Abc of Psychological Medicine

ABC
OF
PSYCHOLOGICAL
MEDICINE
Edited by Richard Mayou, Michael Sharpe and Alan Carson
ABC OF
PSYCHOLOGICAL MEDICINE
ABC OF
PSYCHOLOGICAL MEDICINE
Edited by
RICHARD MAYOU
Professor of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Warneford Hospital, Oxford
MICHAEL SHARPE
Reader in Psychological Medicine, University of Edinburgh
and
ALAN CARSON
Consultant Neuropsychiatrist, NHS Lothian and Honorary Senior Lecturer,
University of Edinburgh
BMJ Publishing Group 2003
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording and/or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publishers.
First published in 2003
by BMJ Books, BMA House, Tavistock Square,
London WC1H 9JR
www.bmjbooks.com
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 0 7279 1556 8
Typeset by Newgen Imaging Systems and BMJ Electronic Production
Printed and bound in Spain by GraphyCems, Navarra
Cover image depicts computer artwork of a face patterned with vertical lines with a magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) scan in the background. The MRI scan allows the internal features of
the head to be seen. At the centre is the nasal cavity (red), and above that is the front part
of the brain (blue and red). This region of the brain is part of the cerebrum, and is concerned
with conscious thought, personality and memory. With permission from
Alfred Pasieka/Science Photo Library.
Contents
Contributors
vi
Preface
vii
Introduction
viii
The consultation
Linda Gask, Tim Usherwood
Beginning treatment
Jonathan Price, Laurence Leaver
Organising care for chronic illness

Michael Von Korff, Russell E Glasgow, Michael Sharpe
Depression in medical patients

Robert Peveler, Alan Carson, Gary Rodin
10
Anxiety in medical patients

Allan House, Dan Stark
14
Functional somatic symptoms and syndromes

Richard Mayou, Andrew Farmer
17
Chronic multiple functional somatic symptoms

Christopher Bass, Stephanie May
21
Cancer
Craig A White, Una Macleod
25
Trauma
29
10
Fatigue
Michael Sharpe, David Wilks
33
11
Musculoskeletal pain
Chris J Main, Amanda C de C Williams
37
12
Abdominal pain and functional gastrointestinal disorders

Elspeth Guthrie, David Thompson
41
13
Chest pain
Christopher Bass, Richard Mayou
44
14
Delirium
Tom Brown, Michael Boyle
48
Index
53
Contributors
Christopher Bass
Consultant, Department of Psychological Medicine,
John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford
Stephanie May
General Practitioner, Stockwell Group Practice,
Stockwell Road, London
Michael Boyle
General Practitioner, Linlithgow Health Centre, Linlithgow,
West Lothian
Richard Mayou
Professor of Psychiatry, University of Oxford,
Warneford Hospital, Oxford
Tom Brown
Consultant Psychiatrist, St Johns Hospital at Howden,
Livingston, West Lothian
Robert Peveler
Professor of Liaison Psychiatry, University of Southampton
Alan Carson
Consultant Neuropsychiatrist, NHS Lothian and Honorary
Senior Lecturer, University of Edinburgh
Jonathan Price
Clinical Tutor in Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry,
University of Oxford
Andrew Farmer
Senior Research Fellow, Department of Public Health and
Primary Care, University of Oxford
Gary Rodin
Professor of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Canada
Linda Gask
Reader in Psychiatry, University of Manchester
Russell E Glasgow
Senior Scientist, AMC Cancer Research Center, Denver,
Colorado, USA
Elspeth Guthrie
Professor of Psychological Medicine and Medical Psychotherapy,
School of Psychiatry and Behavioural Sciences, University of
Manchester
Allan House
Professor of Liaison Psychiatry, Academic Unit of Psychiatry and
Behavioural Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Leeds
Michael Von Korff
Senior Investigator, Center for Health Studies, Group Health
Cooperative of Puget Sound, Seattle, WA, USA
Laurence Leaver
General Practitioner, Jericho Health Centre, Oxford
Una Macleod
Lecturer in General Practice, Department of General Practice,
University of Glasgow
Chris J Main
Head of the Department of Behavioural Medicine, Hope
Hospital, Salford
vi
Michael Sharpe
Reader in Psychological Medicine,
University of Edinburgh
Dan Stark
Specialist Regsitrar in Medical Oncology,
Academic Unit of Oncology, St Jamess University Hospital,
Leeds
David Thompson
Professor of Medicine, Section of Gastrointestinal Science,
Hope Hospital, Salford
Tim Usherwood
Professor in General Practice, University of Sydney,
NSW, Australia
Craig A White
Macmillan Consultant in Psychosocial Oncology,
Ayrshire and Arran Primary Care NHS Trust
David Wilks
Consultant in Infectious Diseases, Western General Hospital,
Edinburgh
Amanda C de C Williams
Senior Lecturer in Clinical Health Psychology,
Guys, Kings, and St Thomass School of Medicine,
University of London
Preface
Psychological medicine has a long history. Until the development of pharmacological and other specific treatments, it was a mainstay
of a physicians practice. Since then the successes of biomedical theory during the 20th century have led to a loss of interest in
the psychological aspects of medicine and core clinical skills have sometimes been neglected. Although many modern doctors
are comfortable with the latest advances in molecular medicine, they lack confidence in applying similar intellectual rigour to the
psychological problems of their patients. These deficiencies are particularly apparent in the management of patients with chronic
disease and of patients whose symptoms seem out of proportion to disease pathology.
Accumulating research evidence now clearly shows that psychological variables make a substantial contribution to the outcome
of most common medical conditions. The identification of problems, appropriate formulation and the implementation of
appropriate treatment results in not only better outcomes for patients but also in greater satisfaction for the doctors treating them.
A rediscovery of the psychological aspects of medicine is underway.
This ABC of psychological medicine is a practical and evidence based overview of the psychological aspects of medical practice. It
aims to guide practitioners and to provide them with not only relevant information but also an intellectual structure for assessing
and managing their patients. The emphasis is on day to day practice and problems rather than psychological theory. The book
assumes knowledge of medical assessment, investigation, and treatment.
The opening three chapters describe general principles within which individual assessment and treatment can be formulated.
They include the clinical examination and the initiation of treatment but also a critique of the structure within which care is
delivered, which can often be as critical as the individuals consultation. The following three chapters describe the core skills of
psychological medicine: the assessment and management of anxiety, depression, and functional somatic symptoms. The remaining
chapters then describe how these skills are transferred and adapted in specific situations including the care of patients with cancer,
trauma, musculoskeletal pain, fatigue, chest pain, abdominal pain, and delirium. This list is not comprehensive but provides a range
of examples that should help the reader to adapt the principles to their own practice.
Psychological medicine is an extension of existing clinical knowledge and skills. Indeed many practitioners will recognise it as
a formalisation of the medicine they have been practising for many years. We hope that this book will both engage the curiosity
and interest of those to whom the subject matter is novel, and encourage and inform those who already understand and apply
its principles.
Richard Mayou, Michael Sharpe, Alan J Carson, 2002
vii
Introduction
It is becoming increasingly clear that we can improve medical care by paying more attention to psychological aspects of medical
assessment and treatment. The study and practice of such factors is often called psychological medicine. Although the development
of specialist consultation-liaison psychiatry (liaison psychiatry in the United Kingdom) and health psychology contribute to
psychological medicine, the task is much wider and has major implications for the organisation and practice of care. This book aims
to explain some of those implications.
Disorders that are traditionally, and perhaps misleadingly, termed psychiatric are highly prevalent in medical populations. At least
25-30% of general medical patients have coexisting depressive, anxiety, somatoform, or alcohol misuse disorders.1 Several factors
account for the co-occurrence of medical and psychiatric disorders. First, a medical disorder can occasionally be a cause of the
psychiatric disorder (for example, hypothyroidism as a biological cause of depression). Second, cardiovascular diseases, neurological
disorders, cancer, diabetes, and many other medical diseases increase the risk of depression and other psychiatric disorders. Such so
called comorbidity is common, but its causal linkage with psychological conditions remains poorly understood. A third factor is
coincidencecommon conditions such as hypertension and depression may coexist in the same patient because both are prevalent.
Another reason for psychological medicine is the prevalence of symptoms that are unexplained by disease. Although physical
symptoms account for more than half of all visits to doctors, at least a third of these symptoms remain medically unexplained.2,3 This
phenomenon is referred to as somatisationthe seeking of health care for somatic symptoms that suggest a medical disorder but
represent instead an underlying depressive, anxiety, or somatoform disorder. Most patients with these mental disorders preferentially
report somatic rather than emotional symptoms. Further, there are the common but poorly understood symptom syndromes such
as fibromyalgia, irritable bowel syndrome, and chronic fatigue syndrome, for which the relative contributions of mind and body are
not yet elucidated.4
Psychological medicine is important in the management of all these problems; both psychotropic medications and cognitive
behavioural treatments have proved effective in the treatment of common physical symptoms and syndromes in numerous studies
in general practice.5,6 Although such treatments have traditionally been considered psychiatric, they are also beneficial in patients
without overt psychiatric disorders. Countries on both sides of the Atlantic have a long way to go in developing psychological
medicine, the chasm in America between medical and psychiatric care is particularly deep. The carve out or organisational
separations of mental health services in the managed care systems in the United States is one example of how ingrained the dualism
of mind and body still is and of the reconciliation that must occur.
Psychological medicine does not mean relabelling all such patients as psychiatric. Many patients prefer to have these problems
regarded as medical and conceptualised in terms of a neurotransmitter imbalance or a functional bodily disturbance.7 Concomitant
psychological distress is best framed in terms of being a consequence rather than a cause of persistent physical symptoms. Premature
efforts to reattribute somatic complaints to psychological mechanisms may be perceived by the patient as rejection. A more
aetiologically neutral but psychologically sophisticated approach that initially focuses on symptomatic treatment, reassurance,
activation, and restoration of function has proved more effective.8
There are better alternatives than simply to relegate such problems to the province of specialist psychiatry. One is to train general
practitioners to diagnose and treat common psychiatric disorders.9 Although treatment with psychotropic medication is their most
feasible option, general practitioners can also be trained to deliver other psychological treatments. A second option is to use nurses
or social workers with specialised training who can work with general practitioners or psychiatrists to manage medication as well as
deliver psychotherapies and behavioural interventions. A third model is collaborative care, where the general practitioners
management is augmented but not replaced by visits to a psychiatrist, often on site in the general practitioners surgery. Stepped care
provides an overall principle of management whereby patients only move on to more complex and expensive forms of care where
simpler management by the healthcare team is either ineffective or inappropriate. Most studies have been conducted in general
medical practices, but patients seen by medical specialists also warrant attention.3
Psychological medicine may also be delivered in innovative ways. Promising data exist for behavioural interventions conducted
outside the doctors office, including case management by telephone, cognitive behavioural therapy given through a computer,
bibliotherapyself study by patientsand home visits (for example, for chronic fatigue syndrome).
Medical treatment that integrates a psychological approach has been shown to improve patient outcomes. The benefits of treating
common physical symptoms and psychological distress effectively in medical patients include not only improved quality of life and
social and work functioning, but also greater satisfaction on the part of patient and doctor and reduced use of healthcare services.2
What do we need to do? Better detection of these problems need not be time consuming. For example, screening for depression
may require as few as one or two questions. Optimal management of patients with persistent physical symptoms and common mental
disorders may require longer or more frequent visits to a doctor, help in educating and following up patients by a nurse case
manager, other system changes, and specialist mental health consultations for more complex cases.10 The competing demands of
general practice must be explicitly addressed if we are to enable the general practitioner to practise psychological medicine
effectively.11
Yet this approach is no different to what is also required for many chronic medical disorders such as diabetes, asthma, and heart
disease, for which it has been proved that care in concordance with guidelines requires appreciable reorganisation of medical
services.12
viii
Introduction
Neither chronic medical nor psychiatric disorders can be managed adequately in the current environment of general
practice, where the typical patient must be seen in 1015 minutes or less. The quick visit may work for the patient with a common
cold or a single condition, such as well controlled hypertension, but will not suffice for the prevalent and disabling symptoms and
disorders comprising psychological medicine. Evidence based treatments exist. Using them in a way that is integrated with general
medical care will improve both patients physical health and their psychological wellbeing.
Kurt Kroenke*
Professor of Medicine, Department of Medicine,
Regenstrief Institute for Health Care,
Indianapolis, IN, USA
* KK has received fees for speaking and research from Pfizer and Eli Lilly.
References
1. Ormel J, Von Korff M, Ustun TB, Pini S, Korten A, Oldehinkel T. Common mental disorders and disability across cultures: results
from the WHO collaborative study on psychological problems in general health care. JAMA 1994;272:1741-48.
2. Kroenke K. Studying symptoms: sampling and measurement issues. Ann Intern Med 2001;134:844-55.
3. Reid S, Wessely S, Crayford T, Hotopf M. Medically unexplained symptoms in frequent attenders of secondary health care:
retrospective cohort study. BMJ 2001;322:1-4.
4. Wessely S, Nimnuan C, Sharpe M. Functional somatic syndromes: one or many? Lancet 1999;354:936-9.
5. OMalley PG, Jackson JL, Santoro J, Tomkins G, Balden E, Kroenke K. Antidepressant therapy for unexplained symptoms and
symptom syndromes. J Fam Pract 1999;48:980-90.
6. Kroenke K, Swindle R. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for somatization and symptom syndromes: a critical review of controlled
clinical trials. Psychother Psychosom 2000;69:205-15.
7. Sharpe M, Carson A. Unexplainedsomatic symptoms, functional syndromes, and somatization: do we need a paradigm shift?
Ann Intern Med 2001;134:926-30.
8. Von Korff M, Moore JC. Stepped care for back pain: activating approaches for primary care. Ann Intern Med 2001;134:911-17.
9. Kroenke K, Taylor-Vaisey A, Dietrich AJ, Oxman TE. Interventions to improve provider diagnosis and treatment of mental
disorders in primary care: a critical review of the literature. Psychosomatics 2000;41:39-52.
10. Rubenstein LV, Jackson-Triche M, Unutzer J, Miranda J, Minnium K, Pearson ML, et al. Evidence-based care for depression in
managed primary care practices. Health Aff 1999;18:89-105.
11. Klinkman MS. Competing demands in psychosocial care: a model for the identification and treatment of depressive disorders in
primary care. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1997;19:98-111.
12. Wagner EH, Austin BT, Von Korff M. Organizing care for patients with chronic illness. Milbank Q 1996;74:511-44.
ix
The consultation
Linda Gask, Tim Usherwood
The success of any consultation depends on how well the

