(Structure

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I 1
20.1 Introduction
Objectives
20.2 Water Transuortation Todav
20.3 Planning of Water Transportation Facilities
20.3.1 Types of Water Transportation Facilities
20.3.2 Features of Water Transportation Facilities
I 11 20.3.3 Chancing Chnracter of Facilities
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20.3.4 Types of Cargo
20.3.5 Some Considerations in Ma~lning of Ports
20.3.6 Port Pla~ulilg Methodology
20.3.7 PreIi~ninary Engi~~eermng h~vestijiations
. -
20.3.8 Detailed Engineering ~lliesti~at$ns
20.3.9 Ship Dimrnsio~~s
20.4 Harbours
20.4.1 Wind
20.4.2 Tides
20.4.3 Waves
20.4.4 Harbour Layout Elements
20.4.5 Entrance Cha~mels
20.4.6 Turning Basin
20.4.7 Dilnensions of Indian Harbours
20.4.8 Breakwaters
20.5 Docks
20.5.1 Open Berth
20.5.2 Wet Docks
20.5.3 Slope and Dimensions of Docks and Basins
20.5.4 1)ock Walls
20.5.5 Dock Entrances and Locks
20.5.6 Dry Docks:
20.6 Transit Sheds and Warehouses
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20.7 Jetties, Landing Stages and Wharves
k 20.8 Inland Water Transport
20.9 Cargo Handling Facilities
20.9.1 Cranes
20.9.2 Container Hand1i11g
20.9.3 Dry Bulk Handling
20.9.4 ~i qui d Bulk ~andi i ng
20.10 Illustrative Problems
20.1 1 Summary
20.12 Key Words
20.13 Answers to S AOs
One of the most economical, fuel-efficient eco-friendly transport modes is wa,ter
1
trans~ort. Water tsansport is practised in several forms. Oceanic shipping (overseas
shipping), coastal shiiping and inland water transport are some of the popular forms.
India has a vast coistline and a number of big rivers. There is, thus, a great scope for the
use of water transport in India.
Water transport infrastructure facilities include harbours, ports, jetties, inland water
channels and cargo handling systems. These facilities are costly to construct and
maintain. A great deal of engineering and economic expertise is needed for planning and
designing these facilities. This work forms part of a civil engineer's task. This Unit deals
with this p.art of Transportation Engineering.
I Air, CVatcr
I Trmsports & Other Systems
Objectives
The objective of this Unit is to familiarise you with the civil engineering structures that
form part of water transportation. The Unit gives a broad perspective of water
transportation today globally and in India. The issues relevant to planning of water
transportation facilities are discussed. The engineering aspects of design of harbours,
ports, transit sheds, jetties, landing stages, wharves, inland water transport and cargo
handling facilities are discussed.
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
know the current status of water transportation,
o understand how the planning of water transportation facilities is done,
o have a knowledge of Docks and Harbours, Transit Sheds, Jetties, Landing Stages
and Wharves,
o know about Inland Water Transport, and
have knowledge of cargo handling facilities in water transport.
20.2 WATER TRANSPORTATION TODAY
Water transport has been in existence for many centuries. Primitive forms of canoes and
rafts gradually gave way to sailing ships. The history of colonisation is closely linked to
the colonising country's supreinacy over the seas. The Industrial Revolution brought in
steainships and the introduction of iron and steel as ship building materials. Steamer
services grew carrying passengers and cargo across the world, along the coasts and along
inland waterways. A more efficient fuel for propulsion was oil, which has now replaced
coal.
India occupies an important place in the geography of the world. The Arabian Sea
surrounds it on the west, the Indian Ocean in the south and the Bay of Bengal in the east.
Its long coastline (5660 km) gives it an advantageous position in the water transport.
Centuries before the advent of the Industrial Revolution, Indian goods used to be
transported by sea to distant lands. The country had good expertise in building ships in .
timber. The colonisation of India dealt a deadly blow to the indigenous ship building
industry and shipping. Valiant efforts during the first half of the century by Indian
companies gave birth to modern shipping in India. After Independence, water transport
has grown considerably, though it must be admitted that the full potential of this form of
transport is yet to be tapped.
20.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Water Transport
The following are some of the major advantages of water transport:
1)
No investments are needed on the path of travel (such as roads for road transpor
and railway lines for rail transport). The only investments needed are on
vehicles (ships) and terminal facilities.
2)
The energy requirement of water transport is considerably less than that of land
transport modes. This is because of the low frictional resistance between the
steel bodies of ships and water, in contrast to high frictional resistance between
roads and tyres and rail and;wheels of a train.
3)
Water transportation does not create pollution as other modes do.
4)
Water transport is reasonably safe.
Some of the disadvantages of water transport are:
1)
It is not a complete mode in itself. It depends on other complementary modes
like road transport, railways, and pipelines. Transfers are unavoidable. But the
modern technology of containerization has reduced the transfer delays and
troubles.
2)
It is slower than land modes like road transport and railways, and very much
water Tranrpurtatio"
slower than air transport. It is thus favoured for movement of raw materials,
bulk cargo and heavy materials.
20.2.2 Forms of Water Transport
Water transport exists at various levels and forms such as:
'
1)
Oceanic shipping also called international shipping
2)
Coastal shipping within a country
3)
Inland Water Transport (I. W .T)
20.2.3 World Trends Today
In the area of oceanic shipping, the trend today is in favour of large size tankers, bulk
carriers and container ships. There is an almost total demise of international passenger
liner traffic.@
The period from 1970 to 1987 has registered a growth of international sea borne trade
from 2,605 million tonnes to 3,505 million tonnes - an average annual increase of 1.8 per
cent. This is a modest increase. The world fleet has an average age of 10 to 14 years
depending upon the type of vessel. This shows that ship replacement takes place quickly
for catching up with technology changes.
It is worth noting that ports handled around 92% of world trade in tonnes and 94% of
international trade in tonne-km. This highlights the supremacy of oceanic shipping and
ports in international trade.
Inland Water Transport (IWT) has been traditionally used to provide cheap transport of
hulk cominodities with large volumes and low value to and from the hinterland of
seaports or of large inland towns. They have the inherent advantages of low cost, low
pollution and highenergy efficiency. They are also labour intensive. IWT is most
frequently used to feed and distribute the goods to and from harbours. In countries like
Bangladesh , large areas are accessible only by water, and IWT transports bulk of rural
transport.
Overseas shipping throughout the world is highly competitive. International shipping has
organised itself into shipping conferences, which are a combination of shipping
companies formed for the purpose of regulating or restricting competition.
20.2.4 Water Transport in India Today
In 1950, India hardly had a merchant marine worth the name with a few vessels
aggregating to about 0.4 million gross registered tonnage (GRT). Over the last four
decades, a rapid growth has taken place. In 1993, the Indian fleet had reached a level of
6.2 million GRT. India's share of world tonnage, which was hardly 0.5 per cent in 1950
is now around 1.5 per cent. India's total overseas sea borne trade in 1993 was 112 million
tonnes, and this is expected to reach a value of around 150 by the turn of the century. The
composition of the cargo is as under:
General cargo: 19 %
Bulk cargo: . 52 %
Crude oil and Petroleum products: 29 %
Coastal shipping in India has not been performing an important role so far. The major
constraints have been lack of port facilities and uneconomic nature of operations. The
-bulk of cargo handled is coal (about 2.3 million tonnes). Since this movement is
unidirectional, the empty returns problem is a serious handicap. Some salt movement
takes place on return journey. If properly developed, coastal movement can increase to
about 10 million tonnes by the turn of the century.
Though India has some mighty rivers, 1.W.T has not developed to any appreciable level.
. The main problem with some rivers is that they are not perennial, and in summer they
sllrink to a mere trickle. Some movement takes place in the Brahmaputra River system io
5 5
w, tvnter
Assam and the Hooghly River in W .Bengal, The completion of a lock in the Farakka
1r:r~lspottr & ~ ( ~ i e r Systems B;irr;ige has give11 a boost to the I.W.T. operations on the Ganges. Other navigable
waterways conlprise of canals, backwaters and creeks. The irlaterials handled-are iron ort*
(Goa), pelroleurn products, cements and fertiliser,. Some pa'senger traffic is ha~ldled in
Kerala.
India has two major ship building yards (Vishakapatnam and Cochin). There are 10
major ports:
2) Paradip
3) Vishakapatnam
4) Chennai
5) Tuticorin
6) Cochin
7) New Mangalore
9) Murnbai (including Nava Sheva)
10) Kandla
There are 139 operational intermediatetminor seaports. The traft'ic handled at the major
ports was 125 million tonnes in 1993-94 and this is expected to increase to above 300
inillivn tonnes in the year 2000.
