chapter

11
3

Earthquakes

1
section

Forces Inside Earth

Before You Read

Have you ever stretched a rubber band so far that it broke?
On the lines below, tell why you think a rubber band breaks
when it is stretched too much.

Read to Learn
Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Earthquake Causes
Rubber bands are elastic so they can stretch and then
return to their original shape. But if the rubber band is
stretched too far, it will break. It has reached its elastic limit.
Rocks also have an elastic limit. Forces in Earth bend or
stretch rocks. Rocks can bend and stretch up to a point. But
once a rocks elastic limit is passed, the rock breaks.
When rocks break in this way, they move along surfaces,
or faults. A fault is the surface along which rocks move
when they pass their elastic limit and break. A great deal of
force is needed to move rocks along a fault. Rock on one
side of a fault may move up, down, or sideways in relation
to rock on the other side of the fault.

What causes faults?

The surface of Earth is in constant motion because of forces
deep inside the planet. These forces cause sections of Earths
surface, called plates, to move. The movement puts stress on
rocks near the edges of the plates. To relieve this stress, rocks
bend, stretch, or compress. If the force is great enough, the
rocks will break. An earthquake is the vibrations, or
shaking, produced when rocks break along a fault.

What Youll Learn

how earthquakes result
from buildup of energy
how different types of
faults form

Study Coach

Summarize As you read

each paragraph, write a one or
two sentence summary of its
main idea.

A Define

Make a seven-tab
Foldable to help you remember
the terms in this chapter.
fault
ke
thqua

ear

seismic

wave

focus
r

epicente

raph
seismog
de

magnitu

Reading Essentials

155

What causes earthquakes to occur?

As rocks along a fault move past each other, the rough
surfaces catch, or grind, to a temporary halt. However, the
forces inside Earth are so strong, they do not let the rocks
stop moving. The forces keep driving the rocks, and stress
builds up along the fault. When the rocks are stressed
beyond their elastic limit, they break, move along the fault,
and then return to their original shapes. An earthquake
results. Earthquakes may be small vibrations that no one
notices. Or they may be enormous vibrations that cause a
great deal of damage. No matter what their strength, most
earthquakes result from rocks moving over, under, or past
each other along fault surfaces.

Types of Faults
Three types of forces act on rockstension, compression,
and shear. Tension is the force that pulls rocks apart.
Compression is the force that squeezes rocks together. Shear
is the force that causes rocks on either side of a fault to
slide past each other.
Identify Name three
types of forces that act
on rocks.

What are normal faults?

Forces of tension inside Earth cause rocks to be pulled
apart. When rocks are stretched by these forces, a normal fault
can form. Along a normal fault, rocks are pulled apart, and
the rock above the fault moves downward in relation to
rock below the fault.
The figure below shows how rocks move along a normal
fault. Arrows show where tension forces pull the rocks apart.
Find the arrows that point out direction of motion. These
arrows show how rock above the normal fault surface moves
downward in relation to rock below the fault surface.
Tension forces

Picture This
2.

Direction of
motion

Identify Trace over the

arrows in the figure that
show the direction that rock
moves in a normal fault.

156

Earthquakes

Normal fault surface

Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

1.

What are reverse faults?

Some faults occur when forces of compression squeeze
rocks together. In a reverse fault, rock breaks from forces of
compression pushing on it from opposite directions. The force
of compression along a reverse fault pushes the rock that is
above the fault up and over the rock that is below the fault.
In the figure below, arrows show forces of compression
pushing the rock together. The rock above the reverse fault
surface moves upward in relation to the rock below the
fault surface.

B Classify

Make a three-tab
Foldable to record information
about normal, reverse, and
strike-slip faults.

Normal
Fault

Reverse
Fault

Strike-Slip
Fault

Compression forc

Reverse fault surface

Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

What are strike-slip faults?

In a strike-slip fault, rocks move past each other without
much movement upward or downward. The figure below
shows that shear forces push rocks past each other on either
side of the strike-slip fault surface. The San Andreas Fault in
California is a strike-slip fault that extends for more than
1,100 km through the state. The San Andreas Fault is the
boundary between two of Earths plates that are moving
sideways past each other.

Picture This
3.

Compare Look at the

diagrams of a reverse fault
and a strike-slip fault. How
does the direction of force
differ in these two faults?

