Acknowledgeme

nt

Many lives & destinies are destroyed due to the lack

of proper guidance, directions & opportunities. It is in
this respect I feel that I am in much better condition
today due to continuous process of motivation &
focus provided by my parents & teachers in general.
The process of completion of this training was a
tedious job & requires care & support at all stages. I
would like to highlight the role played by individuals
towards this. I am eternally grateful to BHEL, BHOPAL
for providing us the opportunity & infrastructure to
complete the training as a partial fulfillment of B.E.
degree. I am very thankful to Mr. A.K. NIMJE,
SR.DGM. of STE Deptt. For his kind support & faith in
us. I would like to express my sincere thanks, with
deep sense of gratitude to my training officer
Mr.D.C.NIRMAL; Dy.Manager of STE Deptt. for
their keen interests my project. I also thankful to
Mr.P.K.GOYAL & Mr.AJAY KUMAR & to all visible &
invisible hands which helped us to complete this
training with a feeling of success.
 INDEX

1. Introduction
2. History
3. Types
4. Steam Supply and Exhaust
Conditions
5. Casing & Shaft Arrangement
6. principle of Operation & design
7. Turbine Efficiency
8. Impulse Turbines
9. Reaction Turbines
10.Operation & Maintenance
11.Speed Regulation
12.Direct Drive
13.Speed Reduction
14.Working
15.Steam Turbine Principle
16. Impulse Blading
 17. Reaction Blading
18. Rankine Cycle

INTRODUCTION
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal
energy from pressurized steam, and converts it into rotary
motion. Its modern manifestation was invented by Sir
Charles Parsons in 1884. It has almost completely replaced
the reciprocating piston steam engine (invented by Thomas
Newcomen and greatly improved by James Watt) primarily
because of its greater thermal efficiency and higher power-
to-weight ratio. Because the turbine generates rotary
motion, it is particularly suited to be used to drive an
electrical generator – about 80% of all electricity generation
in the world is by use of steam turbines. The steam turbine is
a form of heat engine that derives much of its improvement
in thermodynamic efficiency through the use of multiple
stages in the expansion of the steam, which results in a
closer approach to the ideal reversible process.

History

The first device that may be classified as a reaction steam

turbine was little more than a toy, the classic Aeolipile,
described in the 1st century by Hero of Alexandria in Roman
Egypt. A thousand years later, the first impact steam turbine
with practical applications was invented in 1551 by Taqi-al-
Din in Ottoman Egypt, who described it as a prime mover for
rotating a spit. Similar smoke jacks were later described
by John Wilkins in 1648 and Samuel Pepys in 1660. Another
steam turbine device was created by Italian Giovanni
Branca in 1629.
The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by the
Englishman Sir Charles Parsons, whose first model was
connected to a dynamo that generated 7.5 kW of
electricity. Parson's steam turbine, making cheap and
plentiful electricity possible and revolutionizing marine
transport and naval warfare, the world would never be the
same again.. His patent was licensed and the turbine scaled-
up shortly after by an American, George Westinghouse. A
number of other variations of turbines have been developed
that work effectively with steam. The de Laval
turbine (invented by Gustaf de Laval) accelerated the steam
to full speed before running it against a turbine blade. This
was good, because the turbine is simpler, less expensive and
does not need to be pressure-proof. It can operate with any
pressure of steam. It is also, however, considerably less
efficient. The Parson's turbine also turned out to be relatively
easy to scale-up. Parsons had the satisfaction of seeing his
invention adopted for all major world power stations. The
size of his generators had increased from his first 7.5 kW set
up to units of 50,000 kW capacity. He knew that the total
output from turbo-generators constructed by his firm C. A.
Parsons and Company and by their licensees, for land
purposes alone, had exceeded thirty million horse-power..
Within Parson's lifetime the generating capacity of a unit was
scaled-up by about 10,000 times.
Types

Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from

small 1 hp (0.75 kW) units (rare) used as mechanical drives
for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment,
to 2,000,000 hp (1,500,000 kW) turbines used to generate
electricity. There are several classifications for modern steam
turbines.
Steam Supply and Exhaust Conditions
These types include condensing, non-condensing, reheat,
extraction and induction.
Non-condensing or backpressure turbines are most widely
used for process steam applications. The exhaust pressure is
controlled by a regulating valve to suit the needs of the
process steam pressure. These are commonly found at
refineries, district heating units, pulp and paper plants,
and desalination facilities where large amounts of low
pressure process steam are available.
Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical
power plants. These turbines exhaust steam in a partially
condensed state, typically of a quality near 90%, at a
pressure well below atmospheric to a condenser.
Reheat turbines are also used almost exclusively in electrical
power plants. In a reheat turbine, steam flow exits from a
high pressure section of the turbine and is returned to the
boiler where additional superheat is added. The steam then
goes back into an intermediate pressure section of the
turbine and continues its expansion.
Extracting type turbines are common in all applications. In
an extracting type turbine, steam is released from various
stages of the turbine, and used for industrial process needs
or sent to boiler feed water heaters to improve overall cycle
efficiency. Extraction flows may be controlled with a valve, or
left uncontrolled.
Induction turbines introduce low pressure steam at an
intermediate stage to produce additional power.
Casing or Shaft Arrangements
These arrangements include single casing, tandem
compound and cross compound turbines. Single casing units
are the most basic style where a single casing and shaft are
coupled to a generator. Tandem compound are used where
two or more casings are directly coupled together to drive a
single generator. A cross compound turbine arrangement
features two or more shafts not in line driving two or more
generators that often operate at different speeds. A cross
compound turbine is typically used for many large
applications.
Principle of Operation and Design

An ideal steam turbine is considered to be an isentropic

process, or constant entropy process, in which the entropy of
the steam entering the turbine is equal to the entropy of the
steam leaving the turbine. No steam turbine is truly
“isentropic”, however, with typical isentropic efficiencies
ranging from 20%-90% based on the application of the
turbine. The interior of a turbine comprises several sets of
blades, or “buckets” as they are more commonly referred to.
One set of stationary blades is connected to the casing and
one set of rotating blades is connected to the shaft. The sets
intermesh with certain minimum clearances, with the size
and configuration of sets varying to efficiently exploit the
expansion of steam at each stage.
Turbine Efficiency

Schematic diagram
outlining the difference between an impulse
and a reaction turbine
To maximize turbine efficiency, the steam is expanded,
generating work, in a number of stages. These stages are
characterized by how the energy is extracted from them and
are known as impulse or reaction turbines. Most modern
steam turbines are a combination of the reaction and
impulse design. Typically, higher pressure sections are
impulse type and lower pressure stages are reaction type.
Impulse Turbines
An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam
flow into high speed jets. These jets contain significant
kinetic energy, which the rotor blades, shaped like buckets,
convert into shaft rotation as the steam jet changes
direction. A pressure drop occurs across only the stationary
blades, with a net increase in steam velocity across the
stage.
As the steam flows through the nozzle its pressure falls from
steam chest pressure to condenser pressure (or atmosphere
pressure). Due to this relatively higher ratio of expansion of
steam in the nozzle the steam leaves the nozzle with a very
high velocity. The steam leaving the moving blades is a large
portion of the maximum velocity of the steam when leaving
the nozzle. The loss of energy due to this higher exit velocity
is commonly called the "carry over velocity" or "leaving
loss".
Reaction Turbines
In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are
arranged to form convergent nozzles. This type of turbine
makes use of the reaction force produced as the steam
accelerates through the nozzles formed by the rotor. Steam
is directed onto the rotor by the fixed vanes of the stator. It
leaves the stator as a jet that fills the entire circumference of
the rotor. The steam then changes direction and increases its
speed relative to the speed of the blades. A pressure drop
occurs across both the stator and the rotor, with steam
accelerating through the stator and decelerating through the
rotor, with no net change in steam velocity across the stage
but with a decrease in both pressure and temperature,
reflecting the work performed in the driving of the rotor.
Operation and Maintenance
When warming up a steam turbine for use, the main steam
stop valves (after the boiler) have a bypass line to allow
superheated steam to slowly bypass the valve and proceed
to heat up the lines in the system along with the steam
turbine. Also a turning gear is engaged when there is no
steam to the turbine to slowly rotate the turbine to ensure
even heating to prevent uneven expansion. After first
rotating the turbine by the turning gear, allowing time for the
rotor to assume a straight plane (no bowing), then the
turning gear is disengaged and steam is admitted to the
turbine, first to the astern blades then to the ahead blades
slowly rotating the turbine at 10 to 15 RPM to slowly warm
the turbine.
Problems with turbines are now rare and maintenance
requirements are relatively small. Any imbalance of the rotor
can lead to vibration, which in extreme cases can lead to a
blade letting go and punching straight through the casing. It
is, however, essential that the turbine be turned with dry
steam. If water gets into the steam and is blasted onto the
blades (moisture carryover) rapid impingement and erosion
of the blades can occur, possibly leading to imbalance and
catastrophic failure. Also, water entering the blades will likely
result in the destruction of the thrust bearing for the turbine
shaft. To prevent this, along with controls and baffles in the
boilers to ensure high quality steam, condensate drains are
installed in the steam piping leading to the turbine.
Speed regulation
The control of a turbine with a governor is essential, as
turbines need to be run up slowly, to prevent damage while
some applications (such as the generation of alternating
current electricity) require precise speed control.
Uncontrolled acceleration of the turbine rotor can lead to an
overspeed trip, which causes the nozzle valves that control
the flow of steam to the turbine to close. If this fails then the
turbine may continue accelerating until it breaks apart, often
spectacularly. Turbines are expensive to make, requiring
precision manufacture and special quality materials.
Direct drive