20.2.5 Technology of Water Transport
In the technology of oceanic shipping, the world has witnessed many changes in the past.
The main changes noticed are:
1)
Increase in size of ships: The largest ships in the world now are 500,000 dead
weight tonnes (DWT, which refers to the tonnage of store fuel and cargo that a
ship can transport).
2)
Shift towards containerised ships, bulk carriers, cellular ships (having
compartments) and oil tankers.
3)
The drive towards fuel efficiency
4)
Higher speeds - speeds of 20 to 25 knots are now common (1 knot = 1 nautical
mile per hour, roughly 1.85 km per hour).
As the ship size increases, length of berth and the draft needed at a port also undergo
upward revisions. Big ships need a draft of 10 metres or even 12 metres. Handling
facilities at ports require modernisation. Containers handling facilities and bulk cargo
handling facilities are very specialised in nature.
In the IWT area, the trend is to go in for large size barges, which are towed or pushed by
powerful tugs. Self-propelled barges of capacity in the range of 500 to 1500 tonnes are
uneconomical for larger operations. A powerful towboat of 6000 horsepower can push a
string of barges carrying as much as 40,000 to 50,000 tonne of cargo. A draft of about 3-
m is needed. Speeds of 10 to 20 km per hour are possible.
An emerging technology in the area of coastal shipping and IWT is RORO (Roll on Roll
oft). Under this technology, trucks (or trailers units) which travel on highway are rolled
on to specially built ships over ramps for performing the water leg of the journey. At the
end of it, if the trucks or trailer units are again rolled off the ships and thereaftttr performs
rhe remainder crf the land journey. RORO Ships can have truck storage decks at vdriorrh
levels. Thus, the cost of operation is hrought dowll by partially substituting road journeir
with trucks by journey on water. .AIY'~I from savir:gs in fuel and opera:ional cost . therc i \
a reduction in road accidents, road cs~~:gestion and traftic pol l ~t i oi ~. Tlie systclrl is in
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operation along costs in U.K. and other countries. India can also introduce this
Water Transportation
technology.
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20.3 PLANNING OF WATER TRANSPORTATION
FACILITIES
120.3.1 Types of Water Transportation Facilities
A transportation engineer has to plan, design, construct and maintain various types of
transportation facilities. Definition of some of the commonly occurring terms are given
ort is derived from Latin word portus, which means a gateway. Thus a port is a gateway
om the sea to the land and vice-versa. In other words, it is a place where transport of
and materials changes from one mode to another, one of the modes being water
d. A port constitutes a link in the chain of transport which may cover many modes,
of thein being water based. To accomplish the change of mode, various facilities are
eeded at the ports. The facilities consist of a safe enclosure where vessels can enter,
rths where the vessels can transfer cargo and refuel, transit sheds and ware houses for
oring goods and highway, railways and Inland Water Transport connections.
qeepor t Zone or Area (also Free Trade Zone)
an area in or adjacent to a port which is isolated and policed and which is provided
ith facilities for loading, unloading, refuelling, and storing goods which may be landed,
ed, mixed, blended, repacked, manufachred or reshipped without payment of duties
without the intervention of customs officials. The whole idea behind Freeport is to
courage and expedite that part of a nation's foreign trade, which the government
shes to free from restrictions by customs duties. A good example of a Freeport is
dla in India. Hamburg in Germany is one of the biggest freeports.
H rbour
C
our is a haven for ships where they can be moored and sheltered from wind and
s. It is an area partially enclosed and protected from storms and waves so as to
de a safe suitable place for vessels seeking refuge, supplies, refuelling, repairs or
H hours can be of the following types:
at
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1) Natural harbour
2) Artificial harbour
(3) Semi-natural harbour
ral harbour is one, which is protected from the storms and waves by the natural
ration of the land and water. Natural harbours are located in bays, tidal estuaries
r mouths. Rio de Janeiro is one of the finest natural harbours in the world.
in India, is a natural harbour located at the entrance to Vembanad Lake.
ificial harbour, on the other hand, is one where artificial engineering measures like
ction of breakwaters are needed for protecting the vessels from storms and waves.
harbour is an artificial harbour.
-natural harbour is intermediate between the above two, and may have natural
ions on one or more sides and needing protection at the remaining sides. Figures
d 20.2 show typical natural and artificial harbours.
Har urs may also be classified according to the functions they perform:
dp
Harbours of refuge, which provide protection to the ships against the storms and
waves in the high seas and which additionally provide facilities for transfer of
cargo, refuelling and repairs.
5 7
4ir, Water
2)
Commercial harbours which, provide facilities for receiving refuelling, berthing
I'raesportq & Other Systms and servicing of commercial ships.
3)
Military harbours, which provide facilities for navel fleet of the country.
4)
Fishing harbours, which are primarily intended for the promotion of fishing and
which provides facilitates for receiving and berthing of fishing vessels, storage
of tishes in refrigerated conditions and transfer of catch to other modes.
Land
E'igure 20.1: Natural Harbour
Sea
L -------,'
.--,--, g - Port Configuration
,------.I i-------
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L-------------------------J
Figure 20.2: Artificial Harbour
Dock
A dock is an artificial enclosure for the reception of ships. It can either be enclosed or
regulated by lock gates (examples: the Docks of Bombay) or open to the tides.
A wet dock is an area of impounded water within which vessels can remain at a uniform
level independent of external tide action.
A dry dock (also called a graving dock) is one from which water can be temperately
excluded in order that repairs to the hull and keel of ships can he carried out.
Slipway
A slipway is a track on which vessels move after construction at a'dry place to the sea.
Marine Terminal
A marine terminal is that part of a port or harbour which provides for docking, cargo
handling, and storage facilities. When only passengers are handled, it is called a
passenger terminal. When freight or cargo is handled it is called a freight or cargo
terminal. Some marine terminals are dedicated to a particular cargo. A typical example is
the Oil Terminal at Butcher Island in Bombay.
Offshore Mooring
This is a facility provided at considerable distance from the shore where ships can anchor
and transfer cargo. The transport of cargo to and from ship is effected by pipelines, trestle
conveyor or lighters. An offshore mooring is. provided for deep draught vessels, which
lraUs~"rtaU""
cannot enter the shallow waters on the shore.
Wharf
A wharf is a continuous structure, generally acting as a retaining wall, along the opening
edge of the sea or along the banks of a river, canal or other waterway.
A quay (pronounced as key) is the surface upon which are constructed railways and crane
tracks with a view to handle the cargo to and from a vessel.
Jetty
A jetty is a structure that juts out or projects. In water transport structufes, it means
facilities, which project from the general outline of the shore into the sea.
( Pier
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A pier is an isolated marine structure connected with the mainland in a slight and
restricted manner.
20.3.2 Features of Water Transportation Facilities
Water transportation is one part in the continuous chain of transport from origin to
destination. Take the case of export of iron ore from Bailadilla mines to Japan. This
involves a number of steps. The ore is mined and transported by roads in trucks to
Paradeep port. It is then transferred to bulk carrier ships through bulk handling
equipment. At the destination end, the ports receive the ships, transfer the ore through the
'
bulk handling equipment to some form of land transport which ultimately takes it to the
steel mills.
I
The port should be able to receive the ships and berth them safely. It should protect them
from tides and waves.
he facilities at the port should be such that they are able to handle the cargo in the most
conomical manner and in the shortest possible time. This will ensure that ships are not
etained beyond the barest minimum. It must be remembered that ships are extremely
ostly to acquire, own and operate and that their unproductive detention at ports will add
the transportation cost. It has been roughly estimated that port costs including turn-
ound cost of ships are nearly 50% of the total transport cost in oceanic trade.
ome ports perform the task of processing cargo. A good example is New Mangalore
, which palletises the iron ore received through pipeline in the form of slurry from
remukh. Other forms of processing are liquefying and slurrying.
ort facilitates store the cargo during transit. Transit sheds and warehouses perform this
&k.
$onsolidations of cargo and containerisation are also done at ports.
y. 3. 3 Changing Character of Facilities
he character of water transportation facilities has undergone rapid changes in the recent
p t. Some of these are discussed below.
e I
the olden days, ports used to receive and distribute traffic to /from a small hinterland.
many situations, industries used to be located in the port cities themselves. This
aracter is fast changing. The hinterland of ports is ever enlarging.
type of cargo handled at port has undergone significant changes..In earlier days,
ral cargo used to predominate. With the growing demands for petroleum products,
one of the major commodities handled. Container traffic has increased dramatically.
veloping countries are depending upon exports of raw materials like mineral ores and
ultural products. These are best handled in bulk. All these changes dictate the design
dern ports and handling facilities in them.
