FBI - Handbook of Forensic Services (2007 Edition)

Handbook of Forensic Services

(revised 2007)
Editor
Kim Waggoner
Editorial Assistant
Kathryn H. Suchma
Graphic Design
Sandra D. Holliday
An FBI Laboratory Publication

Federal Bureau of Investigation
Quantico, Virginia
ISBN 978-0-16-079376-9
ii
Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Submitting Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Evidence Examinations . . . . . . . . . . 13
Crime Scene Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Crime Scene Search . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
iii
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INTRODUCTION
Handbook of Forensic Services 2007
Introduction
The Handbook of Forensic Services provides
guidance and procedures for safe and efficient
methods of collecting, preserving, packaging, and
shipping evidence and describes the forensic
examinations performed by the FBIs Laboratory
Division and Operational Technology Division.
FBI Forensic Services

The successful investigation and prosecution of
crimes require, in most cases, the collection,
preservation, and forensic analysis of evidence.
Forensic analysis of evidence is often crucial to
determinations of guilt or innocence.
The FBI has one of the largest and most

comprehensive forensic laboratories in the world,
and the FBI Laboratory is accredited by the
American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors/
Laboratory Accreditation Board. The forensic
services of the FBI Laboratory Division and the
Operational Technology Division are available to
the following:
FBI field offices and legal attachs.

U.S. attorneys, military tribunals, and other

federal agencies for civil and criminal matters.
State, county, and municipal law

enforcement agencies in the United States
and territorial possessions for criminal
matters.
All forensic services, including expert witness

testimonies, are rendered free of cost; however,
the following limitations apply:
No examination will be conducted on

evidence that has been previously subjected
to the same type of examination. Exceptions
may be granted when there are reasons for a
reexamination. These reasons should be
explained in separate letters from the director
of the laboratory that conducted the original
examination, the prosecuting attorney, and the
investigating agency.
No request for an examination will be

accepted from laboratories having the
capability of conducting the examination.
Exceptions may be granted upon approval of
the FBI Laboratory Director or a designee.
No testimony will be furnished if testimony on

the same subject and in the same case is

provided for the prosecution by another

expert.
No request for an examination will be

accepted from a nonfederal law
enforcement agency in civil matters.
In addition, when submitting evidence to the FBI

Laboratory, contributors acknowledge the
following:
FBI examiners will choose appropriate

technical processes to address the
contributors request for examination.
Depending on the caseload of the Laboratory

and the needs of the contributor, evidence
examinations may be subcontracted.
An FBI Laboratory Report of Examination may

contain the opinions and/or interpretations of
the examiner(s) who issued the report.
Violent Crime Versus Property Crime
The FBI accepts evidence related to all crimes

under investigation by FBI field offices; however, it
accepts from state and local law enforcement
agencies only evidence related to violent crime

investigations. The FBI does not routinely accept

evidence from state and local law enforcement
agencies in cases involving property crimes
unless there was personal injury or intent to cause
personal injury. These guidelines help to ensure
that the FBI continues to provide timely forensic
assistance to law enforcement agencies
investigating crimes of violence or threatened
violence. Additional restrictions may be imposed
on case acceptance to achieve this goal.
At the discretion of the FBI Laboratory Director or

a designee, the FBI may accept evidence from
property crime cases. Such exceptions will be
considered on a case-by-case basis and should
not be regarded as setting a precedent for future
case acceptance. All accepted cases will be
afforded the full range of forensic services
provided by the FBI.
The following are examples of property crimes

that are not routinely accepted for examinations:
Arson of unoccupied residential and

commercial buildings and property.
Explosive incidents and hoaxes targeting

unoccupied residential and commercial
buildings and property.

Vandalism and malicious mischief directed

toward residential or commercial buildings
and property.
Nonfatal traffic accidents involving

speedometer and headlight examinations
except in cases involving law enforcement
and government officials.
Hit-and-run automobile accidents not involving

personal injury.
Automobile theft, except automobile theft

rings or carjackings.
Breaking and entering.
Burglary.
Minor theft (under $100,000).
Minor fraud (under $100,000).
Back to the top


Submitting Evidence
Requesting Evidence Examinations
SUBMISSIONS
All requests for evidence examinations should be

in writing, on agency letterhead, and addressed to
the FBI Laboratory Evidence Control Unit, unless
otherwise indicated in the Examinations section.
Do not submit multiple cases under a single

communication. Each case should be submitted
with a separate communication and packaged
separately.
All international law enforcement agency/

police requests should be coordinated
through the appropriate FBI legal attach
(LEGAT). LEGATs should fax the request to the
Evidence Control Unit, 703-632-8334, prior to
submitting any evidence to the Laboratory.
Questions concerning international
submissions should be directed to
703-632-8360.
Requests for evidence examinations must contain

the following information:
The submitting contact persons name,

agency, address, and telephone number.

Previous case-identification numbers,

evidence submissions, and communications
relating to the case.
Description of the nature and the basic facts

of the case as they pertain to evidence
examinations.
The name(s) of and descriptive data about the

individual(s) involved (subject, suspect, victim,
or a combination of those categories) and the
agency-assigned case-identification number.
The name of the prosecutor assigned, if

available.
A list of the evidence being submitted

herewith (enclosed) or under separate
cover.
Herewith is limited to small items

of evidence that are not endangered by
transmitting in an envelope. Write on the
envelope before placing evidence inside
to avoid damaging or altering the
evidence. The written communication
should state: Submitted herewith are
the following items of evidence.

Separate cover is used to ship numerous

or bulky items of evidence. Include a copy
of the communication requesting the
examinations. The written communication
should state: Submitted under separate
cover by [list the method of shipment]
are the following items of evidence.
What type(s) of examination(s) is/are

requested.
Where the evidence should be returned and

where the Laboratory report should be sent.
A street address must be included.
A statement if the evidence was previously

examined, if there is local controversy, or if
other law enforcement agencies have an
interest in the case.
Packaging and Shipping Evidence
Prior to packaging and shipping evidence, call

the pertinent unit for specific instructions.
Take precautions to preserve the evidence.
Wrap and seal each item of evidence

separately to avoid contamination.

Place the evidence in a clean, dry, and

previously unused inner container.
Seal the inner container with tamper-evident

or filament tape.
Affix EVIDENCE and BIOHAZARD labels, if

appropriate, on the inner container. If any of
the evidence needs to be examined for latent
prints, affix a LATENT label on the inner
container.
Affix the evidence examination request and all

case information between the inner and outer
containers.
Place the sealed inner container in a clean,

dry, and previously unused outer container
with clean packing materials. Do not use
loose Styrofoam.
Completely seal the outer container so that

tampering with the container would be
evident.
All shipments of suspected or confirmed

hazardous materials must comply with U.S.
Department of Transportation and
International Air Transport Association
10
regulations. Title 49 of the Code of Federal

Regulations (CFR) lists specific requirements
that must be observed when preparing
hazardous materials for shipment by air, land,
or sea. In addition, the International Air
Transport Association annually publishes
Dangerous Goods Regulations detailing how
to prepare and package shipments for air
transportation.
Title 49 CFR 172.101 provides a Hazardous

Materials Table that identifies items
considered hazardous for the purpose of
transportation. Title 49 CFR 172.101 also
addresses special provisions for certain
materials, hazardous materials
communications, emergency response
information, and training requirements for
shippers. A trained and qualified evidence
technician must assist with the typing,
labeling, packaging, and shipping of all
hazardous materials.
U.S. Department of Transportation regulations

and the following guidelines must be followed
when shipping live ammunition:
Package and ship ammunition separately

from firearm(s).
11
The outside of the container must be

labeled ORM-D, CARTRIDGES, SMALL
ARMS.
The Declaration of Dangerous Goods

must include the number of packages
and the gross weight in grams of the
completed packages.
Unless otherwise indicated in the

Examinations section, address the
outer container as follows:
EVIDENCE CONTROL UNIT

LABORATORY DIVISION
FEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION
2501 INVESTIGATION PARKWAY
QUANTICO VA 22135
Ship evidence by U.S. Postal Service

Registered Mail, UPS, or FedEx. Record the
method of shipment and the tracking
number(s) on the chain-of-custody form.
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12
Evidence Examinations
Abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Ink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Adhesives . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Latent Prints . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Anthropology . . . . . . . . . . 15 Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Arson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Audio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Missing Persons . . . . . . . . . 94
Bank Security Dyes . . . . . 21 Paint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Building Materials . . . . . . 22 Pepper Spray
Bullet Jacket Alloys . . . . . 23 or Foam . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
EXAMINATIONS
Caulk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Pharmaceuticals . . . . . . . . 104

Chemical Unknowns . . . . 24 Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Product Tampering . . . . . . 106
Controlled Substances . . 29 Questioned Documents . . 107
Cordage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Racketeering Records . . . . 31
Crime Scene Surveys, Rope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Documentation, and Safe Insulation . . . . . . . . . 118
Reconstruction . . . . . . 31 Sealants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Cryptanalysis . . . . . . . . . . 31 Serial Numbers . . . . . . . . . 119
Demonstrative Evidence . 33 Shoe Prints . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Disaster Squad . . . . . . . . 61 Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Special-Event and
Electronic Devices . . . . . . 56 Situational Awareness
Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Explosives Residue . . . . . 60 Tape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Feathers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Tire Treads . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Toolmarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Firearms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Toxicology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Forensic Facial Imaging . 68 Video . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Weapons of Mass
Hair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Destruction . . . . . . . . . 144
Image Analysis . . . . . . . . 72 Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
13
Abrasives Examinations
Examinations may determine the type of abrasive
material used to sabotage engines or machinery.
Questions concerning abrasives evidence

should be directed to 703-632-8441. Follow the
evidence submission directions, including
Requesting Evidence Examinations and
Packaging and Shipping Evidence.
Employ personnel familiar with the operations

and mechanics of engines and machinery to
recover abrasives.
Abrasives settle in oil and fuel. Submit the oil

and fuel from the engine pump and/or filters.
Abrasives embed in bearings and other parts.

Submit the bearings and other parts.
Submit abrasives in heat-sealed or resealable

plastic bags or paint cans. Do not use paper
or glass containers.
Adhesive, Caulk, and Sealant

Examinations
Adhesives, caulks, and sealants can be compared
by color and chemical composition with suspected
14
sources. The source and manufacturer of

adhesives, caulks, and sealants cannot be
determined by compositional analysis.
Questions concerning adhesive, caulk,

and sealant evidence should be directed to
703-632-8441. Follow the evidence submission
directions, including Requesting Evidence
Examinations and Packaging and Shipping
Evidence.
When possible, submit the item to which the

adhesive, caulk, or sealant is adhered. If this
is not possible, remove a sample of the
material with a clean, sharp instrument and
transfer it to a resealable plastic bag or
leakproof container such as a film canister or
plastic pill bottle.
Submit a suspected source. Package

separately.
Anthropological Examinations
Anthropological examinations can determine
whether something is a bone and, if so, whether it
is human or animal in origin. Race, sex,
approximate height and stature, and approximate
age at death often can be determined from human
15
remains. Damage to bone such as cuts, blunt-

force trauma, and bullet holes also may be
examined. Personal identifications can be made
by comparing X-rays of a known individual with
skeletal remains.
Anthropological examinations usually are

conducted on bones sent to the Laboratory for
DNA analysis or facial reproductions.
Questions concerning anthropological

evidence should be directed to 703-632-8449.
Follow the evidence submission directions,
including Requesting Evidence Examinations
and Packaging and Shipping Evidence.
Clean and air-dry bones, if possible. Pack in

paper bags and wrap in protective material
such as Bubble Wrap or paper. If tissue is
present on the skeletal material, refrigerate
until mailing, and then ship in a Styrofoam
cooler.
Collect insect samples found on the remains

in leakproof containers such as film canisters
or plastic pill bottles. Call the Laboratory at
703-632-8449 for additional instructions.
Submit medical records and X-rays, if possible.

Back to the top
16
Arson Examinations
Arson examinations can determine the presence
of ignitable liquids introduced to a fire scene.
Examinations of debris recovered from scenes
can identify gasoline, fuel oils, and speciality
solvents. Examinations generally cannot identify
specific brands.
Search at questioned arson scenes for the

following items: candles, cigarettes, matchbooks,
Molotov cocktails, fused chemical masses, or any
electronic or mechanical devices an arsonist may
have used. Also search for burn trails on cloth or
paper, burn trails on carpeted or hardwood floors,
and the removal of personal property or
commercial inventory.
Questions concerning arson evidence should

be directed to 703-632-7641. Follow the
Ignitable liquids are volatile and easily lost through

evaporation. Preserve evidence in airtight
containers such as metal cans, glass jars, or heat-
sealed plastic bags approved for fire debris. Do
not fill the containers to the top. Pack to prevent
breakage.
17
Audio Examinations
Audio examinations are conducted by the FBIs
Operational Technology Division (OTD), Digital
Evidence Laboratory (DEL), Forensic Audio,
Video, and Image Analysis Unit (FAVIAU). The
OTD DEL has different acceptance criteria and a
different physical address than the FBI Laboratory,
as described below.
Authenticity
Authenticity examinations are conducted to
determine whether audio recordings are original,
continuous, unaltered, and consistent with the
operation of the recording device used to make
the recording.
Enhancement
Enhancement examinations are conducted to
selectively reduce interfering noise on audio
recordings to improve the intelligibility.
Voice Comparisons
Spectrographic examinations compare an
unknown recorded voice sample with a known
verbatim voice exemplar produced on a similar
transmission-and-recording device such as the
telephone. Decisions regarding spectrographic
voice comparisons are not conclusive. The results
18
of voice comparisons are provided for

investigative guidance only.
Signal Analysis
Signal analysis examinations are conducted to
identify, compare, and interpret such signals as
gunshots and telephone touch tones.
Damaged Media
Audio recordings can be repaired, restored, or
retrieved for playback and examination, if damage
is not too extensive.
Questions concerning audio examinations

should be directed to 703-985-1393. Questions
concerning audio evidence should be directed
to 703-985-1388.
Audio examinations may not be submitted directly

from entities outside the FBI. State, local, or
international agency cases must be submitted by
the FBI field office servicing the area and must
meet one of the following two criteria: 1) the state,
local, or international case has a nexus to an
ongoing FBI investigation or 2) the FBI division
head deems that the case is of enough regional
importance to merit the dedication of federal
resources to the state, local, or international case.
These criteria shall be met with a written
19
statement from the division head (Special Agent in

Charge). FBI entities may submit cases directly.

Write-protect the original recording, which

may include finalizing CD and DVD media.
Submit original audio recordings.
Identify known and questioned voice samples.
Label the outer container FRAGILE,

SENSITIVE ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT or
FRAGILE, SENSITIVE AUDIO/VIDEO
MEDIA and KEEP AWAY FROM MAGNETS
OR MAGNETIC FIELDS.
Address the outer container as follows:
FORENSIC PROGRAM
BUILDING 27958A
ENGINEERING RESEARCH FACILITY
QUANTICO VA 22135
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20
Bank Security Dye Examinations
Bank dye packs contain dye to stain money and

clothing and tear gas to disorient a robber. Items
such as money and clothing can be analyzed for
the presence of bank security dye and tear gas.
Questions concerning bank security dye

Only evidence with visible red or pink stains

will be examined.
Do not submit large stained evidence (e.g.,

car seats). When possible, cut a small sample
of the stained area and submit in a heat-
sealed or resealable plastic bag. Collect an
unstained control sample, package separately,
and submit it with the dye-stained evidence.
When cutting is not possible, transfer
questioned stains by rubbing with a clean (dry
or wet with alcohol) cotton swab. Use an
unstained swab as a control. Air-dry the swab
and pack in a heat-sealed or resealable
plastic bag.
21
Building Materials Examinations

Examinations can compare building materials
such as brick, mortar, plaster, stucco, cement, and
concrete.
Questions concerning building materials

When building materials are penetrated or

damaged, debris can adhere to people,
clothing, tools, bags, and stolen items and can
transfer to vehicles. If possible, submit the
evidence to the Laboratory for examiners to
remove the debris. Package each item of
evidence in a separate paper bag. Do not
process tools for latent prints.
Collect known samples from the penetrated or

damaged areas.
Ship known and questioned debris separately

to avoid contamination. Submit known and
questioned debris in leakproof containers
such as film canisters or plastic pill bottles. Do
not use paper or glass containers. Pack to
keep lumps intact.
22
Bullet Jacket Alloy Examinations

Elemental analysis of bullet jackets can be done
when a bullet has fragmented so that individual
pieces cannot be used for comparison with test-
fired ammunition from a firearm or in the absence
of a firearm or the lead component of the bullet.
This analysis may be helpful when there are
multiple shooters and types of jacketed
ammunition. Alloy classification can differentiate
among bullet jacket alloys of different manufactur-
ers or among the bullet jacket alloys in
manufacturers production lines.
Questions concerning bullet jacket alloy

examinations should be directed to 703-632-
8441. Follow the evidence submission directions,
Ammunition components such as bullets,

cartridge cases, and shotshell casings can be
sent via Registered Mail through the U.S.
Postal Service. Evidence must be packaged
separately with the date, time, location,
collectors name, case number, and evidence
number written on the container.
23
U.S. Department of Transportation regulations

and the following guidelines must be followed
when shipping live ammunition:

from firearm(s).

ARMS.

must include the number of package(s)
completed package(s).
Do not mark bullets, cartridges, cartridge

cases, shotshells, or shotshell casings. The
date, time, location, collectors name, case
number, and evidence number must be on the
container.
Back to the top
Chemical Examinations of General

Unknowns
General unknowns include powders, liquids, and
stains that are of indeterminate origin or cannot be
readily classified. Full identification of an unknown
may not always be possible; however, general
classification of a substance is usually achievable.
24
When comparison samples are available, it may

be possible to comment regarding the consistency
of the unknown substance compared with a
known sample.
Call the Laboratory at 703-632-8441 prior to

submitting general unknowns to ensure that
the evidence will be accepted for examination.
The communication accompanying the evidence
must reference the telephone conversation
accepting the evidence.
Questions concerning examinations of general

unknowns should be directed to 703-632-8441.
Submit powder and liquid samples in

leakproof containers.
Do not submit large stained evidence. When

possible, cut a small sample of the stained area
and submit in a heat-sealed or resealable plastic
bag. Collect an unstained control sample,
package separately, and submit it with the stained
evidence. When cutting is not possible, transfer
questioned stains by rubbing with a clean (dry or
wet with alcohol) cotton swab. Use an unstained
25
swab as a control. Air-dry the swab and pack in a

heat-sealed or resealable plastic bag.
Back to the top
Computer Examinations
Content
Examinations can determine what type of data
files are on a computer.
Comparison
Examinations can compare data files with known
documents and data files.
Transaction
Examinations can determine the time and
sequence that data files were created.
Extraction
Data files can be extracted from the computer or
computer storage media.
Deleted Data Files

Deleted data files can be recovered from the
computer or computer storage media.
Format Conversion
Data files can be converted from one format to
another.
26
Keyword Searching
Data files can be searched for a word or phrase
and all occurrences recorded.
Passwords
Passwords can be recovered and used to decrypt
encoded files.
Limited Source Code

Source code can be analyzed and compared.
Call the Computer Analysis Response Team at

703-985-1302 to request a search or field
examination. Submit requests at least one
week in advance.
Obtain as much of the following information as

possible prior to submitting a request:
Determine the type(s) of computers and

operating systems.
If applicable, determine the type of network

software, the location of the network servers,
and the number of computers on the network.
Determine whether encryption and/or

password protection is used.
27
Specify whether a seizure of computers and

media or an on-site examination is required.
Questions concerning computer evidence

For most examinations, submit only the

central processing units and the internal and
external storage media.
Use a sturdy cardboard container when

shipping computer components. If possible,
use the original packing case with the fitted
padding. Use large plastic Bubble Wrap or
foam rubber pads as packing. Do not use
loose Styrofoam because it lodges inside
computers and components and creates static
charges that can cause data loss or damage
to circuit boards. Seal the container with a
strong packing tape.
Pack and ship central processing units in the

upright position. Label the outside container
THIS END UP.
28
Disks, cartridges, tapes, and hard drives must

be packed to avoid movement during
shipping.