patient and doctor communicate with each other. There is now
firm evidence linking the quality of this communication to
clinical outcomes.
The dual focusPatients are not exclusively physically ill or
exclusively emotionally distressed. Often they are both. At the
start of a consultation it is usually not possible to distinguish
between these states. It is the doctors task to listen actively to
the patients story, seeking and noticing evidence for both
physical illness and emotional distress.
Involving patientsChanges in society and health care in the
past decade have resulted in real changes in what people expect
from their doctors and in how doctors view patients. In
addition, greater emphasis has been placed on the reduction of
risk factors, with attempts to persuade people to take preventive
action and avoid risks to health. Many patients want more
information than they are given. They also want to take some
part in deciding about their treatment in the light of its chances
of success and any side effects. Some patients, of course, do not
wish to participate in decision making; they would prefer their
doctor to decide on a single course of action and to advise them
accordingly. The skill lies in achieving the correct balance for
each patient.
A comprehensive modelThe three function model for the
medical encounter provides a template for the parallel
functions of the clinical interview. This is now widely used in
medical schools.
Starting the interview

Research has shown the importance of listening to patients
opening statements without interruption. Doctors often ask
about the first issue mentioned by their patients, yet this may
not be what is concerning them most. Once a doctor has
interrupted, patients rarely introduce new issues. If
uninterrupted, most patients stop talking within 60 seconds,
often well before. The doctor can then ask if a patient has any
further concerns, summarise what the patient has just said, or
propose an agendaI wonder if I could start by asking you
some more questions about your headaches, then we need to
discuss the worries that your son has been causing you.
Detecting and responding to emotional issues
Even when their problems are psychological or social, patients
usually present with physical symptoms. They are also likely to
give verbal or non-verbal cues. Verbal cues are words or phrases
that hint at psychological or social problems. Non-verbal cues
include changes in posture, eye contact, and tone of voice that
reflect emotional distress.
It is important to notice and respond to cues at the time
they are offered by patients. Failure to do so may inhibit
patients from further disclosures and limit the consultation to
discussion of physical symptoms. Conversely, physical
symptoms must be taken seriously and adequately evaluated.
Several of the skills of active listening are valuable in discussing
physical, psychological, and social issues with patients. These
skills have been clearly shown to be linked to recognition of
emotional problems when used by general practitioners.
Visiting the sick woman, by Quiringh Gerritsz van Brekelenkam (c 1620-68)
Three functions of the medical consultation

1 Build the relationship
x Greet the patient warmly and by name x Active listening
x Detect and respond to emotional issues
2 Collect data
x Do not interrupt patient
x Consider other factors
x Elicit patients explanatory model x Develop shared understanding
3 Agree a management plan
x Provide information
x Appropriate use of reassurance
x Negotiate a management plan
x Make links
x Negotiate behaviour change
Responding to patients cues

Verbal cues
x State your observationYou say that recently you have been
feeling fed-up and irritable
x Repeat the patients own wordsNot well since your mother died
x Seek clarificationWhat do you mean when you say you always
feel tired?
Non-verbal cues
x Comment on your observationI can hear tears in your voice
x Ask a questionI wonder if that upsets you more than you like to
admit?
Aspects of interview style that aid assessment of patients

emotional problems
Early in the interview
x Make good eye contact
x Clarify presenting complaint
x Use directive questions for physical complaints
x Begin with open ended questions, moving to closed questions later
Interview style
x Make empathic comments
x Pick up verbal cues
x Pick up non-verbal cues
x Do not read notes while taking patients history
x Deal with over-talkativeness
x Ask more questions about the history of the emotional problem
ABC of Psychological Medicine
Active listening skills

Open ended questionsQuestions that cannot be answered in one
word require patient to expand
Open-to-closed conesMove towards closed questions at the end of a
section of the consultation
CheckingRepeat back to patient to ensure that you have understood
FacilitationEncourage patient both verbally (Go on) and
non-verbally (nodding)
Legitimising patients feelingsThis is clearly worrying you a great
deal, followed by, You have an awful lot to cope with, or,
I think most people would feel the same way
Surveying the fieldRepeated signals that further details are wanted:

Is there anything else?
Empathic commentsThis is clearly worrying you a great deal
Offering supportI am worried about you, and I want to know how I
can help you best with this problem
Negotiating prioritiesIf there are several problems draw up a list and
negotiate which to deal with first
SummarisingCheck what was reported and use as a link to next part of
interview. This helps to develop a shared understanding of the problems
and to control flow of interview if there is too much information
Eliciting a patients explanatory model