4ir, Watcr
The size of ships has itself undergone changes. Gia'nt oil tankers, bulk carriers and
rransports & Other Systems container ships have replaced the small size ships of the past.
Old ports are finding themselves unable to cope up with large size ships. Better and
quicker services now demand the construction of new ports, many of which are dedicated
to special services. The marine oil terminal in Butcher Island in Bombay is marked the
beginning of changes found necessary in Bombay. The recent completion of Nhava
Sheva Port as its auxiliary is part of the process of modernisation. The same can be said
of Haldia in respect of Calcutta.
The proble~ns of large ships, shallow coastline and non-availability of land in the coast
can now be surmounted by constructing offshore port facilities. Transfer of cargo is
achieved through pipes, barges and conveyors.
20.3.4 Types of Cargo
The cargo handled in ports is of the following types:
I )
Liquid bulk (petroleum crude and products, vegetable oil etc.,)
2)
Dry bulk (mineral ores, coal, food grains, fertilisers., etc)
3) Liquefied or compressed gas
4) Parcel or pseudo-bulk
5) Containers
6) Break bulk, general cargo
20.3.5 Some Considerations in Planning of Ports
The need for a port arises because of sea borne'trade. The type of port facilities depends
upon the ty'pe of cargo to be handled and its volume. Special requirements like a naval
base (example Karwar port in India) sometimes establish the need.
The selection of sites for a port is governed by the following factors:
1)
Availability of adequate land to accommodate the various facilities.
2)
Adequacy of channel depth for entry and exit of vessels of the size that is
expected.
3)
Extent of protection needed against wind and waves.
4)
Availability of inland communication like railways, highways and IWT.
Ports and other water transportation facilities are very costly to build and operate. Since
resources are limited, the planning of ports should be done so as to involve the most
appropriate technology. Technological obsolescence must be guarded against future port
plans.
Port plans are prepared for the short term or for the long term. The short-term plans are
generally paljiative measures to modernise the facilities to take care of immediate and
short-term requirements. They fail to give the final and long lasting solutions. On the
other hand, long-term plans (which are also called Master Plans) are conceived for a long
time horizon (at least 20 years).
Master plans can be prepared for individual ports or for all the ports of the country taken
together. The latter has the advantage of taking a global look at the growth of the
country's trade and allocating it efficiently to various ports. India is now engaged in
preparing a long-term plan for the ports sector.
In the port planning, it is necessary to consider a number of alternatives to achieve the
desired results and evaluate each one of them technically and economically. The
alternative, which emerges as the best, should then be selected. There is no room for
hunch decisions or pre-conceived notions.
The objective of planning should be to provide a least cost service, which inaximises the
profit to the owner of the facility.
20.3.6 Port Planning Methodology
The methodology of the port planning is sequential and consists of a series of steps
illustrated in Figure 20.3. The various steps and their brief description are given below.
Formulation of Objectives
Any plan formulation needs a set of clearly defined objectives: These must be in step
with the overall transport sector plan of the country and the overall economic
deyelopment plan.
Collection of Data on Economic Indicators
Port traffic is closely linked to the general economy of the hinterland and the country.
Factors that affect port traffic are:
1) Population
2)
Gross National Product, broken up into Agricultural and Industrial Sectors.
3)
Major traffic generators, such as mines, crude oil reserves, gas reserves,
industries, agricultural belt etc.
Historical data on the above should be collected so as to establish the past growth rate of
these indicators.
Traffic Study
Traffic study of ports should indicate the following:
1)
Historic commodity flow, with type and tonnage of commodity and origin-
destination.
2)
Feeder transport network and inventory of facilities
3)
Present port capacity, facilities and technological bottlenecks
4) Interface with roadlraillpipelines.
5) Tariffs
6) Ship arrivals, detentions.
7) Trade pattern and policy
Formulating of Transport Models
The analysis of the past data on the ports traffic and economic indicators will yield
models that synthesise the past trend. Two kinds of models will emerge:
a) Historical growth of traffic
Tn =T0(l +r)"
where,
Tn = Traffic in the nh year,
To = Traffic in the oh year,
r = annual rate of growth
n = number of years
r = annual rate of growth
n = number of years
b) Econometric Models
One form could be
Loge Tn = A + B Loge GNP
where,
-
Water
T,, = Traffic in year n
A = constant
B = Regression Coefficient
GNP = Gross National Product
e = Base of national logarithm
In the above formulation, the value of B gives the demand elasticity with respect of GNP.
Decision to Adopt P W i
L,
*
Problem Definition, Formulation of Objectives
I
Collection of Data on Eeonomic Idicaton
I
Policy Vsriablea
I
Demand Forecast
I
Engineer@S~lmyr
and, Investigatiom
I Akmti ve P k
Eumomic 1 F i i a l Analysis
I
Implementation
+
Figure 20.3: Port Planning Process
Seleciion of Policy Variable
The policy variables, which have an influence of future demand, are:
1) Time horizon
2)
Projected growth rate of population and economy
Demand Forecast
Using the models formulated earlier and inputting the policy variables, it is possible to
forecast the hture traffic. The growth is determined in the form of the following:
1) Norinal traffic growth.
2) Diverted traffic growth, and
Water 'Trauspnrtatinu
3) Generated traftic growth.
Technology Assessment
The planner assesses the present and future tecn!lologies and gets an idea of the various
tecGnologic~l options for meeting the demand. The iteins coilsidered should include ship
size, cargo form, handling and storage facilities, transfers etc.
Engineering Surveys and Investigations
The eilgiileering surveys and investigations should cover the following aspects:
1 ) Site survey
2) Geophysical studies
3) Hydrographic surveys
4) Navigational constraints and needs
5) Meteorological Survey
6) Material survey
7) Land use
8) Environmental impact
9) Availability of labour
Development of Alternative Plans
All the possible engineering designs are worked out and their cost determined.
Consideration must be given for future expansion and modernisation:
Economical and Financial Analysis
The economic and financial viability of the alternatives is worked out. The tariff structure
is determined.
Selection of the Best Alternatives
The best solution that emerges is selected.
Implementation
The plan is implemented.
Continuing Study and Updating
As the project is implemented and thereafter, the collection of data is continued to check
the accuracy of forecast made. Any change that appears to be necessary is made in the
future at convenient time.
20.3.7 Preliminary Engineering Investigations
Like other transportation facilities, the preparation-of a water transportation project starts
with preliminary engineering investigations. In this phase of activity, all available data
from secondary sources are collected and some quick preliminary surveys are conducted.
The activities involved are as under:
1)
Collection of information on the following:
i) Depth of channel
ii) Range of tides
iii) Wind velocity, direction
iv) Temperature variation
V) Rainfall intensity
Air,, Water
Transports & Other Systems
The above information can be collected from Hydrological Survey Office, Geodetic
Survey, Meteorological Office, etc.
2)
Some quick soundings may be taken with a fathometer to check the data already
available and to supplement it.
3)
An aerial survey is carried out to prepare a topographical map with contours,
showing features,such as shoals, reefs, estuaries, etc
4)
Many possible alternative sites for location are investigated, with a view to
identify the most protected location and one that involves the least dredging.
The site should have adequate shore area for development of terminal facilities.
5 )
Soil conditions below the sea are investigated. Poor soils like clay may increase
the cost of dock walls.
6)
The presence of rock and the depth at which it is present is found out by
exploratory drilling.
The data collected from the above will enable some preliminary layouts and designs to be
worked out. The estimation of cost of the various alternatives is then done and the best
alternative is selected for detailed investigations. The Report prepared at this stage is
known as the Feasi6ility Report. The economic and financial viability of the project is
established using traffic forecasts and expected revenues.