SENSITIVE ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT and
KEEP AWAY FROM MAGNETS OR
MAGNETIC FIELDS.
FORENSIC PROGRAM
BUILDING 27958A
QUANTICO VA 22135
Back to the top
Controlled Substance Examinations

Controlled substance examinations can establish
trace-drug presence, identity, and quantity.
Bulk Drugs
The Laboratory limits the quantity of bulk drugs
that it will analyze. Quantities exceeding 100
grams of suspected marijuana or 10 grams of all
other suspected drugs including cocaine,
methamphetamine, and heroin will be returned
unanalyzed. The Laboratory usually analyzes only
drugs seized in federal investigations.
29
Drug Residue
Requests for drug residue examinations on
evidence will be accepted only when the evidence
is properly packaged to avoid contamination. Drug
residue examinations of currency are performed
only on a limited basis.

submitting drugs or currency to ensure that
the evidence will be accepted for examination.
The communication accompanying the evidence
must reference the telephone conversation
accepting the evidence.
Questions concerning controlled substance

Submit evidence in separate heat-sealed or

resealable plastic bags.
Fold clothing to preserve trace evidence.
Do not submit used drug field-test kits with

evidence.
Back to the top
30
Crime Scene Surveys, Documentation,

and Reconstruction
Visual information specialists receive data from
the field or travel to the field to collect it. They then
use the data to prepare two- and three-
dimensional digital or physical crime scene
reconstructions as well as computer animations or
models that depict bullet trajectory, line-of-sight
analysis, and vehicular-, human-, or object-
movement analysis.
Questions concerning crime scene surveys,

documentation, and reconstruction should be
directed to 703-632-8194.
Cryptanalysis and Racketeering

Record Examinations
Cryptanalysis
Cryptanalysis examinations involve the analysis of
encoded and enciphered documents used by
terrorists, foreign intelligence agents, violent
criminals, street and prison gangs, and organized
crime groups. Encrypted documents may be faxed
or e-mailed for immediate decryption. Call
703-632-7356 or 703-632-7334 for contact
information.
31
Drug Records
Drug records are examined to determine the
overall scope of the businesses, including the
hierarchy, type of drugs distributed, gross sales,
gross or net weights or quantities, price structures,
and other pertinent information.
Gambling
Gambling examinations include the interpretation
of records from sports and horse bookmaking
businesses, Internet gambling operations,
numbers or lottery operations, and other gambling
businesses.
Loan-Sharking
Loan-sharking records are examined to determine
the amounts of the loans, amounts paid in interest
and principal, number of loans, and interest rates.
Money Laundering
Money-laundering records are examined to
determine the scope of the operations, the
amounts laundered, how the funds were
laundered, and any other illegal activities.
Prostitution
Prostitution records are examined to determine
the scope of the businesses, including the number
of employees and their roles, gross and net
32
revenues, and other financial and organizational

information.
Questions concerning cryptanalysis and

racketeering record evidence should be
directed to 703-632-7356 or 703-632-7334.
Back to the top
Demonstrative Evidence
Visual information specialists prepare a wide array
of demonstrative evidence for investigative and
prosecutorial purposes. These items include
charts, maps, diagrams, illustrations, and
animated and digitally interactive presentations.
Questions concerning demonstrative evidence

should be directed to 703-632-8194.
DNA Examinations
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is analyzed in body-
fluid stains and other biological tissues recovered
from items of evidence. The results of DNA testing
on evidence samples are compared with the
results of DNA analysis of reference samples
collected from known individuals. Such analyses
33
can associate victims and suspects with each

other, with evidence items, or with a crime scene.
There are two types of DNA used in forensic
analyses. Nuclear DNA (nDNA) is the more
discriminating of the two types and is typically
analyzed in evidence containing blood, semen,
saliva, body tissue, and hairs that have tissue at
their root ends. The power of nDNA testing done
by the DNA Analysis Unit I (DNAUI) lies in its
ability to potentially identify an individual as being
the source of the DNA obtained from an evidence
item to a reasonable degree of scientific certainty,
as well as the definitive power of exclusion.
Additionally, where appropriate, the DNA-typing
results from evidence items (including items
related to missing persons) examined in the
DNAUI may be uploaded into the Combined DNA
Index System (CODIS) database.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is typically analyzed

in evidence containing naturally shed hairs, hair
fragments, bones, and teeth. Typically, these
items contain low concentrations of degraded
DNA, making them unsuitable for nDNA
examinations. The high sensitivity of mtDNA
analysis allows scientists to obtain information
from old items of evidence associated with cold
cases, samples from mass disasters, and small
pieces of evidence containing little biological
34
material. Additionally, the maternal inheritance of

mtDNA allows scientists to compare a mtDNA
profile to reference samples from that persons
mother, brother(s), sister(s), or any other
maternally related individuals. All of these
individuals have the same mtDNA profiles
because all maternal relatives inherit their mtDNA
from their mother. Because multiple individuals
can have the same mtDNA type, unique identifica-
tions are not possible using mtDNA analysis.
However, mtDNA performed by the DNA Analysis
Unit II is an excellent technique to use for
obtaining information when nDNA analysis is not
feasible. Additionally, the mtDNA-typing results
related to missing-person cases may be uploaded
into the CODIS database.
Questions concerning nuclear DNA testing

concerning mitochondrial DNA testing should
Case Acceptance Policy of the DNA

Analysis Unit I
The DNAUI accepts FBI cases for serological

and nDNA analysis. FBI cases are prioritized
35
according to the FBIs priorities of counter-

terrorism; cyber-based/high-technology
crimes; public corruption; civil rights;
transnational/national criminal organizations/
enterprises; major white-collar crime;
significant violent crime; and support of local,
state, federal, and international agencies. This
includes examinations that characterize
biological stains and may identify the source
of a stain on an evidentiary item.
The DNAUI accepts cases from FBI field

offices and legal attachs (LEGATs); other
federal agencies (e.g., Bureau of Indian
Affairs, DEA); U.S. attorneys offices; military
tribunals; and duly constituted state, county,
and municipal law enforcement agencies in
the United States and its territories. The
DNAUI also accepts cases that are submitted
to the Laboratory from international law
enforcement agencies through the FBI
LEGATs.
Cases are accepted provided that:
1. The submitting agency is not served by

another government forensic DNA
laboratory.
36
2. The submitted case has not been

examined previously by another
laboratory.
Case Consideration Policy
The DNAUI supports the National Missing

Person DNA Database (NMPDD) Program.
Cases must be submitted through an NMPDD
Program Manager for entry into the Biological
Relatives of Missing Persons or Unidentified
Human Remains Indexes. The NMPDD
provides investigators with an opportunity to
identify missing and unidentified persons on a
national level.
The DNAUI maintains the Federal Convicted

Offender (FCO) Program, which supports the
collection and nDNA analysis of samples
collected from more than 500 sites across the
United States.
The DNAUI requires known reference

sample(s) for comparison with evidence
materials. DNA profiles located in the National
DNA Index System (NDIS) Convicted
Offender database cannot be used as
references.
37
The DNAUI does not conduct low-copy-

number (LCN) or touch DNA examinations
(i.e., DNA from fingerprints, pieces of paper,
handled objects, etc.). Items such as steering
wheels and firearms may be appropriate for
analysis.
The DNAUI does not perform kinship analysis.

Questions concerning kinship, paternity/
maternity comparisons, etc., should be
directed to the DNAUI at 703-632-8446.
As necessary:
DNAUI cases may be prioritized according to

scheduled trial dates or other case-specific
information.
The DNAUI does not examine evidence from

property crime cases unless violence that
results in bodily harm is used in the
commission of the crime.
For cases in which the FBI Laboratory has

conducted previous DNA or serological
testing, a review of the case file will be
conducted to determine if additional
examinations will be conducted.
38
Case Acceptance Policy of the DNA

Analysis Unit II
All FBI cases that meet the suitability guidelines

(outlined below) will be considered for mtDNA
analysis in the DNAUII. Cases involving terrorism
are given highest priority, followed by
counterintelligence matters and violent crimes.
Questions regarding case and evidence suitability
should be directed to the DNAUII at
703-632-7572.
State and local law enforcement agencies needing

mtDNA analysis must contact the DNAUII for more
information regarding evidence submission.
Agencies may call 703-632-7572 to discuss the
needs of the investigation and the evidence,
following the suitability guidelines outlined below.
Analysis of the evidence will be performed by one
of the units regional mtDNA laboratories and is
cost-free to state and local law enforcement
agencies in the United States and its territories.
Travel expenses for examiners testifying in state
and local cases are also paid by the FBI
Laboratory. FBI entities may refer to the FBI
Laboratory/DNAUII web page on the FBI intranet
for additional information on the regional mtDNA
laboratories.
39
Missing-person cases involving unidentified

human remains and relatives of missing persons
are managed and entered into the NDIS in the
DNAUII by members of the NMPDD Program.
Evidence from these investigations also
undergoes mtDNA analysis in the DNAUII or in
one of the regional mtDNA laboratories. Contact
the NMPDD Program Manager at 703-632-7582
for questions regarding missing-person evidence
submission. FBI entities may refer to the FBI
Laboratory/DNAUII web page on the FBI intranet
for additional information on the NMPDD Program.
Suitability of Mitochondrial DNA Analysis
Mitochondrial DNA analysis has been applied

successfully to evidence from violent crimes,
typically homicide, sexual assault, and assault. It
is important to remember, however, that mtDNA
analysis is appropriate in only a small portion of
cases where mtDNA evidence is present.
Experience shows that about 75 percent of cases

in which mtDNA analysis is actually performed
involve hair evidence where only the hair shaft is
present. Most often, mtDNA analysis is justified for
hair evidence when no tissue is present on the
hair root. Mitochondrial DNA analysis in missing-
person cases is appropriate only when bone or
40
teeth specimens can be verified as of human

origin.
To avoid the misapplication of mtDNA analysis

resources, cases must be reviewed carefully for
their scenarios, the possibility of other tests on
available evidence (e.g., nDNA), and the selection
of specimens having the greatest probative value.
Regardless of the type of biological evidence,

mtDNA analysis generally will not be performed
when nDNA results exist on items of similar origin.
For example, if nDNA results are obtained from
semen identified on a victims vaginal swabs and
there is no allegation of multiple assailants,
mtDNA analysis would not be performed on an
associated pubic hair found in the pubic-hair
combings of the victim.
Current forensic mtDNA techniques cannot

effectively distinguish between sources or relative
quantities of DNA. Consequently, mtDNA is not
appropriate for evidence containing possible
mixed sources of DNA such as semen stains from
sexual assaults.
Mitochondrial DNA analysis generally will not be

performed on bloodstains unless the victims
reference samples are not available or other
41
appropriate reference samples are unavailable for

nDNA analysis. For example, a kidnapping victim
is missing, but a bloodstain is found in the
suspects vehicle and only a maternal relatives
(e.g., mother, sibling) reference sample is
available for the victim. In that case, mtDNA
analysis could be conducted using a portion of the
vehicle bloodstain, the maternal relatives
reference sample, and the suspects known
sample.
Mitochondrial DNA Analysis of Hair Evidence
Mitochondrial DNA analysis should be performed

on probative hair samples only if they are deemed
unsuitable for nDNA analysis. Only those hairs
having greatest probative value should be
subjected to mtDNA analysis. If several similar
probative hair specimens are submitted from one
source of evidence, mtDNA analysis should be
performed on only 12 hairs. For example, if 10
hairs collected from a victims body are
microscopically associated with the suspect, no
more than 2 hairs will be analyzed.
Submission guidelines for mtDNA cases must

include the following points for hair evidence:
42
Known victim hair samples (of all types) must

be submitted to determine whether evidence
hairs are similar or dissimilar to the victims
hair.
If evidence includes specimens dissimilar to

the victim, known suspect hair samples (of all
types) should be obtained.
Mitochondrial DNA analysis generally will be

performed on all probative microscopic hair
associations. In addition, the following types of
hairs are considered for mtDNA analysis, if
probative:
Hairs that exhibit microscopic similarities and

slight differences (e.g., because of prolonged
time between the crime and collection of
reference samples, environmental or artificial
changes to hair, or the suitability of reference
samples or questioned hair).
Hairs that are not suitable for microscopic

comparison purposes (e.g., body-area hairs,
hair fragments, or any other factor that
eliminates the possibility of performing a
comparison). In such cases, however, the hair
must be probative (e.g., apparent foreign hair
in the pubic-hair combing of the victim).
43
Hairs that are suitable for microscopic

comparison purposes but, for valid reasons,
are not suitable to compare with the pertinent
reference sample (e.g., hair deposited 10
years prior to the collection of the reference
hair sample, reference sample is from an
individual whose hair is artificially treated after
the crime date). Regardless, the hair must be
probative.
Unidentified Human Remains
Prior to mtDNA analysis, bone or teeth specimens

should be examined by a forensic anthropologist
or odontologist or a similarly qualified individual.
Submissions of such items should be
accompanied by a written report that verifies
human origin by a qualified expert.
Documenting, Collecting, Packaging, and

Preserving DNA Evidence
If DNA evidence is not properly documented,
collected, packaged, and preserved, it will not
meet the legal and scientific requirements for
admissibility in a court of law.
If DNA evidence is not properly documented,

its origin can be questioned.
44
If it is not properly collected, biological activity

can be lost.
If it is not properly packaged, contamination

can occur.
If it is not properly preserved, decomposition

and deterioration can occur.
When DNA evidence is transferred by direct or

secondary (indirect) means, it remains on
surfaces by absorption or adherence. In general,
liquid biological evidence is absorbed into
surfaces, and solid biological evidence adheres to
surfaces. Collecting, packaging, and preserving
DNA evidence depends on the liquid or solid state
and the condition of the evidence.
The more evidence retains its original integrity

until it reaches the Laboratory, the greater the
possibility of conducting useful examinations. It
may be necessary to use a variety of techniques
to collect suspected body-fluid evidence.
Collecting Known Samples

Blood
Only qualified medical personnel should

collect blood samples from a person.
45
Collect at least two 5-mL tubes of blood in

purple-top tubes, which contain EDTA as a
preservative, for DNA analysis. Collect drug or
alcohol-testing samples in gray-top tubes,
which contain NaF (sodium fluoride).
Label each tube with the date, time, persons

name, location, collectors name, case
number, and evidence number.
Refrigerate, do not freeze, liquid blood

samples (tubes may break if frozen). Use cold
packs, not dry ice, during shipping.
Pack liquid blood tubes individually in

Styrofoam or cylindrical tubes with absorbent
material surrounding the tubes.
Package blood samples from different

individuals separately.
Label the outer container KEEP IN A COOL,

DRY PLACE, REFRIGERATE ON
ARRIVAL, and BIOHAZARD.
Submit to the Laboratory as soon as possible.
46
Buccal (Oral) Swabs
Use clean cotton swabs to collect buccal

(oral) samples. Rub the inside surfaces of
the cheeks thoroughly.
Air-dry the swabs and place in clean paper

or an envelope with sealed corners. Do not
use plastic containers.
Identify each sample with the date, time,

persons name, location, collectors name,
case number, and evidence number.
Package oral samples from different

individuals separately.
Buccal samples do not need to be

refrigerated.
If a reference blood or oral sample cannot be

obtained, an alternate reference sample may
be submitted (for nuclear examinations only).
This may include such items as surgical
samples, Pap smear slides, pulled teeth, or a
toothbrush or item of clothing known to be
used solely by the individual of interest.
47
Blood on a Person
Absorb suspected liquid blood onto a clean

cotton cloth or swab. Air-dry the cloth or swab
and pack in clean paper or an envelope with
sealed corners. Do not use plastic containers.
Absorb suspected dried blood onto a clean

cotton cloth or swab moistened with distilled
water. Air-dry the cloth or swab and pack in
clean paper or an envelope with sealed
corners. Do not use plastic containers.
Blood on Surfaces or in Snow or Water
Absorb suspected liquid blood or blood clots

onto a clean cotton cloth or swab. Air-dry the
cloth or swab and pack in clean paper or an
envelope with sealed corners. Do not use
plastic containers.
Collect suspected blood in snow or water

immediately to avoid further dilution. Eliminate
as much snow as possible. Place in a clean,
airtight container. Freeze the evidence and
submit to the Laboratory as soon as possible.
48
Bloodstains
Air-dry suspected wet bloodstained garments.