Electrical power stations use large steam turbines

driving electric generators to produce most (about 80%) of
the world's electricity. Most of these centralized stations are
of two types: fossil and nuclear power plants. The turbines
used for electric power generation are most often directly
coupled to their generators. As the generators must rotate at
constant synchronous speeds according to the frequency of
the electric power system, the most common speeds are
3000 r/min for 50 Hz systems, and 3600 r/min for 60 Hz
systems. In installations with high steam output, as may be
found in nuclear power stations, the generator sets may be
arranged to operate at half these speeds, but with four-pole
generators.

Speed Reduction
 The Tu
rbinia - the first steam turbine-powered ship
Another use of steam turbines is in ships; their small size,
low maintenance, light weight, and low vibration are
compelling advantages. (Steam turbine locomotives were
also tested, but with limited success.) A steam turbine is
only efficient when operating in the thousands of RPM range
while application of the power in propulsion applications may
be only in the hundreds of RPM and so requiring that
expensive and precise reduction gears must be used,
although several ships, such as Turbinia, had direct drive
from the steam turbine to the propeller shafts. This purchase
cost is offset by much lower fuel and maintenance
requirements and the small size of a turbine when compared
to a reciprocating engine having an equivalent power, except
for diesel engines which are capable of higher efficiencies.
Steam turbine efficiencies have yet to break 50% yet diesel
engines routinely exceed 50%, especially in marine
applications.

Working –

Introduction
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that converts
thermal energy in pressurized steam into useful mechanical
work. The original steam engine which largely powered the
industrial revolution in the UK was based on reciprocating
pistons. This has now been almost totally replaced by the
steam turbine because the steam turbine has a higher
thermodynamic efficiency and a lower power-to-weight ratio
and the steam turbine is ideal for the very large power
configurations used in power stations. The steam turbine
derives much of its better thermodynamic efficiency because
of the use of multiple stages in the expansion of the steam.
This results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible
process.

Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from

small 0.75 kW units used as mechanical drives for pumps,
compressors and other shaft driven equipment, to
1,500,000kW turbines used to generate electricity. Steam
turbines are widely used for marine applications for vessel
propulsion systems. In recent times gas turbines , as
developed for aerospace applications, are being used more
and more in the field of power generation once dominated
by steam turbines.

Steam Turbine Principle

The steam energy is converted mechanical work by
expansion through the turbine. The expansion takes place
through a series of fixed blades (nozzles) and moving blades
each row of fixed blades and moving blades is called a stage.
The moving blades rotate on the central turbine rotor and
the fixed blades are concentrically arranged within the
circular turbine casing which is substantially designed to
withstand the steam pressure.

On large output turbines the duty too large for one turbine
and a number of turbine casing/rotor units are combined to
achieve the duty. These are generally arranged on a
common centre line (tandem mounted) but parallel systems
can be used called cross compound systems.
 Two Turbine Cylinders Tandem Mounted
There are two principles used for design of turbine blades:
The Impulse Blading and The Reaction Blading.

Impulse Blading
The impulse blading principle is that the steam is directed at
the blades and the impact of the steam on the blades drives
them round. The day to day example of this principle is the
pelton wheel.

In this type of turbine the whole of the stage pressure drop

takes place in the fixed blade (nozzle) and the steam jet acts
on the moving blade by impinging on the blades.

Blades of an impulse turbine

 Velocity diagram impulse turbine stage

z represents the blade speed , V r represents the relative

velocity, V wa & V wb- represents the tangential component of
the absolute steam in and steam out velocities

The power developed per stage = Tangential force on blade

x blade speed.
Power /stage= (V wa - V wb ).z/1000 kW per kg/s of steam

Reaction Blading
The reaction blading principle depends on the blade
diverting the steam flow and gaining kinetic energy by the
reaction. The Catherine wheel (firework) is an example of
this principle. For this turbine principle the steam pressure
drop is divide between the fixed and moving blades.
 Velocity diagram reaction turbine stage
z represents the blade speed , V r represents the relative
velocity, V wa & V wb- represents the tangential component of
the absolute steam in and steam out velocities

The power developed per stage = Tangential force on blade

x blade speed.
Power /stage= (V wa - V wb ).z/1000 kW per kg/s of steam

The blade speed z is limited by the mechanical design and

material constraints of the blades.

