a "EF oe VIKAS PUBLISHING HOUSE PVT LTD '576, Masia Flos, Jangpura, Naw Dethi-110014 Phonos: 4314605, 4915919 * Fax Fst Floor, NS.Bhewan, 4th Cre, ath Man, Gandhi gar, Bangalore-S60.609 + Phone’ 2204599 £-20, Nand Oham industrial stato, Maro, ‘Andhor| (East), Mumbal400 059 + Prone: 8602039, 8502324 Bs isd UBS PUBLISHERS’ DISTRIBUTORS LTD ‘5, Ansari Rd, New Dalh- 10 002 Ph.297260%, 9266646 + Fax: 3276509, 2274251 spat orior @poboakshopping.com « Infomet wn. gabockshopplng.com +30, First Main Road, Ganahi Nagar, Bangator-O O09 = Ph 2262901 + 8, Saganga loa, Nungambakkam, Chennal-600 038 «Ph. 8276355 + W1-B, Chowsnghes Lane, Kelkaa-700 016.» Ph, 2441821, 2442010 * 5A Ralondra Nagar, Patna 600 016 + Ph, 672886, 6581 + 80, Nonna Road, Cantonment, Kenpur-208 004 + Ph, 369724, 962665 arerorfr Waster nc: PREFACE BOOKS £223, Cama indus Estate, 2nd Foor, ‘Sun Mal Compound, Lower Para (W), Mumbai-400 013 Woon a1-260-0040-4 Copyright © 2001, Vikas Pusising House Pvt Lid ‘A ght reseed. No part ol his pblieaton may ba eproducad inanylom wit the ot wien pemation le pl The beck was devoted ed and produc at Vitay Nicole heaprinte ‘£8, 41 Pet Nason Chander, 15, Nuon Wenioan Pd, ‘roa Shen! 0908 Prearasoge ara rot Ena! pach @rmevanrain ‘nto corto tis book hes baen plod WAS Publehiog oven Pu Ud and hae teen dane by is wuhars rom sourentbekeweda bari ae ar coroct ta th ett er ‘rowsge However ie pulsar andia autor saline eerie astro errs, alors ‘er darages asin tel ue ol is lomaon en apecicaly duly any plod warms ot ‘artsy ortines or ty parila Protea Key Kay Péter, De- 110.007 To my beloved Parents Amirtham-UthariamPREFACE The objective of this book is to cover comprehensively the basics of turbo machines, Turbo machines has been an essential subject in the engineering curriculum and is often perceived asa tough subject mainly due tothe un ability of standard textbooks. Ihave made an attempt hereto provide adequate ‘material for the study of both compressible and incompressible flow turbo ‘machines, The book adopts the SI system of units throughout. It includes nu- ‘merous solved and unsolved problems in each chapter to assist students in Understanding the subject. Chapter | introduces the basics of turbo machines. The Euler's equation has been derived in this chapter. Chapter 2 deals with the geometries of blades and blade rows of different types of turbo machines. The blowers and fans are low-pressure compressible flow machines and are principally the same as the compressors. Therefore, these machines are combined with compressors. Centrifugal compressors, blowers and fans are discussed in chapter 3. Axial flow compressors and fans are described in chapter 4, In the same chapter, multi-stage compressors are also covered. Axial flow gas and steam turbines are combined and discussed in chepier 5. Problems in axial flow tur- bines ae solved by both analytical and graphical methods i this chapter. Chapter 6 deals with inward and outward flow radial turbines. Velocity triangles and ‘enthalpy - entropy diagrams have been frequently used to explain the thermo- dynamic aspects of these compressible flow machines. Chapter 7 includes dimensional and model analysis of turbo machines and types of similarities. A brief discussion on non-dimensional numbers is pre- sented here. Centrifugal and axial flow pumps are discussed in detail in chapter 8. talzo includes the study of positive displacement pumps. Hydraulic turbines such as Pelton, Francis and Kaplan turbines are discussed in chapter 9. Governing of hydraulic urbines is also included here. Power transmitting turbo machines and their characteristics are discussed in detail in chapter 10. ‘The reference direction in velocity triangles for centrifugal machines is the tangential direction and that of