When people consult a doctor, they do so with explanatory
ideas about their problems and with anxieties and concerns that
reflect these ideas. They are also likely to have hopes and
expectations concerning the care that they will receive. It is
important not to make assumptions about patients health
beliefs, concerns, and expectations but to elicit these as a basis
for providing information and negotiating a management plan.
Peoples health beliefs and behaviours develop and are
sustained within families, and families are deeply affected by the
illness of a family member. Thinking family can help to avoid
difficult and frustrating interactions with family members.
Providing information
Doctors should consider three key questions when providing
information to a patient:
v What does the patient already know?
v What does the patient want to know?
v What does the patient need to know?
The first question emphasises the importance of building on
the patients existing explanatory model, adding to what he or
she already knows, and correcting inaccuracies. The second and
third reflect the need to address two agendas, the patients and
the doctors. In addition, it is important for the doctor to show
ongoing concern and emotional support, making empathic
comments, legitimising the patients concerns, and offering
support.
Negotiating a management plan
The ideal management plan is one that reflects current best
evidence on treatment, is tailored to the situation and
preferences of the patient, and addresses emotional and social
issues. Both patient and doctor should be involved in
developing the plan, although one or the other may have the
greater input depending on the nature of the problem and the
inclinations of the patient.
Think family
When interviewing an individual
x Ask how family members view the problem
x Ask about impact of the problem on family function
x Discuss implications of management plan for the family
When a family member comes in with patient
x Acknowledge relatives presence
x Check that patient is comfortable with relatives presence
x Clarify reasons for relative coming
x Ask for relatives observations and opinions of the problem
x Solicit relatives help in treatment if appropriate
x If patient is an adolescent accompanied by an adult always spend
part of consultation without the adult present
x Never take sides
Negotiating a management plan

Ascertain expectations
x What does patient know?
x What does patient want?Investigation? Management? Outcomes?
Advise on options
x Elicit patients preferences
Develop a plan
x Involve patient
x Tailor preferred option to patients needs and situation
x Think family
Check understanding
x Ensure that patient is clear about plan
x Consider a written summary
Advise on contingency management
x What should patient do if things do not go according to plan?
Agree arrangements for follow up and review
Appropriate use of reassurance

Reassurance is effective only when doctors understand exactly
what it is that their patients fear and when they address these
fears truthfully and accurately. Often it is not possible to
reassure patients about the diagnosis or outcome of disease, but
it is always possible to provide support and to show personal
concern for them.
Dealing with difficult emotions: denial, anger, and fear
DenialWhen patients deny the seriousness of their illness
you should never be tempted to force them into facing it. The
decision on how to address denial must be based on how
adaptive the denial is, what kind of support is available to the
patient, and how well prepared the patient is to deal with the
fears that underlie the denial.
2
Reassurance is an essential
skill of bedside medicine.
(Hippocrates (469-399 bc),
the father of bedside
medicine)
The consultation
AngerIf patients or relatives become angry, try to avoid
being defensive. Acknowledge the feelings that are expressed
and ask about the reasons for these. Take concerns seriously
and indicate that you will take appropriate action.
FearMany patients are frightened that they may have some
serious disease. It is crucial to ensure that you have addressed
what a patient is really worried about as well as checking that
the patient has correctly understood what you are concerned
about.
Motivation
Efforts to help people reduce alcohol consumption, stop
smoking, and manage chronic illness have highlighted the
importance of good interviewing skills in motivating patients to
change their behaviour. This is not to say that patients no
longer have the responsibility for such change, but doctors
should recognise that they bear some responsibility for
ensuring that patients get the best possible help in arriving at
the decision to change.
Making the link between emotions and physical symptoms
Particular strategies may be needed to help people who present
with physical symptoms of psychological distress but who have
not made the link between these and their emotional and life
problems. However, it is essential that you do not go faster than
the patient and try to force the patient to accept your
explanation.
Feeling understoodEnsuring that the patient feels
understood is essential. It is crucial to get the patient on your
side and show that you are taking his or her problems seriously.
Start from the patients viewpoint and find out what the patient
thinks may be causing the symptoms, while at the same time
picking up any verbal and non-verbal cues of emotional distress.
Broadening the agenda can begin when all the information
has been gathered. The aim is to broaden the agenda from one
where the problem is seen essentially as physical to one where
both physical and psychological problems can be
acknowledged. Acknowledging the reality of the patients pain
or other symptoms is essential and must be done sensitively.
Summarise by reminding the patient of all the symptoms, both
physical and emotional, that you have elicited and link them to
life events if this is possible.
Negotiating explanations can involve various techniques. Only
one or two will be appropriate for each patient, and different
techniques may be useful at different times. Simple explanation
is the commonest, but it is insufficient to say Anxiety causes
headaches. A three stage explanation is required in which
anxiety is linked to muscle tension, which then causes pain. A
similar approach can be used to explain how depression causes
lowering of the pain threshold, which results in pain being felt
more severely than it otherwise would be.
Once the patient and doctor have agreed that psychological
distress is an important factor in the patients illness, they can
start to examine management options to address this. Even if
the patient has significant physical disease, it is important to
detect and manage psychological comorbidity.
Visiting the sick woman is held at the Hermitage and is reproduced with
permission of Bridgeman Art Library.
Helping patients to change their behaviour

Explore motivation for change
x Build rapport and be neutral
x Help draw up list of problems and priorities
x Is problem behaviour on patients agenda?
x If not, raise it sensitively
x Does patient consider the behaviour to be a problem?
x Do others?
Clarify patients view of the problem
x Help draw up a balance sheet of pros and cons
x Empathise with difficulty of changing
x Reinforce statements that express a desire to change
x Resist saying why you think patient ought to change
x Summarise frequently
x Discuss statements that are contradictory
Promote resolution
If no change is wanted negotiate if, when, and how to review
x Enable informed decision making
x Give basic information about safety or risks of behaviour
x Provide results of any examination or test
x Highlight potential medical, legal, or social consequences
x Explain likely outcome of potential choices or interventions
x Get feedback from patient
x Give patient responsibility for decision
Key stages in linking somatic symptoms of emotional

distress
x Helping patient to feel understood
x Broadening agenda to cover physical, psychological, and social
issues
x Negotiating explanations for how physical symptoms, psychological
distress, and social problems may be linked via physiological
mechanisms
Evidence based summary

x The style with which a doctor listens to a patient will influence what
the patient says
x Effective communication between doctor and patient leads to
improved outcome for many common diseases
x Patients compliance will be improved if the management plan has
been negotiated jointly
Lang F, Floyd MR, Beine KL. Clues to patients explanations and concerns about
their illnessesa call for active listening. Arch Fam Med 2000;9:222-7
Stewart MA. Effective physician-patient communication and health outcomes: a
review. Can Med Assoc J 1995;152:1423-33
Roter D, Hall JA, Merisca R, Nordstron B, Cretin D, Svarstad B. Effectiveness of
interventions to improve patient compliance: a meta-analysis. Med Care
1998;36:1138-61
Further reading
x Cole SA, Bird J. The medical interview: the three function approach.
St Louis, MO: Harcourt Health Sciences, 2000
x Gask L, Morriss R, Goldberg D. Reattribution: managing somatic
presentation of emotional distress. 2nd ed. Manchester: University
of Manchester, 2000. (Teaching videotape available from
Nick.Jordan@man.ac.uk)
x Usherwood T. Understanding the consultation. Milton Keynes: Open
University Press, 1999
Beginning treatment
Jonathan Price, Laurence Leaver
Traditionally, the management of newly presenting patients has

two stagesassessment and then treatment. However, this two
stage approach has limitations. When underlying disease
pathology is diagnosed there may be delays in starting effective
treatment. If no disease is found reassurance is often ineffective.
In both cases many patients are left feeling uncertain and
dissatisfied. Lack of immediate information and agreed plans
may mean that patients and their families become anxious and
draw inappropriate conclusions, and an opportunity to engage
them fully in their management is missed.
If simple diagnosis is supplemented with fuller explanation,
patient satisfaction and outcomes are improved. This can be
achieved by integrating assessment and treatment. The aim of
an integrated consultation is that the patient leaves with a clear
understanding of the likely diagnosis, feeling that concerns have
been addressed, and knowledge of the treatment and prognosis
(that is, the assessment becomes part of the treatment). This
approach can be adopted in primary and secondary care and
can be applied to patients with or without an obvious disease
explanation for their symptoms. The integrated approach may
require more time, but this is offset by a likely reduction in
patients subsequent attendance and use of resources.
This article describes principles and practical procedures for
effective communication and simple interventions. They can be
applied to various clinical situationssuch as straightforward
single consultation, augmenting brief medical care, and
promoting an effective start to continuing treatment and care.
Mismatch of expectations and experiences

What patients want
What some patients get
To know the cause
No diagnosis
Explanation and information
Poor explanation that does not

address their needs and concerns
Advice and treatment
Inadequate advice
Reassurance
Lack of reassurance
To be taken seriously by a
sympathetic and competent
doctor
Feeling that doctor is uninterested

or believes symptoms are
unimportant
Disease centred versus patient centred consultations

Disease centredDoctor concentrates on standard medical agenda of
diagnosis through systematic inquiries about patients symptoms
and medical history
Patient centredDoctor works to patients agenda, including listening
and allowing patient to explain all the reasons for attending,
feelings, and expectations. Decision making may be shared, and
plans are explicit and agreed. Patient centred consultations need
take no longer than traditional disease centred consultations
General principles
Integrating physical and psychological care
Somatic symptoms are subjective and have two components, a
somatic element (a bodily sensation due to physiology or
pathology) and a psychological element (related to thoughts
and beliefs about the symptoms). Traditional management
focuses only on the somatic component, with the aim of
detecting and treating underlying pathology. Addressing the
psychological component in the consultation as well, with
simple psychological interventions, is likely to reduce distress
and disability and reduce the need for subsequent specialist
treatment.
Providing continuity
Seeing the same doctor on each visit increases patient
satisfaction. Continuity may also improve medical outcomes,
including distress, compliance, preventive care, and resource
use. Problems resulting from lack of continuity can be
minimised by effective communication between doctors.
Involving the patient
The psychological factors of beliefs and attitudes about illness
and treatment are major determinants of outcome. Hence,
strategies that increase understanding, sense of control, and
participation in treatment can have large benefits. One example
is written management plans agreed between doctor and
patient. This approach is the basis of the Department of
Healths Expert Patient Programme, which aims to help
patients to act as experts in managing their own condition,
with appropriate support from health and social care services.
4
Taking time to listen to and address patients ideas, concerns, and