Wrap dried bloodstained garments in clean
paper. Do not place wet or dried garments in
plastic or airtight containers. Place all debris
or residue from the garments in clean paper
or an envelope with sealed corners.
Air-dry small suspected wet bloodstained

objects and submit the objects to the
Laboratory. Preserve bloodstain patterns.
Avoid creating additional stain patterns during
drying and packaging. Pack to prevent stain
removal by abrasive action during shipping.
Pack in clean paper. Do not use plastic
containers.
When possible, cut a large sample of

suspected bloodstains from immovable
objects with a clean, sharp instrument. Pack
to prevent stain removal by abrasive action
during shipping. Pack in clean paper. Do not
Absorb suspected dried bloodstains on

immovable objects onto a clean cotton cloth
or swab moistened with distilled water. Air-dry
the cloth or swab and pack in clean paper or
49
an envelope with sealed corners. Do not use

plastic containers.
Blood Examination Request Letter
A blood examination request letter must contain

the following information:
A brief statement of facts relating to the case.
Claims made by the suspect(s) regarding the

source of the blood.
Whether animal blood is present.
Whether the stains were laundered or diluted

with other body fluids.
Information regarding the health of the

victim(s) and suspect(s), including the
presence of such infections as AIDS,
hepatitis, and tuberculosis.
Semen and Semen Stains
Absorb suspected liquid semen onto a clean

cotton cloth or swab. Air-dry the cloth or swab
and pack in clean paper or an envelope with
50
Submit small suspected dry semen-stained

objects to the Laboratory. Pack to prevent
stain removal by abrasive action during
shipping. Pack in clean paper. Do not use
plastic containers.

suspected semen stains from immovable
objects with a clean, sharp instrument. Pack
to prevent stain removal by abrasive action
during shipping. Pack in clean paper. Do not
Absorb suspected dried semen stains on

immovable objects onto a clean cotton cloth
or swab moistened with distilled water. Air-dry
the swab or cloth and place in clean paper or
an envelope with sealed corners. Do not use
plastic containers.
Note: It is not necessary to collect reference

seminal fluid for comparison. Refer to the
Collecting Known Samples section for more
information.
Seminal Evidence from Sexual Assault Victims
Sexual assault victims must be medically

examined in a hospital or a physicians office
51
using a standard sexual assault evidence kit

to collect vaginal, oral, and anal evidence.
Refrigerate and submit the evidence to the

Laboratory as soon as possible.
Saliva and Urine, Other Sources of

Body-Fluid Evidence
Absorb suspected liquid saliva or urine onto a

clean cotton cloth or swab. Air-dry the cloth or
swab and pack in clean paper or an envelope
with sealed corners. Do not use plastic
containers.
Submit small suspected dry saliva- or urine-

stained objects to the Laboratory. Pack to
prevent stain removal by abrasive action
during shipping. Pack in clean paper or an
envelope with sealed corners. Do not use
plastic containers.

suspected saliva or urine stains from
immovable objects with a clean, sharp
instrument. Pack to prevent stain removal by
abrasive action during shipping. Pack in clean
paper. Do not use plastic containers.
52
Pick up cigarette butts with gloved hands or

clean forceps. Do not submit ashes. Air-dry
and place the cigarette butts from the same
location (e.g., ashtray) in clean paper or an
envelope with sealed corners. Do not submit
the ashtray unless a latent print examination
is requested. Package the ashtray separately.
Do not use plastic containers.
Pick up chewing gum with gloved hands or

clean forceps. Air-dry and place in clean
paper or an envelope with sealed corners. Do
not use plastic containers.
Pick up envelopes and stamps with gloved

hands or clean forceps and place in a clean
envelope. Do not use plastic containers.
Hair
Pick up hair carefully with clean forceps to

prevent damaging the root tissue.
Air-dry hair mixed with suspected body fluids.
Package each group of hair separately in

clean paper or an envelope with sealed
corners. Do not use plastic containers.
53
Refrigerate and submit to the Laboratory as

soon as possible.
Tissue, Bones, and Teeth

submitting suspected tissue, bones, or teeth to
ensure that the evidence will be accepted for
examination. The communication accompanying
the evidence must reference the telephone
conversation accepting the evidence.
Pick up suspected tissue, bones, and teeth

with gloved hands or clean forceps.
Collect 12 cubic inches of red skeletal

muscle.
Submit whole bones. Cutting bones increases

the possibility of contamination.
Collect teeth in the following order:
1. Nonrestored molar.
2. Nonrestored premolar.
3. Nonrestored canine.
4. Nonrestored front tooth.
54
5. Restored molar.
6. Restored premolar.
7. Restored canine.
8. Restored front tooth.
Place tissue samples in a clean, airtight

plastic container without formalin or
formaldehyde. Place teeth and bone
samples in clean paper or an envelope with
sealed corners.
Freeze the evidence, place in Styrofoam

containers, and ship overnight on dry ice.
Preserving DNA EvidenceLong-Term

Storage
Blood/saliva (reference samples).
Refrigerate, do not freeze, liquid blood

samples.
Store refrigerated, frozen (if dried), or

at room temperature, away from light
and humidity.
Blood/semen (evidence samples).
55
Store refrigerated, frozen, or at room

temperature, away from light and
humidity.
DNA tubes/tissue samples, etc.
Store refrigerated or frozen,

if possible.
It is recommended that these samples be

stored in a refrigerator/freezer and
isolated from evidence that has not
been examined.
Back to the top
Electronic Device Examinations

Commercial Electronic Devices
Examinations of commercial electronic devices
including personal digital assistants (PDAs),
cellular telephones, pagers, and global positioning
systems (GPSs)can extract user- or owner-
entered data and other information. In some
cases, it is necessary to disassemble the devices
during examination.
Interception-of-Communication Devices
Interception-of-communication (IOC) devices are
used to unlawfully intercept oral or wire
56
communications. The devices consist of radio-

frequency transmitters and receivers.
Examinations are conducted to identify operating
characteristics (frequency of operation, range of
operation). In some cases, it is necessary to
disassemble the devices during examination.
Other Electronic Devices and Circuits

Examinations on other electronic devices and
circuitryincluding facsimile machines, stun guns,
and bomb detonatorscan extract user- or
owner-entered data, stored data, and other
information. The examinations can identify
operating characteristics and modifications made
to the devices. In some cases, it is necessary to
disassemble the devices and/or circuits during
examination.
Questions concerning electronic device

examinations should be directed to
703-985-2400. Questions concerning shipping
electronic device evidence should be directed
to 703-985-1388. FBI entities may refer to the
Operational Technology Division/Digital
Evidence Section web page on the FBI intranet
for additional information regarding evidence
submission.
57


SENSITIVE ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
and KEEP AWAY FROM MAGNETS OR
MAGNETIC FIELDS.
FORENSIC PROGRAM
BUILDING 27958A
QUANTICO VA 22135
Back to the top
Explosives Examinations
Evidence resulting from an apparent explosion
and/or recovery of an explosive device can be
examined. Examinations are based on the
premise that components and accessories used
to construct the devices survive the explosion,
although disfigured. The examinations can
accomplish the following:
Identify the components used to construct

the device, such as switches, batteries,
detonators, tapes, wires, and fusing systems.
58
Identify the explosive main charge.
Determine the construction characteristics.
Determine the manner in which the device

functioned or was designed or intended to
function.
Determine the specific assembly techniques

employed by the builder(s) of the device.
Preserve the trace evidence potentially

present in the devices so that it is not
destroyed or damaged during the
examinations.
Call the Laboratory at 703-632-7626 each time

an explosive device or a related explosive item
needs to be shipped. The communication
accompanying the evidence must reference the
telephone conversation accepting the evidence.
Questions concerning explosives evidence

Explosives are hazardous materials and must

be handled only by qualified public safety
59
personnel, military explosives ordnance

disposal personnel, or certified bomb
technicians. Special packaging is required,
and the amount to be shipped is regulated. An
FD-861 form (Mail/Package Alert) is required
for shipping bomb components to the FBI
Laboratory.
Back to the top
Explosives Residue Examinations

Instrumental analyses of explosives residue can
determine whether substances are high-explosive,
low-explosive, or incendiary mixtures; whether the
composition of the substances is consistent with
known explosives products; and the type of
explosives. Explosives residue can be deposited
on metal, plastic, wood, paper, glass, cloth, and
other surfaces. Residue may be deposited after
handling, storing, or initiating an explosive.
Questions concerning explosives residue

Some explosives residue is water-soluble and

must be protected from moisture. Other
60
residue evaporates quickly and must be

collected as soon as possible in airtight
containers such as metal cans, glass jars, or
heat-sealed or resealable nylon or Mylar
bags. Ziplock storage bags are not suitable for
shipping or storing explosives residue
evidence. Do not fill the containers to the top.
Pack to prevent breakage.
Collect and preserve control samples from the

blast site.
Extreme care must be taken to avoid

contaminating explosives residue evidence.
Never store or ship explosives residue

evidence with bulk explosive materials.
Never store or ship explosives residue evidence

from a crime scene with evidence from a search
site.
Back to the top
FBI Disaster Squad

Assists in printing the deceased at disaster
scenes.
Assists in collecting antemortem fingerprints

of victims.
61
Assists in identifying friction ridge skin of the

deceased.
Deployment of the FBIs Disaster Squad

requires consent from the disaster scene
coroner or medical examiner, a ranking law
enforcement or government official, a
representative of the National Transportation
Safety Board, or a representative of the U.S.
Department of State.
Requests for assistance must be made

through the nearest FBI field office or the
FBIs Strategic Information and Operations
Center at 202-323-3300.
Back to the top
Feather Examinations
Feather examinations can determine bird species
and can compare feathers found on clothing,
vehicles, and other objects with feathers from the
crime scene.
Questions concerning feather evidence

62
Submit feathers in heat-sealed or resealable

plastic bags or paper bags.
Back to the top
Firearm Examinations
Firearms
Firearm examinations can determine the general
condition of a firearm and whether the firearm is
mechanically functional or in a condition that could
contribute to an unintentional discharge. Trigger-
pull examinations can determine the amount of
pressure necessary to release the hammer or
firing pin of a firearm. Examinations can determine
whether a firearm was altered to fire in the full-
automatic mode. Obliterated and/or altered
firearm serial numbers sometimes can be
restored. Firearms can be test-fired to obtain
known specimens for comparison with evidence
ammunition components, such as bullets,
cartridge cases, and shotshell casings.
Comparisons of suspect firearms can be made

with firearms depicted in surveillance images,
possibly resulting in an association conclusion.
Photogrammetry can determine the length of the
weapon(s) used by the subject(s) depicted in the
surveillance images. See Image Analysis
Examinations.
63
Bullets
Fired bullets can be examined to determine
general rifling characteristics such as caliber,
physical features of the rifling impressions, and
the manufacturer of the bullets. The microscopic
characteristics on evidence bullets can be
compared with test-fired bullets from a suspect
firearm to determine whether the evidence bullet
was fired from that firearm.
Cartridge Cases or Shotshell Casings

Cartridge-case or shotshell-casing examinations
can determine the caliber or gauge, the
manufacturer, and whether there are marks of
value for comparison. The images of questioned
cartridge cases and shotshell casings can be
scanned into the National Integrated Ballistic
Information Network (NIBIN) to compare with
evidence from other shooting incidents. The
microscopic characteristics of evidence cartridge
cases and shotshell casings can be examined to
determine whether they were fired from a specific
firearm.
Shot Pellets, Buckshot, or Slugs

Examinations of shot pellets, buckshot, or slugs
can determine the size of the shot, the gauge of
the slug, and the manufacturer.
64
Wadding
Examinations of wadding components can
determine the gauge and the manufacturer.
Unfired Cartridges or Shotshells

Examinations of unfired cartridges or shotshells
can determine the caliber or gauge and whether
there are marks of value for comparison.
Examinations also can determine whether the
ammunition was loaded in and extracted from a
specific firearm. Unfired and fired cartridges or
shotshells can be associated through
manufacturing marks.
Gunshot Residue on Victims Clothing

The deposition of gunshot residue on evidence
such as clothing varies with the distance from the
muzzle of the firearm to the target. Patterns of
gunshot residue can be duplicated using a
questioned firearm-and-ammunition combination
fired into test materials at known distances. These
patterns serve as a basis for estimating muzzle-
to-garment distances.
Gun Parts
Examinations of gun parts can determine the
caliber and model of the gun from which the parts
originated.
65
Silencers
Muzzle attachments can reduce the noise of a
firearm by suppressing sound during firing. Testing
can determine whether a muzzle attachment can
be classified as a silencer based on a measurable
sound-reduction capability.
Questions concerning firearm evidence

All firearms must be unloaded.
The firearm should be submitted. If the firearm

cannot be submitted, call 703-632-8442 for
instructions.
The firearm must be handled minimally to

avoid loss or destruction of evidence. Do not
allow objects to enter or contact the firearms
barrel, chamber, or other operating surface.
Firearms and ammunition components such

as bullets, cartridge cases, and shotshell
casings can be sent via Registered Mail
through the U.S. Postal Service. Evidence
must be packaged separately and identified
66
by date, time, location, collectors name, case

number, and evidence number.
U.S. Department of Transportation

regulations and the following guidelines must
be followed when shipping live
ammunition:

from firearm(s).

ARMS.

must include the number of package(s)
completed package(s).
Do not mark the firearm. Firearms must be

identified with a tag containing the caliber,
make, model, and serial number. The date,
time, name(s) of the owner(s), location,
collectors name, case number, and evidence
number must be on the container.
Do not mark bullets, cartridges and cartridge

cases, shotshells and shotshell casings, or
67
other firearm-related evidence. The date,

time, location, collectors name, case number,
and evidence number must be on the
container.
Clothing submitted for gunshot residue

examination must be carefully handled, air-
dried, and wrapped separately in paper.
Clothing with blood must be air-dried and
labeled BIOHAZARD on the inner and outer
containers. The date, time, location, collectors
name, case number, and evidence number
must be on the container.
Back to the top
Forensic Facial Imaging

Visual information specialists provide composite
drawings, two- and three-dimensional facial
reconstructions from skeletal remains, facial age
progressions, postmortem reconstructions, and
digital photographic manipulations and retouches.
Interviews required to prepare composite
drawings may be conducted either by having a
visual information specialist travel to the field or by
using video teleconferencing.
For facial comparisons between known and

questioned subjects, see Image Analysis
Examinations.
68
Questions concerning forensic facial imaging

Back to the top
Glass Examinations
Glass comparison examinations can determine
whether particles of glass originated from a
broken source of glass. Glass fracture
examinations can determine the direction and
type of the breaking force and the sequencing of
shots.
Questions concerning glass evidence should

Comparison
Submit samples of glass from each broken
window or source in leakproof containers such
as film canisters or plastic pill bottles. Do not
use paper or glass containers.
Submit samples of laminated glass (e.g.,

windshield) from each side of the glass. Label
the samples INSIDE and OUTSIDE and
package separately in leakproof containers
not use paper or glass containers.
69
Submit the air-dried clothing of the victim(s)

and suspect(s). Package each item separately
in a paper bag.
Search for particles in the hair, skin, and

wounds of the victim(s) and suspect(s).
Submit particles in leakproof containers such
Search for particles in vehicles by vacuuming

each section of the vehicle separately. Do not
use tape for recovering glass particles. Submit
vacuum sweepings in leakproof containers.
Do not use paper or glass containers.

to avoid contamination.
Do not process evidence for latent prints.
Fracture
Label the sides of the glass in the frame
(INSIDE and OUTSIDE). Label the glass
where it was removed in the frame (TOP,
BOTTOM, LEFT, and RIGHT).
Submit all glass pieces so that the pieces can

be fit together to identify the radial cracks near
and at the point(s) of impact and to increase
the probability of matching edges. Pack all
70
glass separately and securely to avoid shifting

and breaking during shipping.
Submit the entire piece of laminated glass, if

possible. Secure the glass between sheets of
plywood or sturdy cardboard. Do not place
any objects into the impact area.
Do not process evidence for latent prints.

Back to the top
Hair and Fiber Examinations

Hair
Hair examinations can determine whether hairs
are animal or human. Race, body area, method of
removal, damage, and alteration (e.g., bleaching
or dyeing) can be determined from human-hair
analysis. Examinations can associate a hair to a
person on the basis of microscopic characteristics
in the hair but cannot provide absolute personal
identification. Hairs that are associated will be
submitted for mitochondrial DNA analysis.
Fibers
Fiber examinations can identify the type of fiber,
such as animal (wool), vegetable (cotton), mineral
(glass), and synthetic (manufactured). Questioned
fibers can be compared with fibers from the
clothing, carpeting, and other textiles of victim(s)
71
and suspect(s). A questioned piece of fabric can

be matched physically to known fabric. Fabric
composition, construction, and color can be
compared, and impressions on and from fabric
can be examined. Label searches can determine
clothing manufacturer information.
Questions concerning hair and fiber evidence

For known hair samples, collect at least 25

hairs from different parts of the head and/or
pubic region. Comb and pull out the hairs.
Submit hairs in clean paper or an envelope
with sealed corners.
When possible, submit the entire garment or

textile. Submit fibers in clean paper or an
envelope with sealed corners.
Back to the top
Image Analysis Examinations

Image analysis examinations are conducted by
the FBIs Operational Technology Division (OTD),
Digital Evidence Laboratory (DEL), Forensic
Audio, Video, and Image Analysis Unit (FAVIAU).
72
The OTD DEL has different acceptance criteria

and a different physical address than the FBI
Laboratory, as described below.
Photographic Comparisons
Examinations of film, negatives, digital images,
photographic prints, and video recordings,
including surveillance images, involve
comparisons of subject(s) or object(s) depicted in
questioned images with those in known images.
Subject(s) or object(s) also can be compared
between multiple questioned images. Subject
comparisons include facial comparisons or can be
made between like body parts, such as hands or
ears. Examples of objects that can be compared
include clothing, firearms, and vehicles.
Photogrammetry
Physical dimensions can be derived from images
through the use of geometric formulas or on-site
comparison. For on-site comparisons, examiners
enter the scene and place a height chart at the
location of the subject(s) or object(s) of interest.
Examples of photogrammetry include determining
the height of a bank robbery subject(s) and the
length of the weapon(s) used by the subject(s)
depicted in surveillance images.
73
Authenticity and Image-Manipulation

Detection
Photographic evidenceincluding film, video, and
digital imagescan be examined to determine
whether the image is the result of a composite, an
alteration, or a copy.
Location, Time, and Date

Examinations of photographic evidence can
determine the location, time, and date that an
image was taken.
Source and Age

Photographic products, including film and prints,
can be dated, and the source can be established
by examining manufacturing characteristics. This
can establish the time frame during which a
photograph was taken.
Cameras
Cameras, both film and digital, seized as evidence
can be compared with images to determine
whether a specific camera captured a specific
image. Similarly, digital video cameras can be
compared with video clips.
Video
Still images can be produced from video clips,
enhanced and enlarged, and used in courtroom
presentations.
74
Automobile Make and Model Identification

Vehicles depicted in surveillance images can be
compared with the National Automotive Image File
to determine make and model.
Child Pornography Examinations

Seized images of child pornography should be
searched for known victims by checking with the
National Center for Missing and Exploited
Children and the Innocent Images National
Initiative. The images also can be compared with
images in the Child Exploitation and Obscenity
Reference File to identify the source of the
images. Video clips can be examined to determine
if any of the people and scenes depicted in the
video clips are also recorded as still images in the
reference file. Video clips and still images also can
be examined to determine if they depict
recordings or images of real people and events or
whether they represent computer-generated
subjects and events.
Questions concerning image analysis

examinations should be directed to 703-985-
1393. Questions concerning image analysis
Image analysis examinations may not be

submitted directly from entities outside the FBI.
75
State, local, or international agency cases must

be submitted by the FBI field office servicing the
area and must meet one of the following two
criteria: 1) the state, local, or international case
has a nexus to an ongoing FBI investigation or
2) the FBI division head deems that the case is of
enough regional importance to merit the
dedication of federal resources to the state, local,
or international case. These criteria shall be met
with a written statement from the division head
(Special Agent in Charge). FBI entities may submit
cases directly.

