Journal of Scientific Exploration, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp.

183197, 2001

0892-3310/01
2001 Society for Scientific Exploratio n

Bio-photons and Bio-communication1

R. VANWIJK 2
Department of Molecular Cell Biology,
Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands; and
International Institute of Biophysics, Neuss, Germany
e-mail: meluna.wijk@wxs.nl

AbstractThe topic of bio-informational aspects of photon emission has a

history of more than eighty years. It is an example of a research topic that is
inadequately studied within mainstream biology. This article reviews the research activities during the three main phases of this line of this research. The
first period is characterized by Gurwitsch-type experimentation on mitogenetic radiation. Radiation was detected by changes in biological organisms
that function as radiation detectors. The second phase is characterized by the
development and application of sensitive photomultiplier tubes for the detection of radiation from organisms and cells. These studies were extended with
the question about the chemical and enzymatic origin of radiation. In this
phase hardly any attention was paid to the question of radiation with a bio-informational character. In the third period research is again focussed on the informational aspects of photon emission. This bio-photon research is hardly
recognized in mainstream science so far, but in the opinion of the author it deserves careful consideration. For this reason this article presents an overview
of the literature which might be helpful for giving careful consideration to the
bio-informational character of bio-photons.
Keywords: bio-photons chemiluminescence communication mitogenetic radiation

Introduction
The research on bio-informational aspects of bio-photons in the IR to UV
range can be traced back to Alexander G. Gurwitsch more than seventy years
ago. He emphasized that fundamental biological functions such as cell division are triggered by a very weak ultraviolet photo-current originating from
the cells themselves.
This postulate of bio-photonic information appears to many scientists to be
pure speculation, and it provokes sometimes contempt rather than carefully
considered objections. This article reviews the activities of research groups on
three different main questions concerning this bio-photonic information.
The first question deals with the developments in the evidence for photons
originating from cells. Despite serious experimental difficulties it is now clear
to every scientist working in this field that photon emission could be detected
from nearly all living cells.
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The second question considers the origin of photon emission. Very weak
photon emission has been looked upon so far mainly from the possible reactions and biochemical pathway that could be responsible for this phenomenon.
In general, those studies were carried out without considering Gurwitschs
idea of bio-information of photon emission. An alternative search for the origin of photon emission has been carried out incorporating the informational
aspect of photon emission. This type of explanation proposes the existence of a
coherent electromagnetic field within cell populations and has led to the introduction of the term bio-photons. Bio-photons are characterized by their quantum character and are supposed to escape from a coherent field. This alternative explanation is supported by several arguments.
The third question is the most decisive one from an empirical point of view.
It is directed to the existence of bio-photon emission in relation with cellular
interactions and biological function. In general the idea that beside, or even
below, the biochemical level of control very weak electromagnetic interactions play a regulatory role in the living state has received relatively little
attention. The present research has not yet reached the state required for the ultimate verification or falsification of the hypothesis on bio-photonic information in cell division and other cell physiological processes, as originally investigated and suggested by Gurwitsch.
The Origin of Mitogenetic Rays
The mystery of the sporadic arising of cell divisions was the starting point
for Gurwitsch to carry out his famous mitogenetic radiation experiments in
1923. The idea that radiation generates cell division was based on his early
studies (Gurwitsch, 1911) in which it was demonstrated that (1) there is a reverse linear relationship between the surface areas of the meristemic cells and
their division frequencies; (2) along the whole onion root meristem, cell surface areas increase according to the exponential law. The purely statistical
character of spatial distribution of mitosis demonstrated in several objects
(and particularly in onion roots) supported the concept that mitosis should be
based upon a dual principle. That is, one of the factors which make a cell capable of division is assumed to be endogenous (a possibility factor), while a
second one (realization factor) is exogenous although it may arise in the
same organism.
These early experimental observations were interpreted in the following
way: there exists a surface principle K, which remains constant during cell
growth, and also a principle A which increases in a metabolic manner (Gurwitsch, 1922). The main problem was to elucidate the nature of the exogenous
principle. Initially it seemed natural to look upon it as a chemical substance.
However, cell division frequencies should then be proportional to the relation
of K to a constantly increasing A, which contradicts the established fact of a reverse linear relationship between cell division frequency and cell surface area.
This contradiction led to the following suggestion: K and A sites are arranged