axial machines is the axial direction, This is the convention adopted here. Computer software has been developed for some selected problems in turbo machines and is given in the Appendix.e_ a a dl vill > Toro Macies This book will be useful to teachers and students of Mechanical Engineer- ing, candidates of AMIE. competitive examinations like UPSC, TNPSC and GATE and practicing engineers I welcome comments and sugges 8 from readers. ‘The material in this book is based on the concepts already developed over the years by various authors, which ean be readily gathered from the list of references given at the end of the book. I owe may gratitude to all of them, acknowledge with appreciation the encouragement and suggestions given by my colleagues as well as my students Jam grateful to my family members for their moral support and sustained ‘encouragement throughout the preparation of this book, I place on record my sincere gratitude to my college Chairman Dr. Tmt. Radha Thiagarajan, the Correspondent Thiru. KarumuthuT. Kannan and the Principal Dr. V. Abhaikumar for their support. | sincerely thank Mr. BK. Madhavan, Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd, for Publishing this book. I am indebted to my students Mr. H. Prasanna and Mr. A. Pradeep Chakkaravarthy for their help in proof reading. A Valan Arasu ConTENTS Preface vit 1. Basic Concepts of Turbo Machines Definition Classification of Turbo Machines Basic Laws and Governing Equations ‘The Principle of Conservation of Mass. The First Law of Thermodynamics ‘The Newton’s Second Law of Motion ‘The Second Law of Thermodynamics Efficiencies of Compressors Total-o-Total Efficiency Polytropic Efficiency Finite Stage Efficiency Preheat Factor in Compressors Efficiencies of Turbines Toial-to-Total Efficiency ‘Total-to-Static Efficiency Polytropic Efficiency Finite Stage Efficiency Reheat Facior in Turbines Solved Problems 18 Exercises 3¢ 2. Blade Theory Aero-foil Section ‘Symmetrical Aero-foil Non Symmetrical Aero-foil Drag and Lift Lift and Drag Coefficients Energy Transfer in Terms of Lift and Drag Coefficients Blade Terminology Cascade Nomenclature Turbine Cascade Nomenclature 37 37 37 37 38 39 2 a 45x > Tunao Maciones Cascaded Testing and Curves Cascade Lift and Drag Coefficients , , Cascade Lift and Drag Coeffitlents for Turbine Blades Losses in a Cascade Solved Problems 53 Short Questions 61 Exercises 62 Centrifugal Compressors and Fans Introduction Components and Description Velocity Diagrams for a Centrifugal Compressor Slip Factor Energy Transfer Power Input Factor Moller Chart Inlet Casing Impeller . Stage Pressure Rise and Loading Coefficient Pressure Coefficient : Diffuser Volute or Seroll Collector Vaneless Diffuser Vaned Diffuser Degree of Reaction Effect of Impeller Blade Shape on Performance re-whiel and Inlet Guide Vanes Inlet Velocity Limitations Mach Number in The Diffuser Centrifugal Compressor Characteristic ‘Surging Rotating Sal Choking Characteristic Curve Solved Problems 93 Short Questions 117 Exercises 119 4, Axial Flow Compressors and Fans Introduction Advantages of Axial Flow Compressors Description of an Axial Flow Compressor 49 32 52 125 125 12s 125 Comes 2 xi Working Principle 126 ‘Velocity Triangles for an Axial Flow Compressor Stage 127 Energy Transfer or Stage Work 128 Mollier Chart 128 ‘Work Done Factor 130 Stage Loading (or) Pressure Coefficient z BI Reaction Ratio. 