Write-protect the original media. Never use

the Pause operation when viewing original
video recordings.
Submit original evidence (e.g., negatives,

videotape, CD) whenever possible because it
contains the greatest level of detail. If the
original media is unavailable, submit first-
generation photographic prints, videotapes, or
digital files of the evidence, being careful not
to introduce further compression.
76
Process all film prior to submitting. Bank

surveillance film should be processed by the
banks security company according to
manufacturer specifications.
When requesting forensic examinations based

on video images, queue the original videotape
to the approximate time of the pertinent area.
State in a communication the date and time of
the pertinent area and use the date-time
stamp on the images or the counter indicator
(set from the beginning of the tape at 000). If
prints from the relevant frames are available,
submit them for reference.
Arrest or known photographs of suspect(s) for

comparison with questioned images must
depict the suspect(s) from many angles
similar to the questioned images. If a facial
comparison is requested, ensure that the face
or head of the suspect(s) fills more than half
the frame. If questioned images show tattoos
or marks, include photographs of the same
areas of the body on the known suspect(s).
When taking known photographs for

comparison with questioned images, use
35 mm film or digital equivalent (at highest
resolution settings to minimize image
compression).
77
Do not mark or cut items submitted for

comparison (e.g., clothing or firearms) where
they are visible in the questioned images.
Physical items such as clothing and firearms

must be submitted to the Laboratory for other
examinations such as trace evidence,
ballistic, or fingerprint analyses before they
are submitted for image comparison.
If photogrammetry is requested, include the

dimensions of the scene to the nearest eighth
of an inch and include a diagram or print from
the relevant images indicating the location of
the measurements. Include one diagram or
print for every angle used in the scene. Do not
touch or move the surveillance cameras.
Submissions for comparison with the Child

Exploitation and Obscenity Reference File
must be limited to no more than 30 images.
Call 703-985-1393 for specific instructions.
When submitting such evidence as a

videotape or data card, label the outer
container FRAGILE, SENSITIVE
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT or FRAGILE,
SENSITIVE AUDIO/VIDEO MEDIA and
KEEP AWAY FROM MAGNETS OR
MAGNETIC FIELDS.
78
FORENSIC PROGRAM
BUILDING 27958A
QUANTICO VA 22135
Back to the top
Ink Examinations
Examining inked writing in conjunction with other
techniques (e.g., handwriting analysis, watermark
identification) can provide details regarding
document preparation. The composition of writing
inks varies with the type of writing instrument
(e.g., ballpoint pen, fountain pen, porous-tip pen)
and the date of the ink manufacture. In general,
inks are composed of dyes in solvents and other
materials that impart selected characteristics. Ink
analysis usually is limited to comparisons of the
organic dye components. When ink formulations
are the same, it is not possible to determine
whether the ink originated from the same source
to the exclusion of others. Examinations cannot
determine how long ink has been on a document.
Questions concerning ink evidence should be

directed to 703-632-8441. Follow the evidence
79
submission directions, including Requesting

Evidence Examinations and Packaging and
Shipping Evidence.
Pack ink evidence separately from any

document or surface with ink marks.
Back to the top
Latent Print Examinations

Case Acceptance Policy
Because of the increasing casework demands of

the FBIs primary mission, protecting the United
States from terrorist attacks, the FBI Laboratory
will no longer accept routine cases from state and
local agencies in which latent print examination
services may be obtained from within the
submitting agencys system. The future
acceptance of any state and local cases generally
will be based on the submitting agencys lack of
access to the same techniques or services
provided by the FBI Laboratory, the unusual
technical nature of the case, or the circumstances
surrounding the case, e.g., cases of a high-profile
nature or cases that also involve FBI field offices.
Developing Latent Prints at Crime Scenes

The Laboratory is the best place to develop latent
prints; however, it is sometimes necessary to
80
develop latent prints at crime scenes. Caution

should be taken to prevent destroying latent
prints. The following measures ensure that crime
scene latent prints are protected:
Photograph latent prints prior to any

processing.
Examine all evidence visually and with a laser

or an alternate light source before using any
other latent print development process.
Photograph latent prints developed with

fingerprint powders before lifting them.
Black, gray, or white powder can be applied to

a surface with a variety of style of brushes.
The color of the powder should contrast with
the color of the surface (e.g., black for light
surfaces and gray or white for dark surfaces).
Use a short-hair brush or cotton to remove

excess powder. Use caution when powdering.
Avoid overbrushing latent prints and losing
clarity.
Use transparent tape or black-and-white

rubber lifts to lift latent prints.
81
When transparent tape is used, the color of

the backing card should contrast with the color
of the powders (e.g., white backing card for
black powder).
When using latent print development

processes, refer to the manufacturers
instructions and the Material Safety Data
Sheets. Use personal protective equipment
(e.g., safety glasses, masks, gloves, smocks).
The Processing Guide for Developing Latent

Prints is a comprehensive guide to latent print
processes and protocols. Refer to this
publication to ensure that proper processes
are applied in the recommended order.
Following this guide will maximize the
potential to develop latent prints and will
preserve evidence if other forensic
examinations are required. The guide is
available at http://www.fbi.gov/hq/lab/fsc/
backissu/jan2001/lpu.pdf. Law enforcement
personnel may request the Processing Guide
for Developing Latent Prints in field-manual
format by faxing a request on agency
letterhead to 703-632-8374.
Photographing Latent Prints

Use a tripod and cable release when
photographing latent prints.
82
Use a 35 mm or medium-format camera with

a macro lens capable of half-size to full-size
reproduction.
Photograph latent prints at each step in the

processing sequence before moving to the
next process.
Photograph latent prints developed with

fingerprint powders before lifting them.
When possible, use ISO 400 film. Set the lens

f-stop to the smallest possible aperture while
using the camera meter to adjust the cameras
shutter speed to obtain proper exposure.
Take three exposures of each latent print by

bracketing:
Original exposure.
One-stop underexposed image.
One-stop overexposed image.
Photograph latent prints individually. This

ensures that the target latent print is in focus.
83
For reference purposes, photograph latent

prints close to one another in one frame, if
possible.
Fill the frame completely.
Photograph latent prints with an identification

label that includes a scale, reference number,
date, collectors initials, and location of the
latent prints. The identification label should be
placed on the same plane as the latent prints.
Maintain a photographic log that records each

shot, reference number, date, collectors
initials, location of prints, and other pertinent
information.
Questions concerning latent print evidence

Stabilize the evidence to avoid movement or

friction during shipping.
Place nonporous evidence (e.g., nonabsorb-

ent, hard surfaces) in separate protective
coverings such as thick transparent envelopes
84
(glassine), or suspend in a container so that

there is minimal surface contact. Friction will
destroy latent prints on this type of surface.
Place porous evidence (e.g., paper,

cardboard) in separate protective coverings.
Friction generally will not destroy latent prints
on this type of surface.
Submit known fingerprints and palm prints of

everyone who may have handled the
evidence, including suspects, victims, those
who had legitimate access, and investigative
personnel. All fingerprint cards must include
pertinent biographical and/or demographic
information.
Palm prints should be taken on only one side

of a separate card, not on the reverse side of
a fingerprint card or on the reverse side of a
card that has a recorded impression on the
other side.
Fingerprint cards and major-case prints

should include, at a minimum, the name of the
person printed, the name of the person
recording the prints, the date, the case-
identification number, and a brief statement of
facts relating to the case. The fingerprint card
should bear an arrest offense.
85
The notation elimination prints should be

included if the person printed is not a suspect.
When known prints are submitted separately

from evidence, reference previous
communications and case-identifying
numbers and other pertinent information.
Submitting Latent and Intentionally Recorded

Print Images in Digital Format
Digital images, including digital photographs, of
latent and intentionally recorded prints should
include a scale or other measurable item. If a
search of the Integrated Automated Fingerprint
Identification System (IAFIS) is requested, a scale
or other measurable item is mandatory.
Digital images, including digital photographs, must

meet the following requirements:
Documentation of the image source (e.g.,

window, door frame).
Documentation of the capture device (e.g.,

flatbed scanner, digital camera).
Documentation indicating the image is an

original capture.
86
File properties for latent images consisting of:
A file format without compression or with

lossless compression (e.g., RAW, TIFF).
A minimum of 8 bits for grayscale images

and 24 bits for color images.
A resolution that meets or exceeds 1000

pixels per inch (PPI) when calibrated to
actual size (1:1).
File properties for intentionally recorded prints

consisting of:
A file format without compression, with

lossless compression (e.g., RAW, TIFF),
or with Wavelet Scalar Quantization
(WSQ) compression saved at a maximum
of 15:1.
A minimum of 8 bits for grayscale images

and 24 bits for color images.
A resolution that meets or exceeds 500

PPI when calibrated to actual size (1:1).
Latent prints submitted as facsimiles or

photocopies will not be examined in the FBI
Laboratory.
87
Intentionally recorded prints submitted as

facsimiles will not be examined in the FBI
Laboratory, except when the known prints will be
searched against IAFIS in order to obtain FBI file
prints.
Submitting Hands or Fingers of an Unknown

Deceased
Pack each hand or finger in a separate
unbreakable, watertight, and airtight container.
Label each container (e.g., RIGHT HAND,

RIGHT THUMB, RIGHT INDEX).
Ship the remains in the condition in which

they were found (e.g., in water, frozen, dried)
by the most expeditious means.
Provide a complete physical description of the

deceased, if possible.

All human remains will be returned to the

contributor.
88
EVIDENCE CONTROL UNIT

LABORATORY DIVISION
2501 INVESTIGATION PARKWAY
QUANTICO VA 22135
Legible, complete ten-print fingerprint cards

not related to an ongoing Laboratory
investigation should be sent to the FBIs
Criminal Justice Information Services Division.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE INFORMATION

SERVICES DIVISION
1000 CUSTER HOLLOW ROAD
CLARKSBURG WV 26306
Questions concerning ten-print fingerprint

cards should be directed to 304-625-2360.
Back to the top
Lubricant Examinations
Lubricants encompass a range of substances,
including petroleum products, natural fatty ester
oils, and polyalkylene glycol oils. Automotive fluids
(e.g., engine oil, brake fluid), certain cosmetics
89
(e.g., bath oils, lotions), and some polishes

contain lubricants. Lubricant examinations may
also be conducted in sexual assault, vehicular
homicide, or heavy-equipment sabotage cases.
Questions concerning lubricant evidence

Submit entire items (e.g., clothing) when

possible. Air-dry the evidence, and package
separately in paper bags.
Absorb suspected lubricants onto a clean

cotton cloth or swab. Leave a portion of the
cloth or swab unstained as a control. Air-dry
the swab and pack in a heat-sealed or
resealable plastic bag.
Submit suspected sources of lubricants for

comparison examinations.
Package lubricants separately in leakproof

containers.
Back to the top
90
Metallurgy Examinations
Comparison
Comparative examinations can determine whether
two metals or metallic objects came from the
same source or from each other. Metal
comparisons can identify various surface and
microstructural characteristicsincluding
fractured areas, accidental damage, and
fabrication marksto determine whether the
objects share a common origin. Moreover, the
manufacturing methods used to produce an object
can be determined. These manufacturing
techniques can include casting, forging, hot and
cold rolling, extrusion, drawing, swaging, milling,
grinding, spinning, blanking, ironing, deep
drawing, and others. Examinations can determine
mechanical properties, such as the response of a
metal to an applied force or load. Examinations
also can determine chemical composition,
including alloying and trace elements.
Broken or Mechanically Damaged Metal

The causes of failure or damagesuch as the
application of stress exceeding the tensile
strength or yield limit of the metal; a material or
manufacturing defect; or corrosion, cracking, or
excessive service usage (fatigue)can be
91
determined. The magnitude of the force or load

that caused the failure, how the force or load was
transmitted to the metal, and the direction it was
transmitted also can be determined.
Burned, Heated, or Melted Metal

Examinations can determine the approximate
temperature to which a metal was exposed, the
nature of the heat source, and whether a metal
was in an electrical short-circuit situation.
Cut or Severed Metal

Examinations can determine the method by which
a metal was severed, such as sawing, shearing,
milling, turning, or thermal cutting. The nature of
the thermal source (e.g., burner bar, electric arc
welder) used can sometimes be determined.
Metal Fragments
Examinations can determine how metal fragments
were formed. If fragments were formed by
impulsive (short-duration, high strain rate) loading,
an examination can determine whether an
explosive was detonated and the magnitude of the
detonation velocity. The nature of the object that
was the source of the fragments often can be
determined as well.
92
Specification Fraud and Noncompliant

Materials
Metallurgical testing of materials can determine
whether inferior components were substituted in
contracting frauds. The composition and
mechanical properties of materials can be
examined to determine if the components meet
contractual obligations or appropriate regulatory
codes. Precious-metal content also can be
determined.
Lamp Bulbs
Examinations can determine whether a lamp bulb
was incandescent when its glass envelope was
broken. Determinations also can be made as to
whether a lamp bulb was incandescent when it
was subjected to an impact force such as a
vehicular collision. Such determinations can be
made even if the glass was broken by the impact.
Watches, Clocks, and Timers

The conditions causing a watch, clock, timer, or
other mechanism to stop or malfunction and
whether the time displayed represents a.m. or
p.m. (calendar-type timing mechanisms only) can
be determined. The on/off condition of appliance
timers damaged by a fire or explosion often can
be determined.
93
Objects with Questioned Internal Components

X-ray radiography can nondestructively reveal the
interior construction and the presence or absence
of defects, cavities, or foreign materials. The
position of on/off switches and other mechanical
components can be determined.
Questions concerning metallurgy evidence

Back to the top
National Missing Person DNA Database

Program Examinations
The National Missing Person DNA Database
(NMPDD) Program is supported by both the DNA
Analysis Unit I (DNAUI) and DNA Analysis Unit II
(DNAUII). Nuclear DNA examinations are
conducted in the DNAUI and mitochondrial DNA
examinations are conducted in the DNAUII to
support the NMPDD Program. Each unit has an
NMPDD Program Manager who is available to
answer any questions regarding case submission
(contact information is listed below). Local, state,
and federal law enforcement missing-person
cases can be submitted directly to the FBI
Laboratory or through the FBI field offices or
resident agencies. All agencies must contact one
94
of the FBI Laboratorys NMPDD Program

Managers before submitting samples. The
submitting agency must have the necessary
information and completed forms for sample
submission. The FBI will perform mitochondrial
DNA and nuclear DNA (STR) analyses on
samples.
All samples submitted to the FBI Laboratory must

have an incoming letter describing the samples
submitted. A copy of the anthropology, odontology
(dental), medical examiner and/or coroner, and
law enforcement reports must be included with
unidentified human remains samples submitted.
Contact either of the NMPDD Program Managers

prior to submitting samples or for questions
concerning samples.
Call 703-632-7586 for the DNAUI or 703-632-

7582 for the DNAUII.
For FBI (internal) e-mail, write to Eric Pokorak

for the DNAUI or John E. Stewart for the
DNAUII.
For Internet e-mail, write to eric.pokorak@

ic.fbi.gov for the DNAUI or john.stewart@
ic.fbi.gov for the DNAUII.
95

Samples from Biological Relatives of Missing

Persons
Samples must be sent with a Consent and
Information Form for the National Missing
Person DNA Database (FD-935 form). A copy
of the law enforcement report should
accompany the samples submitted.
Collect samples in the following order of

preference:
1. Dried bloodstains.
2. Buccal (oral) swabs.
Dried Bloodstains
Use the blood-cell collection kits that are available

in FBI field offices or by contacting the NMPDD
Program Managers at 703-632-7582 or
703-632-7586.
Buccal (Oral) Swabs
Use sterile, cotton-tipped applicator swabs to

collect four buccal (oral) samples. Rub the
96
inside surfaces of the cheeks thoroughly (use

two swabs on each side).
Air-dry the swabs and place them back into

the original packaging or an envelope with
Identify each sample with the date, time,

subjects name, location, collectors name,
and case number.
Buccal samples do not need to be

refrigerated.
Samples from Unidentified Human Remains

Call the Laboratory prior to submitting bones,
teeth, or tissue. The communication
accompanying the evidence must reference the
telephone conversation accepting the evidence.
Skeletal Samples
Anthropological examinations can determine

whether skeletal remains are human or animal.
Race, sex, approximate height, and stature at
death can be determined from human remains.
Pick up samples with gloved hands or clean

forceps.
97
Air-dry samples and place in paper bags.
Submit whole samples. Cutting skeletal

samples increases the possibility of
contamination.
If possible, submit three samples.
Submit skeletal samples with an anthropolog-

ical report, preferably from an anthropologist
certified by the American Board of Forensic
Anthropology, or a medical examiners/
coroners report.
Submit skeletal samples in the following order

of preference:
1. Femur.
2. Tibia.
3. Humerus.
4. Teeth, skull, and/or mandible.
5. Hand and foot bones.
6. Lower arm bone.
98
7. Vertebrae.
8. Ribs.
Teeth
Personal identifications can be made by

comparing teeth with dental records and X-rays.
Pick up teeth with gloved hands or clean

forceps.
Air-dry teeth and place in paper bags.
Submit teeth with an odontological report,

preferably from an odontologist certified by
the American Board of Forensic Odontology,
or a medical examiners/coroners report.
Submit teeth in the following order of

preference:
1. Nonrestored molar.
2. Nonrestored premolar.
3. Nonrestored canine.
4. Nonrestored front tooth.
99
5. Restored molar.
6. Restored premolar.
7. Restored canine.
8. Restored front tooth.
Tissue
Tissue samples usually will provide sufficient

quantities of DNA for testing.
Pick up tissue with gloved hands or clean

forceps.
Collect 12 cubic inches of red skeletal

muscle.
Place tissue samples in a clean, airtight

plastic container without formalin or
formaldehyde and keep refrigerated or frozen.