20.3.8 Detailed Engineering Investigations
The detailed engineering surveys and investigations are carried out covering the
following aspects:
1) Hydro-graphic data
2) Topographic data
3) Sub-soil investigations
4) Current tidal studies
5) Weather data collections
6 ) Hydraulic model studies
7) Siltation studies
Hydrographic surveys are conducted for establishing the ground level under the body of
water. The surveys should extend over an area considerably larger than the proposed
boundary of the facility being planned. The surveys will be able to locate reefs. rock
outcrops and sunken ships. Taking soundings does the work. The old method of manual
sounding by lowering a string has been replaced by accurate methods. Echo sounding
and the use of fathometers are common. The sound recorder instrument is used with a
travelling motor boat. It is necessary to take readings at about 10-m intervals along lines
15 to 30 m apart. The spacing may have to be closer if the bottom is irregular. The
sounding are plotted on a map, which is known as the hydrographic map. The scale
adopted is about 1:2000. The map should show the contours, high and low water lines,
the datum and prominent features of the land and the water. A contour iilterval of 0.1 to
1.0 m is convenient to give details to the desired accuracy.
The topographic survey is the physical survey of the land area and is accomplished by
standard survey instruments like the theodolite, level and distance meter. The survey
should yield a map to a convenient scale (1: 1000 is often adopted), showing all important
natural land features and artificial features (buildings etc) and contours at an interval of
0. 5 or 1 m.
Sub-soil investigations for harbour and channel area are intended to give an idea about
the nature of soil and rock blow water. Bori~lgs are taken to a depth of about 50 in or till
the rock is met with. Drilling through rtxk is necessary if rock is met with at elevations
higher than the desired foundation level of the structures and the bottom level channels.
r\ 1 * -11. . I , . , * . 1. ? . . . ..,. " ,. . .
The horings are taken at important locations covering breakwaters, piers, dock walls.
TranSi'Ortnti"l'
wharves, jetties etc. Where dredging is needed, borings are taken at intervals of 80 to
150 m centres extending to a depth of 0.5 to 10 m below the dredged bottom line. The
soil samples are tested to determine the soil properties. Triaxial tests are conducted to
determine the strength properties.
Current and tidal studies are conducted to determine:
1)
Velocity and direction of currents
2)
Direction. amplitude and height of waves
3) Level of tides
Important weather data to he collected pertain to wind (velocity and direction) and rain.
Tt is common practice to design the various components of water transportation facility
through studies on hydraulic models. Models to a scale of 1 : 100 to 1 : 150 are common.
Siltation studies are needed if there is a tendency of eroded materials to drift in any
particular direction.
20.3.9 Ship Dimensions
Ship dimensions govern the design of port facilities. The inain characteristics of a ship
that needs to he understood are:
1) Weight
2) Length
3) Width
4) Draft
The weight of a ship is an indication of its size. There are many ways of designating a
ship's weight. The displacement tonnage is the ship's weight and by the law of flotation
is the weight of water she displaces. It may either be "loaded" or "light*; according to
whether the ship is loaded fully, (upto what is known as the "Plimsoll mark") or whether
it is without fuel, cargo and stores. Dead Weight Tonnage (DWT) is the carrying capacity
of a ship in metric tonnes and is the difference between the displacement light and the
displacement loaded. Thus it is the weight of cargo, fuel and stores, which a fully loaded
ship carries. Gross Registered Tonnage (GRT) is the entire internal cubic capacity of a
ship, converted into tonnage on a standard basis.
Until World War 11, the size of ships was generally upto 30,000 DWT. Sizes have
increased dramatically since then. 1960 crossed the barrier of 100,000 DWT and in 1976,
the barrier of 500,000 DWT was crossed when the tanker "Batillus" was launched in
France (DWT: 553, 662). There are possibilities that the barrier of one million tonne will
be crossed soon.
The draft of a ship is the depth of the keel of the ship below the water line. Obviously,
the draft depends upon the extent of loading. Usually, draft is related to the conditions of
loading: loaded or light draft.
The: length of a ship is its maximum longitudinal dimension and the width its transverse
dimension. The width is also known as the beam.
The current trends in the ship dimensions are as under:
Type of Ship
General cargo ships
Container ships
Bulk carriers
Tankers
Length (m)
150-200
150-275
200-250
Upto 450
DWT
Up to 50,000
Up to 50,000
60,000-100,000
Upto 500,000
Width (m) Draft (m)
20-30 8-10
20-35 8-12
?
30-40 12-15
Upto 65 Upto 30
& Other S)
SAQ 1
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
What are the advantages and disadvantages of water transport'?
What are the various forms in which water transport is practised?
Why is coastal shipping in India not performing at full potential?
Why is IWT not performing well in India?
What are the major ports in India?
What are the trends in technology changes in water transport?
Define the following:
i) Port
ii)
Freeport Area (Free Trade Zone)
iii) Harbour
iv) Artificial Harbour
v) Natural Harbour
vi) Dock
vii) Slipway
viii) Marine Terminal
ix) Offshore mooring
x) Wharf
xi) Quay
xii) Jetty
xiii) Pier
What are the features of water transportation facilities?
What are the various types of cargo handled in a port?
What are the considerations that govern the selection of site for a port?
What is a Master Plan for ports?
Describe the processes involved in port planning.
What are the preliminary engineering investigations needed for designing a
port facility'?
What are the detailed engineering investigations needed for designing a port
facility'?
What are the current trends in ship dimensions?
20.4 HARBOURS
The definition of the term harbour and the types of harbours have already been covered
in section 20.3. In this section, the engineering features of harbours are discussed.
Natural forces like wind, waves and tides have a major influence on the harbour location
and the design of its elements. Some understanding of these is also necessary and hence a
brief treatment is given.
Water Transportation
20.4.1 Wind
Wind has an influence on harbour design in the following manner:--
1)
Wind causes waves to be formed in the open seas. The height of waves is
mainly governed by the length over the sea up to which the storms prevail.
2)
Stormy conditions known by various names like typhoon, cyclone, tornado etc.,
cause considerable havoc in the harbour area and must be considered in its
3)
Wind, acting on ships, which are moored, txerts a pulling force on the bollards.
This force must be allowed for in the design of dock walls.
4)
The directions of prevailing winds determine the direction in which waves
travel. The location of the harbour, its entrance an; the disposition of the
protective works are governed by wind direction.
20.4.2 Tides
The level of ocean water undergoes a periodic rise and fall. This is known as a tide. Tides
are caused by forces of attraction exerted by the moon and the sun. The influence of
moon is greater of the two.
Highest tides are those, which occur at intervals of half a lunar month, are called spring
tides. They occur when the moon is new or full. At that time the sun, the moon and the
earth fall in line, causing the tide-generating forces of the moon and the sun to be
When the lines connecting the earth with sun and the earth with the moon form a right
angle (this happens when the moon is in its quarters), the forces of the sun and the moon
are subtractive. As a result the lowest tides of the month, known as the neap tides, occur.
Thus, there are two spring tides and the two neap tides in every lunar month.
On every lunar day (of duration 24 hours and 50 minutes), there are two rises and two
falls in the sea level. These tides are called semidiurnal tides.
The tidal range is the difference between the high level and the low level of the water for
a particular tide. The tidal range of the spring tides is generally 1 lh to 2 times the range of
The mean range is the height of the mean high water aoove the mean low water. The
midway level between the mean high water and the low water is known as the mean sea
The mean range varies from the coast to coast. It is as high as 6 m in UK and France. In.
USA it is generally less than 3 m. Bombay has a mean range of 2.6 m. In sheltered seas
like Mediterranean, the mean range is very small, less than 0.6 m.
The tidal range at a coast is of great importance in determining the types of productive
works and facilities at the harbour. For example, where the tidal range is small, the rise
and fall in the level of a berthed ship.wil1 be small. On the other hand if the tidal range is
large, say more than 3 m, it is difficult to cope up with the large rise and fall in the levels
of a berthed ships alongside a wharf. In such cases, it becomes imperative to create an
artificial basin where the water level does not vary. Entrance locks and a pumping system
becomes necessary.
20.4.3 Waves
' As already mentioned, sea waves are caused by wind blowing over the surface of
seawater. The formation of waves is an interesting phenomenon. As wind blows over a
sheet of calm water, it exerts a tangential force on the surface, which generates small
ripples. These undulations result in changes in the air stream. Pressure differential so
caused sets in oscillatory motion at the surface. Under the continued influence of wind
the waves grow in sue.
Air, \Vater In a wave. individual particles oscillate in a vertical plane and they do not move forward.
Transports 8r Other Systems
Thus in deep waters, waves remain oscillatory and are not translatory. When waves break
as in shallow water, they become translatory.
The following relationships of waves are to be noted (Figure 20.4).