132 Effect of Reaction Ratio on the Velocity Triangles 133 Static Pressure Rise 134 Stage Efficiency 135 Pressure Coefficient 136 Compressor Stall and Surge 136 Radial Equilibrium Method 37 Radial Equilibrium Theory 138 ‘Types of Blades 139 Free Vortex Blade 139 Forced Vortex or Solid Rotation Blades 140 ‘Constant Reaction Blade 14 Multistage Compression 14 ‘Comparison Between Centrifugal Compressor and Axial Flow Compressor 143 Direction of Flow Across the Compressor 43 Pressure Rise per Stage 143 Isotropic Efficiency 2 143, Range of Operation 43 Frontal Area 144 ‘Working Fluid 144 Starting Torque : 144 Construction 144 Multistaging 144 Applications 144 Characteristic Curve 144 Solved Problems 145 Short Questions 172 Exercises 174 Axial Flow Steam and Gas Turbines 181 Introduction 181 Description 181 Velocity Triangles for an Axial Flow Turbines 182 Stage Work and Dingram Efficiency 183 thes Dingram forand Axial Flow Turbine , 1m SS 6 Se) o Sp ge ee gem.all Turbo Macues a q Stator (Nozzle) and Rotor Losses Totalto-Total Efficiency (n,) Total-o-Static Efficiency (n,) q Blade Loading Coefficient ! Blade Types : Impulse Blading a Compounding (or) Staging i ‘Two Stage Pressure Compounced Impulse Turbine Va Stage Velocity Compounded impulse Tarte ie locity Tangles ofthe Two Stage Impulse Tebine i] paazam Efficiency ofa Two Stage Cutts Tablo Reaction Blading The Reaction Turbine FR Velo Teianale Diagram for Reaction Turbine Stage Stage Efficiency of a Reaction Turbine Maximum Stage Efficiency Free Vortex Design Constant Nozzle Angle Stage }mpulse Turbines Versus Reaction Turbines Internal Losses in Turbines Governing of Turbines Solved Problems 21) Bo Seeretie at » Exercises 249 p 6. Radial Flow Gas and Steam Turbines Introduction Deseription Velocity Diagrams ‘The Thermodynamics of Flow Stage Effcie ‘Spouting Velocity Degree of Resction $a Outward Flow Radial Turbine (LJungstrom Turbine) Velocity Triangles and Stage Work ‘Stage Work Solved Broblems 266 Short Questions 282 Exercises 283 Reaction Ratio fp Stage Eficiency, Turbine Efficiency and Reheat Factor a] eedddadaaananaananesduaiecscobie 186 186 186 138 189 190 191 191 192 194 195 197 199 200 201 202 205 207 207 207 208 210 255 255. 255 256 257 259 260 261 263, 264 264 7. Dimensional and Model Analysis ‘ Introduction Fundamental Dimensions Derived Dimensions ‘Advantages of Dimensional Analysis Dimensional Homogeneity Dimensional Analysis Method Buckingham PI Theorem : Method of Selecting Repeating Variables Model Analysis, tude a Geometric Similarity Kinematic Similarity Dynamic Similarity Classification of Hydraulic Models. Undistorted Models Distorted Models Non-dimensional Numbers Reynold’s Number (Re) Euler's Number (Eu) Froude's Number (F.) Weber's Number (W,) Mach’s Number (M) Specific Speed Pump Specific Speed Expression for Pump Specific Speed Specific Speed of Turbine Derivation ofthe Turbine Specific Speed Model Testing of Hydraulic Turbo Machines ‘ Unit Quantities Unit Speed Unit Discharge Unit Power Use of Unit Quantities f Solved Problems 305 Short Questions © 321 Exercises 323 8. Hydraulic Pumps , Centrifugal Pumps Introduetion Conon + xi 287 287 287 287 288 289 290 290 291 201 292 292 293 293, 294 204 294 295, 295 295 295 296 26 27 297 297 298 299 301 303 303 304 304a crm xiv = Tuna Macres Main Parts of a Centrifugal Pump feo 3h Impeller Casing Suction Pipe and Delivery Pipe Work done and Velocity Triangles Head Developed ‘Static Head (H,) ‘Manometric Head (H,) Pump Losses and Efficiencies Impeller Power Loss (Disc Friction Power Loss (P,)) Leakage Power Loss Casing Power Loss Mechanical Efficiency . Manometric (or) Hydraulic Efficiency . Overall Efficiency Volumetric Efficiency Impeller Efficiency ‘Minimum Starting Speed Net Positive Suction Head Priming Performance Curves of Centrifugal Pumps Constant Efficiency or Muschel Curves Multistage Centrifugal Pumps Purnps Combined in Parallel Pumps Combined in Series Pumps in Series Pumpsin Parallel Axial Flow Pumps Description Velocity Triangles ‘The Workdone on the Fluid ‘The Energy Transfer (or) Head ‘Axial Pump Characteristics Cavitation Method of Preventing Cavitation Positive Displacement Pumps Gear Pumps Vane Pump Piston Pump Miscellaneous Types of Pumps Jet Pump 325 325 326 327 327 330 330 331 33 331 331 332 332 332 333 333 333 33 334 335, 335, 336 337 337. 