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on a cell surface as a permanently changing spatial mosaic. It is the mosaiclike configuration which plays a decisive role, the perception of an exogenous
impulse by a cell surface may be considered as a resonance event. This led to
the hypothesis that the exogenous division stimulating principle is not a chemical substance, but instead an oscillation process which may be a radiation.
The experimental verification of the hypothesis that the exogenous factor is
a form of radiation has evolved from the suggestion that at least some radiation should emanate from root cells into the surrounding space and that it
would be most probable that detectable radiation would arise from the coneshaped tip of an onion root. An adequate detector should consist of a second
root with cells ready to divide and really dividing with a certain average frequency, but at the same time capable of increasing the frequency. The necessity for comparison with control cells was also obvious. In that respect onion
roots are suitable objects due to their radial symmetrical arrangement. Therefore, the revealing of a difference in mitotic numbers between the irradiated
and the shadowed sides of the meristem after a unilateral local stimulation
from another root seemed to be fairly possible.
The first mitogenetic experiments conducted in 1923 were performed on
about 130 root pairs (Gurwitsch, 1923). Already these experiments, in which a
horizontally oriented inductor-root was brought to a distance of 1.5 to 2 mm
from the medial surface of the meristem of the vertically oriented detector root
during 12 h, gave distinct positive results: the number of mitosis at the medial
zone of the illuminated side was 2025% higher than on the other parts of the
meristem. The physical nature of the mitogenetic factor was proven by using
glass or quartz plates as filters and by a complete chemical isolation of the inducer from the detector sample. Later on, the signal spectral composition was
shown to belong to the UV range, somewhat in between 190 and 300 nm.
Although Gurwitsch is credited with the discovery of mitogenetic radiation,
there were several earlier reports of similar phenomena. Scheminzky (1916)
detected some high-energy radiation from various biochemical processes by
means of photographic plates. He used cultures of yeasts and bacteria to provide these biochemical processes. This work was confirmed in 1918 by Ludwig (1918) who also used photographic plates to detect emissions from fermenting yeasts.
The news about the discovery spread very quickly throughout the scientific
and public circles, and a large number of investigators, among them physiologists, microbiologists, medical scientists, and physicists in Russia, Germany,
France, Italy and other countries, tested the effects discovered by Gurwitsch
and studied his hypothesis further. The Golden Age of mitogenetic rays lasted
for about two decades and brought about a thousand of papers and several
books (Gurwitsch & Gurwitsch, 1959). Gurwitschs work was supported by
many Russian workers and several Western workers (Borodin, 1930; Rahn,
1936; Wolff & Ras, 1932), but many others (Bateman, 1935; Hollaender &
Schoeffel, 1931; Richards & Taylor, 1932) were unable to detect any mitoge-

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netic effect. A problem is that most of the publications, containing a lot of

valuable data, have been written in Russian and are hence almost inaccessible
to the scientific community; although the early reviews (Bateman, 1935; Hollaender & Claus, 1937) and the excellent book by Rahn (1936) have described
this early mitogenetic work in detail.
In view of the contradictory results obtained with biological detectors, some
of the early workers, among them Bateman (1935) introduced physical detectors such as photographic plate and UV-sensitive Geiger tube in order to detect
the UV photon emissions. In fact, the results using physical detectors were as
variable as those obtained with biological detectors. These developments in
combination with the disproving papers, the best known being that by Hollander and Claus (1937), Gray and Quellet (1933) and Lorenz (1934), played a
fatal role in the whole story. It is worth mentioning, however, that the latter article seemed to be not so important scientifically. A number of scientists working in this field (not only those who worked with Gurwitsch, O. Rahn from
USA among them ) easily revealed some obvious experimental errors in this
work which have not been hidden by the authors themselves. These errors included, among others, the use of too young yeast cultures for testing the mitogenetic effect, though it was many times pointed out by Gurwitsch and others
that at this stage yeast cells are not sensitive to external photons. However, this
criticism was ignored and the refutation of the existence of mitogenetic rays
claimed by Hollander and Claus was given wide publicity, and the overall interest in and recognition of Gurwitsch discovery began to decline in West European countries and USA. Despite this, work continued in East European
countries with surprisingly little acknowledgement of the negative results of
the above Western workers. Another reason for the decline was certainly the
World War II, destroying, to the greatest extent, just Germany and Russia
two centers of the most intense studies of the problem. One may add to this the
subsequent Lysenko persecutions of biology in Russia. Only small remnants
of the former laboratory of Gurwitsch continued to work in this field in very restrictive conditions after 1948. This group was headed many years by Gurwitschs daughter Anna, also a Professor of Biology (Gurwitsch, 1988). Later,
mitogenetic rays (i.e., UV emission associated with cell cycles) were detected
with the use of electronic photomultipliers in several laboratories (Chwirot et
al., 1986; Chwirot, 1992; Konev et al., 1966).
Studies on Photon Emission With Photomultiplier Tubes
The newly developed photomultiplier (PM) tube, which proved to be a very
sensitive and reliable method for detection of very weak light, led to a limited
revival of interest. The very weak light in the visible region was first detected
in the 1950s. The first studies (Strehler and Arnold, 1951) involved photon
emission from green plants, including three species of algae, following irradiation with visible light. In 1954 and 1955, Colli et al. described weak visible region luminescence from seeds germinating in the dark (Colli & Facchini,