L = Wave Length
- -3
-
Trough
Figure 20.4: Wave Functions
where,
I. = length of waves
T = Wave period (i.e. time taken for two consecutive crests to pass a point).
v= Speed of wave form
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 1 m/sec2
It should be noted that H is independent of v, L, and T. It is determined by the area upto
which storms are limited, known as the "fetch". The well-known Stevenson's formula,
given below, relates the waves height to fetch.
where,
H = wave height in ft
F = Fetch in nautical miles
Converted to metric units,
H(in metres) = 0 . 3 3 6 G (in km)
In the present design of harbour works, the forces exerted by waves need to be
considered. The actions of waves is very complex and has been the subject of a vast
amount of literature. Briefly the following considerations govern:
1)
Waves cause enormous pressure against marine structures. The pressure
comprises both hydrostatic and hydrodynamic.
I
2)
The pressure is dependent upon the height of the waves H. the wavelength L,
I'ra11511!'rtation
and the depth of the water in the sea. Very higli waves cause extretnely high
I
pressure.
3)
When a wave breaks, it produces shock pressures on impact with a wall.
Vibrations tnay be set up as a result.
4)
For the design of coastal structures, a design wave height that is potentially most
damaging is selected.
5)
When waves travel over a sloped face, such as the slope of a break-water, the
wave runs up the face and then the water flows down the face. The former is
called up-rush and the latter is down-rush. These causes pressures on the
structure.
6)
Waves in deep and shallow water maintain a degree or symmetry through the
depth. But breaking waves lose this characteristic. They have a rapid forward
motion of the crest whereas the lower part moves slowly backward.
2 .4.4 Harbour Layout Elements
'P
e important elements of a harbour layout are as follows (Figure 20.5):
1 An entrance channel, through which the ships can enter the harbour.
2)
A turning basin, where ships can be manoeuvred into their mooriilgs.
3)
Break water, which protects the harbour from waves.
1 4)
Docks. where the ships are berthed.
Break
- -'-
, Entrance -'----
// Dock' I I
Sea
Land Berth Berth Land
Be"h ' y:mk wall
Figure 20.5: Harbour Layout
20 .5 Entrance Channels
k
that connects the harbour to the deep sea is its entrance channel. It is
maintained to a sufficient width and draft to receive ships of the sizes
Th following considerations should be kept in view in aligning an entrance channel:
I
1)
The alignment should direct and ships should be able to approach berths without
the need for manoeuvring.
2)
The alignment should be s~nooth and devcid of sharp curves. The radius of the
curve should be larger than five times the length of the largest ship expected.
3)
The entrance to the harbour should preferably be on the leeward side so that
ships entering and leaving are protected from wind and waves.
The width of the entrance channel depends on several factors such as
I'rausports & Othrr Sy+tems
1)
The maximum size of ships expected,
2)
Accuracy of navigational aids, and
3)
Whether the ships are allowed to cross or pass one another.
The normal widths adopted are:
Small harbours: 100 ~n
Medium harbours: 100 to 150 m
Large harbours: 150 to 300 m
The depth of the entrance of the channel should be adequate for safe navigation at the
low water where ships are fully loaded. The depth must make allowallce for clearance
under the keels. Generally the minimum draft should be the static salt water draft of the
ship selected for design plus a clearance of 1.5 to 2.5 m. The higher value of clearance is
appropriate when the bottom is of rock.
20.4.6 Turning Basin
The turning basin is an enlargement of the entrance channel to accommodate turning of a
ship. A radius at least twice the length of the ship designed for is desirable. When space
for full turning is not available, turning can be accomplished by manoeuvring around a
pier.
20.4.7 Dimensions of Indian Harbours
Table 20.1 gives the values of entrances width, depth and turning circles diameters of
some Indian ports.
20.4.8 Breakwaters
Definition
A breakwater is a structure constructed with the purpose of protecting an area from the
effect of sea waves so that ships can safely be moored in that area.
Types of Breakwaters
Breakwaters are of three types:
1) Vertical sided
2) Rubble mound
3) Composite
A breakwater, which substitutes a quay wall and which can be used as a platform for
loading and unloading cargo in calm water is known as a mole.
Forces Acting on a Breakwater
A breakwater has to resist the forces set up by waves impinging upon it. The forces
include the following:
1)
Hydrostatic pressure due to the rise in the level of wave on the sea sides of the
wall up to the crest of the wave.
2) Hydrostatic pressures due to fall in the level on the seaside of the wall upto the
trough of the wave.
3) Hydrostatic pressure caused by breaking waves.
4) Complex forces developed by the onrush and down-rush of waves on a sloping
surface.
Tahle 20.1 : Dimension of Indian Harbours
IViltcr 1 r , t n ~ ~ ~ o r l , ~ l t ~ ~ ~ ~
Entrance ' Entrance Iiraft 'rurning Circlc 1
Harbour Width I t)iiameter(m)
(m)
P
Kn~lclla 350 4.3 500
Bombay 366 10.9 366
M onnugoa 250 13.7 480
New Mangalore 245 13.5 590
Coclia 185 11.8 260
Tut~cvrin 162 10.4 488
Madra\ 244 18.5 558
Visbakapatnam
-1l111er Harbvur 80 10.7 3hh
-Outer harbour 200 19 0 610
Paradeep 160 12. 8 520
Calcutt:~ 467 6.7 549
H;I~L~I:I 467 - 6.7 316
Vertical Sided Breakwater
A vertical sided breakwater is a wall built with stone masonry, concrete blocks or
caissc~iis. It call also be constructed with two walls of slieet piles and the area between the
walls filled with concrete subsequently.
A typical vertical sided breakwater is shown in Figure 20.6. Vertical sided breakwaters
are preferably found on rock so that scour is avoided. The top width is inade at least
equal to the height of the maximum wave.
Rubble Mound Breakwater
These are tlie most common types of breakwaters. They are constructed with stone
rubble. The mount consists of three parts:
1) The armour (or cover)
2) Tlie first under-layer
3)
The second under-layer (or core)
Figure 20.7 gives a typical sketch.
The stability of the section depends upon tlie weight and shape of tlie arinour block. the
interlock between individual blocks aiid the slopes to which they are laid. Heavy blocks
are tlie best. Weights of individual stones in the armour call be as high as 5T to 10T. Tlie
under-layer is made up of stones weighing roughly one-tenth tlie weight of the stones in
the armour. The core is composed of small stones having individual weights. 11200 to
116000 of the armour stones. The slope 011 tlie seaward side is in the range of 1 in 1 .25 to
1 in 2. Tlie slope on the protected basin side is around 1 in 1.5. Very good interlock call
be obtained by tetrapods, quadripods, liexapods etc., which are placed "pell-mell". A
typical tetrapod is shown in Figure 20.8. Tetrapods have been used for the protection of
the sea wall at Marine Drive in Bombay..
Co~rlposite Breakwater
Composite hreakwaters are those with a rubble inound as a ma-jor foundation and a
vertical sided wall as a super-structure (Figure 20.9).
Mass Concrete
6.0m
Figure 20.6: Vcrtical Sided Rreakwater
Ar r no~~r Sl ones ( 5- 101')
C 7
1
- -
.I
- - -
. -
Figure 20.8: Tetrapod Used for Armour ~reakwater
6
b
.:
-:
//-
Mass Concrete
1 C---I.Oin - - - . I
- -
a
b
;
0
- RCC Caisson
I
,
-
/ !
. I . . . r .
- C . . *
L
1
' ' AT
.
('hoice of Type of Breakwater
U
The choice of the type of breakwaters depends on various factors such as the depth of the
w'lter, nature of foundations, availability of materials (especially of large boulders), lead
ot stone, duration of working season. handling equipments available etc.
- - . .
-
RCC Caisson, Sunk and
Filled with Concrete
Rubble Stone Mound
141g~uc 2Ij.Y: Cuurpozrrc Urukwdtcr\
Vertical sided breakwaters are obviously suited for small depths (say, up to 20 m below
MSL). They need a good storm free season for working. A good rocky foundation is also
a must. Since they encroach on the least area, these are ideal where the space available is
Rubble mounded breakwaters are the cheapest when good stone is available at
ecoilomical lead. They can be constructed on a rocky bed. Some settlement is inevitable
if the structure is founded on soft ground. Allowance must be made for such settlements.
Composite breakwaters combine the good features of both the rubble mound and the
vertical wall breakwaters. When the depth of the sea is excessively high (say above 30
m), a rubble mound becomes prohibitively costly. In such cases, the rubble is terminated
at about 5 m froin low water level (LWL) and a vertical wall constructed above the base
of the mound.
20.5 DOCKS
Docks are of the following types:
1) Harbour docks
2) Repair docks
3) Floating dry docks
Harbour docks, also known as Wet Docks, are enclosed, or partially enclosed and
sheltered basin, for the receiving ships.