Back to the top
100
Paint Examinations
The layer structure of a questioned paint sample
can be compared with a known source from a
suspect. The sequence, relative thickness, color,
texture, number, and chemical composition of
each of the layers can be compared.
The color, manufacturer, model, and model year

of an automobile may be determined from a paint
chip. Sourcing automotive paints is limited to
factory-applied, original automotive paint.
Paint on safes, vaults, windowsills, and door
frames can be transferred to and from tools. A
comparison can be made between the paint from
an object and the paint on a tool.
The Laboratory will not examine evidence to

authenticate fine art or historical artifacts or to
source spray paint or architectural paints.
Questions concerning paint evidence should

Search the accident or crime scene and the

personal effects of the victim(s) to locate paint
101
fragments. Paint fragments often are found in

the clothing of the hit-and-run victim(s).
Submit the clothing. Paints can be transferred
from one car to another, from car to object, or
from object to car during an accident or a
crime.
Control paint chips must be collected from the

suspected source of the evidentiary paint.
Controls must be taken from an area close to,
but not in, any damaged area. If no damage is
obvious, controls should be taken from
several areas of the suspect substrate. Each
layer can be a point of comparison. Controls
must have all of the layers of paint to the
substrate. This can be accomplished by the
following:
Section an area of the painted surface.
Cut a paint sample from the surface using

a clean, sharp instrument.
Lift or pry loosely attached chips or

dislodge the paint by gently hitting the
opposite side of the painted surface.
Package paint specimens in leakproof

containers such as vials or pillboxes. Do not
102
attach paint particles to adhesive tape. Do not

use plastic bags, cotton, or envelopes to
package paint specimens.
Back to the top
Pepper-Spray or Pepper-Foam
Examinations
Oleoresin capsicum is a resin in various peppers.
It may be used in self-defense sprays or foams.
Ultraviolet dye (orange) and/or tear gas also may
be in the sprays or foams. Items can be analyzed
for the presence of oleoresin capsicum, dye, or
tear gas.
Questions concerning pepper-spray evidence

Submit entire items (e.g., clothing) when

possible. Air-dry the evidence, and package
separately in paper bags.
Moisten a clean cotton cloth or swab with

isopropanol (rubbing alcohol), and wipe over
the suspected sprays or foams. Prepare a
second moistened cloth or swab as a control.
103
Air-dry the cloths or swabs and pack

separately in heat-sealed or resealable plastic
bags.
Submit spray canisters when possible.
Refer to Hazardous Materials

Transportation when submitting pepper-
spray canisters.
Back to the top
Pharmaceutical Examinations
Pharmaceutical examinations can identify
constituents, active ingredients, quantity, and
weight.
Questions concerning pharmaceutical

evidence should be directed to 703-632-
8441. Follow the evidence submission
directions, including Requesting Evidence
Examinations and Packaging and Shipping
Evidence.
List the names of the pharmaceuticals and

information on their use.
If possible, submit pharmaceuticals in original

containers.
104
Polymer Examinations
Polymer evidence typically consists of pieces of
plastic or other manufactured materials. The
source, use, or manufacturer of polymer evidence
usually cannot be identified by compositional
analysis.
Motor vehicle trim can be compared with plastic

remaining on property struck in a hit-and-run case.
The manufacturer, make, model, and model year
of a vehicle can be determined if a manufacturers
part number is on the trim.
Plastics in wire insulation and miscellaneous

plastics such as buttons can be compared with
known sources.
Questions concerning polymer evidence

When a motor vehicle has been in an

accident, fragments (e.g., plastic lens covers)
can be left at the scene. These pieces can be
physically reconstructed with the remnants of
the fixture left on the car. Collect and package
105
the fragments carefully to keep the edges

intact.
Search the accident or crime scene and

personal effects of the victim(s) to locate
plastic fragments. Submit fragments in
leakproof containers such as film canisters or
plastic pill bottles. Do not use cotton or paper
containers.
Remove damaged suspect motor vehicle

parts, and package separately in resealable
plastic bags or boxes.
If possible, submit entire items (e.g., clothing)

with potential or smeared polymeric transfers.
Package separately in paper bags. If the
entire item cannot be submitted, cut with a
clean, sharp instrument a section where the
transfer is suspected. Collect an unstained
control sample. Pack to prevent stain removal
by abrasive action during shipping. Pack in
clean paper. Do not use plastic containers.
Back to the top
Product-Tampering Examinations
Product tampering is when a commercial product
is intentionally distorted to harm someone or to
extort money or other thing of value. Examples
106
range from drug tampering in medical

environments, food adulteration in supermarkets,
and the combination of tampering and altering in
domestic settings.
The Laboratory will not assess manufacturing

quality control or product specifications in
commercial products.
Questions concerning product-tampering

Submit control samples of the unadulterated

product.
Package and ship control and suspect

samples separately to avoid contamination.
Submit samples in leakproof containers such
Use caution to prevent the destruction of

latent prints.
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107
Questioned Document Examinations

Handwriting and Hand Printing
The examination and comparison of handwriting
characteristics can determine the origin or
authenticity of questioned writing, although not all
handwriting is identifiable with a specific writer.
Intent and such traits as age, sex, and personality
cannot be determined from handwriting
examinations. Some reasons for inconclusive
results include:
Limited questioned and/or known writing.
Lack of sufficiently comparable known writing

for comparison.
Lack of contemporaneous writing or lapse of

time between execution of questioned and
known writing.
Distortion or disguise in the questioned and/or

known writing.
Lack of sufficient identifying characteristics.
Submission of photocopied evidence instead

of original evidence.
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Procedures for Obtaining Known Writing

Exemplars
The text, size of paper, space available for

writing, writing instrument, and writing style
(handwriting or hand printing) must be as
close to the original writing as possible.
Give verbal or typewritten instructions

concerning the text to be written. Do not give
instructions on spelling, punctuation, or
arrangement of writing.
All exemplars must be on separate pieces of

paper.
The writer and witness must initial and date

each page of writing.
Do not allow the writer to see the previous

exemplars or the questioned writing. Remove
each exemplar from the writers sight as soon
as it is completed.
Numerous repetitions may be necessary to

obtain naturally prepared writing.
Obtain exemplars from the right and left

hands.
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Obtain hand-printing exemplars in upper- and

lowercase letters.
Obtain a sufficient quantity of exemplars to

account for natural variation in the writing.
Obtain undictated writing such as business

records, personal correspondence, and
cancelled checks or other documents
prepared during the normal course of
business activity.
Common Types of Nongenuine Signatures

Traced signatures are prepared by directly
using a genuine signature as a template or
pattern.
Simulated signatures are prepared by copying

or drawing a genuine signature.
Freehand signatures are written in the forgers

normal handwriting with no attempt to copy
anothers writing style. Therefore it may be
possible to identify the writer(s) who prepared
the signature(s).
Altered or Obliterated Writing

Documents can be examined for the presence of
altered or obliterated writing, and the original
writing may be deciphered.
110
Typewriting
Questioned typewriting may be identified with the
typewriter that produced it. This is most common
when the typewriter is a typebar machine. The
identification is based on individual characteristics
that develop during the manufacturing process
and through use and abuse of the typewriter.
Typewriters with interchangeable elements (e.g.,

ball, printwheel, or thimble) are less likely to be
associated with questioned typewriting. However,
these typing elements may be positively identified
with specific texts by examining individual
characteristics of the elements.
Comparison of questioned typewriting with

reference standards can determine a possible
make and model of the typewriter and/or the
typewriter elements.
Carbon-film typewriter ribbons and correction

ribbons retain readable text. These ribbons
can be compared with questioned typewritten
impressions. Generally, fabric ribbons cannot be
read or identified.
Procedures for Obtaining Known Typewriting

Exemplars
If the typewriter has a carbon-film ribbon or
correction ribbon, remove it from the
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typewriter and submit the ribbon to the

Laboratory. Insert a new ribbon in the
typewriter prior to obtaining exemplars.
If the typewriter has a fabric ribbon, remove it

from the typewriter and put the typewriter in
the stencil position. Place a sheet of carbon
paper over a sheet of blank paper and insert
both into the typewriter. Allow the typeface to
strike the carbon paper. Submit the fabric
ribbon and the exemplars typed on the carbon
paper to the Laboratory.
Obtain two full word-for-word typed exemplars

of the questioned text and two typed
exemplars of the entire keyboard (all symbols,
numbers, and upper- and lowercase letters).
Record the make, model, and serial number

of the typewriter on the exemplars. Also
record the date the exemplars were obtained
and the name of the person who typed the
exemplars.
Obtain the typewriter service and repair

history, if available.
Normally it is not necessary to send the

typewriter to the Laboratory; however, in some
cases, the examiner will request the
112
typewriter. It must be packed securely to

prevent damage during shipment. Typewriter
elements (e.g., ball, printwheel, or thimble)
also must be submitted to the Laboratory.
Photocopies or Facsimiles
Photocopies or facsimiles of documents can be
identified with the machine used to produce them
if the exemplars and questioned documents are
relatively contemporaneous. The possible make
and model of the photocopier or facsimile machine
sometimes can be determined.
Procedures for Obtaining Known Photocopy

Exemplars
Obtain at least 10 exemplars without a
document on the glass plate and with the
cover down.
Obtain at least 10 exemplars without a

document on the glass plate and with the
cover up.
Obtain at least 10 exemplars with a document

on the glass plate and the cover down.
Obtain at least 10 exemplars with a document

through the automatic document feeder, if
applicable.
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Record on each exemplar the date the

exemplars were obtained, the name of the
person who prepared the exemplars, and the
conditions under which the exemplars were
made.
Record the make, model, and serial number

of the photocopier; information about the toner
supplies and components; whether the paper
supply is sheet- or roll-fed; and options such
as color, reduction, enlargement, zoom, mask,
trim, and editor board.
Do not store or ship photocopies in plastic

envelopes.
Graphic Arts (Commercial and Office

Printing)
Printed documents can be associated with a
common source or identified with known
commercial printing paraphernalia such as
artwork, negatives, and plates or office printing
devices such as ink-jet or laser printers.
Paper
Torn edges can be compared. The paper
manufacturer can be determined if a watermark is
present. Paper can be examined for indented
writing. Do not rub the indentations with a pencil.
Do not add indentations by writing on top of the
evidence.
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Burned or Charred Paper

Burned or charred documents (not completely
reduced to ash) may be deciphered and stabilized.
The document must be handled minimally. The
document must be shipped in the container in
which it was burned, in polyester film
encapsulation, or between layers of cotton in a
rigid container.
Age of a Document
The earliest date a document could have been
prepared may be determined by examining various
physical characteristics, including watermarks,
indented writing, printing, typewriting, and inks.
Carbon Paper or Carbon-Film Ribbon

Used carbon paper or a carbon-film ribbon can be
examined to disclose the content of the text.
Checkwriters
A checkwriter impression can be compared with a
known source. Examining checkwriter impressions
may determine the brand or model of the
checkwriter.
Embossings and Seals

An embossed or seal impression can be compared
with a known source. Submit the device to the
Laboratory.
115
Rubber Stamps
A rubber-stamp impression can be compared with
a known source. Submit the rubber stamp to the
Laboratory uncleaned.
Plastic Bags
Plastic bags (e.g., sandwich and garbage bags)
can be compared with a roll or box of bags.
Anonymous Letter File

The Anonymous Letter File contains images of
anonymous and/or threatening communications
submitted to the Questioned Documents Unit for
examination. This file can be searched in an
attempt to associate text from a communication in
one case with text from communications in other
cases.
Bank Robbery Note File

The Bank Robbery Note File contains images of
notes used in bank robberies. This file can be
searched in an attempt to associate text from one
bank robbery note with text from bank robbery
notes in other cases.
Questions concerning documentary evidence

116
Documentary evidence must be preserved in

the condition in which it was found. It must not
be unnecessarily folded, torn, marked, soiled,
stamped, or written on or handled excessively.
Protect the evidence from inadvertent
indented writing. Mark documents
unobtrusively by writing the collectors initials,
date, and other information in pencil.
Whenever possible, submit the original

evidence to the Laboratory. The lack of detail
in photocopies makes examinations difficult
and often will result in inconclusive opinions.
Copies are sufficient for reference-file
searches.
Do not store or ship photocopies in plastic

envelopes.
Back to the top
Rope and Cordage Examinations

A piece of rope or cord can be compared with
a questioned rope or cord. The composition,
construction, color, and diameter can be
determined. If a tracer is present, the
manufacturer can be determined.
Questions concerning rope and cordage

117

Submit the entire rope or cord. If the rope or

cord must be cut, specify which end was cut
during evidence collection.
Label the known and questioned samples.
Handle the sections of rope or cord carefully

to prevent loss of trace material or
contamination.
Submit in heat-sealed or resealable plastic or

paper bags.
Back to the top
Safe-Insulation Examinations
Safe insulation can be compared to a known
source. Examinations of safe insulation
sometimes can determine the manufacturer.
Questions concerning safe-insulation

Collect safe-insulation samples from damaged

areas.
118
Safe insulation can adhere to people, clothing,

tools, bags, and stolen items and can transfer
to vehicles. If possible, submit the evidence to
the Laboratory for examiners to remove the
debris. Package each item of evidence in a
separate paper bag. Do not process tools for
latent prints.

questioned debris in leakproof containers
not use paper or glass containers. Pack to
keep lumps intact.
Back to the top
Serial-Number Examinations
Obliterated serial or identification numbers
including markings on metal, wood, plastic, and
fiberglassoften are restorable. Comparisons can
be made with suspect dies.
Questions concerning serial-number evidence

119
For large objects, and if possible, remove the

section containing the serial number and
submit it to the Laboratory.
If it is not possible to remove the section

containing the serial number, make a cast to
submit to the Laboratory.
1. Use an acrylic-surface replica cast kit. Call

the Laboratory at 703-632-8442 regarding
the appropriate cast kit.
2. Different formulas are used in different

temperatures. If possible, move the
evidence to a warm area.
3. Casts will duplicate foreign material in the

stamped characters. Clean the area
before proceeding. Remove paint and dirt
with a solvent such as acetone, gasoline,
or paint remover. Use Naval Jelly to
remove rust. Use a soft brush. Do not use
a wire brush.
4. Build a dam around the stamped

characters to retain the acrylic liquid
while it hardens. Use a soft and pliable
dam material such as modeling clay.
Ensure there are no voids in the dam.
120
5. Following the instructions in the kit, mix

the liquid and powder for one minute and
pour the mixture into the dam.
6. The acrylic liquid will take 30 minutes to

harden. Remove the cast when it is hard.
If paint and rust are on the cast, make
additional casts and submit the cleanest
one to the Laboratory.
7. Indicate from where on the object (often a

vehicle) the cast was taken.
8. Pack the cast to prevent breakage.

Back to the top
Shoe Print and Tire Tread Examinations

Shoe print or tire tread impressions are routinely
left at crime scenes. These impressions are
retained on surfaces in two- and three-
dimensional forms. Almost all impressions,
including partial impressions, have value for
forensic comparisons. The examination of detailed
shoe print and tire tread impressions often results
in the positive identification of the shoes of the
suspect(s) or tire(s) from the vehicle(s) of the
suspect(s).
121
Photographing Shoe Print and Tire Tread

Impressions
General crime scene photographs must be taken
to relate the impressions to the crime scene.
Examination-quality photographs then must be
taken to obtain maximum detail for forensic
examination and must include a scale. All
impressions must be photographed using both
methods.
General Crime Scene Photographs

General crime scene photographs of shoe print or
tire tread impressions must include close-range
and long-range photographs. ISO 400 color film
should be used. The photographs must show the
relationship of the impressions to the surrounding
area. General crime scene photographs are not
suitable for footwear or tire examinations.
Examination-Quality Photographs
Examination-quality photographs must be taken
directly over the impressions using a tripod and
lighting. A scale must be in every photograph. The
purpose of these photographs is to produce a
detailed negative that can be enlarged to natural
size. Examination-quality photographs must be
taken as follows:
1. Place a linear scale such as a ruler

next to and on the same plane as the
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impression. Place a label in the picture to

correlate the impression with crime scene
notes and general photographs.
2. Images should be taken using a 35 mm or

medium-format film camera. Low-cost
digital cameras do not provide sufficient
image detail for examination-quality
photographs. Use a manual-focus
camera. If the shoe print is made from a
colored substance (e.g., blood), color film
may be preferable to black and white. In
most ambient-light situations, use ISO
100 film. Use ISO 200 or 400 film, if
necessary.
3. Place the camera on a tripod and position

it directly over the impression. Adjust the
height of the camera, and if possible, use
a normal lens (50 mm for a 35 mm
camera). Fill the frame with the
impression and scale. Position the
camera so the film plane is parallel to the
impression.
4. Set the f-stop on f/16 or f/22 for a greater

depth of field.
5. Attach an electronic flash with a long

extension cord to the camera.
123
6. Block out bright ambient light with a

sunscreen to maximize the light from the
flash.
7. Focus on the bottom of the impression,

not on the scale. Take an existing- or
reflected-light photograph.
8. Position the flash at a very low angle

(1015 degrees) to the impression. This
will enhance the detail of the impression.
For consistent exposure, hold the flash at
least 57 feet from the impression. Shoot
several exposures, bracketing toward
overexposure to obtain maximum image
detail. Move the flash two or more angles
to the impression.
9. Take the exposures, move the light to

another position, adjust the sunscreen,
and repeat Steps 7 and 8.
Impressions in Snow
Impressions in snow are difficult to photograph
because of lack of contrast. First, attempt to
photograph the impressions as if in soil. To
increase the contrast, lightly spray snow
impressions with Snow Print Wax, a material used
for casting snow impressions, or with colored
spray paint. Hold the spray can at least 23 feet
124
from the impression so the force of the aerosol

does not damage the impression. Direct a light
application of spray at an angle of about 3045
degrees so the colored paint strikes only the high
points of the impression. Highlighted impressions
will absorb heat from the sun and must be
shielded until photographed and cast to prevent
melting.
Recovering the Original Evidence

Whenever possible, submit to the Laboratory the
evidence bearing the original impression. If the
evidence cannot be submitted to the Laboratory,
use the following techniques to recover the
evidence.
Casting Three-Dimensional Impressions

Casting a three-dimensional impression in soil,
sand, or snow is necessary to capture detail for
examination. Dental stone, with a compressive
strength of 8,000 psi or greater, must be used for
casting all impressions. The compressive strength
is listed on the container along with the proper
ratio of powder to water used for mixing. Dental
stone is available through local dental supply
houses. Colored dental stone is preferred.
Plaster of paris, modeling plasters, and dental
plasters are not sufficiently hard, do not resist
abrasion when cleaned, and must not be used.
125
Mixing Dental Stone in a Bag

Store dental stone in resealable plastic bags. An
8- by 12-inch resealable plastic bag can store two
pounds of dental stone powder. With premeasured
bags, casting impressions at the crime scene
involves only adding water. The bag containing
the dental stone powder can be used to mix and
pour the dental stone.
To make a cast, add the appropriate amount of

water to the bag and close the top. Mix the casting
material by vigorously massaging it through the
bag for 35 minutes. Ensure that the material in
the corners of the bag is also mixed. After it has
been mixed, the material should have the
consistency of pancake batter or heavy cream.
Mixing Dental Stone in a Bucket or Bowl

If the impressions are numerous or large, it may
be necessary to mix larger quantities of dental
stone in a bucket or bowl. The dental stone should
be added slowly to the water and stirred
continuously for 35 minutes. After it has been
mixed, the material should have the consistency
of pancake batter or heavy cream.
Pouring Dental Stone

Casting material has sufficient weight and volume
to erode and destroy detail if it is poured directly
on top of the impression. The casting material
126
should be poured on the ground next to the

impression, allowing it to flow into the impression.
The impression should be filled with casting
material until it has overflowed.
If the mixture does not flow easily into all areas of

the impression, use a finger or a small stick on the
surface to cause the dental stone to flow into the
impression. Do not put the stick or finger more
than 1/4 inch below the surface of the casting
material because it can damage the impression.
Before the cast hardens completely, write the

date, collectors initials, and other identifying
information on it. In warm weather, the cast should
be left undisturbed for at least 2030 minutes. In
cold weather, the cast should be left undisturbed
longer. Casts have been destroyed or damaged
when lifted too soon. If the cast is in sand or loose
soil, it should lift easily. Casts in mud or clay may
require careful treatment and excavation when
being removed.
Allow the cast to air-dry for at least 48 hours.