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1954; Colli et al., 1955). In the 1960s several Russian groups headed by
Tarusov et al. (1967), Vladimirov (1966), and Zhuravlev et al. (1968) studied
the visible region luminescence from many plants and animal species. Konev
and coworkers (Konev, 1967; Konev et al., 1966) were the first to employ the
UV-sensitive PM tube to detect UV photon emission from living organisms.
They repeated some of the classical mitogenetic work using synchronized cultures of Candida utilis in order to determine whether UV photon emission was
connected with cell division. They detected a UV emission peak which preceded the first wave of cell division by about 1 h and a second weaker peak which
corresponded in the same way to the second synchronous division step.
Konevs group studied (Mamedov et al., 1969) over 100 different species of
organisms covering 8 systematic types, including 13 algal, 9 yeast, and 8 bacterial species. They detected photon emission from about a third of the algae,
bacteria, fungi and insects examined, but in the higher plants and vertebrates
all the species investigated displayed luminescence. Only the protozoa gave no
detectable photon emission from any of the species studied. The question of
the extent to which this is due to the detection technique itself is only partly
answered. In this respect, it is interesting to note that, at least for one of the
species of bacteria (Escherichia coli) which gave no detectable luminescence,
subsequent workers (Tilbury and Quickenden, 1988; Wang et al., 1990) have
observed significant photon emission. This is possibly due to the greater sensitivity of the more recent PM tubes.
Coming back to the problem of the authenticity of the data of Gurwitschs
school, we have to consider separately two questions: (1) Does ultra-weak
photon emission of living systems in the visible and UV range really take
place? (2) Does ultraviolet light really stimulate cell division? So far, a positive reply to the first question is today beyond any doubtsmeasuring photon
emission of biological organisms is a routine procedure now. Before going into
depth with the second question attention is paid first to the biochemical experiments following the detection of this photon emission: the question of photon
emission origin.
Biochemical Mechanisms of Photon Emission
One of the most difficult problems was associated with the mechanisms of
the generation of UV photons in living systems. By the end of the thirties, as a
result of extensive studies with the participation of prominent physicists and
chemists, it was concluded that the emission of photons by living systems may
be considered as a kind of chemiluminescence due to the recombination of the
free radicals which appear in a number of chemical reactions. In this paragraph
we will consider primarily biochemical mechanisms by which living systems
create electronic excited states and photons, and the link between them and
physiological processes.
The emission of electromagnetic radiation with the energy E = h and the
corresponding wavelength = c/ occurs when an electric charge oscillates at