Repair docks, also' known as Dry Docks or Graving Docks, are basins generally made by
excavations for the repair of ships.
Floating Dry Dock is a structure capable of being submerged and lifted as desired to
receive and float a ship into position for repairs.
20.5.1 Open Berth
A berth is a place where a ship docks for loading and unloading of cargo. An open berth
faces the sea directly, as opposed to enclosed berth, which may be sheltered from the sea.
An open berth has a "wharf" wall built along the shore. Details of wharf walls are given
later in this Unit.
'atcr
20.5.2 Wet Doclts
Wet Docks, called simply Docks, are sheltered and enclosed places where ships are
received and berthed for loading and unloading. The water level inside the dock slioulcl
he more or less constant to facilitate the loading and unl oadi ~~g of cargo.
In Chennai port. for example. there are two wet docks, the Bharathi dock and the
Dr. Amhedkar Dock.
The ricments of a dock are:
I ) [lock entrance
2) An enclosed basin I
3)
A clock wall, also know11 as quay wall
4)
Facilities for handling and storing of cargo.
20.5.3 Slope and Dimensions of Docks and Basins
The basin receives the ships, and ships are docked in hertlis-along quay walls. The
arrangement of quay walls can have various forms. as shown in Figure 20.10.
1 Basin I
-
Ship
\-I
; . I
L J I
Quay Wall
I Basin
aenn aenn
The fingers shown in Figure 20.10 (a) call also be inclined. The length of a berth i
depends upon the ~naxi mu~n dimensions of the ships expected. The lengths of ships are: 1
Tankers 150 to 500 m
Bulk carriers 200 to 300 ~n
(coal, ore etc)
General cargo 150 to 200 in
Contai~ier ships 150 to 300 m
Battle ships 275 to 300 m
Cruisers 150 to 275 m
An additional length of 25 in on either side of the ship is needed in a berth for safety and
The deptli of the dock wall depends upon the draft of vessels. Modern ships need a draft
of 7 to 10 m. Large tankers may need a draft as high as 30 In. The lengths of various
hertlis in Clle~inai port are as under:
General cargo 170 In
Coal 220 ~n
Oil 340 ~n
Iron ore 220 m
Containers 200 m
The depth of various berths in Chennai varies from 9 to 16 m.
Water Transportation
I 20.5.4 Dock Walls
Dock walls are gravity type retaining walls. They are constructed in the mass type
concrete or in concrete blocks or in stone masonry. The features of dock wall are:
I
1)
The front face should be vertical or nearly so, such that the ships can come as
close to the wall face as possible.
I
2)
The front face should have a smooth finish. The face is often protected by
fenders to reduce the impact from ships.
I The dock walls are designed to counter the following forces:
I
1)
Dead weight of the wall
2)
Live load on the space, immediately behind the wall, and this may be caused by
wheel loads from trucks or locomotives travelling on rail tracks or cargo-
handling cranes and equipment. Docks handling oil or bulk materials through a
conveyor or pipeline may be designed for a lighter load, say 1000 kglm2.
General cargo docks are designed for heavier loads in the range of 3000 kg/m2
to 4000 kg/m2. Docks handling heavy metals, such as copper ingots, are
designed for a still higher load of 500 kg/m2.
1
3)
Lateral earth-pressure when the dock is empty
I
4)
Maximum water pressure from the dock basin when there is no earth behind the
wall
1 5) Earthquake forces
6)
Impact load caused by striking vessels
7)
Passive earth pressure of backfill
Dock walls can be constructed in a variety of manners. A dock-wall with a concrete
caisson filled with rock is shown in Figure 20.11. A solid mass concrete dock wall is
shown in Figure 20.12.
I Paved Apron
i
Figure 20.11: Dock Wall Made of Concrete Caisson Filled With Rock
20.5.5 Dock ~ntrances and Locks
I
When the fluctuation in the water level in the sea is within manageable limits, dock
basins are directly open to the sea.
ler Sysl
Gran~te Coping
Paved Area
13 In
'
Figure 20.12: MassConcrete Dock Wall
Lock entrances are necessary when the level in the seawater fluctuates beyond
manageable limits. The lock entrance consists of a lock chamber with a gate at either
end, one facing the sea and the other facing the wet basin (Figure 20.13). To admit a
ship, the dock side gate is closed, the water level in the chamber is brought to the level ot
the sea and the sea side gate is opened. The ship then enters the chamber. The sea side
gate is now closed. The water level in the chamber is brought to the level in the wet
basin by pumping in or pumping out. The dock side gate is then opened and the ships are
allowed to enter the dock.
:ss Chamber for - I Rece-- -
1 [: /sliding Gate
Open Sea
Wet Dock
I dea Side Gate
\k Loc Chamber
I
Dock Side at el I
Figure 20.13: PZam of Lock Gate
The cross-section of the lock is shown in Figure 20.14. The cross-section consists of two
walls and an impervious floor.
The length, width and depth of the lock should be sufficient to admit ships of the sizes
expected. The length varies from 200 to 300 m, the width is in the range of 25 to 45 m
and the depth is in the range of 8 to 18 m.
The lock gates Can be of two types:
1) Ship caissons
2) Sliding caissons
The ship caisson is a ship-like structure, which can be floated and lowered into the
grooves of the gate entrance.
The sliding caisson has a recess inside the dock to take back the gate when it is opened
(Figure 20.13).
Large sized punbps are needed to pump in and pump out the water.
(. j
p o n c r e t c Wall
\. -. - Conduit for
Figure 20.14: Cross-section of a L t ~ k Gate
t
20.5.6 Dry Docks
Dry docks, also known as Graving docks, are meant for repair of ships. They are basins
made by excavations in the foreshore of the harbour, having entrances closed with gates
and of such dimensions as to be capable of receiving, with adequate clearance, the
maximum sized ship to be docked therein. The dry dock gatk is first opened after the
water level in the dry dock is equal to that of the water in the wet dock. The ship is
floated into the dry dock, the gate is closed and the water in the interior is pumped out.
The ship is made to settle on the keel blocks provided at the floor of the dry dock, and
stays are provided to keep it in position. On completion of the repairs, the dock is
flooded, the gate opened and the ship is allowed to move out.
.. .
Figure 20.16.
Water Transportation
The dimensions of the dry dock are selected to suit the maximum dimensioils of ships
expected to use the dock. Width can be in the range of 20 to 30 m, length can be in range
of 200 to 300 m and the depth can be in the range of 8 to 15 m.
I
The walls and the floor must be watertight. They can be constructed in masonry or mass
concrete.
1
A typical cross-section is given in Figure 20.15. A plan is given in
, ,
Paving
urnping Water
. .. * . :
., . I
- . . $ , '
, , , . _ . , * . . , . -
' ,
. - . >
Rgllre 20.15 Cmss sertiou of Dry Dock
; -Recess for Housing
Sliding Gate
Figure 20.16: Plan uf Dry Dock
r ne forces acting on the masonry of the dry dock are:
When empty
1)
Upward hydrostatic pressure transmitted to side-wall by arch action. ,
2)
Downward weight of abutments and floor.
3)
Earth pressure on the side walls
4)
Surcharge load on the pavement adjacent to the side walls
When empty and docked with ship
1)
Upward hydrostatic pressure transmitted to the side walls by arch action
2)
Downward weight of abutments and floor.
3)
Earth prassure' on the side walls
4)
Surcharge load on the pavement adjacent to the side walls
5)
Weight of ship transmitted through the keel and bilge blocks.
Dry Dock filled with water
All the above loads plus the weight of water act on the structure. The weight of masonry
will be the submer~ed weight below the water level and dry weight above.
Dry Dock during construction
Masonry loads, upward hydrostatic pressure and ead-pressure forces come into play as
the construction proceeds, and the safety of the, structure must be checked under these
conditions.
Dry docks can also be of the 'floatingn type. A floating dry dock is a structure made of
steel or reinforced Concrete, capable of being submerged by the admission of water to its
interior compartments, at which stage, if desired, a ship is floated into position. The
structure is then raised by remdving water from its interior compartments by pumping.
Figure 20.17 gives a sketch of a floating dry dock.
Floating Dry Dock
Figure 20.17: Floating Dry Dork
SAQ 2
a) In what way has wind an influence on the design of harbours?
b) What is a tide? How is it caused?
c) What are spring tides? What are neap tides?
d) How many spring tides and neap tides occurs in a lunar month?
e) How is the mean sea level (MSL) defined?
f) What is a tidal range?