expectations can improve outcomes (Charcot at the Saltptrire by
Luis Jimenez y Aranda, 1889, in the Provincial Museum of Art, Seville)
Communication between doctors

x Reduce need for communication between doctors by providing
continuity of care whenever possible
x Brief, structured letters are more likely to be read than lengthy,
unstructured letters
x Letters from primary to secondary care should provide relevant
background information and a clear reason for referral
x Letters from secondary to primary care should provide only
essential information, address the needs of referrer, and outline a
proposed management plan and what has been discussed with
patient
x Avoid using letters for medical records purposes rather than
communication
x The telephone can be a prompt and effective means of
communication and is particularly useful in complex cases
Beginning treatment
Thinking family
Relatives illness beliefs and attitudes are also crucial to outcome
and are therefore worth addressing. Key people may be invited
to join a consultation (with the patients permission) and their
concerns identified, acknowledged, and addressed. Actively
involving relatives, who will spend more time with the patient
than will the doctor, allows them to function as co-therapists.
Effective communication
Gaining and demonstrating understanding
Simple techniques can be used to improve communication. The
first two stages of the three function approach (see previous
article) are appropriate. The first stage is building a relationship
in which a patient gives his or her history and feels understood.
The second stage is for the doctor to share his or her
understanding of the illness with the patient. In cases that are
more complicated it may be most effective to add an additional
brief session with a practice or clinic nurse.
Providing information for patients
Patients require information about the likely cause of their
illness, details of any test results and their meaning, and a
discussion of possible treatments. Even when this information
has been given in a consultation, however, many patients do not
understand or remember what they are told. Hence, the
provision of simple written information can be a time efficient
way of improving patient outcomes.
One way of providing written information is to copy
correspondence such as referral and assessment letters to the
patient concerned. For those not used to doing this, it may seem
a challenge, but any changes needed to make the letters
understandable (and acceptable) to patients are arguably
desirable in any case. Letters should be clearly structured,
medical jargon minimised, pejorative terms omitted, and
common words that may be misinterpreted (such as chronic)
explained.
Well written patient information materials (leaflets and
books) are available, as are guidelines for their development.
The National Electronic Library of Health (www.nelh.nhs.uk) is
a new internet resource that aims to provide high quality
information for healthcare consumers and is linked to NHS
Direct Online (www.nhsdirect.nhs.uk/main.jhtml). There are
also many books to recommendsuch as Chronic Fatigue
Syndrome (CFS/ME): The Facts (see Further reading list).
Information is most helpful if it addresses not only the nature
of the problem, its prognosis, and treatment options, but also
self care and ways of coping.
The assessment as treatment

Reassurance
Worry about health (health anxiety) is a common cause of
distress and disability in those with and without serious disease.
Reassurance is therefore a key component of starting treatment.
The first step is to elicit and acknowledge patients
expectations, concerns, and illness beliefs. This is followed by
history taking, examination, and if necessary investigation.
Premature reassurance (such as Im sure its nothing much)
may be construed as the doctor not taking the problem
seriously. Finally, the explanation should address all of a
patients concerns and is best based on the patients
understanding of how his or her body functions, which may
differ from the doctors.
A modest increase in consultation time, provision of written
information, and perhaps the use of trained nursing staff to
Gaining understanding of patients concerns

x Read referral letter or notes, or both, before seeing patient
x Encourage patients to discuss their presenting concerns without
interruption or premature closure
x Explore patients presenting complaints, concerns, and
understanding (beliefs)
x Inquire about disability
x Inquire about self care activities
x Show support and empathy
x Use silence appropriately
x Use non-verbal communication such as eye contact, nods, and
leaning forward
Showing your understanding of patients concerns

x Relay key messagessuch as, The symptoms are real, We will
look after you, and Youre not alone
x Take patients seriously and make sure they know it
x Dont dismiss presenting complaints, whether or not relevant
pathology is found
x Explain your understanding of the problemwhat it is, what it isnt,
treatment, and the future. A diagram may help
x Consider offering a positive explanation in the absence of relevant
physical pathology
x Reassure
x Avoid mixed messages
x Encourage and answer questions
x Share decisions
x Communicate the management plan effectively, both verbally and
in writing
x Provide self care information, including advice on lifestyle change
x Explain how to get routine or emergency follow up, and what to
look out for that would change the management plan
Providing information
x Invite and answer questions
x Use lay terms, and build on patients understanding of illness
wherever possible
x Avoid medical jargon and terms with multiple meanings, such as
chronic
x Involve relatives
x Provide written material when available
x Provide a written management plan when appropriate
The complexity of reassurance

General reassurance
x To know it will be OK
x To know I will be looked after
x To know there are others like me
Reassurance about cause
x To know what it is
x To know what it is not
x To know its not serious
There are several possible causes, not just
cancer
Its not cancer
It will get better
Reassurance about cure
x To know it can be treated
x To know it will be treated
x To know how it will be treated
x To know the complaint will go away

facilitate information giving, can all enhance doctor-patient
communication and, therefore, reassurance. Although extra
time and effort may be needed, it may well reduce subsequent
demand on resources.
Being positive
Doctors themselves are potentially powerful therapeutic agents.
There is evidence that being deliberately positive in a
consultation may increase this effect. In one randomised trial,
general practice patients received either a positive consultation
(firm diagnosis and good prognosis) or a non-positive
consultation (no firm diagnosis and uncertain prognosis). Two
weeks later, the positive consultation, which was simple and
brief, had improved symptoms, with a number needed to treat
of four (95% confidence interval 3 to 9).
Using tests as treatment
Tests should ideally be informative and reassuring for both
doctors and patients. However, there is increasing evidence that
tests may not reassure some patients and may even increase
their anxiety. This is most likely with patients who are already
anxious about their health. When weighing the pros and cons
of ordering a test, doctors should take account of the potential
psychological impact on their patient (both positive and
negative).
Providing explanations after negative investigation
Even when tests are reported as normal, some patients are not
reassured. Such patients may benefit from an explanation of
what is wrong with them, not just what is not wrong. A cognitive
behavioural model can be used to explain how interactions
between physiology, thoughts, and emotion can cause
symptoms without pathology. Simple headache provides an
analogy: the pain is real, and often distressing and disabling, but
is usually associated with stress. Diagnoses such as tension
headache and irritable bowel syndrome can be helpful in
reducing patients anxiety about sinister causes for their
symptoms.
Planning for the future

Maintaining and increasing activities
Sometimes patients unnecessarily avoid or reduce their
activities for fear it will make their illness worse. This coping
strategy magnifies disability. Planning a graded return towards
normal activities is one of the most effective ways of helping
such patients. A plan should specify clearly what activity, for
how long, when, with whom, and how often. It is best if the plan
is written down and reviewed regularly. A collaborative
approach increases the chances of success.
Follow up
Positively following up patients who have presented for the first
time can be an effective use of time. It allows review and
modification of the management plan and may be particularly
effective if the same doctor is seen.
The painting of Charcot is reproduced with permission of the

Wellcome Library.
Characteristics of brief psychological intervention

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Brief, single session intervention

Suitable for more complex problems, such as in secondary care
Delivered with or soon after clinic attendance
Integrated with usual care
Uses cognitive understanding of health anxiety
Minimises negative aspects of patient experience
Reinforces positive aspects of patient experience
Provides explicit explanation and reassurance
Distress
Minor physical
disease
Physiological
variations
Bodily
sensations
Cognitions
Response
of others
Social
behaviour
Psychophysiological
changes
Symptoms
Emotions
Attention
Behaviour
A simple cognitive model of physical symptoms. A cognitive model is one in

which the patients thoughts and beliefs are seen as central to the aetiology,
perception, and presentation of the problem

x The quality of communication, both in history taking and in
discussing a management plan, influences patient outcome
x Patients should be encouraged to take an active role in maintaining
or improving their own health, and doctors should ensure they are
given the necessary information and opportunities for self
management
x Reassurance involves eliciting and acknowledging patients
expectations, concerns, and illness beliefs
Coulter A, Entwistle V, Gilbert D. Sharing decisions with patients: is the
information good enough? BMJ 1999;318:318-22
Di Blasi Z, Harkness E, Ernst E, Georgiou A, Kleijnen J. Influence of context
effects on health outcomes: a systematic review. Lancet 2001;357:575-762
Stewart M. Effective physician-patient communication and health outcomes: a
review. Can Med Assoc J 1995;152:1423-33
Thomas KB. General practice consultations: is there any point in being positive?
BMJ 1997;294:1200-2
Further reading
x Balint M. The doctor, his patient, and the illness. Tunbridge Wells:
Pitman Medical, 1957
x Department of Health. The NHS planA plan for investment. A plan for
reform. London: DoH, 2000
x Campling F, Sharpe M. Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS/ME): the facts.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000
x Department of Health. The expert patient: a new approach to chronic
disease management for the 21st century. 2001 (www.ohn.gov.uk/ohn/
people/ep_report.pdf
Michael Von Korff, Russell E Glasgow, Michael Sharpe
A major and increasing task for health services is the

management of chronic illness. Although the details of chronic
illness management will depend on the illness in question,
many of the principles are common to all chronic conditions.
Principles of effective management