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the frequency . In the spectral range 1801000 nm covering the UV, visible
and near IR, corresponding oscillation frequencies are 3 10 14 1.6 10 15 Hz.
Thus, the generation of photons requires two phases: (1) the energy pumping
that promotes an electron to the excited level, and (2) radiative relaxation that
creates a photon.
Living organisms can utilize a variety of energy forms and transform a fraction of them into an electronic or vibrational excitation. In photosynthetic
bacteria and green plants, for example, the photoexcitation of bacteriochlorophyll or chlorophyll takes place and leads to charge separation and storage. A
subsequent recombination of charge-separated molecular species results in
photon emission in the red part of the spectrum, the so-called photosynthetic
or delayed luminescence (Strehlers radiation). Heterotrophes employ free energy from the reorganization of chemical bonds of substrates in the consumed
food. In this case the change of free energy is a part of the thermochemical effect of the chemical reaction (i.e., reorganization of bonds). The whole
process can be classified as chemiluminescence, since the first phase is a
chemical pumping or chemiexcitation.
Efficient emitters should have low-lying excited states and high values of
the luminescence quantum yield. Therefore most presently known efficient
chemiluminescent systems involve large molecules with easily polarizable
and thus excitable -electron systems, such as flavins, indoles, porphyrins ,
carbonyl derivatives of aromatic compounds, heterocyclic rings like purines
and pyrimidines and species-specific compounds evolved in bioluminescent
organisms, the so-called luciferins. These compounds have a relatively high
quantum yield due to the short lifetime of the singlet excited state. Good candidates for direct emitters, especially in the near UV range, are tryptophan
(Slawinski et al., 1980a) as well as nucleic acids (reviewed in Jezowska-Trzebiatowska et al., 1987; Popp et al., 1978; Popp, 1984). Different ionic and/or
radical forms of oxidized/reduced flavins that are important components of the
respiratory chain also exhibit strong and broad absorption bands as well as
emission in a very broad spectral range from near UV to near IR. Furthermore,
the energy levels of the lowest electronic states of O 2 and its dimole (excimers)
require relatively small portions of the excitation energy and reveal many radiative transitions, including transitions in the UV-region.
In general, the explanation of emission in terms of chemiluminescence did
not deal with the bio-informational aspect of photon emission. Coming back to
the problem of the Gurwitschs school we should consider the question: Does
the UV or visible light really stimulate cell division or other physiological
processes? In fact, most of the biochemists involved in photon emission studies considered radiation as a waste of energy without any information for the
cell. However, regarding this question, one should really ask: How could photon emission be discovered in 1923 if it did not provoke an increase in cell division rate? The mitogenetic effects were checked in Gurwitschs laboratory
almost every day, since the yeast bud counting was used as a routine proce-

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dure. In the course of this discussion many times the counting method was criticized as too subjective and as unable and not sufficient to demonstrate significant effects. For those who really worked with these counting methods this
criticism does not sound like substantiation. For each single test a statistically
sufficient amount of yeast cells (no less than 2000) was to be checked for the
presence of buds, and the blind counting (without knowing what was counted
at the moment) was used as a rule. Notwithstanding these arguments and the
necessity to develop computerized measurement techniques, the informational
aspect of photon emission is certainly worthy of further consideration.
The Informational Character of Bio-Photons
The search for evidence of the informational character of ultra-weak photon emission from biological systems was stimulated by Popp in the 1970s. He
introduced the term bio-photons in 1976 (Popp, 1976). Like bioluminescence which specifies luminescence of biological systems, bio-photons refer
to the biological system as a whole. The emission of single photons is assumed
to point more to a biological quantum phenomenon than to ordinary luminescence. The coupling of bio-photon emission to biological quantum phenomena
is most evidently seen in the information underlying cell division. In this view
a cell is part of a larger structure in which cell loss rate is compensated for
rather exactly by the cell division rate, in order to avoid serious disease like
abnormal swelling or shrinking of tissues, including cancer. Furthermore the
tissue structure contains information that is more than that of the individual
cells. It has been argued that if growth regulation of biological systems is
based on information originating from the death of cells, it is not possible to
explain this regulation by messenger molecules from individual cells. Rather,
electromagnetic interactions are suited for transferring the necessary messages
and have to take the role of regulators of a biological system in order to explain
many, if not all regulatory functions (Popp and Chang, 1998). Consequently
we expect some correlation between growth and bio-photon emission.
VanWijk and co-workers were the first to show an effect that light radiation
from a cell population is not simply correlated with its cell number. They observed the difference of light-induced delayed emission of bio-photons with
increasing number of cells for normal cells and tumor cells (Schamhart and
VanWijk, 1987; VanWijk and Schamhart, 1988; VanWijk and Van Aken,
1991, 1992). As expected, the bio-photon emission has just the opposite characteristic for normal cells than for tumor cells. Whereas normal cells show decreasing emission with an increasing number of cells, the photon emission of
tumor cells increases in a nonlinear way to higher and higher values, displaying
thus a qualitative, not only a quantitative, difference. Photon emission was
also cell type dependent, multipotent fibroblastic cells showing the strongest
emission (VanWijk et al., 1993; 1995a; 1995b). Furthermore, it is worthwhile
to note that the relaxation after light illumination follows a hyperbolic (1/t)
law (where t is the time) rather than an exponential exp ( - t/T) law (where T is