Shear forces

Strike-slip
fault surface

Reading Essentials

157

After You Read

Mini Glossary
earthquake: vibrations, or shaking, produced when rocks
break along a fault
fault: surface along which rocks move when they reach their
elastic limit and break
normal fault: break in rock caused by tension forces where
rock above the fault surface moves down in relation to
rock below the fault surface

reverse fault: break in rock caused by compression forces

where rock above the fault surface moves upward in
relation to rock below the fault surface
strike-slip fault: break in rock caused by shear forces where
rocks move past each other without much movement
upward or downward

1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Then write a sentence that
explains how earthquakes and faults are related. Use at least two terms in your sentence.

2. Write the correct term in each box.

________________________
caused by
shear forces

________________________
caused by
tension forces

________________________
caused by
forces of
compression

3. How did summarizing the main idea in each paragraph help you understand the
information in this section?

End of
Section

158

Earthquakes

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games, and projects to help you learn more about types of faults
and earthquakes.

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Types of Faults

chapter

11
3

Earthquakes

2
section

Features of Earthquakes

Before You Read

Imagine you and a friend are holding opposite ends of a
long rope. You shake one end. On the lines below, describe
how you think the rope would move.

Read to Learn
Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Seismic Waves
When one end of a rope is shaken, the rope moves up and
down, or side to side. Energy travels through the rope in the
form of waves. Seismic (SIZE mihk) waves are generated by
earthquakes. Seismic waves travel through Earth just as waves
travel through rope. When an earthquake occurs, the ground
moves forward and backward, up and down, or side to side.
Sometimes, earthquakes cause the surface of Earth to ripple
like the waves on the ocean.

What Youll Learn

what seismic waves are
how seismic waves are
measured and studied
the structure of Earths
interior

Main Ideas Highlight the

main idea in each paragraph as
you read. Use a different color to
highlight the vocabulary words
and their definitions.

What is the origin of seismic waves?

Rocks move past each other along faults. Stress builds up
along rock surfaces that catch on each other. The stress
continues to build up until the rocks elastic limit is passed.
Then the built up energy is released as seismic waves. The
focus (plural, foci) of an earthquake is the point where this
energy is first released.
The foci of most earthquakes are within 65 km of Earths
surface. A few earthquakes have occurred as much as
700 km beneath the surface. Seismic waves are produced
and travel outward from the earthquake focus.

C Classify

Make a three-tab
Foldable to organize information
about primary, secondary, and
surface waves.

Primary
Wave

Secondary
Wave

Surface
Wave

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159

What are primary waves?

1.

Classify What are the

three types of seismic
waves?

Earthquakes produce three different types of seismic

wavesprimary, secondary, and surface waves. All three types
of seismic waves are produced at the same time. But each
type of wave behaves in a different way within Earth.
Primary waves (P-waves) cause particles in rock to move
back and forth in the same direction that the wave is
traveling. Primary waves occur when particles in rocks are
compressed and then stretch apart. This motion sends
primary waves traveling through the rock.

What are secondary and surface waves?

Picture This
2.

Explain Why do surface

waves cause much more
damage than other waves?

Surface waves

Surface waves are produced when earthquake energy

reaches Earths surface. Surface waves travel outward from
the epicenter of an earthquake. An earthquakes epicenter
(EH pih sen tur) is the point on Earths surface directly
above the earthquake focus.

160

Earthquakes

Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Secondary waves (S-waves) move through Earth by

causing particles in rock to move at right angles to the
direction in which the wave is traveling.
Surface waves move particles in rock in a backward, rolling
motion and also in a side-to-side, swaying motion. The
arrows in the figure below show the different directions of
movement made by surface waves. Surface waves cause most
of the damage from earthquakes. Many buildings are made
with stiff materials that crack when surface waves shake the
ground. The buildings fall apart or collapse when surface
waves cause different parts of the building to move in
different directions.

Locating an Epicenter
Different seismic waves travel through Earth at different
speeds. Primary waves are the fastest; secondary waves are
slower. They travel about half the speed of primary waves.
Surface waves are the slowest seismic waves.
Scientists have learned to use the different speeds of
seismic waves to figure out the distance to an earthquakes
epicenter. When an earthquakes epicenter is far from a
location, the primary wave has more time to get farther
ahead of the secondary and surface waves. It reaches the
monitoring center first, ahead of the other seismic waves.

3.

Interpret What are the

fastest seismic waves?

Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

How are seismic waves measured?

A seismograph is the instrument scientists use to measure
seismic waves. A seismograph registers the waves and
records the time that each wave arrived.
A seismograph is made up of a rotating drum of paper
and a hanging weight, or pendulum, with a pen attached to
it. When seismic waves reach the seismograph, the drum
vibrates, but the pendulum remains at rest. The unmoving
pen traces a record of the vibrations on the moving drum
of paper. The paper record of a seismic event is called a
seismogram. The figure below shows two different
seismographs recording two different ground
movementshorizontal and vertical.