339 340. 340 34 Bal 3a 342 343 343 346 347 349 350 351 351 9% Comesrs < xv Air Lift Pump 4 352 Submersible Pump ¥ 353 Solved Problems 354 : ‘Short Questions 379 Exercises 380 Hydraulic Turbines : Fed sii yea ae Introduction 383 Classification of Hydraulic Turbines 383 ‘According to the Type of Energy at the Inlet 383 ‘According to the Direction of Flow through the Runner 383 ‘According to the Head at the Inlet of Turk 384 ‘According to the Specific Speed ofthe Turbine * +384 Pelton Wheel i 384 Paris ofthe Pelton Turbine 384 Velocity Triangles and Work Done for Pelton Wheel 385 Hydraulic Efficiency 387 Pelton Wheel Losses and Efficiencies 387 Pipe-Line Transmission Efficiency 387 Nozzle Efficiency 387 Nozzle Velocity Coefficient 388 ‘Number of Buckets 388 Overall Efficiency 388 Governing of Pelton Whee! Turbine 388 Double Governing of Pelton Wheel 389 Characteristics of an Impulse Turbine 30 Radial Flow Reaction Turbine 301 ‘Main Parts of a Radial Flow Reaction Turbine 391 Velocity Triangles and Work done 392 Net Head Across Reaction Turbine 393 Radial Flow Turbine Losses 394 Governing of Reaction Turbines 395 Characteristic Curves for a Reaction Turbine 396 ‘Axial Flow Reaction Turbine 397 Velocity Triangles and Work Done 399 Governing of Kaplan Turbine 400 ‘Comparison of Hydraulic Turbine Efficiencies 401 Seletion of Hydraulic Turbines 401 Draft Tube 402 ‘Types of Draft Tubes 403 Draft Tube Theory 403 = SS : j 4 ed odrm mT ne Ee 2. & xvi + Tuo Macias Efficiency of Draft Tube Cavitation in Turbines Solved Problems 406 Short Questions 435 Exercises 436 10, Power Transmitting Turbo Machines Introduction ‘The Hydraulic Coupling ‘Working Principle Efficiency Slip Torque Converter Characteristics of Fluid Coupling & Converter Exercises 447 ‘ Appendix 449 References 460 Index 461 405 405, 4a 441 4a 442 aaa 443, 445 4 BASIC CONCEPTS OF TURBO MACHINES DEFINITION ‘Turbo machine is defined as a device that extracts energy or impans energy to 8 continuously flowing stream of fluid by the dynamic action of one or more rotating blade rows. The prefix tuba ea atin word meaning ‘spin’ or ‘whin* implying that turbo machine route in ome way. Itihe machine adds energy tothe Mui. it is commonly called a pump. If itextacts energy then i Te eall's REBIGe-A device which pope igus Te emply called a pump, but if it pumy then thres different terms may be used depending upon: the pressure rie achieved. Upia neatly 0. ure rise, the device is called a ‘fan’, between.007 and har absolute pressure sealed a blower’, and bar absolute pressure iigcalled a ‘compressor “The difference between the tarbo machine ad the postive displacement machine, that inthe former, the uid fs moving continuously arose We machine Uni in the latter, where the fluid'eniers a closed chamber, which is isolated from ouilet sections ofthe machine for avery short pri ane nar By the Mid. CLASSIFICATION OF TURBO MACHINES “Turbo machines are broadly classified as Shrouded or Unshrauded turbo machines. If the rotating member is enclosed in @ casing or shrouded in such a way that the working Mid eannot be diverted 6 fo ‘edges of the impeller itis called 4 shrouded {urbo machine. Examples ofthis are tufbines, pumps, ele. I the Bid flows around the edges of the impeller which is not shrouded, then itis called an ‘unshrouded turbo machine, Examples ofthis are wind mill or aero-generator and raft propellers, eee eee Furbo machines may fall into any one of the two classes depending on whether 0 by the fluid on the rotating member (examples: hydraulic turbine, gas turbioe, etc.) or work is done by the rotating