Package the cast in paper, not in plastic. An FBI
Laboratory examiner must clean the cast.
Lifting Two-Dimensional Impressions

Lifting an impression allows for the transfer of a
127
two-dimensional residue or dust impression to a

lifting film. It also allows the impression to be
shipped to the Laboratory for photographing and
examination.
Electrostatic Lifts
An electrostatic lifting device lifts footwear
impressions from porous and nonporous surfaces
without damaging the impressions. This device
works on dry dust or residue impressions on clean
surfaces but will not work if the impressions were
wet or have become wet. Electrostatic lifting
devices come with instructions for use.
Storing Electrostatic Lifting Film

Lifted impressions are damaged easily if the film
is not stored properly. The film has a residual
charge that attracts dust and debris and causes
the film to cling to other surfaces. To preserve and
store the lifting film containing an impression, tape
one edge of the film securely in a clean, smooth,
high-quality paper file folder or tape the edges
securely in a shallow photographic paper box.
Low-grade cardboard boxes such as pizza boxes
must not be used because the residual charge
on the film will pull dust from the box and
contaminate the impression.
Items that contain a dry residue footwear

impression must not be wrapped or stored in
128
plastic because a partial transfer of the impression

to the plastic will occur.
Gelatin and Adhesive Lifts

Gelatin lifters can be used to lift impressions from
porous and nonporous surfaces. Black gelatin
lifters work well for lifting light-colored dry or wet
impressions. White gelatin lifters can be used to
lift impressions developed with fingerprint powders
or impressions dark enough to contrast with a
white background.
Adhesive lifters can be used only to lift

impressions from smooth, nonporous surfaces.
White adhesive lifters can be used to lift
impressions developed with fingerprint powders.
Transparent adhesive lifters can be used to lift
impressions developed with black or fluorescent
powders. Transparent tapes such as two-inch
fingerprint-lifting tape also can be used to lift
powdered impressions if the impressions are
transferred to a white card.
Lifting Materials
Electrostatic: can be used on porous and
nonporous surfaces. Used to lift dry dust and
residue impressions. Nondestructive. Useful
for searching for latent impressions.
129
White adhesive: can be used on smooth,

nonporous surfaces. Used to lift wet or dry
impressions that have been chemically
enhanced or developed with dark fingerprint
powder.
Transparent adhesive: can be used on

smooth, nonporous surfaces. Used to lift wet
or dry impressions that have been treated with
black or fluorescent fingerprint powder. Do not
use on an original impression.
White gelatin: can be used on all porous and

nonporous surfaces as long as the gelatin
contrasts with an impression. Used to lift wet
or dry impressions that have been chemically
enhanced or developed with fluorescent
fingerprint powder.
Black gelatin: can be used on all porous and

nonporous surfaces. Used to lift wet or dry
impressions. Offers good contact with most
residue.
Searching Shoe Print and Tire Tread Files

A file of shoe manufacturers designs and a file of
tire treads and other reference material can be
searched to determine brand names and
manufacturers.
130
Questions concerning shoe print and tire tread

evidence should be directed to 703-632-7288,
703-632-7314, or 703-632-7315. Follow the
For shoe print and tire tread comparisons,

submit original evidence whenever possible
(shoes, tires, photographic negatives, casts,
lifts).
For shoe print and tire tread file searches,

submit quality photographs of the
impressions. If photographs are not available,
submit casts, lifts, or the original evidence.
Detailed sketches or photocopies are
acceptable. Images of impression evidence
may be submitted electronically. Call
703-632-7288 for specifics on submitting
evidence in this manner.
Unobtrusively write the collectors initials,

dates, and other relevant information on the
evidence.
Air-dry and package evidence separately in

Bubble Wrap; clean, smooth, high-quality
paper or laminated folders; or paper bags,
depending on the items being submitted for
examination.
Back to the top
131
Soil Examinations
Soil examinations can determine whether soils
share a common origin by comparing color,
texture, and composition.
Questions concerning soil evidence should be

directed to 703-632-8449. Follow the evidence
submission directions, including Requesting
Evidence Examinations and Packaging and
Shipping Evidence.
Collect soil samples as soon as possible,

because the soil at the crime scene can
change dramatically.
Collect soil samples from the immediate crime

scene area and from the logical access and
escape route(s).
Collect soil samples where there are

noticeable changes in color, texture, and
composition.
Collect soil samples at a depth that is

consistent with the depth from which the
questioned soil may have originated.
If possible, collect soil samples from alibi

areas such as the yard or work area of the
suspect(s).
132
Submit a map identifying soil-sample

locations.
Do not remove soil adhering to shoes,

clothing, and tools. Do not process tools for
latent prints. Air-dry the soil and the clothing,
and package separately in paper bags.
Carefully remove soil adhering to vehicles.

Air-dry the soil, and package separately in
paper bags.

questioned soil in leakproof containers such
use paper envelopes or glass containers.
Pack to keep lumps intact.
Back to the top
Special-Event and Situational

Awareness Support
Visual information specialists travel to the field
and conduct digital site/venue surveys. These
operations include three-dimensional laser
scanning and documentation of physical
structures and objects, 360-degree spherical
video capture, and geographic information system
(GIS) mapping.
133
Questions concerning special-event and

situational awareness support should be
directed to 703-632-8194.
Tape Examinations
Tape composition, construction, and color can be
compared with known sources. Comparisons can
be made with the torn end of tape and a suspect
roll of tape.
The Laboratory will examine duct, vinyl electrical,

packaging, masking, and cellulose acetate (e.g.,
Scotch) tapes.
Questions concerning tape evidence should

Whenever possible, submit tape still adhered

to the substrate. This minimizes the loss of
trace evidence, latent fingerprints, or contact
impressions. If it is not possible to submit the
substrate, the tape may be manually removed
and placed adhesive side down on a clean,
colorless piece of plastic sheeting (e.g.,
transparency film or Kapak tubular rollstock),
134
not on cardboard, paper, or vinyl document

protectors. Do not distort or tear the tape
during removal.
If the tape is cut during removal, document

and initial each cut. Use a method that
produces a unique cutting pattern (e.g.,
pinking shears).
Back to the top
Toolmark Examinations
Toolmarks
Tools can bear unique microscopic characteristics
because of manufacturing processes and use.
These characteristics can be transferred to
surfaces that had contact with the tools. Evidence
toolmarks can be compared with recovered tools.
In the absence of a questioned tool, toolmark
examinations can determine the type of tool(s)
that produced the toolmark and whether the
toolmark is of value for comparison. Toolmark
examinations also include lock-and-key
examinations.
Fractures
Fracture examinations sometimes can be used to
determine whether evidence was joined together
and subsequently broken apart.
135
Questions concerning toolmark evidence

If possible, submit the tool-marked evidence.
If it is not possible to submit the tool-marked

evidence, make a cast to submit to the
Laboratory.
1. Use an acrylic-surface replica cast kit.

Call the Laboratory at 703-632-8442
regarding the appropriate cast kit.
2. Different formulas are used in different

temperatures. If possible, move the
evidence to a warm area.
3. Casts will duplicate foreign material in the

stamped characters. Clean the area
before proceeding. Remove paint and dirt
with a solvent such as acetone, gasoline,
or paint remover. Use Naval Jelly to
remove rust. Use a soft brush. Do not use
a wire brush.
4. Build a dam around the stamped

characters to retain the acrylic liquid
136
while it hardens. Use a soft and pliable

dam material such as modeling clay.
Ensure there are no voids in the dam.
5. Following the instructions in the kit, mix

the liquid and powder for one minute and
pour the mixture into the dam.
6. The acrylic liquid will take 30 minutes to

harden. Remove the cast when it is hard.
If paint and rust are on the cast, make
additional casts and submit the cleanest
one to the Laboratory.
7. Indicate where on the object (often a

vehicle) the cast was taken.
8. Pack the cast to prevent breakage.
Photographs locate toolmarks but are of no

value for identification purposes.
Obtain samples of any material deposited on

the tools. Submit samples in leakproof
containers such as film canisters or plastic pill
bottles.
To avoid contamination, do not place the tool

against the tool-marked evidence.
137
Submit the tool rather than making test cuts or

impressions.
Mark the ends of the evidence and specify

which end was cut during evidence collection.
Back to the top
Toxicology Examinations
The Toxicology discipline of the FBI Laboratory is
accredited by the American Board of Forensic
Toxicologists. Toxicology examinations can
disclose the presence of drugs and poisons in
biological specimens and food products. The
examinations can determine the circumstances
surrounding drug- or poison-related homicides,
suicides, and accidents.
Because of the large number of potentially toxic

substances, it may be necessary to screen for
classes of poisons. Examples include:
Volatile compounds (ethanol, methanol,

isopropanol).
Heavy metals (arsenic).
Nonvolatile organic compounds (drugs of

abuse, pharmaceuticals).
138
Miscellaneous (strychnine, cyanide).
Questions concerning toxicology evidence

Accepting evidence in alleged poison

investigations will be based on whether the
victim(s) sought medical attention or a
suspicious death occurred. A doctors medical
evaluation and report must be included with
the evidence.
Biological evidence in drug-facilitated assaults

must include a urine sample. The urine must
be collected as soon as possible after the
assault but must not have been collected
more than 96 hours after the alleged
drugging.
Toxicological analysis of hair specimens will

be performed only for specific drugs or
poisons. Call the Laboratory at
703-632-8441 prior to submitting hair to
ensure that the evidence will be accepted
for examination. The communication
accompanying the evidence must reference
139
the telephone conversation accepting the

evidence.
The quantity of biological specimens

submitted depends on whether the identity of
a toxic substance is known, the route of
administration, the time after exposure that
biological specimens are collected, and
whether subjects(s) or victim(s) are living or
deceased. Call the Laboratory at
703-632-8441 prior to submitting the
specimens to ensure that the correct
quantity is submitted. The communication
accompanying the evidence must reference
the telephone conversation accepting the
evidence.
Each biological specimen must be placed in

separate, labeled, sealed glass tubes, plastic
cups, or heat-sealed or resealable plastic
bags. Affix BIOHAZARD labels to the inside
and outside containers.
Refrigerate or freeze biological specimens

during storage and shipping to prevent
deterioration. Pack so that no breakage,
leakage, or contamination occurs.
Submit a copy of the autopsy or incident

report.
140
Describe the symptoms of the suspect(s) or

victim(s) at the time of the crime or prior to the
death.
List any known or questioned drugs

consumed by or prescribed for the
suspect(s) or victim(s).
Describe any known or questioned

environmental exposure to toxic
substances by the suspect(s) or victim(s).
Back to the top
Video Examinations
Video examinations are conducted by the FBIs
Operational Technology Division (OTD), Digital
Evidence Laboratory (DEL), Forensic Audio,
Video, and Image Analysis Unit (FAVIAU). The
OTD DEL has different acceptance criteria and a
different physical address than the FBI Laboratory,
as described below.
Authenticity
Authenticity examinations are conducted to
determine whether video recordings are original,
continuous, unaltered, and consistent with the
operation of the recording device used to make
the recording.
141
Enhancement
Enhancement examinations are conducted to
maximize the clarity of the video signal.
Video Image Processing

Enhanced still images can be produced from
images on video and made as prints or digital
files.
Standards Conversion
Video can be converted from one standard to
another (e.g., PAL to NTSC or SECAM).
Format Conversion
Video can be converted from one format to
another (e.g., Beta to VHS).
Synchronization
Audio and video signals can be combined to
produce one composite recording.
Special Effects
Special effects, such as a mosaic or blur spot, can
be added to video recordings to protect a persons
identity.
Damaged Media Repair

Video recordings can be repaired, restored, or
retrieved for playback and examination, if damage
is not too extensive.
142
Questions concerning video examinations

concerning video evidence should be directed
to 703-985-1388.
Video examinations may not be submitted directly

from entities outside the FBI. State, local, or
international agency cases must be submitted by
the FBI field office servicing the area and must
meet one of the following two criteria: 1) the state,
local, or international case has a nexus to an
ongoing FBI investigation or 2) the FBI division
head deems that the case is of enough regional
importance to merit the dedication of federal
resources to the state, local, or international case.
These criteria shall be met with a written
statement from the division head (Special Agent in
Charge). FBI entities may submit cases directly.

Write-protect the original media. Never use

the Pause operation when viewing original
video recordings.
Submit original video recordings. If originals

cannot be obtained, call for further
instructions.
143
Queue the original videotape to the

approximate time of the pertinent area. State
in a communication the date and time of the
pertinent area, and use the date-time stamp
on the video or the counter indicator (set from
the beginning of the tape at 000).

SENSITIVE ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT or
FRAGILE, SENSITIVE AUDIO/VIDEO
MEDIA and KEEP AWAY FROM MAGNETS
OR MAGNETIC FIELDS.
FORENSIC PROGRAM
BUILDING 27958A
QUANTICO VA 22135
Back to the top
Weapons of Mass Destruction

Examinations
A weapon of mass destruction (WMD) is typically
associated with nuclear and/or radiological,
biological, or chemical agents; however, it also
may be an explosive. WMDs are designed to
cause a large amount of destruction or disruption
to people and infrastructures.
144
The FBI Laboratory has formalized partnerships

with a variety of government, academic, and
private laboratories to conduct forensic
examinations of evidence that either contains or is
contaminated with hazardous chemical, biological,
and/or radiological material.
Depending on the nature of the threati.e.,

chemical, biological, or radiologicalevidence
examinations will be conducted by the Laboratory
or at a designated FBI partner laboratory specially
equipped to handle hazardous materials.
The Laboratory can direct or apply the use of

specialized analytical techniques to identify and
characterize a wide range of biological pathogens,
toxins, chemical agents, toxic chemicals, and
trace radioactive compounds that constitute a
suspected or potential WMD.
The FBIs Hazardous Evidence Analysis Team

(HEAT), composed of forensic examiners and
technicians from the various FBI Laboratory
disciplines, is trained to safely conduct traditional
examinations of hazardous evidence. These
examinations are conducted at FBI partner
laboratories.
Suspected or confirmed WMD crime scenes

should be handled only by qualified personnel.
145
Upon notification or suspicion of a possible

WMD incident, contact the FBIs Strategic
Information and Operations Center at
202-323-3300 and ask for the Weapons of
Mass Destruction Operations Unit Duty Officer.
Before it can be analyzed by the Laboratory or

partner laboratories, suspected or confirmed
WMD evidence must be properly field-screened
by qualified personnel to determine the absence
or presence of hazardous materials. Questions
concerning WMD evidence examinations
Back to the top
Wood Examinations
Wood examinations can match sides, ends, and
fractures; determine wood species; and compare
wood particles found on clothing, vehicles, and
other objects with wood from the crime scene.
Questions concerning wood evidence should

Submit wood in plastic or paper bags.
146
Crime Scene Safety

Personnel have the ultimate responsibility to
recognize chemical, biological, and physical
hazards when processing a crime scene.
However, it is the responsibility of each agency
responding to and providing support at the crime
scene to develop policies, programs, and training
on health and safety practices.
Always consult local, state, and federal

environmental and occupational health and safety
laws when working with forensic evidence. All
shipping of forensic evidence must comply with
U.S. Department of Transportation and
International Air Transport Association regulations.
SAFETY
This section describes the hazards, safety

precautions, safe work practices, and personal
protective equipment recommended for personnel
processing routine crime scenes. This section also
explains the importance of complying with waste-
disposal regulations.
Routes of Exposure
Personnel operating in or around contaminated
environments must be aware of the various ways
in which hazards may enter and harm the body.1
147
Inhalation
Inhalation is the introduction of a toxic product by
the respiratory system. Airborne contaminants
may be in the form of a dust, aerosol, smoke,
vapor, gas, or fume. Materials may be in a solid or
liquid form and still represent an inhalation hazard
because they produce vapors, mists, and fumes.
Proper work practices and adequate ventilation

can minimize the risk of airborne-contaminant
inhalation. When working in areas with airborne
contaminants present, personnel must wear
respiratory protection. Personnel must be certified
to wear respiratory protection and, therefore, to
work in areas containing airborne contaminants.
Skin Contact
Contamination through the skin can result from
direct contact or by absorption. The severity of the
injury can depend on the concentration of the
contaminant and the amount of exposure time.
Systemic effectssuch as dizziness, tremors,
nausea, blurred vision, liver and kidney damage,
shock, or collapsecan occur when the
substances are absorbed through the skin and
circulated throughout the body. Exposure can be
prevented by using personal protective equipment
(e.g., gloves, safety glasses, goggles, face
shields, and protective clothing).
148
Ingestion
Ingestion involves introducing contaminants into
the body through the mouth. Ingestion can cause
severe damage to the mouth, throat, and digestive
tract. To prevent entry of contaminants into the
mouth, safe work practicessuch as washing
hands before eating, smoking, or applying
cosmeticsmust always be used. Personnel
should not bring food, drinks, or cigarettes into
areas where contamination can occur, regardless
of personal protection they may be wearing.
Injection
The direct injection of contaminants into the
bodyeither by needle sticks or mechanical
injuries from contaminated glass, metal, or other
sharp objectscan cause severe complications.
Contaminants enter directly into the bloodstream
and can spread rapidly. Extreme caution should
be exercised when handling objects with sharp or
jagged edges. Work gloves must be worn at all
times.
Safety
Bloodborne Pathogen Safety
On December 6, 1991, OSHA issued Title 29,
Section 1910.1030, of the Code of Federal
Regulations (CFR), Bloodborne Pathogens.2
149
Occupations at risk for exposure to bloodborne

pathogens include law enforcement, emergency
response, and forensic laboratory personnel.
Fundamental to the bloodborne pathogens

standard is the concept of following universal
precautions. This concept is the primary
mechanism for infection control. It requires that
employees treat all blood, body fluids, or other
potentially infectious materials as if infected with
bloodborne diseases, such as the hepatitis B virus
(HBV), the hepatitis C virus (HCV), and the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The following
protective measures should be taken to avoid
direct contact with potentially infectious materials:
Use barrier protectionsuch as disposable

gloves, coveralls, and shoe coversif contact
with potentially infectious materials may occur.
Change gloves when torn or punctured or
when their ability to function as a barrier is
compromised. Wear appropriate eye and face
protection to protect against splashes, sprays,
and spatters of potentially infectious materials.
Wash hands after removing gloves or other

personal protective equipment. Remove
gloves and other personal protective
equipment in a manner that will not result in
contaminating unprotected skin or clothing.
150
Prohibit eating, drinking, smoking, or applying

cosmetics where human blood, body fluids, or
other potentially infectious materials are
present, regardless of personal protection that
may be worn.
Place contaminated sharps in appropriate

closable, leakproof, puncture-resistant
containers when transported or discarded.
Label the containers with a BIOHAZARD
warning label.
Do not bend, re-cap, remove, or otherwise

handle contaminated needles or other sharps.
After use, decontaminate equipment with a

daily prepared solution of household bleach
diluted 1:10 or with 70 percent isopropyl
alcohol or other appropriate disinfectant.
Noncorrosive disinfectants are commercially
available. It is important to allow sufficient
contact time for complete disinfection.
In addition to universal precautions,

engineering controls and prudent work
practices can reduce or eliminate exposure to
potentially infectious materials. Examples of
engineering controls include long-handled
mirrors used to locate and retrieve evidence in
151
confined or hidden spaces and puncture-

resistant containers used to store and dispose
of sharps and paint stirrers.
Chemical Safety
Depending on the type of material encountered, a
variety of health and safety hazards can exist.
Some of these hazards are identified by the
following categories:1, 3
Flammable or combustible materialssuch as

gasoline, acetone, and etherignite easily
when exposed to air and an ignition source,
such as a spark or flame.
Over time, some explosive materials, such as