Whatever health services may offer, most of the day to day
responsibilities for the care of chronic illness fall on patients
and their families. Planners and organisers of medical care must
therefore recognise that health care will be most effective if it is
delivered in collaboration with patients and their families. To
enable patients to play an active role in their care, health
services must not only provide good medical treatment but also
improve patients knowledge and self management skills. This
can be done by supplementing medical care with educational
and cognitive behavioural interventions. Chronic disease
treatment programmes have tended to underestimate the need
for this aspect of care, and, consequently, many treatment
programmes have been psychologically naive and, as a result,
less effective than they could have been.
Services also need to be not merely reactive to patients
requests but proactive with planned follow up. Finally, to be
most efficient, interventions are best organised in a stepped
fashionthat is, the more complex and expensive interventions
are given only when simpler and cheaper ones have been
shown to be inadequate or inappropriate.
Collaboration with patients and families
To win the collaboration of patients and their families, those
providing care need to elicit, negotiate and agree on a definition
of the problem they are working on with each patient. They
must then agree on the targets and goals for management and
develop an individualised collaborative self management plan.
This plan should be based on established cognitive behavioural
principles and on the evidence relating to the management of
the chronic condition.
In order to implement collaborative care, patients and their
families require access to the necessary information and
services to enable them to play a full and informed role. The
need for collaborative care in which patients play an active role
has been highlighted in Britain with the development of the
concept of the expert patient.
Encouraging self care
Active self care is critical to the optimal management of chronic
illness. Interventions to optimise self care are based on cognitive
behavioural principles.
They start with an assessment of patients attitudes and
beliefs about their illness and their chosen coping behaviours.
This assessment then guides the provision of information, the
resolution of misunderstandings and misinterpretations, and
collaborative goal setting. These are agreed between patient and
members of the healthcare team.
The outcome of this initial assessment takes the form of a
personal action plan, a written agreement between those
delivering care and the patient. The patient keeps a copy of the
plan, and the healthcare team keeps another. The plan can be
written on brief, standardised forms. The plan is not static but is
Treating chronic conditions must involve the family
Common elements of effective chronic illness management

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Collaboration between service providers and patients

A personalised written care plan
Tailored education in self management
Planned follow up
Monitoring of outcome and adherence to treatment
Targeted use of specialist consultation of referral
Protocols for stepped care
Principles of collaboration
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Understanding of patients beliefs, wishes, and circumstances

Understanding of family beliefs and needs
Identification of a single person to be main link with each patient
Collaborative definition of problems and goals
Negotiated agreed plans regularly reviewed
Active follow up with patients
Regular team review
The UK expert patient programme*

x
x
x
x
x
Encouragement of self care protocols, nationally and locally

Development of electronic and written self care material
Training programmes, national and local
Integrating self care into local health planning
Nurse led telephone service (NHS Direct)
* From; Department of Health. The expert patient: a new approach to chronic disease
management for the 21st century (www.ohn.gov.uk/ohn/people/expert)

developed over time: the initial goals and the care plan
designed to achieve them are refined in view of the patients
progress and the identification of factors that are either helpful
or unhelpful in achieving the desired outcome.
Active follow up
The personal action plan guides the patients follow up contacts.
Active planned follow up ensures that the plan is carried out
and that modifications to it are made as needed. These steps are
repeated in an iterative, ongoing, and flexible way rather than all
at once in a single visit. Because the care of chronic illness is a
long term process, the work of supporting self care does not
need to be done all at once but can be spread over many
contacts.
Individualised stepped care
Stepped care provides a framework for using limited resources
to greatest effect. Professional care is stepped in intensitythat
is, it starts with limited professional input and systematic
monitoring and is then augmented for patients who do not
achieve an acceptable outcome. Initial and subsequent
treatments are selected according to evidence based guidelines
in light of a patients progress.
The principle of increasing intensity of professional input
for those who do not respond to initial management is familiar
in primary care. However, organised stepped care requires the
systematic monitoring of progress and higher levels of
coordination between specialist care, care management, and
primary care than generally exist. The primary care team, a
specialist consultant (when needed), and a care manager (when
needed) work together to provide the level of professional
support needed to achieve a favourable outcome. Stepped care
is individualised according to each patients preferences and
progress.
Skills required by those delivering

care
The team providing care must not only be familiar with a
patients condition but must also possess the psychological skills
to help the patient achieve self care. They also need access to
specialists in psychological and psychiatric management to
provide supervision and consultation in selected cases. The
necessary psychological skills include
v Anxiety management
v Recognition and treatment of depression
v Cognitive behavioural analysis
v Cognitive behavioural principles of step by step change
v Ability to monitor patients progress.
Changes in the organisation of care

Achieving collaboration between healthcare providers and
chronically ill patients requires organisational changes in six
related areas.
Organisation of careClinical leadership should encourage
efforts to improve quality, including development of incentives
for improved care and reorganisation of acute care to
encourage self care.
Clinical information systemsA disease (or disorder) registry
should be set up that identifies the population to be served and
includes information on the performance of guideline based
care, including self care tasks. The registry should permit
identification of patients with specific needs, reminder systems,
and tailored treatment planning.
8
Plan for collaborative self care

1
x
x
x
x
Assessment
Assess patients self management beliefs, attitudes, and knowledge
Identify personal barriers and supports
Collaborate in setting goals
Develop individually tailored strategies and problem solving
2
x
x
x
x
x
Goal setting and personal action plan

List goals in behavioural terms
Identify barriers to implementation
Make plans that address barriers to progress
Provide a follow up plan
Share the plan with all members of the healthcare team
3 Active follow up to monitor progress and support patient
Levels of stepped care

1 Systematic routine assessment and preventive
maintenance
2 Self care with low intensity support
3 Care management in primary care
4 Intensive care management with specialist advice
5 Specialist care
Assumptions of stepped care

x Different individuals require different levels of care
x The optimal level of care is determined by monitoring outcomes
x Moving from lower to higher levels of care based on patient
outcomes can increases effectiveness and lower costs
Example of changes in organisation of care for patients

with diabetes
Organisation of care
x Primary care clinic initiates year long effort to reorganise diabetes
care
x Team is set up and meets regularly to make changes, monitor
progress, and address obstacles
Clinical information systems
x Team develops a register of all patients with diabetes in the clinic,
with records of HbA1C values, eye and foot examinations, and goals
and key elements of patients personal action plans
Delivery system design
x Clinic nurses assigned responsibility for diabetes case management
x Doctors agree to provide planned visits for all diabetic patients at
least once a year, including preventive services (such as eye and foot
examinations, ordering HbA1C tests, screening for depression)
x Clinic support staff maintain the register and print out a status
report before each visit
Decision support
x Team agrees on standard evidence based guidelines and adapts
them to clinic and liaison with the specialist diabetic clinic
x Team agrees a standard form for planned visits
Community resources
x Nurse case managers plan training in diabetes self management.
The nurses are trained to co-lead the course at regular intervals
Self care support
x Nurse case managers decide that every diabetic patient will have a
personal action plan developed within a year
x Each nurse sees one patient a week until this goal is accomplished
x Nurses telephone patients who have not been seen for six months
and those who need extra support to achieve their goals

Delivery system designPractice team roles should be changed
in the organisation of visits and in follow up care. Useful
innovations include group visits, planned visits, and telephone
delivered care.
Decision supportEvidence based practice guidelines and
protocols should be made effective by integrating information
and reminders into visits. There should be collaborative support
from relevant medical specialties.
Community resourcesLinks should be established with
community resources, especially for vulnerable populations
such as elderly, low income, and deprived populations.
Self care supportTailored educational resources, skills
training, and psychosocial support are effective. Successful self
care programmes rely on collaboration; patient centred
interventions for managing illness are especially beneficial.
Is this approach feasible for the large numbers of patients
seen in busy primary and secondary care settings? There is
growing experience with integrating support for self care to the
delivery of routine medical care. Specific techniques such as
cognitive behavioural interventions and the use of nurses and
other staff as care managers have been found to be both
feasible and effective. However, the full implementation of this
approach in primary care requires substantial organisational
changes. These enable medical and other expertise to be used
more effectively and efficiently. They also enable doctors to
obtain greater satisfaction in being responsible for higher
quality care.
Evidence that it works

Collaborative self care has been used to guide efforts to
improve the quality of chronic illness care in many different
healthcare settings and for many different chronic conditions
including diabetes, heart failure, geriatric care, depression, and
asthma. This approach gives patients the confidence and skills
for self care and for getting what they need from the healthcare
system (that is, becoming active, informed patients). Such
effective support of patients is more likely to occur when the
providers of care themselves have the information, training,
resources, and time to deliver effective interventions (that is, are
a well prepared, proactive practice team).
There is now considerable evidence and practical
experience that supports fundamental changes in the way we
organise and deliver health care to better support patients who
are living with a chronic condition. Consequently, we need to
include psychological and behavioural expertise as essential
supplements to basic medical treatment.
Patient centred care is more than a respectful attitude or a
style of clinical interviewing. It means that healthcare systems
are organised to maximise the effectiveness of patients to
manage their chronic illness themselves.
Psychological medicine will make its full contribution only
when an awareness of the importance of psychological and
behavioural factors is fully integrated into general medical care.
Work on this article was supported by grants from the Robert Wood Johnson
Foundation National Program for Improving Chronic Illness Care, NIMH
grants MH51338 and MH41739, and NIH grant P01 DE08773.
The picture is reproduced with permission of CC Studio/SPL.
Making evidence based care time and cost effective