member on the fuid (examples: pomp, ‘compressor, e1.).2 > Turo Mactunes ne turbo machines can aso be classified bythe energy transfer from o¢ 10 the rotating blades, which are fixed onto a shaft I the work absorbing machines the fluid pressure (r) heada(in the case of hydralie machines) (er he entaipy (or ible cs from inlet io outlet, But in work delivering ‘machines the uid pressure or enthalpy, decreases from te inlet wo the sal The product change in head or enthalpy, and the mass Now rate ofthe Md tough use machine represen the cnergy absorbed by (or extracted from te rotaingbladet {In turbo machines, the energy transfer is accomplished by changing the angulat mo mentum ofthe uid and so the shapes ofthe blades and rotating members differ from fone type to another ‘Turbo machines ean also be classifed based on the direction of flow of fluid ross the rotating member, Ifthe low is axial the machine is ealed an axial ow machine, Ifthe low is only radial, itis known as radial low or cen a shine Ith Row is party axial and parla, themechine is Fnown as mised fle machine. BASIC LAWS AND GOVERNING EQUATIONS ‘The basic laws of thermodynamics and fuid mechanics are used in turbo machines, ‘The important laws and governing equations used in turbo machines are as follows: 1. The Principle of Conservation of Mass ‘The conservation of mass is one of the most fundamental principles in nature. Mass, like energy is a conserved property, and it cannot be ereated or destroyed, The con, servation of mass principle fora controled volume undergoing a steady flow process, ‘equires that the mass flow rate(m) across the controled volume remains constant Mathematically, ai = mA where:subseripis 1 and 2 denote the inlet and outlet conditions cespectively. mss equation is often refered" to! as the continulty sation in fuid mechanics, In compresible fow machines she mass flow rate (kg/s) is exclusively used while in hydraulic machines the volume flaw ate (m?/s) is prefered. 2. The First Law of Thermodynamics ‘The fist aw of thermodynamics whichis elso known asthe conservation of energy principle states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; il can only change {from one form to another. The conservation of energy equation fora general steady flow system can be expressed verbally as {Heat transferred] ~ [Shaft work) = (Mass flow rate) ((Change in enthalpy per unit rmass) + (Change in kinetic esiergy per unit mass) + (Change in potential energy per ‘unit mass)] Baste Concerrso# Tune Mactunes “<3 (QiWewlans ates ape] ing oauation is known as steady flow energy equation(SFEE). A tusbo machine, being operated essentially under the same conditions for long periods of une can te canvcniently analysed asa steady Now device. This equation, when applied io turbo srihe eaenty e Simplified pertaining to the type of turbo machine, because many ‘of the terms are zero (or) get cancelled with others, 3. The Newton's Second Law of Motion According to this law, the sum ofall the forces acting on a controlled volume in a Panticulis direction i equal othe rate of change of momentum of the fluid across the Controlled volume in the same direction, Figure 11 Movement of uid particle cross a controted volume In tutbo machines, the impels we rotaing and. the power ouipo a Bpresred Gs he product of torque and angular velomy wont ue ‘momentum she prime parameter. Comer ald parle ovine asst Glia Vlunie ae Shawn in Fig T.1. The Fluid parce eee B wile simultncouny moving tom a ulus toads Gee ane Componens of absolute velocities nthe tangent, Ree ien oe ae torques acting onthe syem is equal tothe rat of chases of area Matbematialy, n *° oe ees Er (nla = C41) the machine revolves with angular velocity w, then the power (W) is Ere = m(unCa wre) Bae! Bees! RI] a.)