4.

Explain Why are two

different seismographs
used to record Earths
movements?

Rotating
drum
Mass

Pen

Rotating
drum

Weight
Pen

Horizontal
earth movement

Bedrock

Vertical
earth movement

Bedrock

Reading Essentials

161

What are seismograph stations?

Seismographs are located at seismograph stations, where
scientists record and monitor earthquake activity. Each type
of seismic wave reaches the seismograph station at a
different time, depending on its speed. Primary waves reach
the seismograph station first. Secondary waves reach the
station second, and the slow surface waves reach the
seismograph station last. Scientists use the time difference to
figure out the distance between the seismograph station and
the earthquake epicenter. For example, if a seismograph
station is located 4,000 km from an earthquake epicenter,
primary waves will reach the station about 6 minutes before
secondary waves.
Analyze How is the
speed of different seismic
waves used to locate an
earthquake epicenter?

How is an epicenter located?

Seismic waves must be recorded at three or more stations
to determine an earthquakes epicenter. To locate an
epicenter, scientists draw a circle around each stations
position on a map, as shown in the figure below. The size
of each circle is based on how far each seismograph station
is from the epicenter of the earthquake. The point at
which the three circles meet is the location of the
earthquake epicenter.
Scientists usually describe earthquakes based on their
distance from the seismograph. Local earthquakes occur less
than 100 km away. Regional events occur from 100 km to
1,400 km from the seismograph. Teleseismic events occur
more than 1,400 km away.

Picture This
6. Identify Look at the
figure with circles drawn
around three seismograph
stations. Mark the location
of the epicenter of this
earthquake.

Station 1

Station 3
Station 2

162

Earthquakes

Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

5.

Basic Structure of Earth

Earths different layers are shown in the figure below. The
center of Earth is a very dense, solid core made mostly of
iron, with smaller amounts of nickel, oxygen, silicon, and
sulfur. The core is solid and dense because of the intense
pressure of all the layers above it. Above the inner core lies
the liquid outer core, which also is made mostly of iron.
Earths mantle is the largest layer. The mantle lies above
the liquid outer core. The mantle is made up mainly of
silicon, oxygen, magnesium, and iron. The mantle is divided
into an upper mantle and a lower mantle, based on the
different speeds at which seismic waves move through them.
One part of the upper mantle, called the asthenosphere
(as THE nuh sfihr), contains weak rock that can flow slowly,
like a thick liquid.

D Describe

Make a halfbook Foldable showing a cross

section of Earth. Label Earths
layers. Describe each layer inside
the book.

The outermost layer of Earth is called the crust. The

crust contains more silicon and aluminum, but less
magnesium and iron, than the mantle. The crust and the
part of the mantle just beneath it make up the lithosphere
(LIH thuh sfihr). The lithosphere is broken up into a
number of plates. The plates move over the asthenosphere
that lies just below them.
The thickness of Earths crust varies. In some mountain
regions, it is more than 60 km thick. Under some parts of
the ocean, it is only 5 km thick. Earths crust is generally
less dense than the mantle beneath it.

Upper
mantle

Picture This
7. Locate Use a colored
pencil or marker to
highlight the lithosphere in
the figure.

Lower
mantle

2,
2
km 70

2,
2
km 25

6
km 60

Crust (560 km)

1,
2
km 16

Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

What is Earths crust?

Outer core
Inner core

Reading Essentials

163

How can scientists know about Earths

internal structure?
The speeds and paths of seismic waves change as they
travel through materials with different densities. By studying
seismic waves, scientists have concluded that different layers
of Earth are made of different materials with different
densities. In general, the deeper inside Earth a layer is, the
denser it is. Studying how seismic waves travel through
Earth has allowed scientists to map Earths internal structure
without being there.

Do seismic waves travel through liquid?

8.

Infer What part of Earth

has the greatest density?

Scientists also discovered that seismic waves do not travel

through some regions of Earth. Seismic waves are not
detected in the region of Earth called the shadow zone. The
shadow zone occurs because secondary waves cannot travel
through liquid, so they stop moving when they reach the
liquid outer core. Primary waves are slowed and bent, but
not stopped, by the liquid outer core. From these findings,
scientists concluded that the liquid outer core and the mantle
are made of different materials with different densities.

9.

Identify What causes

seismic waves to change
speeds as they move
through Earths layers?