Problems
x Time for patient care
x Time for assessing evidence
x Unrealistic patient expectations and demands
x Lack of patient understanding of behavioural basis of self care
x Lack of involvement of patients in clinical decisions
x Lack of professional skills
x Access to disparate community and medical services
Solutions
x Treatment protocols
x Involvement of healthcare team
x Use of self help procedures
x Formalising links with local health, social, and voluntary agencies
x Liaison with specialist medical, psychiatric, and psychological
services
x Continuing professional development

x Collaborative and adaptive approaches to self care that are
structured and integrated into medical services improve outcomes
for many chronic diseases
x Systematic setting of therapeutic goals and monitoring of clinical
treatment and outcomes are integral to this approach
x Such an approach to health care will often require changes to the
way in which teams and primary and secondary care services
interact
Department of Health. The expert patient: a new approach to chronic disease
management for the 21st century (www.ohn.gov.uk/ohn/people/ep_report.pdf)
Gibson PG, Coughlan J, Wilson AJ, Abramson M, Bauman A, Hensley MJ, et al.
Self-management education and regular practitioner review for adults with
asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000;(2): CD001117
Further reading
x Department of Health. The expert patient: a new approach to chronic
disease management for the 21st century. (www.ohn.gov.uk/ohn/
people/ep_report.pdf)
x Lorig KR, Sobel DS, Stewart AL, Brown BW Jr, Bandura A, Ritter P,
et al. Evidence suggesting that a chronic disease self-management
program can improve health status while reducing hospitalisation.
Med Care 1999;37:5-14
x Von Korff M, Gruman J, Schaefer J, Curry S, Wagner EH.
Collaborative management of chronic illness. Ann Intern Med 1997;
127:1097-102
x Wagner EH, Glasgow RE, Davis C, Bonomi AE, Provost L,
McCulloch D, et al. Quality improvement in chronic illness care: a
collaborative approach. Jt Comm J Qual Improv 2001;27:63-80
x Wolpert HA, Anderson BJ. Management of diabetes: are doctors
framing the benefits from the wrong perspective? BMJ 2001;323:
994-6
Robert Peveler, Alan Carson, Gary Rodin
Depressive illness is usually treatable. It is common and results

in marked disability, diminished survival, and increased
healthcare costs. As a result, it is essential that all doctors have a
basic understanding of its diagnosis and management. In
patients with physical illness depression may
x Be a coincidental association
x Be a complication of physical illness
x Cause or exacerbate somatic symptoms (such as fatigue,
malaise, or pain).
Clinical features and classification
Epidemiology
The World Health Organization estimates that depression will
become the second most important cause of disability
worldwide (after ischaemic heart disease) by 2020. Major
depressive disorder affects 1 in 20 people during their lifetime.
Both major depression and dysthymia seem to be more
common in women.
Depressive illness is strongly associated with physical
disease. Up to a third of physically ill patients attending hospital
have depressive symptoms. Depression is even more common
in patients with
x Life threatening or chronic physical illness
x Unpleasant and demanding treatment
x Low social support and other adverse social circumstances
x Personal or family history of depression or other
psychological vulnerability
x Alcoholism and substance misuse
x Drug treatments that cause depression as a side effect, such as
antihypertensives, corticosteroids, and chemotherapy agents.
10
Criteria for major depression*

Five or more of the following symptoms during the same two week
period representing a change from normal
x Depressed mood
x Decreased interest or
x Substantial weight loss or weight
pleasure
gain
x Psychomotor retardation or
x Insomnia or hypersomnia
agitation
x Feelings of worthlessness or
x Fatigue or loss of energy
inappropriate guilt
x Diminished ability to think or
x Recurrent thoughts of death or
concentrate
suicide or suicide attempt
*From Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition
One of these symptoms must be present
Women
Men
Fatigue
Sleep problems
Irritability
Worry
Depression
Depressive ideas
Anxiety
Obsessions
Lost concentration
Somatic symptoms
Compulsions
Phobias
Physical health worries
Panic
40
Mortality (%)
The term depression describes a spectrum of mood disturbance

ranging from mild to severe and from transient to persistent.
Depressive symptoms are continuously distributed in any
population but are judged to be of clinical significance when
they interfere with normal activities and persist for at least two
weeks, in which case a diagnosis of a depressive illness or
disorder may be made. The diagnosis depends on the presence
of two cardinal symptoms of persistent and pervasive low mood
and loss of interest or pleasure in usual activities.
Adjustment disorders are milder or more short lived episodes
of depression and are thought to result from stressful
experiences.
Major depressive disorder refers to a syndrome that requires
the presence of five or more symptoms of depression in the
same two week period.
Dysthymia covers persistent symptoms of depression that
may not be severe enough to meet the criteria for major
depression, in which depressed mood is present for two or
more years. Such chronic forms of depression are associated
with an increased risk of subsequent major depression,
considerable social disability, and unhealthy lifestyle choices
such as poor diet or cigarette smoking.
Manic depressive (bipolar) disorder relates to the occurrence of
episodes of both major depression and mania.
Aretaeus of
Cappadocia
(circa 81-138 ad)
is credited with
the first clinical
description of
depression
30
20
10
0 10 20 30 40
Percentage of population
Neurotic
symptoms,
including
depression, are
continuously
distributed in the
UK population
30
Depressed patients
25
Non-depressed patients
20
15
10
5
0
0
Months after infarction
The association
between
depression and
mortality after
myocardial
infarction
Risk factors
Multiple stressors of illness
Anxiety, sadness, and somatic discomfort are part of the normal

psychological response to life stress, including medical illness.
Clinical depression is a final common pathway resulting from
the interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors.
The likelihood of this outcome depends on such factors as
genetic and family predisposition, the clinical course of a
concurrent medical illness, the nature of the treatment,
functional disability, the effectiveness of individual coping
strategies, and the availability of social and other support.
In the attempts to understand the relation between physical
illness and depression there has been much debate about the
direction of causality. In particular, there has been speculation
that certain illnessessuch as stroke, Parkinsons disease,
multiple sclerosis, and pancreatic cancermay cause depression
via direct biological mechanisms. Stroke has perhaps received
the most attention, but studies have failed to convincingly show
direct aetiological mechanisms.
Recognition and diagnosis

In spite of its enormous clinical and public health importance,
depressive illness is often underdiagnosed and undertreated,
particularly when it coexists with physical illness. This often
causes great distress for patients who have mistakenly assumed
that symptoms such as weakness or fatigue are due to an
underlying medical condition.
All medical practitioners must be able to diagnose and
manage depressive illness effectively. This depends on
x Alertness to clues in interviews
x Patients manner
x The use of screening questions in those at riskin particular,
two questions about low mood and lack of pleasure in life can
detect up to 95% of patients with major depression.
Self report screening instruments, such as the Beck
depression inventory (BDI) and the hospital anxiety and
depression scale (HADS) cannot replace systematic clinical
assessment, but they are useful in drawing attention to depression
and other emotional disturbances in clinical settings where mood
is not routinely assessed. Doctors must be aware that persistent
low mood and lack of interest and pleasure in life cannot be
accounted for by severe physical illness alone. The usual response
to illness and treatment is impressive resilience.
If there is doubt about the diagnosis, a doctor may resort to
an empirical trial of treatment to establish whether there is
benefit. The wider availability of safer drugs and psychological
treatments makes this option more attractive than in the past.
Personality
Social support
Personal meaning
Anxiety
Sadness
Life stage
Prior experiences
of mastery
Somatic distress
(Normative response)
Social support
Medical complications
Persistent subthreshold
symptoms
Genetic loading
Coping strategies
Depressive disorders
Pathways to depression
Reasons why depression is missed

x Difficulty distinguishing psychological symptoms of depression,
such as sadness and loss of interest, from a realistic response to
stressful physical illness
x Confusion over whether physical symptoms of depression are due
to an underlying medical condition
x Negative attitudes to diagnosis of depression
x Unsuitability of clinical setting for discussion of personal and
emotional matters
x Patients unwillingness to report symptoms of depression
Screening questions for depression

x How have you been feeling recently?
x Have you been low in spirits?
x Have you been able to enjoy the things you
usually enjoy?
x Have you had your usual level of energy, or have
you been feeling tired?
x How has your sleep been?
x Have you been able to concentrate on newspaper
articles or your favourite television or radio
programmes?
"Memory loss"
Management
The main aims of treatment are to improve mood and quality
of life, reduce the risk of medical complications, improve
compliance with and outcome of physical treatment, and
facilitate the appropriate use of healthcare resources. The
development of a treatment plan depends on systematic
assessment that should, whenever possible, not only involve the
patients but also their partners or other key family members.
Milder or briefer adjustment disorders can be managed by
primary care staff without recourse to specialist referral.
Education, advice, and reassurance are of value. It is important
that primary care staff are familiar with the properties and use
of the commoner antidepressant drugs, and the value of brief
psychological treatments such as cognitive behaviour therapy,
interpersonal therapy, and problem solving.
Insomnia
Headache
Malaise
Fatigue and
tiredness
Painful joints
and back
Chest pain
Nausea,
vomiting, and
constipation
Weight loss
Disrupted
menses
Physical symptoms that may be due to depression
11
Drug treatment
Antidepressants have been shown to be effective in treating
major depressive disorder irrespective of whether the mood
disturbance is understandable. There have been far fewer
trials of antidepressants in patients who are also physically
unwell, but the available evidence is in keeping with the
treatment of depression generally.
One of the commonest questions is which antidepressant
should be used. For non-specialists, the range of available drugs,
and the claims made about them can be bewildering. There are
four main classes of antidepressant
x Tricyclics
x Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
x Monoamine oxidase inhibitors
x Others (noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors).
Choice of agent
Data from the Cochrane Collaboration and other systematic
reviews show that the differences in overall tolerability between
different preparations is minimal. In general, patients are
slightly less likely to drop out of trials because of unacceptable
side effects when taking a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor
but are slightly less likely to drop out because of treatment
inefficacy when taking a tricyclic. Rather than continuously
experimenting with a range of different drugs, clinicians should
stick to prescribing one drug from each class in order to
become familiar with their dosing regimens, actions,
interactions, and side effects. Clinicians should also be aware
that in certain situations one class of drug may be more
advisable than others.
Adequacy of treatment
The debate about different preparations has obscured a
potentially more important issuethat of drug dose and
compliance. Most prescriptions for antidepressants are for
inadequate doses and for inadequate time periods. This
problem is compounded by only a minority of patients
complying with the prescribed treatment. A recent household
survey by the Royal College of Psychiatrists showed that many
people believed that antidepressants were addictive and could
permanently damage the brain.
12
Action
Consider referral to mental
health professional for
routine appointment (not
always necessary)
Moderate level risk

Clinical picture
x Low lethality suicide attempt (patients
perception of lethality)
x Frequent thoughts of suicide
x Previous suicide attempts
x Persistent depressive symptoms
x Serious medical illness
x Inadequate social support
x History of psychiatric illness
High level risk
Clinical picture
x Definite plan for suicide (When?
Where? How?)
x Major depressive disorder, severe
x High lethality suicide attempt or
multiple attempts
x Advanced medical disease
x Social isolation
x History of psychiatric illness
Action
Refer to mental health
professional, to be seen as
soon as possible
Action
Refer to mental health
professional for immediate
assessment
Comparison: Antidepressants v Placebo