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the decay constant; Schamhart and VanWijk, 1987; VanWijk et al., 1995a,
1995b, 1997). Similar results were obtained for other cells by Scholz et al.
(1988). They confirmed that the delayed luminescence relaxation of normal
tissue with increasing cell density conforms more and more to an hyperbolic
function, while that of tumor tissue displayed increasing deviation from hyperbolic decay and increasing agreement to exponential decay with increasing
cell density.
These observations cannot be explained in terms of linear physics, since
with increasing optical density of the tissue, according to the laws of linear optics, the saturation may be understandable, but not the decrease after saturation. However, it is in accordance with the idea of a coherent communication
not only between neighbor cells but among all the members of a cell population. As soon as the integration of a new cell into the population by cell division does not result in an increasing coherence of the system, the information
for cancerous growth will arise. Consequently, the model of a coherent biophoton field, providing the basic communication of the cells in an organism,
might help to understand cancer growth in terms of rather fundamental properties of a coherent field.
In order to explain non-linear optical phenomena of biological systems, it is
important to remember the general but at the same time basic property of all
biological tissues of representing optically dense matter. This means that the
intermolecular distances are small compared with the wavelength of the light.
Under these conditions the theory of Dicke (1954) has to be applied in order to
understand the interaction of light and matter. According to Dicke, spontaneous reemission of absorbed light is impossible as soon as the intermolecular
distance is significantly smaller than the wavelength. Rather, the interaction
of the pigment molecules and the photons split into two new regimes of
super- and sub-radiance. Super-radiance corresponds to constructive interference of light waves cumulating up to coherent light flashes which are then
emitted in relatively short time intervals. Sub-radiance is defined as the destructive interference of the light waves within the system of absorbing molecules. The result is delayed luminescence of coherent light waves which
relax according to hyperbolic functions. Just this situation is displayed in biological systems. Consequently, the explanation of the results on normal and
tumor cells follows the general theory of Dicke.
A second series of experiments showing similar results has been performed
by Galle et al. (1991). He investigated the spontaneous bio-photon emission of
Daphnia magna in dependence on the number of animals in the quartz cuvette
of fixed volume. The animals were female only of the same genetics and about
the same size and development stage. Instead of obtaining increasing bio-photon emission with increasing number of animals, Galle observed in several experiments maxima and minima of photon emission. One of the minima corresponds to a natural distance which is preferred by the animals if they are
living in freedom. It has been argued that an interpretation of the results by a

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collision model or by chemical communication is not possible (Galle,