nitroglycerine and nitroglycerine-based
dynamite, deteriorate to become chemically
unstable. In particular, ether will form
peroxides around the mouth of the vessel in
which it is stored. All explosive materials are
sensitive to heat, shock, and friction.
Pyrophoric materialssuch as phosphorus,

sodium, and bariumcan be liquid or solid
and can ignite without an external ignition
source in air temperatures less than 130
degrees Fahrenheit (540 degrees Celsius).
152
Oxidizerssuch as nitrates, hydrogen

peroxide, and concentrated sulfuric acidare
chemical compounds that readily yield oxygen
to promote combustion. Avoid storage with
flammable and combustible materials or
substances that could rapidly accelerate their
decomposition.
Corrosive materials can cause destruction to

living tissue or objects such as wood and
steel. The amount of damage depends on the
concentration and duration of contact.
When working with chemicals, be aware of

hazardous properties, disposal techniques,
personal protection, packaging and shipping
procedures, and emergency preparedness.
This awareness comes from appropriate
training and the information in a Material
Safety Data Sheet. The Material Safety Data
Sheet provides information on the hazards of
a particular material so that personnel can
work safely and responsibly with hazardous
materials.
Light-Source Safety
When using ultraviolet lights, lasers, and other
light sources, personnel must protect their eyes
from direct and indirect exposure.4 Not all laser
153
beams are visible, and irreversible eye damage

can result from exposure to direct or indirect light
from reflected beams. Prolonged exposure to the
skin also should be avoided.
All personnel in the vicinity of the light source

should wear protective eyewear appropriate for
the light source. Goggles must have sufficient
protective material and fit snugly to prevent light
from entering at any angle. The goggles must
display the American National Standards
Institutes (ANSIs) mark denoting eye-protection
compliance. Laser-protective eyewear must be of
the appropriate optical density to protect against
the maximum operating wavelength of the laser
source.
Confined-Space Safety
A confined space is an enclosed area large
enough for personnel to enter and work, but it has
limited or restricted means for entry and exit.
Confined spaces (e.g., sewers, open pits, tank
cars, and vats) are not designed for continuous
occupancy. Confined spaces can expose
personnel to hazards including toxic gases,
explosive or oxygen-deficient atmospheres,
electrical dangers, or materials that can engulf
personnel entering the space.5
154
Conditions in a confined space must be

considered dangerous, and personnel may not
enter the space until a confined-space permit has
been issued. The atmosphere must be monitored
continuously with a calibrated, direct-reading
instrument for oxygen, carbon monoxide,
flammable gases and vapors, and toxic air
contaminants. Periodic readings from these
monitors should be documented. Only certified
confined-space personnel may operate in
confined spaces. Rescue services must be
immediately available to the site.
The following practices must be followed when

working in a confined space:
Never enter before all atmospheric,

engulfment, mechanical, and electrical
hazards have been identified and
documented. Isolating hazards must be
performed in accordance with OSHA 29 CFR
1910.147, The Control of Hazardous Energy
(Lockout/Tagout).6
Provide ventilation. Ensure that ventilation

equipment does not interfere with entry, exit,
or rescue procedures.
155
Provide barriers to warn unauthorized

personnel and to keep entrants safe from
external hazards.
Provide constant communication between

personnel entering the confined space and
attendants.
Ensure that back-up communication is in

place prior to entry.
Wear appropriate personal protective

equipment, such as self-contained breathing
apparatus (SCBA), a full-body harness, head
protection, and other necessary equipment.
Never attempt a rescue unless part of a

designated rescue team.
Ensure that personnel certified in first aid and

CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) are
on-site.
For additional information, refer to the OSHA

standard for Permit-Required Confined
Spaces, 29 CFR 1910.146.7
156
Excavation Safety
All excavations must meet the requirements set
forth in OSHAs standards for excavations,
29 CFR 1926.650,8 1926.651,9 and 1926.652.10
Each employee in an excavation shall be
protected from cave-ins by an adequate protective
system designed in accordance with 29 CFR
1926.652(b) or 29 CFR 1926.652(c),10 unless
excavations are less than five feet in depth and
examination of the ground is made by a
competent person to prevent cave-ins. A
competent person is someone capable of
identifying existing and predictable hazards in
the surroundings or working conditions that are
unsanitary, hazardous, or dangerous to
employees and who has the authorization to take
prompt corrective action to eliminate those
hazards.
As with all excavations, personnel should be

aware of buried utilities and control standing
water, hazardous environments, confined spaces,
and oxygen-deficient atmospheres.
X-Ray Safety
Portable, handheld X-ray machines, often used to
identify the contents of unknown packages, pose
a risk for exposure to X-ray radiation at crime
scenes.
157
Keep X-ray exposure as low as reasonably

achievable by adhering to the following:
Shield the X-ray device, the questionable

object, and the operator.
Remove all nonessential personnel from the

X-ray field.
Limit the time that personnel must be in the

area of operation.
Always wear assigned monitoring devices

appropriate for X-ray radiation.
Ensure that standard X-ray operating

procedures are in place and followed and that
adequate training has been provided in
accordance with federal and state regulations.
Back to the top
Personal Protective Equipment

At all crime scenes, the selection of personal
protective equipment must be done in
coordination with a hazard risk assessment
completed by trained and qualified personnel. The
hazard risk assessment should identify the
possible contaminants as well as the hazards
associated with each product. Depending on the
158
outcome of the assessment or uncertainty of the

hazards associated with the given scene, OSHAs
standard for Hazardous Waste Operations and
Emergency Response, 29 CFR 1910.120,11 may
need to be applied. Entry into these types of
scenes will depend on each law enforcement
organizations available equipment, situational
training, and qualified personnel.
Hand Protection
Hand protection should be selected on the basis
of the type of material being handled and the
hazard(s) associated with the material.12, 13
Detailed information can be obtained from the
manufacturer. The following list provides
information about glove material types and
functions:
Nitrile provides protection from acids, alkaline

solutions, hydraulic fluid, photographic
solutions, fuels, lubricants, aromatics,
petroleum, and chlorinated solvents. It also
offers some resistance to cuts and snags.
Neoprene offers resistance to oil, grease,

acids, solvents, alkalies, bases, and most
refrigerants.
159
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is resistant to

alkalies, oils, and limited concentrations of
nitric and chromic acids.
Latex (natural rubber) resists mild acids,

caustics, detergents, germicides, and ketonic
solutions. Latex will swell and degrade if
exposed to gasoline or kerosene. When
exposed to prolonged, excessive heat or
direct sunlight, latex gloves can degrade,
causing the glove material to lose its integrity.
Using powder-free gloves with reduced

protein content reduces the risk of developing
latex allergies. Personnel allergic to latex
usually can wear nitrile or neoprene.
Guidelines for glove use include the following:
Prior to donning gloves, inspect them for

holes, punctures, and tears. Remove rings or
other sharp objects that can cause punctures.
When working with heavily contaminated

materials, wear a double layer of gloves.
Change gloves when they become torn or

punctured or when their ability to function as a
barrier is compromised.
160
To avoid contaminating unprotected skin or

clothing, remove disposable gloves by
grasping the cuffs and pulling them off inside
out. Discard disposable gloves in designated
containers. Do not reuse.
Eye Protection
Personnel handling chemical, biological, and
radioactive materials should wear appropriate
eye protection, such as safety glasses and
goggles.1, 14 Face shields offer better protection
when there is a potential for splashing or flying
debris. Face shields must be worn in combination
with safety glasses or goggles because face
shields alone are not considered appropriate eye
protection.
Contact lens users must wear safety glasses or

goggles to protect the eyes. In the event of a
chemical splash into the eye, it can be difficult to
remove the contact lens to irrigate the eye, and
contaminants can be trapped behind the contact
lens.
Protective eyewear also should be worn over

prescription glasses. Alternately, safety glasses
may be made to the wearers eyeglass
prescription.
161
Foot Protection
Shoes that completely cover and protect the foot
are essential.12, 15 Protective footwear should be
worn at crime scenes when there is a danger of
foot injuries from falling or rolling objects, from
objects piercing the sole, or from exposure to
electrical hazards. The standard recognized by
OSHA for protective footwear is the American
National Standard for Personal Protection
Protective Footwear, ANSI Z41-1991.16 In some
situations, nonpermeable shoe covers can provide
barrier protection to shoes and prevent the
transfer of contamination outside the crime scene.
Respiratory Protection
Certain crime scenes, such as bombings and
clandestine laboratories, can produce noxious
fumes and other airborne contaminants in which
responders must use respiratory protection.1, 12, 17
Compliance with 29 CFR 1910.134, Respiratory

Protection,18 is mandatory whenever respirators
are used. Critical elements for the safe use of
respirators include a written program, training,
medical evaluation, fit testing, and a respirator
maintenance program. Without these elements,
the wearer is not guaranteed protection.
162
Head Protection
At certain crime scenes where structural damage
has occurred or may occur, protective helmets
should be worn. The standard recognized by
OSHA for protective helmets is ANSIs
requirements for industrial head protection,
Z89.1-2003.19
Back to the top
Hazardous Materials Transportation

All shipments of suspected or confirmed
hazardous materials must comply with U.S.
Department of Transportation and International Air
Transport Association regulations. Title 49 of the
CFR lists specific requirements that must be
observed when preparing hazardous materials for
shipment by air, land, or sea.20 In addition, the
International Air Transport Association annually
publishes Dangerous Goods Regulations,21 which
details how to prepare and package shipments for
air transportation.
Title 49 CFR 172.101 provides a Hazardous

Materials Table22 that identifies items considered
hazardous for the purpose of transportation.
Title 49 CFR 172.101 also addresses special
provisions for certain materials, hazardous
materials communications, emergency response
information, and training requirements for
163
shippers. Personnel who serve any function in the

shipment of hazardous materials must receive the
specified training prior to shipping any materials
by commercial transportation.
Back to the top
Hazardous Waste Regulations

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agencys
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA),23 commonly referred to as the cradle-to-
grave regulation, was established to track
chemicals from cradle, or generation, to grave,
or disposal. This system imposes requirements on
both generators and transporters, as well as on
transport, storage, and disposal facilities. RCRA
specifies that once a material is determined to be
hazardous, it becomes the generators complete
responsibility.
The process for determining whether a material is

a hazardous waste should be completed by
qualified personnel. Even new material in its
original container may be considered waste if
there is no use for it. The services of a hazardous
waste contractor and transporter can be used to
help remove materials from scenes. Hazardous
materials that are removed from crime scenes are
considered evidence and would not fall under
RCRA waste provisions. However, when a case
164
has been adjudicated or, for other reasons, the

material is not needed, the immediate assistance
of a qualified contractor knowledgeable about
local regulations must be sought. Clandestine
drug laboratories and environmental crime scenes
are examples of situations that may require the
removal of waste.
Back to the top
References
1. National Research Council. Committee on
Hazardous Substances in the Laboratory. Prudent
Practices for Handling Hazardous Chemicals in
Laboratories. National Academy Press,
Washington, D.C., 1981.
2. Bloodborne Pathogens, 29 CFR 1910.1030,

U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety
and Health Administration, Washington, D.C.
Available: http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/
owadisp.show_document?p_table=standards
&p_id=10051.
3. Upfal, M. J. Pocket Guide to First Aid for

Chemical Injuries. Genium, Schenectady, New
York, 1993.
165
4. American National Standards Institute.

American National Standard for Safe Use of
Lasers (ANSI Z136.1-2000). American National
Standards Institute, New York, 2000.
5. Conforti, J. V. Confined Space Pocket Guide.
Genium, Schenectady, New York, 1996.
6. The Control of Hazardous Energy (Lockout/

Tagout), 29 CFR 1910.147, U.S. Department of
Labor, Occupational Safety and Health
Administration, Washington, D.C. Available:
http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show
_document?p_table=standards&p_id=9804.
7. Permit-Required Confined Spaces, 29 CFR

1910.146, U.S. Department of Labor,
Occupational Safety and Health Administration,
Washington, D.C. Available: http://www.osha.gov/
pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table
=standards&p_id=9797.
8. Scope, Application, and Definitions Applicable

to This Subpart, 29 CFR 1926.650, U.S.
Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and
Health Administration, Washington, D.C.
owadisp.show_document?p_table=standards&p
_id=10774.
166
9. Specific Excavation Requirements, 29 CFR

10. Requirements for Protective Systems, 29 CFR

11. Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency

Response, 29 CFR 1910.120, U.S. Department of
Labor, Occupational Safety and Health
Administration, Washington, D.C. Available:
http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show
_document?p_table=standards&p_id=9765.
12. Office of Environmental Health and Safety.

Laboratory Survival Manual. University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia, 1998. Available:
http://ehs.virginia.edu/chem/home.html.
13. Choose the proper gloves for chemical

handling. In: Bests Safety Directory. A. M. Best,
Oldwick, New Jersey, 1998.
167

American National Standard Practice for
Occupational and Educational Eye and Face
Protection (ANSI Z87.1-2003). American National
Standards Institute, New York, 2003.
15. Occupational Foot Protection, 29 CFR


American National Standard for Personal
ProtectionProtective Footwear (ANSI Z41-
1991). American National Standards Institute,
New York, 1991.
17. Gorman, C. Hazardous Waste Handling

Pocket Guide. Genium, Schenectady, New York,
1997.
18. Respiratory Protection, 29 CFR 1910.134,

U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety
and Health Administration, Washington, D.C.
owadisp.show_document?p_table=standards&p
_id=12716.
168

American National Standard for Personnel
ProtectionProtective Headwear for Industrial
WorkersRequirements (ANSI Z89.1-2003).
American National Standards Institute, New York,
2003.
20. Transportation, 49 CFR 100185, U.S.

Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C.
Available: http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/
cfr/waisidx_05/49cfr172_05.html.
21. International Air Transport Association.

Dangerous Goods Regulations. 44th ed.,
Montreal, Canada, 2003.
22. Hazardous Materials Table, 49 CFR 172.101,

U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington,
D.C.
Available: http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/
cfr/waisidx_05/49cfr172_05.html.
23. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, 40

CFR 30013020, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, D.C. Available:
http://www.epa.gov/region5/defs/html/rcra.htm.
Back to the top
169
170
Crime Scene Search

Crime scenes involving suspected or
confirmed weapons of mass destruction
(WMD) (nuclear and/or radiological, biological,
chemical, or explosive agents) should be
handled only by qualified personnel. The FBI
is the lead federal agency of a suspected or
confirmed WMD crime scene. Specific
information on how to process a hazardous
materials crime scene is not covered in this
section. Upon notification or suspicion of a
possible WMD incident, contact the FBIs
Strategic Information and Operations Center at
202-323-3300 and ask for the Weapons of Mass
Destruction Operations Unit Duty Officer.
A crime scene search is planned, coordinated,

and executed by law enforcement officials to
locate physical evidence.
Basic Principles
SEARCH
The best search options are usually the

most difficult and time-consuming.
Physical evidence cannot be

overdocumented.
171
There are two search approaches:
1. A cautious search of visible areas,

avoiding evidence loss or contamination.
2. A vigorous search of concealed areas.
Preparation
Obtain a search warrant, if necessary.
Discuss the search with involved personnel

before arriving at the scene, if possible.
Establish a command headquarters for

communication and decision making in major
or complicated crime scene searches.
Ensure that personnel are aware of the types

of evidence usually encountered and the
proper handling of the evidence.
Make preliminary personnel assignments

before arriving at the scene, if possible.
Establish communication between the medical

examiner, laboratory personnel, and
prosecutive attorneys so that questions that
arise during the crime scene search can be
resolved.
172
Coordinate agreements with all agencies in

multijurisdictional crime scene searches.
Accumulate evidence collection and

packaging materials and equipment.
Prepare the paperwork to document the

search.
Provide protective clothing, communication,

lighting, shelter, transportation, equipment,
food, water, restroom facilities, medical
assistance, and security for search personnel.
In prolonged searches, use shifts of two or

more teams. Transfer paperwork and
responsibility in a preplanned manner from
one team to the next.
Ensure that assignments are in keeping with

the attitude, aptitude, training, and experience
of search personnel. Personnel may be
assigned two or more responsibilities:
Team Leader
Ensure scene security.
Prepare administrative log.
173
Conduct preliminary survey (initial

walk-through).
Prepare narrative description.
Resolve problems.
Make final decisions.
Photographer
Photograph and log evidence and scene.
Sketch Preparer
Sketch and log scene.
Evidence Recorder
Serve as evidence custodian and log
evidence.
Evidence Recovery Personnel

Ensure that evidence is located and
documented (photo and sketch).
Initial and date all evidence collected.
Specialists
Brought in from the FBI Laboratory,
private industry, academia, other
174
laboratories, etc., on a case-by-case basis

to assist in their area of expertise.
Should be identified prior to the time they

are actually needed.
Approach
Be alert for evidence, especially transient
evidence.
Take extensive notes.
Consider the safety of all personnel.
Secure and Protect

Take control of the scene immediately.
Determine the extent to which the scene has

been protected. Obtain information from
personnel who have knowledge of the original
condition.
Continue to take extensive notes.
Keep out unauthorized personnel.
Record who enters and leaves.
175
Preliminary Survey
The preliminary survey is an organizational stage
to plan for the search.
Cautiously walk through the scene.
Maintain administrative and emotional control.
Select a narrative technique (written, audio,

or video).
Take preliminary photographs.
Delineate the extent of the search area.

Expand the initial perimeter as needed.
Organize methods and procedures.
Recognize special problem areas.
Identify and protect transient physical

evidence.
Determine personnel and equipment needs.

Make specific assignments.
Determine the need for any specialists.
176
Develop a general theory of the crime.
Take extensive notes to document the scene,

physical and environmental conditions, and
personnel movements.
Evaluate Physical Evidence Possibilities

This evaluation begins upon arriving at the scene
and becomes detailed in the preliminary survey
stage.
Ensure that collection and packaging

materials and equipment are sufficient.
Focus first on evidence that could be lost.