Outcome: Lack of improvement at end of study
Condition
No of patients
Drug Control
Cancer
Cancer
Diabetes
Head injury
Heart disease
HIV or AIDS
HIV
HIV
Lung disease
Multiple sclerosis
Physical illness, elderly
Physical illness
Stroke
8/36
9/28
10/18
3/6
1/16
36/50
22/50
9/25
8/18
7/18
25/39
22/29
17/33
Total
Odds ratio
(95% CI)
Weighting
(%)
11.2
9.0
5.4
1.7
3.0
8.0
15.2
7.6
5.3
5.2
10.5
7.7
10.2
19/37
17/27
12/17
3/4
6/8
21/25
36/47
11/22
16/18
8/14
35/43
21/30
24/33
Odds ratio
(95% CI)
0.29 (0.11 to 0.75)

0.30 (0.10 to 0.85)
0.54 (0.14 to 2.07)
0.39 (0.03 to 4.54)
0.04 (0.01 to 0.26)
0.52 (0.17 to 1.60)
0.26 (0.12 to 0.59)
0.57 (0.18 to 1.80)
0.14 (0.04 to 0.56)
0.49 (0.12 to 1.95)
0.42 (0.16 to 1.11)
1.34 (0.43 to 4.18)
0.41 (0.15 to 1.10)
100.0 0.37 (0.27 to 0.51)
177/366 229/325
0.1
10
Meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials of drug treatment of

depression in the physically ill
Remission
"Normalcy"
Symptoms
Syndrome
Recovery
Relapse
Recurrence
Continuation
treatment
(4-9 months)
Maintenance
treatment
(>1 year)
Relapse
Response
rder
diso
Duration of treatment
After initial treatment has led to remission of symptoms,
subsequent treatment can be divided into two phases. Firstly,
four to six months of continuous treatment at full dose are
Low level risk

Clinical picture
x Suicidal ideation but no suicide
attempts
x Supportive environment
x Physically healthy
x No history of psychiatric illness
o
ion t
ress
Prog
Explanation
To treat patients successfully with antidepressants, doctors must
be able to show their patient that they have understood the
patients problems, considered the issues, and are advising the
best available treatment (see previous chapters). Before starting
treatment, patients should be given an explanation of side
effects and be reassured that side effects tend to be worse
during the first two weeks of treatment and then diminish. They
need to be warned that they are unlikely to feel benefits from
treatment in the first four weeks. They should be given follow
up appointments during this period in order to encourage
compliance.
Clinical assessment of suicidal intent
Health
Patients with more enduring or severe symptoms will

usually require specific forms of treatment, usually drug
treatment. Staff should also be able to assess suicidal thinking
and risk. For patients with suicidal ideation or those whose
depression has not responded to initial management, specialist
referral is the next step in management.
Acute treatment
(6-12 weeks)
Time
Chart of clinical course indicating remission, recovery, and relapse

necessary to consolidate remission and prevent early relapse.
Secondly, consideration must be given to preventive
maintenance treatment, to reduce the risks of recurrence of
depression. This is usually indicated if the patient has had two
or more episodes of depression within the past five years.
Psychological treatment may also help to prevent recurrence
and can be used in combination with drug treatment.
Psychological treatment
Psychological treatment can range from discussion and simple
problem solving to more specialised cognitive or dynamic
behavioural psychotherapies. In many cases, brief treatment by
non-specialists in primary and secondary care can be effective.
Such interventions may include education and reassurance
about the common reactions to the threats and losses
associated with illness and empathic listening to patients views,
uncertainties, and beliefs about the illness. Education and advice
about the medical condition and associated depression may
prevent needless worry, reduce feelings of helplessness, and
diminish irrational fears. Therapeutic approaches that support
or promote active coping strategies are an important aspect of
treatment in physically ill patients.
Cognitive behavioural principles may be used by
non-specialists to correct distorted thinking and to encourage
behaviours that contribute to patients sense of mastery and
wellbeing. Training in briefer forms of treatment using cognitive
behavioural principles for primary care staff may be a
worthwhile investment.
Cognitive behaviour therapy, interpersonal therapy, and
problem solving have all been shown to be effective for treating
depression, although there has been only limited evaluation of
their effectiveness in physically ill populations. Although time
consuming by comparison with drug treatment, psychological
treatment may reduce relapse rates and may be cost effective in
the long run. Some patients may require preliminary treatment
with drugs to enable them to make best use of psychological
treatment.
Service organisation
Depression is so common in physically ill patients that it is not
feasible for all cases to be managed by mental health specialists.
There are advantages to collaborative management with
primary care staff working closely with mental health specialists.
Community based mental health services may be less accessible
to general hospitals and often lack specialist knowledge about
assessment and treatment when an important physical illness is
also present. Liaison psychiatry services are often well placed to
provide support, training, and psychiatric expertise to general
hospital patients in a timely fashion.
Problem solving in psychological treatment

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Define and list the problems

Choose a problem for action
List alternative courses of action
Evaluate courses of action and choose the best
Try the action
Evaluate the results
Repeat until major problems have been solved

x Depressive illness is an important cause of morbidity and disability
in physically ill patients
x All patients with depression should be examined for suicidal
ideation
x Depression is treatable in physically ill patients
Wells KB, Stewart A, Hays RD, Burnam MA, Rogers W, Daniels M, et al. The
functioning and well-being of depressed patients. Results from the medical
outcomes study. JAMA 1989;262:914-9
Carson AJ, Best S, Warlow C, Sharpe M. How common is suicidal ideation
among neurology outpatients? BMJ 2000;320:1311-2
Gill D, Hatcher S. Antidepressants for depression in medical illness. Cochrane
Database Syst Rev 2000;(4):CD001312
Further reading
x Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, Zhao S, Nelson CB, Hughes M,
Eshleman S, et al. Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-IIIR
psychiatric disorders in the United States: results of the national
comorbidity survey. Arch Gen Psychiatr 1994;51,8-19
x Rodin G, Craven J, Littlefield C. Depression in the medically ill: an
integrated approach. New York NY: Brunner/Mazel, 1991
x Royal College of Physicians, Royal College of Psychiatrists. The
psychological care of medical patients: recognition of need and service
provision. London: RCP, RCPsych, 1995
The diagram of the distribution of neurotic symptoms in the UK

population is adapted from Jenkins et al Psychol Med 1997;27:765-74. The
graph of association between depression and mortality after myocardial
infarction. is adapted from Frasure Smith et al JAMA 1993;270: 1819-25.
The diagram showing pathways to depression is adapted from Rodin et al
Depression in the medically ill 1991. The meta-analysis of trials comparing
antidepressants is adapted from Gill and Hatcher Cochrane Database Syst
Rev 2000;(4):CD001312.
13
Allan House, Dan Stark
Doctors often consider anxiety to be a normal response to

physical illness. Yet, anxiety afflicts only a minority of patients
and tends not to be prolonged. Any severe or persistent anxious
response to physical illness merits further assessment.
What is anxiety?
Anxiety is a universal and generally adaptive response to a
threat, but in certain circumstances it can become maladaptive.
Characteristics that distinguish abnormal from adaptive anxiety
include
x Anxiety out of proportion to the level of threat
x Persistence or deterioration without intervention ( > 3 weeks)
x Symptoms that are unacceptable regardless of the level of
threat, including
Recurrent panic attacks
Severe physical symptoms
Abnormal beliefs such as thoughts of sudden death
x Disruption of usual or desirable functioning.
One way to judge whether anxiety is abnormal is to assess
whether it is having a negative effect on the patients
functioning.
Abnormal anxiety can present with various typical
symptoms and signs, which include
x Autonomic overactivity
x Behaviours such as restlessness and reassurance seeking
x Changes in thinking, including intrusive catastrophic
thoughts, worry, and poor concentration
x Physical symptoms such as muscle tension or fatigue.
Classification of abnormal anxiety
Abnormal anxiety can be classified according to its clinical
features. In standardised diagnostic systems there are four main
patterns of abnormal anxiety.
Anxious adjustment disorderAnxiety is closely linked in time
to the onset of a stressor.
Generalised anxiety disorderAnxiety is more pervasive and
persistent, occurring in many different settings.
Panic disorderAnxiety comes in waves or attacks and is
often associated with panicky thoughts (catastrophic thoughts)
of impending disaster and can lead to repeated emergency
medical presentations.
Phobic anxietyAnxiety is provoked by exposure to a specific
feared object or situation. Medically related phobic stimuli
include blood, hospitals, needles, doctors and (especially)
dentists, and painful or unpleasant procedures.
Additionally, anxiety often presents in association with
depression. Mixed anxiety and depressive disorders are much
more common than anxiety disorders alone. Treatment for the
depression may resolve the anxiety. Anxiety can also be the
presenting feature of other psychiatric illnesses common in
physically ill people, such as delirium or drug and alcohol
misuse.
William Cullen
(1710-90) coined the
term neurosis (though
the term as he used it
bears little resemblance
to modern concepts of
anxiety disorders)
Somatic and psychological symptoms of anxiety disorders

In all anxiety disorders
x Palpitations, pounding heart,
accelerated heart rate
x Trembling or shaking
x Difficulty in breathing
x Chest pain or discomfort
x Feeling dizzy, unsteady, faint,
light headed
x Fear of losing control, going
crazy, passing out
x
x
x
x
x
Sweating
Dry mouth
Feeling of choking
Nausea or abdominal discomfort
Feeling that objects are unreal or
that self is distant
x Fear of dying
x Numbness or tingling sensations
x Hot flushes or cold chills
In more severe or generalised anxiety disorders

x Muscle tension or aches and x Restlessness, inability to relax
pains
x Sensation of difficulty
x Feeling keyed up, on edge, or
swallowing, lump in the throat
mentally tense
x Difficulty concentrating or
x Exaggerated response to
mind going blank from
minor surprises or being
anxiety or worry
startled
x Difficulty in getting to sleep
x Persistent irritability
because of worry
Distinguishing features of anxiety disorders