1992).
A third series of experiments has been performed on Dinoflagellates and
Thailand fireflies which show in addition to bio-photon emission distinct bioluminescence. The fascinating feature of their bioluminescence is synchronous flickering as soon as they make contact with each other. A careful analysis of the synchrony showed that it cannot be explained in terms of mutual
excitation with light. A striking observation is that even if they are separated,
synchronous bursts can be observed as soon as they become aware of an external perturbation. A further important factor in understanding the mechanism is
the fact that in the case that a shutter between them is opened, the total intensity of the whole system is not simply the sum of both. Chang and Popp (1998)
have tried to specify the nature of intercellular communication by light by investigating again in detail the synchronous flickering. They constructed a
light-double chamber in which two samples can be connected and disconnected by a shutter between them. Consecutive opening and closing of the shutter
enables non-substantial communication between the samples or blocks it, respectively. At the same time the two photo-multipliers which are connected to
each of the samples register their photon current.
In the meantime several examples have been studied on bio-information or
cell to cell communication without chemical mediators or special messenger
molecules such as hormones, growth factors and neurotransmitters. In 1992,
G. Albrecht-Buehler reported that cells were able to detect the orientation of
others by signals that penetrated glass but not thin metallic films and that,
therefore, appeared to be carried out by electromagnetic radiation (AlbrechtBuehler, 1992). Golantsev et al. (1993) reported that a mammary explant of
lactating mice stimulated with some secretion-regulative hormones such as
oxytocin, acetylcholine, epinephrine and norepinephrine can induce protein
secretion in the other mammary explant of the mice even when separated by
quartz glass. Shen et al. (1994) found that the neutrophils stimulated to undergo respiratory burst can activate a second, chemically separated, but optically
coupled population of neutrophils. The response of the latter was visualized as
a temporary rising of their low-level chemiluminescence and enhanced generation of superoxide radicals detected by both the reduction of ferricytochrome
c and spin trapping.
Kuzin and Surbenova (1995) reported that seeds (Raphanus sativus) acquired a new property after they were irradiated at low dose: some hours after
irradiation the seeds exert distant influence on the native seeds used as controls. The distant influence is to accelerate germination and development of
the native seeds (160-180% of the rate for control samples).
More recently, Shen et al. (2000) extended their experiments to the question
of whether the chemiluminescence burst of the neutrophil cells stimulated by
phorbol myristate acetate (PMA) or zymosan could be modulated by the presence of a separated neutrophil cell population in close vicinity. The results of

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all 12 independent tests made during 19961997 demonstrated 9 tests with a

significant enhancement of the respiratory burst of the PMA-stimulated neutrophil cells by the presence of a separated but optically coupled neutrophil
cell suspension, but 3 tests yield negative outputs. The same experiments were
repeated in 1998, in which 9 independent tests were conducted. The enhancement of the respiratory burst of the PMA-stimulated neutrophil cells by the
presence of a separated but optically coupled neutrophil cell suspension was
observed in 8 tests, and only 1 test showed a negative outcome. However, the
negative outcome was not significant.
Models for Explaining Photon Emission From
Collective Molecular Interactions
The following question arises: Is it possible that molecular interactions collectively accumulate small portions of energy until the threshold value E
hc/ min is reached? There are at least two classes of luminescence generated
without chemical reactions in strict sense, i.e., without reorganization of
strong chemical bonds. The first class includes crystallo- and lyo-luminescence, where light emission accompanies growth and solubilization of crystals. The second class includes the emission associated with the penetration of
water into bio-polymers and dry biological objects such as seeds and spores
(Boveris et al., 1983; Slawinski et al., 1980b, 1981). The existence of photon
emission in these processes strongly suggests that small portions of energy can
indeed accumulate to the extent necessary for electronic excitation. With respect to cellular mechanisms of certain processes involving weak intermolecular couplings that probably result in photon emission, the role of DNA, biomembranes and cellular water have been discussed.
The hypothesis that photon emission originates from the relaxation of superhelical DNA is based on the possibility of excimer formation of polynucleotides at room temperature within the lowest long-living triplet states of
DNA. The excimer complex is relatively stable and forms a photon trap since
its free energy is lower than that of the molecular fragments. The natural tendency of exciplexes and excimers to absorb photons and to create excited
states associated with ordered and more compact biostructures, e.g., condensed chromatin in the nucleus, fits well with the idea that the relaxation of
DNA superstructures releases photons (Nagl and Popp, 1983a, 1983b, 1987;
Popp et al., 1978; Popp, 1984; Popp and Chang, 1998; Rattemeyer et al.,
1981). In this respect the biophoton emission of fractionated mammalian cells
are of interest (VanWijk & Van Aken, 1991; VanWijk et al., 1995a, 1995b,
1997). Biophoton emission was detected in fractions containing nuclei and
structured DNA. However, emission was not detected in purified DNA, neither
was it in cell fractions containing cytosol, mitochondria, or ribosomes.
Another hypothesis is based on molecular interactions in the electric field of
bio-membranes. Electric fields in biological microstructures can reach very
high values of the order of 10 6 10 8 V/m. The existence of such high field