164

Earthquakes

Seismic waves change speed when they travel through

different layers of Earth. Seismic waves speed up when they
pass through the bottom of the crust and enter the upper
mantle. Seismic waves change speed at this boundary because
the crust and the upper mantle have different densities.
This boundary is called the Mohorovicic discontinuity
(moh huh ROH vee chihch dis kahn tuh NEW uh tee),
or Moho.
Seismic waves also change speed as they travel through
different parts of the mantle. For example, waves slow down
when they reach the asthenosphere. They speed up again
when they move through the more solid part of the mantle
below the atmosphere.
Earths core is divided into two regions based on how
seismic waves travel through it. Secondary waves cannot
travel through the liquid outer core. Primary waves slow
down when they reach the outer core, but speed up again
when they reach the solid inner core.

Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

How do layer boundaries affect seismic waves?

After You Read

Mini Glossary
epicenter: point on Earths surface directly above the
earthquake focus
focus: point below Earths surface where energy is first
released in the form of seismic waves
primary wave: seismic wave that causes rock particles to
move back and forth in the same direction that the wave
is traveling

secondary wave: seismic wave that moves rock particles at

right angles to the direction of the wave
seismic wave: wave generated by an earthquake
seismograph: instrument used to register seismic waves
and record the time that each arrived
surface wave: seismic wave that moves rock particles in a
backward, rolling motion and also in a side-to-side,
swaying motion

1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Then write two sentences
about primary, secondary, and surface waves. Explain how they are alike and how they
are different.

Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

2. Fill in the blank boxes below to explain how seismic waves are used.
__________________ waves

__________________ waves

__________________ waves

are registered on a

to determine the distance

to an earthquakes

_______________________.

Visit earth.msscience.com to access your textbook, interactive

games, and projects to help you learn more about earthquakes
and the structure of Earth.

End of
Section

Reading Essentials

165

11
3

Earthquakes

3
section

People and Earthquakes

What Youll Learn

how earthquakes are
measured
how to make your
home or school
earthquake-safe

Underline Key Ideas As

you read this section, underline
key ideas and terms in each
paragraph.

Before You Read

Think about pictures you have seen of a city that has been
hit by a powerful earthquake. On the lines below, describe
about what the city looked like.

Read to Learn
Earthquake Activity
Imagine waking in the middle of the night to find your
house shaking and falling down around you. Thats what
happened in Northridge, California, at 4:30 A.M. on January 17,
1994. The town was struck by a huge earthquake that killed 51,
injured 9,000, and left about 22,000 people homeless.
Earthquakes are natural events. They provide scientists
with information about Earth. Unfortunately, they also do a
great deal of damage to property and to people. On average,
10,000 people are killed in earthquakes every year. It is
important for scientists to learn as much as they can about
earthquakes to help reduce their impact on society.

Who studies earthquakes?

1.

Define What are

seismologists?

166

Earthquakes

Scientists who study earthquakes and seismic waves are

seismologists. As you have read, the instrument that is used
to record primary, secondary, and surface waves is called a
seismograph. Seismologists use records from seismographs
to study earthquakes. There are seismograph stations all
over the world that help determine where earthquake
epicenters are located.

Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

chapter

What is an earthquakes magnitude?

A seismograph record of an earthquake is called a
seismogram. A seismogram is shown in the figure below.
The height of the lines on a seismogram is a measure of
energy the earthquake released. The magnitude of an
earthquake is the measure of energy released. The taller the
lines on the seismogram, the greater the magnitude of the
earthquake.

Picture This
2.

Interpret Look at the

seismogram. Circle the area
on the seismogram that
recorded the earthquake.

Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Berkeley Seismological Laboratory

What is the Richter scale?

The Richter magnitude scale is used to describe the
magnitude of earthquakes. The Richter scale is based on the
height of the lines on a seismogram. The Richter scale has
no upper limit. However scientists think that a Richter
scale value of 9.5 is the greatest magnitude an earthquake
could register.
For each increase of 1.0 on the Richter scale, the height of
the line on a seismogram is ten times taller. For example,
the line on a seismogram that shows a magnitude 7.0
earthquake is ten times taller than the line on a seismogram
that shows a magnitude 6.0 earthquake.
The difference in the energy released by earthquakes of
different magnitudes is even greater. About 32 times as
much energy is released for every increase of 1.0 on the
Richter scale. An earthquake with a Richter scale magnitude
of 8.5 releases about 32 times more energy than an
earthquake with a magnitude of 7.5.

3.

Identify What scale is

used to describe an
earthquakes magnitude?

