor of the same type, e.g. if

65

66

and

67

68

are tensors of the type indicated, then we can define

69

70

71

(16)

72

It is easy to show that the quantities

73

74

form the components of a tensor.

75

Symmetric and antisymmetric tensors.

76

77

is a symmetric contravariant tensor if

78

79

and antisymmetric if

80

81

. Similarly for covariant tensors. Symmetry properties are conserved under transformation of coordinates, e.g. if

82

83

, then

84

85

86

(17)

87

Note however that for a mixed tensor, a relation such as

88

89

does not transform to give the equivalent relation in the dashed coordinates. The conc ept of symmetry (with respect to a pair of suffices which are eithe Any covariant or contravariant tensor of second order may be expressed as the sum of a symmetric tensor and an antisymmetric tensor, e.g.

90

91

92

(18)

Multiplication of tensors. In the addition of tensors we are restricted to tensors of a single type, with the same suffices (though they need not occur in the same order). In the multiplication of tensors there is no such restriction. The only condition is that we never multiply two components with the same suffix at the same level in each. (This would imply summation with respect to the repeated suffix, but the resulting object would not have tensor character - see later.)

93

To multiply two tensors e.g.

94

95

and

96

97

we simply write

98

99

100

(19)

101

It follows immediately from their transformation properties that the quantities

102

103

form a tensor of the type indicated. This tensor, in which the symbols for the suffices are all different, is called the outer product of

104

105

and

106

107

108

Contraction of tensors. Given a tensor

109

110

, then

111

112

Hence replacing n by m (and therefore implying summation with respect to m)

113

114

115

116

117

118

119

120

121

(21)

122

so we see that

123

124

behaves like a tensor

125

126

. The upshot is that contraction of a tensor (i.e. writing the same letter as a subscript and a superscript) reduces the

127

Note that contraction can only be applied successfully to suffices at different levels. We may of course construct, starting with a tensor

128

129

say, a new set of quantities

130

131

; but these do not have tensor character (as one can easily check) so are of little interest.

132

Having constructed the outer product

133

134

in the example above, we can form the corresponding inner products

135

136

and

137

138

. Each of these forms a covariant tensor of second order. Tests for tensor character. The direct way of testing whether a set of quantities form the components of a tensor is to see whether they obey the appropriate tensor transformation law when the coordinates are changed. There is also an indirect method however, two examples of which will now be given:

139

Theorem 1. Let

140

141

be the components of an arbitrary contravariant vector. Let

142

143

be another set of quantities. If

144

145

is an invariant, then

146

147

form the components of a covariant vector.

148

Proof: Since

149

150

is a tensor, it obeys the tensor transformation law. Invariance of

151

152

means that

153

154

155

(22)

156

and so

157

158

(23)

159

Hence, since

160

161

is an arbitrary tensor,

162

163

164

QED

(24)

As an extension of this theorem, it is easy to show that any set of functions of the coordinates, whose inner product with an arbitrary covariant or contravariant vector is a

165

tensor, are themselves the components of a tensor. For example, if

166

167

is a tensor

168

169

, then

170

171

is a second order contravariant tensor.

172

Theorem 2. If

173

174

is invariant,

175

176

being an arbitrary contravariant vector and

177

a
178

being symmetric in all coordinate systems, then

179

a
180

are the components of a covariant tensor of second order.

181

Proof: From our assumption about the invariance of

182

183

184

185

186

187

188

189

(25)

190

Hence

191

192

(26)

193

Since

194

195

is arbitrary and the total coefficient of

196

197

is

198

b
199

, we deduce that

200

b
201

, i.e.

202

203

204

205

206

(27)

207

on interchanging the summation variables r and s in the second term. But

208

a
209

in all coordinate systems, hence

210

211

212

QED

(28)

The metric tensor

213

The Euclidean space. Consider first the familiar Euclidean space in three dimensions, i.e. a space in which one can define Cartesian coordinates x, y and z so that the distance

214

dl
215

between two neighbouring points

216

x
217

and

218

x
219

is given by

220

221

222

(29)

223

If we choose any other coordinates

224

to identify points in this

225

space, the original coordinates will be functions of these new coordinates, and their different ials will be linear combinations

226

227

(30)

228

where the

229

a
230

will be functions of

231

232

. (For example in spherical polar coordinates

233

234

we have

235

236

and all other a's are zero.)