I
g) How are waves caused?
h) What are the equathns that relate to wave functions?
i) What is the Stevenson's Formula for wave height?
j) What is "fetch"'?
k) What are the forces caused by waves on harbour works?
1) What are the elements of a harbour layout?
m) What are the considerations on selecting a layout for a harbour entrance
channel?
n) What factors govern the width of a harbour entrance channel?
o) What are the typical widths of harbour entrance channels?
p) What should be the depth of harbourentrance channels?
q) What should be the radius of a turning basin at harbour entrance?
r) What is a breakwater'?
s) What are the typical types of breakwater?
t) What are the forces acting on a breakwater'?
u) What are wet docks and dry docks?
v) What is an open berth?
w) What are the elements of a wet dock?
x) Give typical lengths of berths for various types of ships.
y) What are the typical depths of a dock wall?
z) What are the features of a dock wall?
aa) What are the forces for which a dock wall is designed?
bb) What is a lock entrance?
cc) What are the typical dimensions of a lock entrance?
dd) What are the types of lock gates?
ee) What are dry docks?
ff) What are the typical difnensions of a dry dock?
gg) What are the forces of which a dry dock is designed?
hh) What is a floating dry dock?
20.6 TRANSIT SHEDS AND WAREHOUSES
Water 'rransportatiou
Transit Sheds are covered structures one or two stories in height, devoted to the handling
and distribution of incoming and outgoing cargo. They provide protection to the cargo
from the rain and the sun. They are used for storage for a short time. They are provided
behind the quays.
On the other hand, warehouses are similar covered structures, which cater to storage of
cargoes for a longer period. They are provided behind the transit sheds or on shore.
"Bonded" warehouse are those which are used for the storage of dutiable articles,
remaining under custom seal, until the customs duties are paid.
Air, water 20.6.1 Features of Transit Sheds and Warehouses
'lrausports & Other Sjstems
The following are the features of transit sheds and warehouses:
l j
They are generally constructed as framed structures in steel, R.C.C or
prestressed concrete.
2)
They have a roof of corrugated G.1 sl~eets or AC sheets or thin RCC shells.
3)
They should be fire retarding.
4)
The width of the transit shed is in the range of 20 to 30 metres.
5 )
There should be adequate openings, which can be closed or opened by sliding
doorways.
6)
If the sheds are two storied, there should be a gallery outside the shed to receive
the unloaded cargo and the outgoing cargo, which are handled by dock cranes.
7)
They should be well lighted and ventilated.
8)
Adequate tire protection arrangements should be provided.
9)
There should be a sinall office space for the shed manager and his staft',
co~nplete with telephone facilities.
10) The clear height of the tloor is in the range of 5 to 7 metres.
1 1) Forklifts and other handling devices should be available.
12) The area between the quay wall and the shed should be wide enough to provide
for a rail track, roadway and gantry cranes. A width of 8 to 25 m is desirable.
The area should be well paved.
13) The area between the transit shed and warehouse should also be paved.
14) The le~lgth of the transit shed depends upon the quantum of cargo to be handled
at the berth from one ship. The length has to bear a relation to the length of the
berth. If the ship size is such that the length required is greater than the berth
length, Inore stories are provided vertically. An illustrative problem of
calculating the space required is given at the end of the Unit.
A typical cross-section showing a transit shed in relation to the auay wall is given in
Figure 20 117
Transit Shed Ware House
----..
.....---
25 m 25 m 25 m
Space for
-- Road and Rail
Rock
I 1
Figure 20.18: Transit Shed and Warehouse Location
20.7 JETTIES, LANDING STAGES AND WHARVES
I
20.7.1 Jetties
Jetties are structures, which project into the sea from the shore. They can be constructed
into deep sea or inside a protected basin. When they are inside a protected basin, as in a
wet dock, they are designed with gravity wall just like a dock wall. A jetty inside a wet
dock is shown in Figure 20.19. Such a jetty is also called a pier.
An open jetty in tidal waters is shown schematically in Figure 20.20. It is also known by
the term mole. The cross-section of the jetty consisting of pile foundations and R.C.C
framework is also shown therein. The jetty accommodates a road and rail track. At the
a round shape enables vehicles to turn around. Fenders protect the R.C.C trestles
Water
impact from ships.
Sea
I
Wet Dock Berths A F n t r a n c e I
rn SktLnX-X
Figure 20.20: RCC l'restle Jetty
#.7.2 Landing Stages
landing srage is a floating structure, usually a pontoon or a barge, which is secured, to
e shore by mooring chains. Small ships can dock against the loading stage. The
ading stage pontoon is connected to the shore by a bridge.
q. 7. 3 Wharves
wharf is a wall built along a shoreline to receive ships and facilitate the loading and
loading of cargo. Wharf wall parallel to the shore is also known as quay wall.
harves perpendicular to the shore line are known as piers or jetties. The wharf wall can
of the gravity type, which has been dealt with under section 20.5. It can also be of
piles driven sufficiently into the ground. Sheet piles can also be anchored.
lp.7.4 Dolphins, Buoys and Light Houses
olpl~ins are marine structures for positioning (moorings) vessels. They are formed into
cluster of piles, which are wrapped in a.galvanised cable. The piles are driven into firm
ta. They are designed to resist the forces due to impact of ships and current. For
ling with bigger ships, sheet-pile cells or concrete cells may also be employed.
oys are employed for demarcatioil of entrances, channels and dangers on shoals. They
ced at intervals on either side of the channel-way. They are moored to heavy
hors, which may be iron blocks or concrete blocks, by means of galvanised iron
c bles.
r
Air, Water
Light Houses
'l'ransports & Other Systems
Light houses are permanent structures located on land or in an island or rock outcrop to
warn against dangerous promontories, points and bars. They are specially provided at
entrances to bays and harbours. The lights are fixed or revolving or tlashing. They are
ge1,erally built like a tower, designed to resist forces of wind, wave and current. There is
a main entrance door at the bottom and a flight of winding stairs leading to the light.
At locations where permanent light houses cannot be built, light ships are employed.
Such ships are of staunch constructions and need to be steady under severe storm
conditions.
20.8 INLAND WATER TRANSPORT
Inland Water Transport (IWT) deals with the movement of men and materials in barges
and boats on inland navigational waterways. The waterways can be:
1) Canals
2) Rivers
3) Lakes
4) Backwater of seas
5) Bays
20.8.1 Advantages
The advantages of IWT operations are:
1)
They are very economical to operate
2)
They involve minimum of investment on channels and vessels
3)
They are highly labour intensive and generate considerable employment
4) They are pollution free
5)
They make little demands on land
20.8.2 Sh~rtcomings
Their shortcomiilgs are:
1) Slow speed
2) Seasonable limitations
3) Low accessibility
4)
Involve transhipment and multi-model movement
20.8.3 IWT in India and Abroad
Many countries, like USA, Netherlands, Belgium, Germany and France have developed
IWT to a high degree of efficiency. In India, IWT is yet to be developed on a large scale.
The Ganga and Bramhaputra Rivers are being used for river navigation to some extent.
The backwaters of Kerala provide good conditions for IWT.
20.8.4 Vessels for IWT, Draft and Width of Channel
Mechanically propelled boats and barges are the modern vessels used for IWT. Channels
having a depth of 2 to 3 metres are required for good operational efticiency. A ininimuin
width of 5 nt for a channel is needed. The barges may be self propelled or towed.
The river waterways need to be continually dredged and maintained.
20.8.5 Terminal Facilities
U
For handling of cargo and passengers, landing stages or jetties are needed. Small cranes
call load and unload the cargo quickly. Small sheds may be needed to store the goods
and for providing shelter for passengers.
20.9 CARGO HANDLING FACILITIES
At ports, cargo is loaded and unloaded from ships. Since time is valuable for port
operations, mechanical handling facilities are common feature. Many ships have their
own handling facilities such as masts, cargo booms, and winches and are able to handle
the cargo by themselves. But to facilitate and ease the operations, shore cargo handling
facilities are a must. They can be considered as follows:
1) Cranes
2) Container Handling Facilities
3) Bulk Cargo Handling Facilities
4) Liquid Cargo Handling Facilities
20.9.1 Cranes
Cranes are the most common cargo handling facility in a port. They can be of various
types:
1) Fixed
2) Travelling
3) Floating
Fixed or stationary cranes are provided at important locations in a port where it is
common to receive ships carrying heavy single loads. The capacity of such cranes can be
in the range of 100 to 150 T. They are generally capable of revolving about the pedestal
to give complete manoeuvrability.