Rankine Cycle
The Rankine cycle is a steam cycle for a steam plant
operating under the best theoretical conditions for most
efficient operation. This is an ideal imaginary cycle against
which all other real steam working cycles can be compared.

The theoretic cycle can be considered with reference to the

figure below. There will no losses of energy by radiation,
leakage of steam, or frictional losses in the mechanical
components. The condenser cooling will condense the
steam to water with only sensible heat (saturated water).
The feed pump will add no energy to the water. The
chimney gases would be at the same pressure as the
atmosphere.

Within the turbine the work done would be equal to the

energy entering the turbine as steam (h1) minus the energy
leaving the turbine as steam after perfect expansion (h2)
this being isentropic (reversible adiabatic) i.e. (h1- h2). The
energy supplied by the steam by heat transfer from the
combustion and flue gases in the furnace to the water and
steam in the boiler will be the difference in the enthalpy of
the steam leaving the boiler and the water entering the
boiler = (h1 - h3).

Basic Rankine Cycle

The various energy streams flowing in a simple steam

turbine system are as indicated in the diagram below. It is
clear that the working fluid is in a closed circuit apart from
the free surface of the hot well. Every time the working fluid
flows at a uniform rate around the circuit it experiences a
series of processes making up a thermodynamic cycle.

The complete plant is enclosed in an outer boundary and the

working fluid crosses inner boundaries (control surfaces).
The inner boundaries defines a flow process.
The various identifiers represent the various energy flows
per unit mass flowing along the steady-flow streams and
crossing the boundaries. This allows energy equations to be
developed for the individual units and the whole plant.

When the turbine system is operating under steady state

conditions the law of conservation of energy dictates that
the energy per unit mass of working agent ** entering any
system boundary must be equal to the rate of energy
leaving the system boundary.

**It is acceptable to consider rates per unit mass or unit time

whichever is most convenient

Steady Flow Energy

Equations

Boiler
The energy streams entering and leaving the boiler unit are
as follows:
F+A+h d =h 1 + G + hl b hence F+A=G+h 1 -h d +
hl b

Turbine
 The energy streams entering and leaving the
turbine are as follows:
h 1 =T+h 2 + hl t hence 0 = T - h 1 +h 2 + hl t

Condenser Unit
The energy streams entering and leaving the
condenser unit are as follows:
Wi+h 2 =Wo+h w + hl c hence Wi=Wo+h w -h 2 +
hl c

Feed Water System

The energy streams entering and leaving the Feed
Water System are as follows:
h w + d e + d f= h d + hl f hence d e + d f = - h w +h d + hl

The four equations on the right can be arranged to give the

energy equation for the whole turbine system enclosed by
the outer boundary.
That is the energy of the fuel (F) per unit mass of the
working agent (water) is equal to the sum of
- the mechanical energy available from the turbine less that
used to drive the pumps (T - (d e+ d f)

- the energy leaving the exhaust [G - A] using the air

temperature as the datum.

- the energy gained by the water circulating through the

condenser [W o - W i]

- the energy gained by the atmosphere surrounding the

plant Σ hl
The overall thermal efficiency of a steam turbine plant can
be represented by the ratio of the net mechanical energy
available to the energy within the fuel supplied as indicated
in the expressions below-

RAW MATERIALS USED AND THEIR

SUPPLIERS

Bar material: Suppliers:

 AA 19331 kissan steel,
Ghaziabad
 AA 19332 Ghaziabad
ispat,Ghaziabad
 AA 10108 CFFB ,Howrah
 AA 10112
 AA 10622 MUSCO ,Bombay
 AA 10723 SAIL ,Durgapur

Plate material: Suppliers:

 • AA 10119 SAIL ,durgapur
( higher thk) Thysen, germany
Mobar , germany
m.tayllor,u.k.

Pipe material: suppliers:

• AA 10455 sandoz metal,
Mumbai
( SA 106GrB )

Customers of the product

Public sector customer :
• National thermal power corporation ( NTPC )
• Nuclear power corporation of india limited
( NPCIL)
• State electricity board ( SEB )
• Power development corporation limited
( PDCL )
• Damodar valley corporation

Private sector customers:

• Arunachal Pradesh sugar mills
 Technology
collaboration
Earlier (1976 -77):G.E.C

Now: ALSTOM , U.K .

Reference

1. STEAM AND GAS TURBINE DEPTT. BHEL BHOPAL

2. WWW.GOOGLE.COM