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strengths implies that non-linear responses of molecular interactions should be

taken into account. Every electrically charged particle passing the membrane
is exposed to this field and its polarization may be dramatically changed. The
energy which an ion gains in such a field is on average 10 kJ/mol. About 20 accelerated ions have to interact within a limited space and time to accomplish
the energy accumulation necessary for the electronic excitation (Slawinski,
1988). The probability of such an event would be extremely low but finite, fitting well to the extremely low luminescence yield of the order of 10 -14 10 -10
observed, e.g., in the case of crystalloluminescence.
A third hypothesis is based on collective excitations in cytosol. The analysis
of the water-ion macromolecule system in membrane structures shows that
cellular water exists in a physical state sufficiently ordered to exclude solutes,
e.g., certain ions, and to create an extremely polarizable medium with H 5O 2+ or
H 3 O 2- ions in which metastable, dynamic states are possible. The evidence for
this comes from a cooperative interaction between the majority of ion-absorbing sites that replace K + by Na + ions. The sigmoidal nature of the equilibrium
distribution isotherm of cellular K + and Na + is analogous to critical or collective phenomena in general (Clegg, 1983; Nagendank, 1982). Some evidence
that collective interactions can produce macroergic effects leading to electronic excitation comes from experiments with water-induced luminescence of dry
seeds (Slawinski et al., 1980b) or spores of fungi (Slawinski et al., 1981). The
addition of water produces instantaneous weak luminescence and is related to
physico-chemical processes earlier than the onset of germination, probably involving hydrophilic coherent interactions within a limited space at the watermacromolecule boundary. Whether a sort of Bose condensation of coherent
photons or the accumulation of energy in molecular constellations accounts
for these phenomena remains to be decided. It must be kept in mind, however,
that most of the above considerations require further verification.
Conclusion
There are still a large number of biological phenomena and events that cannot be adequately explained, or even simply described, such as regulation of
cell division and cellular differentiation. How is the program of growth controlled, and how does the ordered growth come to be disturbed?
Paying attention to the devotion of the first generation of researchers that
studied the possibility of division regulation by endogenous radiation, we
have also looked at the difficulties and the dead periods in their research,
which unfortunately did not lead to discussion on the causes. Some skeptically
minded persons used this ambiguity as a reason to neglect the whole field. It
may be suggested that the main reason for rejecting the Gurwitschs approach
by the majority of his contemporary scientific community was the extraordinary conclusions following from the mitogenetic experiments, rather than the
incorrectness of the experiments.
The second generation of researchers that verified the existence of photon

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emission from biological organisms and cells no longer made use of the experiences obtained by the first generation. Instead this field was dominated by
the biochemical approach and led to the identification of numerous metabolic
and enzymatic steps that could be responsible for photon emission by organisms and cells.
The question of the existence of radiation with a bio-informative character
has been the subject of the third generation of researchers in the field. Can
long-range electromagnetic waves and fields be seen as the basis of biological
organization? The approach of this generation is to break down the dichotomy
between the biological and physical approaches in this research. Physicists see
their task, in contrast to most biologists, in treating things simply, in order to
understand complicated phenomena in a unified way, in terms of a few simple
principles. One of these principles may be found in coherence. Although this
topic is now studied by these third generation scientists all over the world, it
also led to an international co-operation of these interdisciplinary scientists
with a major meeting place at the International Institute of Biophysics in
Neuss, Germany. The institutes primary purpose is research of some integrative biophysics that pays attention to the properties of coherence, long range
interactions, information and communication in living organisms with biophotonic or bio-electromagnetic techniques. The research activities can now
be recognized by the increasing literature in this field as it is presented in reviews and books (Beloussov and Popp, 1995; Beloussov et al., 2000; Chang et
al., 1998; Jezowska-Trzebiatowska et al., 1987, 1990; Popp et al., 1988, 1992,
1994; VanWijk et al., 1992; Zhang et al., 1996). This literature demonstrates
the richness of information which can be retrieved from measurements of photon emission. The present review may offer the opportunity to take part in the
discussion in order to reach a better understanding of radiation from (and within) biological matter.
Notes
1

This paper is based on a presentation made by the author at the Amsterdam

conference of the Society for Scientific Exploration, October 2000.
2
Address for reprint requests: Dr. Roeland VanWijk, International Institute
of Biophysics, Kapellener Strasse, 41472 Neuss Germany.
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