Travelling or movable cranes are the most common type. They can move along a track
parallel to the quay wall. Their capacity is in the range of 3 to 15 T. The boom can be
revolved, raised or lowered. The cranes are mounted on portal or semi-portal frames,
designed to clear the roadway and the rail track below on the apron. A sketch of a portal
type crane is given in Figure 20.21.
.
Figure 20.21: Dock Craue
Floating cranes are mounted on a ship, which can move inside a dock basin. Capacity
can be in the range of 50 to 200 T.
20.9.2 Container Handling
Standard containers are 20 ft and 40 ft long. The weight is in the range of 10 to 30 T.
For handling them special gantry type of cranes are used.
A container handling berth requires a considerable open space for stacking the containers
md loading them on to railway flat cars or road vehicles. Special types of tyre mounted
----
-
later Transportation
Air, Water
handling equipments are used for stacking the containers one above the other and for
ran sports & Other Systems loading them to rail cars and trucks. ~ h e j a r e known as straddlers.
I
20.9.3 Dry Bulk Handling
Dry bulk cargo consists of iron-ore, coal, food grains and fertilisers. They are handled by,
a system of conveyors or buckets. Belt conveyors and bucket conveyors are the most
common systems. Clamshell bucket is commonly used for high speed unloading of bulk
cargo. Materials like coal and iron ore brought in by railway wagons are emptied by
bottom opening or rolling the cars over. The material is received in a depressed hopper,
from where it is further conveyed directly to the ship by belt conveyors.
20.9.4 Liquid Bulk Handling
Liquid bulks like oil is handled by special pumps and a system of pipelines. Storage
tanks are needed in the port area to store the liquid cargo. These are known as tank
farms. Special precautions are needed while handling inflammable material.
SAQ 3
a) What are transit sheds?
b) What are warehouses?
c) What is a bonded warehouse?
d) What arc the essential features of transit sheds and warehouses?
e) What are the features of a jetty in tidal waters?
f ) What is a landing stage?
g) What are wharves?
h) What are dolphins?
i) What are buoys?
j) What are light-houses?
k) What are light ships?
1)
What are the advantages of IWT?
m) What are the disadvantages of IWT?
n) What are the features of IWT operations?
o) What are h' e various types of cargo handling facilities available in modem
port?
p) What are the various types of cranes available in a port? What are their
features'?
-
q) What are the features of container handling facilities in a port?
r) How is dry bulk cargo handled in a port? ,
s) H'ow is liquid bulk cargo handled in a port'?
20.10 ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
Problem 1
The fetch of a harbour is 10 nautical miles. What is the height of wave expected?
I I Substituting Stevenson's formula,
I
= 4.74 m
I
Problem 2
The period of a wave is 5 seconds. Calculate the velocity of the wave and length of the
wave.
Solution
I Problem 3
I
A berth, 250 m long, caters to ships carrying 40,000 tomes of cargo. Design a ti-ansit
shed to accommodate the cargo. The cargo has a weight of 1.5 tomes per cum.
( Solution
40 000
The volume of cargo = - = 27,000 cu.m.
1.5
I
Assume a transit shed of 30 m width. Provide a shed of 7 rn height.
I
Assume goods can be conveniently stacked to a height of 3 m by fork-lifts.
27,000
Area required = - = 9,000 sq.m.
3
Add one-third extra space for man occurring
Total area required = 9,000 + 3,000 = 12,000 sq.m.
12 000
Length required = - = 400 m.
3 0
(
Since the berth length is only 250 m, provide a two storied transit shed of 200 m length.
(
20.11 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been introduced to various aspects of water transportation Starting
with the current status of water transportation, you have been explained how the planning
for water transportation facilities is done. You have been given details ofterminal
%cilities such as harbours, ports, docks wharves, jetties, navigational aids, transit sheds,
warehouses, and cargo handling equipment.
4ir, Water
Planning of water transport facilities requires knowledge of traffic, and the types of cargo
'rrauspurts & Other Systems
to be handled. Carefully planned traffic surveys will be able to forecast the design year
traffic.
You have also been introduced to engineering surveys and investigations needed for port
planning covering hydrographic, topographic and geotechnical surveys.
You have also been presented with cargo handling facilities like cranes, container
handling equipment and bulk cargo handling equipment that are features of modern ports.
With the knowledge gained from this unit, you will be able to participate in the task of
planning and designing water transport infrastructure facilities.
20.12 KEY WORDS
Harbour
An area partially enclosed and protected from storms and waves so
as to provide a safe suitable place for vessels seeking refuge,
supplies, refuelling, repairs or transfer of cargo.
Dock An artificial enclosure for the reception of ships.
Dry Dock
A dock from which water can be temporarily excluded to facilitate
repairs to ships.
Wet Dock
An area of impounded water within which vessels can remain at a
uniform level independent of tidal action.
Offshore Facility provided at a considerable distance from the shore where
Mooring ships can anchor and transfer cargo.
Wharf
A continuous structure, generally acting as a retaining wall, along
the opening edge of the sea or a waterway.
Quay
The surface on which railway tracks and crane tracks are
constructed to handle cargo to and from the vessels.
Jetty The structure that projects into the sea from coastal line.
Pier An isolated marine structure connected with the mainland in a
restricted manner.
Hydrographic The survey that is conducted to establish the ground level below the
Survey water.
Topographic Physical survey of the land area.
Survey
Draft The depth of the keel of the ship below water line.
Tide The periodic rise and fall of the level of ocean water.
Entrance The channel that connects the harbour to the deep sea.
Channel
Turning Basin The enlargement of the entrance channel to accommodate turning of
a ship.
Breakwater Structure that protects an area from the effect of sea waves.
Berth A place where a ship docks for loading and unloading of cargo.
Dolphin Marine structure for positioning vessels.
Buoy Floating structure used for demarcation of entrances, channels and
dangers on shoals.
Light House Pzrmanent structure to warn against dangers.
Light Ship Acts as light house where
$0.13 ANSWERS TO SAQs
U
a) Refer section 20.2.2.
b) Refer section 20.2.3.
c) Refer section 20.2.5.
d) Refer section 20.2.5.
e) Refer section 20.2.5.
t) Refer section 20.2.6.
g) Refer section 20.3.1.
h) Refer section 20.3.2.
i) Refer section 20.3.4.
j) Refer section 20.3.5.
k) Refer section 20.3.5.
1) Refer section 20.3.6.
rn) Refer section 20.3.7.
n) Refer section 20.3.8.
o) Refer section 20.3.9.
a) Refer section 20.4.2.
b) Refer section 20.4.3.
c) Refer section 20.4.3.
d) Refer section 20.4.3.
e) Refer section 20.4.3.
f) Refer section 20.4.3.
g) Refer section 20.4.4.
h) Refer section 20.4.4.
i) Refer section 20.4.4.
j) Refer section 20.4.4.
k) Refer section 20.4.4.
1) Refer section 20.4.5.
rn) Refer section 20.4.6.
n) Refer section 20.4.6.
o) Refer section 20.4.6.
p) Refer section 20.4.6.
q) Refer section 20.4.7.
r) Refer section 20.4.9.1.
s) Refer section 20.4.9.2.
permanent
--
light house cannot be built.
Water Transportation
. .-
Air, Water t) Refer section 20.4.9.3.
'[ransports cYr Other Systems
u) Refer section 20.5.1 .
v) Refer section 20.5.2.
w) Refer section 20.5.3.
x) Refer section 20.5.4.
y) Refer section 20.5.4.
z) Refer section 20.5.5.8
aa) Refer section 20.5.5.
bb) Refer section 20.5.6.
cc) Refer section 20.5.6.
dd) Refer section 20.5.6.
ee) Refer section 20.5.7.
f F) Refer section 20.5.7.
gg) Refer section 20.5.7.
hh) Refer section 20.5.7.
SAQ 3
a) Refer section 20.6.1.
h) Refer section 20.6.1 .
c) Refer section 20.6.1.
d) Refer section 20.6.2.
e) Refer section 20.7.1.
f) Refer section 20.7.2.
g) Refer section 20.7.3
h) Refer section 20.7.4
i) Refersection20.7.4
j) Refer section 20.7.4
k) Refer section 20.7.4
1) Refer section 20.8.2.
m) Refer section 20.8.3.
n) Refer section 20.8.5 and 20.8.6.
o) Refer section 20.9.1.
p) Refer section 20.9.2.
q) Refer section 20.9.3.
r) Refer section 20.9.4.
s) Refer section 20.9.5.