237

We now show that

238

a
239

is a covariant tensor of second order. The proof goes as follows:

240

(a)

241

a
242

may be taken to be symmetric since each

243

a
244

occurs only in the combination

on the RHS of (30).

245

246

(b)

is invariant, since the distance 247 between two points does not depend on the

coordinates used to evaluate it.

248

(c) By keeping one point fixed and letting the second point vary in the neighbourhood of the first,

249

250

may be considered an arbitrary contravariant tensor.

251

Hence, using the theorem above,

252

a
253

is a covariant tensor of second order. It is called the metric tensor for the Euclid Riemannian space. A manifold is said to be Riemannian if there exists within it a covariant tensor of the second order which is symmetric. This tensor is called the metric tensor and

254

normally denoted by

255

g
256

. Its significance is that it can be used to define the analogue of "distance" between point s, and the lengths of vecto

257

Defn. The interval ds between the neighbouring points

258

259

and

260

261

is given by

262

263

(31)

264

This is of course invariant. In the familiar Euclidean space where

265

g
266

is just the

267

a
268

above,

269

270

, being zero only when the two points coincide. In other cases however, e.g. in spacetime in relativity theory,

271

272

may take on negative values, so that itself is not necessarily real. If ds = 0 for

273

274

not all zero, the displacement

275

276

is called a null displacement. Note tha

277

The conjugate metric tensor. From the covariant metric tensor

278

g
279

we can construct a contravariant tensor

280

281

defined by

282

283

284

(32)

285

To show that

286

287

is a tensor, we note that, for any contravariant vector

288

289

290

291

. This means that the inner product of

292

293

with the arbitrary covariant vector

294

295

is a tensor,

296

297

, and so we deduce that

298

299

is indeed a tensor of the type indicated. It is said to be conjugate to

300

g
301

. It is easily shown that when the metric tensor is diagonal, i.e. when

302

g
303

, the conjugate tensor is also diagonal, with each diagonal element satisfying

304

305

306

The following theorem can be proved, but will just be quoted here: if g is the determinant of the matrix

307

g
308

(i.e. choosing to write the components of the tensor

309

g
310

in the form of a matrix array), then

311

312

313

(33)

314

Raising and lowering suffices. Given a tensor

315

316

, we may form another tensor

317

318

defined by

319

320

321

(34)

322

Note that

323

324

(35)

325

The tensor

326

327

may therefore be regarded as possessing a special relationship with the original tensor

328

329

in that either of them may be found from the other by the operation of forming the inner produc t of the f irst with the metric tensor or its conjugate. For this reason, the same symbol is used (T in this instance), and we describe the above processes by saying that in (34) we hav e "lowered the suffix m", and that in (35) we have "raised the suffix n". The process of raisi ng or lowering suffices can be extended to cover all the indices of a tensor. For example we

330

can raise one or both of the suffices in the tensor

331

T
332

, generating the corresponding tensors

333

334

335

336

and

337

338

. Notice the distinction between the two forms of the mixed tensor, effected by leaving appropr iate gaps in the set of indices. When the tensor is symmetric however this distinction

339

disappears and we simply write either of these as

340

341

Cartesian tensors

342

Flat space. A space or manifold is said to be flat if it is possible to find a coordinate system for which the metric tensor

343

g
344

is diagonal, with all diagonal elements equal to 1, otherwise the space is said to be curved. The familiar Euclidean space in two or three dimensions is obviously flat, the diagonal elements then being all equal to + 1. We normally assume that the ordinary three dimensional space which we inhabit is flat, likewise in the special theory of relativity that the 4-dimensional "spacetime" is flat. In the general theory of relativity however this assumption must be abandoned, and we have to deal with the consequences of spacetime being curved. It should not be assumed however that curved spaces never arise in elementary physics or mathematics. Take for instance the surface of a sphere, where it is natural to identify position