Reading Essentials

167

What do we know from past earthquakes?

4.

Determine At about
what magnitude are
earthquakes first noticed?

Thousands of earthquakes occur on Earth every day. Most

are so small that no one is aware of them. Earthquakes with
a magnitude of 3.0 or below are generally not noticed and
cause no damage. Earthquakes with a magnitude between
3.0 and 4.9 can usually be felt by humans. There are about
55,000 earthquakes each year that are felt, but that cause little or no damage.
Most of the earthquakes you hear about are large ones
that cause great damage. Destructive earthquakes have a
magnitude of 5.0 or more on the Richter scale. The
earthquakes that cause the most damage and take the most
lives have a magnitude of 6.8 or higher.
Earthquakes also can be described by the amount of
damage they cause. The modified Mercalli intensity scale
describes earthquake intensity based on the amount of
damage an earthquake does to rock formations, buildings,
and other structures at a specific location. The amount of
damage an earthquake does depends on its strength, the
kind of material at Earths surface, how structures are
designed, and how far a location is from the epicenter of
the earthquake.
On the Mercalli scale, an intensity-I earthquake would be
felt by few people and do no damage. An intensity-IV
earthquake would be felt by everyone indoors, and it might
do some damage to buildings. Everyone would feel an
intensity-IX earthquake, which would cause serious damage
to buildings and open cracks in the ground. An intensity-XII
earthquake would result in total destruction of structures.
The 1994 6.8-magnitude earthquake in Northridge,
California, was listed at an intensity of IX because of the
damage it caused.

What is liquefaction?
E Describe

Use two
quarter-sheets of notebook
paper to write down facts about
liquefaction and tsunamis.
Tsunami

168

Earthquakes

Liquefaction

Have you ever tried to get thick ketchup out of a bottle?

Sometimes you must shake the bottle to make the liquid
ketchup flow. Something similar can happen to wet soil
during earthquakes. The intense shaking from an earthquake
can cause wet soil to act like a liquid. Liquefaction occurs
when wet soil acts more like a liquid during an earthquake.
When liquefaction occurs in soil under buildings, the
buildings can sink into the soil and collapse.

Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

How is earthquake intensity described?

What are tsunamis?

Some earthquakes occur under the ocean. These
earthquakes cause a sudden movement of the ocean floor,
which pushes against the water. The powerful wave that results
can travel thousands of kilometers across the ocean in all
directions, and it may finally crash into a coast. Tsumamis
(soo NAH meez) are seismic sea waves caused by undersea
earthquakes. On the open ocean, tsunamis may not be noticed
but when they reach land, tsunamis may form a wall of
water up to 30 m high.
5.

What are ways to prepare?

Identify What are

seismic sea waves caused
by underground
earthquakes called?

Most tsunamis occur around the Pacific Ocean. The

Pacific Tsunami Warning Center in Hawaii monitors
undersea earthquakes. People are warned if a tsunami is
likely to occur so they have time to leave the danger area.

Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Earthquake Safety
Earthquakes may occur anywhere. The map below shows
where in the United States they are most likely to occur.
Today buildings can be built to resist earthquake damage.
In California, some new buildings are supported by flexible
moorings made of rubber and steel. The rubber acts like a
cushion to absorb the wave motion of an earthquake. In older
buildings, steel rods can be installed to make the walls stronger.
There are some steps you can take before an earthquake
to make your home safer. Move heavy objects from high
shelves to lower shelves. Make sure water heaters and gas
appliances are held securely in place. New sensors can now
be installed on gas lines. These sensors automatically shut
off the gas when earthquake vibrations are felt.

6.

Risk of Damaging
Earthquake
Slight
Minor
Moderate
Great

Infer If you live in an

earthquake zone, why
shouldnt you build a house
on loose soil?

Reading Essentials

169

After You Read

Mini Glossary
liquefaction: occurs when wet soil acts more like a liquid
during an earthquake

magnitude: the measure of energy released during an

earthquake
tsunami (soo NAH mee): seismic sea waves caused by
undersea earthquakes

1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Then write one sentence
about the effects of a strong undersea earthquake.

2. Fill in the blanks with the correct scale.

____________________________________

____________________________________

measures intensity
scale of I to XII

measures magnitude
scale of 1.0 to about 9.5

3. How did underlining main ideas and key terms help you understand the information in
this chapter?

End of
Section

170

Earthquakes

Visit earth.msscience.com to access your textbook, interactive

games, and projects to help you learn more about how
earthquakes affect people.

Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Seismologists use two scales to measure earthquakes.