Leave the least transient evidence for last.
Consider all categories of evidence

possibilities.
Search the easily accessible areas and

progress to out-of-view locations. Look for
hidden items.
Evaluate whether evidence appears to have

been moved inadvertently.
Evaluate whether the scene appears

contrived.
177
Narrative
The narrative is a running description of the crime
scene.
Use a systematic approach in the narrative.
Nothing is insignificant to record if it catches

ones attention.
Under most circumstances, do not collect

evidence during the narrative.
Use photographs and sketches to

supplement, not substitute for, the narrative.
The narrative should include the following:
Case identifier.
Date, time, and location.
Weather and lighting conditions.
Identity and assignments of personnel.
Condition and position of evidence when

an evidence recovery log is not used.
178
Photography
Photograph the crime scene as soon as
possible.
Prepare a photographic log that records all

photographs and a description and location of
evidence.
Establish a progression of overall, medium,

and close-up views of the crime scene.
Photograph from eye level to represent the

normal view.
Photograph the most fragile areas of the

crime scene first.
Photograph all evidence in place prior to

recovery.
All items of evidence should be photographed

by close-ups, first without a scale and then
with a scale, filling the frame.
Photograph the interior crime scene in an

overlapping series using a normal lens, if
possible. Overall photographs may be taken
using a wide-angle lens.
179
Photograph the exterior crime scene,

establishing the location of the scene with a
series of overall photographs including a
landmark. Photographs should have 360
degrees of coverage. Consider using aerial
photography, when possible.
Photograph entrances and exits from the

inside and the outside.
Prior to entering the scene, acquireif

possibleprior photographs, blueprints, or
maps of the scene.
Sketch
The sketch establishes a permanent record of
items, conditions, and distance and size
relationships.
Sketches should supplement photographs.
Sketch number designations should

coordinate with the evidence log number
designations.
Sketches normally are not drawn to

scale. However, the sketch should have
measurements and details for a
drawn-to-scale diagram, if necessary.
180
The sketch should include the following:
Case identifier.
Date, time, and location.
Weather and lighting conditions.
Identity and assignments of personnel.
Dimensions of rooms, furniture, doors,

and windows.
Distances between objects, persons,

bodies, entrances, and exits.
Measurements showing the location of

evidence. Each object should be located
by at least two measurements using an
established measurement system, e.g.,
triangulation, transecting baseline, or
azimuth.
Key, legend, compass orientation, scale,

scale disclaimer, or a combination of
these features.
181
Conduct Detailed Search

Use a search pattern (grid, strip or lane, or
spiral).
Search for evidence from the general to the

specific.
Be alert for all evidence.
Search entrances and exits.
Record and Collect Physical Evidence

Ensure that all items are photographed prior
to collection.
Mark evidence locations on the sketch.
Complete an evidence log noting all items of

evidence collected. If possible, have one
person serve as evidence custodian.
Two people should observe the evidence in

place, then as it is collected, initialed, and
dated. Evidence items are marked directly
only when positive the marks will not interfere
with subsequent forensic examination.
182
Wear latex or cotton gloves to avoid leaving

fingerprints.
Do not excessively handle the evidence after

recovery.
Seal all evidence packages at the crime

scene.
Obtain known standards (e.g., fiber samples

from a known carpet).
Constantly check paperwork, packaging, and

other information for errors.
Final Survey
The final survey is a review of all aspects of
the search.
Discuss the search with all personnel.
Ensure that all documentation is correct and

complete.
Photograph the scene showing the final

condition.
Ensure that all evidence is accounted for

before departing the scene.
183
Ensure that all supplies and equipment are

removed from the scene.
Ensure that no areas have been overlooked in

the detailed search.
Reconsider the need for additional specialists.
Release
Release the crime scene after the final survey.
The scene should be released only when all

personnel are satisfied that the scene was
searched correctly and completely.
Only the person in charge should release the

scene.
Ensure that the appropriate inventory has

been provided, consistent with legal
requirements, to the person to whom the
scene is released.
Crime scene release documentation should

include the time and date of release, to whom
released, and by whom released.
Once the scene has been released, reentry

may require a warrant.
Back to the top
184
Index
A
Abrasives, 14 glass samples from, 6971
Acrylic-surface replica cast make and model
kit, 119121, 136137 identification, 75
Adhesives, 1415. See also paint samples from,
Tapes 101102
for lifting impressions, tire tread examinations,
127130 121131
Airborne contaminants,
148149 B
Ammunition. See also Bank robbery, surveillance
Bullets; Firearms films, 73, 7578
cartridge cases or Bank Robbery Note File, 116
shotshell casings, 64 Bank security dyes, 21
packaging, shipping, Biohazardous materials
labeling, 1112, 6668 bloodborne pathogen
shot pellets, buckshot, or safety, 149152
slugs, 64 packaging, shipping, and
wadding, 65 labeling, 912, 46, 68,
Anonymous Letter File, 116 8889, 100, 139141
Anthropological routes of exposure in
examinations, 1516 contaminated
Arrest photos, 77 environments, 147149
Arson, 17 Biological relatives, missing
limitations, 4 persons and samples
Audio, 1820 from, 9597
Authenticity/manipulation Biological tissue sample
examination. See DNA
detection, 18, 74, 141
examinations
See also Image analysis
Automobiles
accidents, 5, 101102
automobile theft, 5
INDEX
185
Blood Buckshot, 64
blood examination request Building materials, 22
letter, 50 Bullets. See also Ammunition;
on clothing submitted for Firearms
gunshot residue bullet jacket alloys, 2324
examination, 68 fired, 64
collecting from a person, packaging, shipping, and
4546 labeling, 6668
collecting known samples, Burglary, 5
4546, 4850
collection, missing persons C
and, 9596 Cameras, image analysis
dried, 4850, 96 and, 74, 78. See also
liquid, 48 Photographs/photography;
on a person, 48 Surveillance images
stains, 4950 Carbon paper or carbon-film
on surfaces, in snow or ribbon, 115
water, 48 Carjacking, 5
wet bloodstained garments Cartridges, cartridge cases,
and objects, 4950 2324, 64, 65, 6668
Bloodborne pathogen safety, Casting, See Impressions
149152 and casts
Body fluids. See also DNA Caulk, 1415
examinations; specific Cellular phones, 5658
fluids, e.g., Blood, Saliva Checkwriters, 115
Universal precautions, Chemical safety, 152153
150152 Chemical unknowns, 2426
Bones. See Anthropological Child Exploitation and
examinations; Tissue, Obscenity Reference File,
bones, and teeth. See also 75, 78
Skeletal samples
Buccal (oral) swab samples,
47, 9697
186
Child pornography Computer Analysis

examinations, image Response Team, 27
analysis, 7579 Computers
Clocks, 93 comparison, 26
Clothing, fabric, and textiles computer-animated
bank security dye on, 21 modeling, 31
blood on, 49 content, 26
building materials debris deleted data files, 26
on, 22 extraction, 26
for comparisons, 73 format conversion, 26
controlled substances on, keyword searching, 27
2930 labeling and shipping,
explosives residue on, 2829
6061 limited source code, 27
glass samples on, 70 passwords, 27
gunshot residue on, 65, 68 procedures for
hair/fibers on, 7172 examination, 2729
paint on, 101102 search or field
pepper spray or examination, 2728
pepper foam on, transaction, 26
103 Confined-space safety,
protective. See Personal 154156
protective equipment Contaminated environments
safe insulation on, routes of exposure in,
118119 147149
wood particles on, 146 Controlled substances, 2930
Coded messages. See Cordage, 117118
Cryptanalysis Crime scene safety. See also
Commercial electronic Biohazardous materials
devices, 5658 about, 147
Communication devices bloodborne pathogen
interception-of-, 5758 safety, 149152
chemical safety, 152153
187
confined-space safety, release, 184

154156 search, 182
hazardous materials search personnel,
transportation, 163164 173175
hazardous waste secure and protect, 175
regulations, 164165 sketches, 180181
light-source safety, weapons of mass
153154 destruction and, 171
personal protective Crime scene surveys,
equipment, 158163 documentation, and
routes of exposure in reconstruction, 31
contaminated Criminal Justice Information
environments, 147149 Services Division, 89
X-ray safety, 157158 Cryptanalysis, 3133
Crime scene search
procedures D
approach, 175 Damaged media restoration
basic principles, audio recordings, 1920
171172 video, 142144
final survey, 183184 Debris
latent prints, 8089 arson and, 17
narrative, 178 building materials, 22
photography, 8284, glass samples, 6970
8687, 121124, paint, 100102
179180 safe insulation and,
physical evidence 118119
possibilities evaluation, soil examinations and,
177 131133
preliminary survey, Decontamination/disinfection
176177 of equipment, 151
preparation, 172175 Demonstrative evidence, 33
record and collect, Dental stone, mixing and
182183 pouring, 125127
188
Digital cameras and film. See Drug records, 32

Cameras; Film Drug residue, 30
DNA examinations Dyes, bank security, 21
about, 3335
anthropological E
examinations of bone, Electronic devices, 5658
1516
Electrostatic lifts, 127128
buccal (oral) swabs, 47,
Elimination prints, 85
9697
Embossings, 115
case acceptance policy,
Enhancement examinations
3540
audio recordings, 1820
documenting, collecting,
video, 142144
packaging, and
Evidence
preserving, 4445
packaging and shipping,
hair, 4244, 5354,
912
7172
submission, 712
mitochondrial DNA,
Evidence examinations,
3435, 4043
requesting, 79. See also
nuclear DNA, 3435
specific items, e.g.,
preserving DNA evidence,
Abrasives, DNA,
5556 Explosives
saliva, 5253 Expert witness testimony, 23
semen and semen stain Explosive incidents and
examinations, 5052 hoaxes, 4
seminal evidence from Explosives, 5860. See also
sexual assault victims,
Chemical safety
52
Explosives residue, 6061
sources for analysis,
Eye protection, 154, 161
3335
tissue, bones, teeth,
5455, 97100 F
urine, 5253 Fabric and textiles, See
Clothing, fabric, and
Document age, 115
textiles
189
Facsimile machines, See shotshells, 65

Electronic devices; wadding, 65
Questioned document Foot protection, 162
examinations Footprints. See Shoe prints
Facsimiles, 57, 87, 112113 Forensic facial imaging/
FBI Disaster Squad, 6162 reproduction, 16, 6869
FBI Laboratory, 13 Forensic services
FBI Laboratory Evidence about, 13
Control Unit, 7, 12 limitations, 35
FBI Operational Technology
Division, 13, 18, 27, 57,
72, 141
G
Gambling, 32
Feathers, 6263
Gelatin lifts, 128130
Fibers, 7172
General unknowns (powders,
Film, image analysis, 7279
liquids, stains), 2426
Fingerprinting human
remains, 8889. See also Glass, 6971
Latent prints Global positioning systems
Fingerprints. See Latent (GPSs), 5658
prints Graphic arts (printing), 114
Fire. See Arson Guns. See Firearms
Firearms, 6368. See also Gunshot residue
Ammunition; Bullets on clothing, 65, 68
cartridge cases or
shotshell casings, 64 H
gun parts, 65 Hair, 4344, 5354, 7172
gunshot residue on toxicology screening, 139
victims clothing, 65, 68 Hand protection, 159161
image analysis, 73, 78 Handwriting and hand
shot pellets, buckshot, or printing, 7980, 107110
slugs, 64 Hazard risk assessment,
silencers, 66 personal protective
unfired cartridges or equipment and, 158159
190
Hazardous materials handling model identification, 75

and transportation, 1012, cameras, 74
163164. See also child pornography
Biohazardous materials; examinations, 75, 78
Chemical safety; specific clothing, 73, 78
hazardous materials, e.g., film, 7374, 7679
Ammunition, Explosives firearms, 78
Hazardous waste regulations, location, time, and date of
164165 photographic evidence,
Head protection, 163 74
Hepatitis B and C viruses, packaging, shipping, and
150 labeling of, 7679
Hit-and-run (automobile) photogrammetry, 73, 78
cases, 5, 101102, photographic
105106 comparisons, 73
Human immunodeficiency photographs, 7378
virus (HIV),150 procedures for
Human remains submission, 7679
anthropological providing originals, 76
examinations, 1516 source and age, 74
hands/fingers for latent video, 7378
prints, 8889 Impressions and casts
samples from unidentified, of serial/identification
44, 97100 numbers, 119121
three-dimensional
I impression casts,
Ignitable materials. See 125127
Arson for toolmark examinations,
Image analysis 136137
authenticity and image- two-dimensional
manipulation detection, impressions, 127130
74 Infectious materials, 149152
automobile make and
191
Ingestion of contaminants, Lifting materials, 81, 127130

149 Light-source safety, 153154
Inhalation exposure, 148 Loan-sharking, 32
Injection of contaminants, Lubricants, 8990
149
Ink, 7980
Innocent Images, 75
M
Malicious mischief, 5
Insect samples,
Metallurgy
anthropological
broken or mechanically
examinations of bone
damaged metal, 91
and, 16
burned, heated, or melted
Interception-of-
metal, 92
communication (IOC)
devices, 5758 comparative examinations,
9091
cut or severed metal, 92
L lamp bulbs, 93
Labels and labeling, shipping,
metal fragments, 92
912. See also specific
objects with questioned
items
internal components, 93
Lamp bulbs, 93
specification fraud and
Latent labels, 10
noncompliant
Latent prints,
materials, 9293
case acceptance policy, 80
watches, clocks, and
developing at crime
timers, 93
scenes, 8082
Minor theft and fraud, 5
digital images of, 8687
Missing persons
glass samples and, 71
about samples, 9497
lifting, 81
blood collection and,
packaging, shipping, and
96
labeling, 8486
bone submissions, 9798
photographing, 8284
buccal (oral) swabs, 9697
submitting hands/fingers
dried bloodstains, 96
of deceased for, 8889
192
samples from biological Pagers, 5658

relatives, 9596 Paint, 100102
skeletal samples, 9798 Paper, 114117
teeth and, 9899 Pepper spray or foam,
tissue samples, 100 103104
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Personal digital assistants,
See DNA examinations (PDAs), 5658
Money laundering, 32 Personal protective
equipment (PPE),
N eye protection, 154, 161
National Automotive Image foot protection, 162
File, 75 hand protection, 159161
National Center for Missing hazard risk assessment
and Exploited Children, 75 and, 158159
National Integrated Ballistic head protection, 163
Information Network respiratory protection, 162
(NIBIN), 64 Pharmaceuticals, 104. See
National Missing Person also Toxicology
DNA Database, 37, 40, 94 Photocopies, 87, 112114,
Nonfatal traffic accidents, 5 117, 131
Nuclear DNA (nDNA). See Photogrammetry, 73, 78
DNA examinations Photographs/photography
crime scene search
procedures, 179180
O examination-quality,
Oleoresin capsicum. See
122124
Pepper spray or foam
image analysis, 7375, 77
Oral swab samples, 47,
impressions in snow, 124
9697
latent prints, 8284
location, time, and date
P determinations and, 74
Packaging and shipping photographic
evidence, 912 comparisons, 73
193
shoe prints and tire embossings and seals,

treads, 121124 115
of suspects, 77 facsimiles, 112114
toolmarks, 137 graphic arts (printing), 114
Plastic bags, 115 handwriting and hand
Poisons. See Crime scene printing, 107110
safety; Toxicology ink and, 79
Polymers, 104106 nongenuine signatures,
Pornography examinations, 110
image analysis, 7579 packaging, shipping, and
Printing and printed matter, labeling, 116117
114 paper, 114
Product tampering, 106107 photocopies, 112114, 117
Property crime, 35 plastic bags, 115
Prostitution, 3233 rubber stamps, 115
Protective clothing and typewriting, 110112
equipment, 158163
R
Q Racketeering records, 3133
Questioned documents, Respiratory protection, 148,
altered or obliterated 162
writing, 110 Rope, 117118
Anonymous Letter File, Routes of exposure in
116 contaminated
Bank Robbery Note File, environments, 147149
116 Rubber stamps, 115
burned or charred paper,
114 S
carbon paper and Safe insulation, 118119
carbon-film ribbon, 115 Safety. See Crime scene
checkwriters, 115 safety
document age, 115 Saliva, 34, 5253, 5556
Sealants, 1415
194
Seals, 115 Special-event and situational

Search patterns, 182 awareness support, 133
Semen and semen stain Submitting evidence, 712
examinations, 5052 Substances, unknown
Seminal evidence from (powders, liquids, stains),
sexual assault victims, 52 2426
Serial numbers, 119121 Surveillance images, 7379
Serology. See DNA Suspects, arrest or known
examinations photographs of, 77
Sexual assault, seminal
evidence from, 52 T
Shipping of evidence. See Tape, 134135
Packaging and shipping for lifting impressions,
evidence; specific items
128130
Shoe prints, 121131
for lifting latent prints, 81
Shot pellets, 64
Ten-print fingerprint cards, 89
Shotshells and shotshell
Teeth. See Tissue, bones,
casings, 64, 65
and teeth
Signal analysis, audio
Timers, 93
recordings, 19
Tire treads, 121131
Signatures, 110
Tissue, bones, and teeth
Silencers, 66
anthropological
Skeletal remains, See Human
examinations of
remains bone, 1516
Skeletal samples, 9798 DNA examinations, 5455
Skin contamination/contact, 97100
148 unidentified human
Slugs, 64 remains, 44, 97100
Snow Toolmarks, 135138
blood in, 48 Toxicology, 138141
impressions in, 124 Traffic accidents, 5
Soil, 131133 Typewriting, 110112
195
U X
Universal precautions, X-ray safety, 157158
150152 X-rays, known individual
Urine, 5253, 139 comparison to skeletal
remains, 16
V
Vandalism, 5
Video, 141144
image analysis, 7279
Violent crime, 34
Visual information
specialists, 31, 33, 68, 133
Voice comparisons, 1819
W
Wadding, ammunition, 65
Watches, 93
Watermark identification, 79,
115
Weapons of mass
destruction, 144146
crime scene search
procedures and, 171
Wood, 146
Writing examinations. See
Handwriting and hand
printing; Questioned
documents
196
The Handbook of Forensic Services is also
available online at http://www.fbi.gov/
hq/lab/handbook/forensics.pdf. Law
enforcement officers and forensic laboratory
personnel may obtain the handbook in
field-manual format by faxing a request on
agency letterhead to the FBI Laboratory
Library at 703-632-8374.
197
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Handbook of Forensic Services

An FBI Laboratory Publication

Crime Scene Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Crime Scene Search . . . . . . . . . . . 171

FBI Forensic Services

The FBI has one of the largest and most

FBI field offices and legal attachs.

U.S. attorneys, military tribunals, and other

State, county, and municipal law

All forensic services, including expert witness

No examination will be conducted on

No request for an examination will be

No testimony will be furnished if testimony on

provided for the prosecution by another

No request for an examination will be

In addition, when submitting evidence to the FBI

FBI examiners will choose appropriate

Depending on the caseload of the Laboratory

An FBI Laboratory Report of Examination may

Violent Crime Versus Property Crime

The FBI accepts evidence related to all crimes

investigations. The FBI does not routinely accept

At the discretion of the FBI Laboratory Director or

The following are examples of property crimes

Arson of unoccupied residential and

Explosive incidents and hoaxes targeting

Vandalism and malicious mischief directed

Nonfatal traffic accidents involving

Hit-and-run automobile accidents not involving

Automobile theft, except automobile theft

Breaking and entering.

Minor theft (under $100,000).

Minor fraud (under $100,000).

Back to the top

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All requests for evidence examinations should be

Do not submit multiple cases under a single

All international law enforcement agency/

Requests for evidence examinations must contain

The submitting contact persons name,

Previous case-identification numbers,

Description of the nature and the basic facts

The name(s) of and descriptive data about the

The name of the prosecutor assigned, if

A list of the evidence being submitted

Herewith is limited to small items

Separate cover is used to ship numerous

What type(s) of examination(s) is/are

Where the evidence should be returned and

A statement if the evidence was previously

Packaging and Shipping Evidence

Prior to packaging and shipping evidence, call

Take precautions to preserve the evidence.

Wrap and seal each item of evidence

Place the evidence in a clean, dry, and

Seal the inner container with tamper-evident

Affix EVIDENCE and BIOHAZARD labels, if

Affix the evidence examination request and all

Place the sealed inner container in a clean,