345

on the surface by spatial coordinates

346

(
347

; these are the second and third members of the set of three spherical polar coordinates

348

(r
349

, the first one having been set equal to a constant, viz. the

350

351

(36)

352

where a is the radius of the sphere. No coordinate transformation can be found from

353

(
354

to new coordinates

355

356

such that the line element can be re-expressed in the form

357

358

359

(37) and so the space is by definition curved. Of course in this case the result is in accordance with our everyday notions regarding curvature. Geometry in a curved space is intrinsically different from that for flat spaces, e.g. parallel lines do eventually meet, and the sum of the angles in a triangle is not 180o. Homogeneous coordinates. These are coordinates for which the metric tensor is diagonal with all diagonal elements taking the values +1. The metric expression is then

360

361

(38) Clearly such coordinates can exist only if the space in question is flat. If this condition is satisfied, it must always be possible to find a set of homogeneous coordinates, since any minus signs in an expression for the metric can be transformed away by re-defining coordinates (albeit with imaginary values) with appropriate factors of i inserted. Cartesian coordinates in the Euclidean plane or the Euclidean 3- space are obviously homogeneous.

362

Orthogonal transformations. These are linear transformations between two sets of homogeneous coordinates,

363

364

and

365

366

of the form

367

368

369

(39)

370

where the coefficients

371

372

and

373

374

are constants. Since the set

375

376

are homogeneous,

377

378

379

(40)

380

But, from (39),

381

382

(41)

383

and so

384

385

(42)

386

But the coordinates

387

388

are also homogeneous, and so the RHS of (42) is required to be equal to

389

390

. Hence

391

392

393

(43) which requires

394

395

396

, n=p = 0, otherwise (44)

Cartesian tensors. If we are dealing with a flat space, homogeneous coordinates are an obvious preferred choice since they facilitate geometrical calculations. Any change of coordinates will normally involve orthogonal transformation equations satisfying equation (39). It is convenient therefore to define Cartesian tensors as quantities which transform according to the usual tensor transformation equations when the coordinates undergo an orthogonal transformation, i.e. as we pass from one set of homogeneous coordinates to another. Note carefully that orthogonal transformation equations are a subset of all possible transformation equations. Therefore "Cartesian tensors" will not in general obey the tensor laws when subjected to an arbitrary coordinate transformation. On the other hand any (unrestricted) tensor automatically satisfies the definition of being a Cartesian tensor, since the conditions for the latter are a subset of the conditions for the former. We therefore have the seemingly paradoxical statement that "all tensors are Cartesian tensors, but not all Cartesian tensors are tensors". Consider now the inverse transformation equations for an orthogonal transformation. Starting from (39) in the slightly modified form

397

398

399

(45)

400

we have

401

402

(46)

403

404

405

(47) using (44). So the inverse equations are

406

407

408

(48)

409

where

410

411

(49)

The whole point of this analysis is now revealed: from equations (39) and (48) we see that

412

413

414

415

416

(50)

The two differential coefficients involved in these equations are therefore equal; but we see, looking back at equations (7) and (11), that it was the presumed difference between them which was the whole basis of the distinction between covariant and contravariant tensors. Therefore if we restrict ourselves to Cartesian tensors, the distinction between covariant and contravariant tensors disappears, and there is no reason to continue to differentiate between indices used as superscripts and those used as subscripts. For convenience, subscripts are almost invariably the preferred choice in practice. For example, in solid state physics we may require to calculate the electrical conductivity of a metallic crystal. In an isotropic medium such as a polycrystalline material the conductivity

417

equation

418

j
419

relates the components of the current density j to the components of the electric field E, with the conductivity

420


421

taken to be constant. But in a single crystal the general relationship would be expressed as

422

j
where 423

is the conductivity tensor and the usual summation convention applies. In most textbooks o n such topics the underlying assumption that the crystal or other system under consideration i s embedded in a flat space is taken for granted, and Cartesian tensors are automatically impli d by the choice of a Cartesian coordinate syste

N C McGill

424