Anxious adjustment disorder
Prevalence in general populationNot known
Cardinal features
x Onset of symptoms within 1 month of an identifiable stressor
x No specific situation or response
Generalised anxiety disorder
Prevalence in general population31 cases/1000 adults
Cardinal features
x Period of 6 months with prominent tension, worry, and feelings of
apprehension about everyday problems
x Present in most situations and no specific response
Panic disorder
Cardinal features
x Discrete episode of intense fear or discomfort with crescendo
pattern; starts abruptly and reaches a maximum in a few minutes
x Occurs in many situations, with a hurried exit the typical response
Phobia
Cardinal features
x No specific symptom pattern
x Occurs in specific situations, with an avoidance response
14
Detecting anxiety and panic

Who is at risk?Certain groups are more vulnerable to
anxiety disorders: younger people, women, those with social
problems, and those with previous psychiatric problems.
However, such associations are less consistent in the setting of
life threatening illness, perhaps because susceptibility to anxiety
becomes less important as the stressor becomes more severe.
Pathological anxiety is commoner among patients with a
chronic medical condition than in those without.
Excluding physical causesThere are many presentations with
physical complaints whose aetiology may be due to anxiety.
Equally, several physical illnesses can cause anxiety or similar
symptoms. When such disorders cannot be reliably
distinguished from anxiety by clinical examination they need to
be excluded through appropriate investigation. A firm diagnosis
of anxiety should therefore be made only when a positive
diagnosis can be supported by the presence of a typical
syndrome and after appropriate investigation.
Use of screening questionnairesScreening, with self completed
questionnaires, has been widely used to improve detection of
psychiatric morbidity, including anxiety. Such questionnaires are
acceptable to patients and can be amenable to computerised
automation in the clinic. The hospital anxiety and depression
scale, the general health questionnaire, and many quality of life
instruments include anxiety items. No one questionnaire has
been consistently shown to be preferable to another.
Iatrogenic anxietyAnxiety symptoms can be caused by poor
communication (see chapters 1 and 2) and by prescribed drugs.
Well known causes include corticosteroids, adrenoceptor
agonists, and metoclopramide, but doctors should remember
that many less commonly used drugs can cause psychiatric
syndromes.
Treatment of anxiety and panic

General management
Treating anxiety is part of the management of most medical
conditions. It can lead to direct improvement of symptoms or
improve patient compliance. It is important to intervene if a
positive diagnosis of anxiety is made. Without treatment, anxiety
is associated with increased disability, increased use of health
service resources, and impaired quality of life.
Involving a mental health professional is not always possible
for anxious patients, particularly those in general hospital
settings. The range of available services is often limited, and not
all patients are prepared to accept referral. Since many patients
have to be managed without recourse to psychiatric services,
treating anxiety should be considered a core skill for all doctors.
Giving information is often the first step in helping anxious
patients, so much so that it has been said that knowledge is
reassurance. While information must be tailored to the wishes
of the individual, many patients want more information than
they are given. Such a simple step as showing people where
they are to be cared for can reduce anxiety.
Effective communication is central to information giving, with
evidence that anxiety is associated with poor communication.
Training doctors to use open questions, discuss psychological
issues, and summariseand to avoid reassurance, advice
mode, and leading questionshas been shown to lead to
greater disclosure and enduring change in patients with
psychological problems.
Reassurance is one of the most widely practised clinical skills.
Doctors often need to tell patients that their symptoms are not
due to occult disease. Simple reassurance, however, may be
Dizziness and
funny turns
Headache
Difficulty swallowing
Chest pain
Breathlessness
Indigestion and
abdominal discomfort
Polyuria
Paraethesia
Tremor
Common physical problems that may be caused by anxiety
Medical conditions mimicking or directly resulting in anxiety

x Poor pain controlSuch as ischaemic x
heart disease, malignant infiltration x
x HypoxiaMay be episodic in both
x
asthma and pulmonary embolus
x
x HypocapniaMay be due to occult x
bronchial hyperreactivity
x
x Central nervous system disorders
x
(structural or epileptic)
x
Anaemia
Hypoglycaemia
Hyperkalaemia
Alcohol or drug withdrawal
Vertigo
Thyrotoxicosis
Hypercapnia
Hyponatraemia
Self reported questionnaires used to assess anxiety

Hospital anxiety and depression scale
Advantages
x Excludes somatic symptoms of disease
x Brevity (14 items in all, 7 concerning anxiety)
x Widespread use in cancer and other physical illnesses
x More effective than many other instruments
x Used as a screen and a measure of progress
Disadvantages
x Recent concern that, used alone, it is poor at detecting depression
State-trait anxiety inventory
Advantages
x Specific to anxiety
Disadvantages
x Used alone does not detect depression
x Longer (20-40 items) than many other self reported questionnaires
General health questionnaire
Advantages
x Brevity (12 or 28 items)
x Excludes somatic symptoms of disease
Disadvantages
x May not be accurate in detecting chronic problems
Common drug causes of anxiety

x AnticonvulsantsCarbamazepine,
ethosuximide
x AntimicrobialsCephalosporins,
ofloxacin, aciclovir, isoniazid
x BronchodilatorsTheophyllines,
2 agonists
x DigitalisAt toxic levels
x Oestrogen
x InsulinWhen hypoglycaemic
x Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
drugsIndomethacin
x AntidepressantsSpecific
serotonin reuptake inhibitors
x Antihistamines
x Calcium channel
blockersFelodipine
x Dopamine
x InotropesAdrenaline,
noradrenaline
x Levodopa
x Corticosteroids
x Thyroxine
Many drugs can cause palpitation or tremor, but these should be easily
distinguished from anxiety by clinical examination
15

ineffective for anxious patients; their anxiety may be reduced
initially by the consultation, but it rapidly returns. Several
theoretical models of this problem have been suggested, based
on the patterns of thinking (cognitions) of people who are
difficult to reassure.
Preparation for unpleasant procedures can remove the
additional burden of facing the unknown. It may also allow
planning of short term tactics for dealing with anxiety
provoking circumstances. Anxious patients are highly vigilant
and overaware of threatening stimuli. They often use quick fix
techniques based on avoidance of threat to reduce anxiety; such
strategies are generally maladaptive and result in increasing
disability. In some medical situations, however, such avoidance
may not be a bad thing if the threat is temporary. A similar
effect is seen with use of benzodiazepine to provide temporary
relief from anxiety symptoms that will not recur because the
stressor is not persistent.
Behavioural treatments are among the most effective
treatments for anxiety disorders. Many patients restrict their
activities in response to anxiety, which often has the effect of
increasing both the level of anxiety and the degree of disability
in the longer term. The principle of treatment is that controlled
exposure to the anxiety producing stimulus will eventually lead
to diminution in symptoms. Although specific behavioural
treatments will normally be conducted by specialists, other
clinicians should be aware of the basic principles. It is important
to encourage and help patients to maintain their normal
activities as much as possible, even if this causes temporary
increases in anxiety.
Drug treatmentsSeveral drugs can be used to treat anxiety,
each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Long term
benzodiazepine dependence and misuse are considered by many
to be a problem in medical practice. Although the evidence for
this is conflicting, the use of benzodiazepines may be reserved for
the short term treatment of anxiety and for emergencies.
Drug withdrawalDependence on other substances,
particularly analgesics and alcohol, occurs fairly frequently in
the context of anxiety. This often results from self medication
for anxiety. In this situation withdrawal from the existing
treatment will be an important part of the anxiety
management programme.
Role of specialist psychological treatment
Clinical studies indicate that psychological interventions for
anxiety can be effective both in general psychiatric settings and
for physically ill patients. The most popular, and those with the
best evidence to support them, are based on the principles of
behaviour, cognitive behaviour, or interpersonal therapy.
In behaviour and cognitive behaviour therapies the main
aim is to help patients identify and challenge unhelpful ways of
thinking about and coping with physical symptoms and their
meaning, about themselves, and about how they should live
their lives. In interpersonal therapies the main focus is on
relationships with family members and friendshow such
relationships are affected by illness and how they influence
patients current emotional state. Patients need to know that
such therapies may be both brief and practical. Fewer than six
sessions may be enough, concentrating on symptoms or the
immediate problems associated with them and learning new
ways of dealing with problems. In only a minority of cases is
more extended therapy needed, usually when anxiety is longer
standing and only partially due to associated physical disease.
16
Beliefs
Tending to interpret everyday bodily
symptoms as indicative of serious disease
(Anxiety influences patient's ability to
assess degree of airway obstruction)
Concerns
Health worry and preoccupation, fear
of serious illness and of death. Can
be intrusive and difficult to control
(Concerns rise that asthma is worsening,
leading to increased anxiety)
Behaviours
Reassurance seeking, including
seeking medical consultations
(Patient takes increasing doses
of medication without any
alleviation of symptoms)
Characteristic features of health anxiety (using the example of asthma)
Drug interventions in anxious medical patients

Blockers
x Benefits unproved in randomised controlled trials
x Help to control palpitation and tremor, but not anxiety itself
x Often used for performance anxiety, such as in interviews or
examinations
Tricyclic antidepressants (such as imipramine)
x Likely to be beneficial (number needed to treat = 3)
x Anxiolytic effect is slow in onset (weeks)
x Not dependency inducing
x Useful in panic disorder or in anxiety with depression
x Anticholinergic effects can be ameliorated by a low starting dose
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (such as sertraline)
x Benefit unproved but suggested
x Less anticholinergic effects than tricyclic antidepressants
x Start at low dose in anxious patients
Short acting benzodiazepines (such as alprazolam)
x Effectiveness and relative lack of toxicity well established
x All benzodiazepines can induce dependency
x Rapid onset of effect, but problems may recur on withdrawal
x Less likely to accumulate in liver
Antipsychotics (such as haloperidol)
x Benefits unproved in randomised controlled trials
x Useful adjunct to benzodiazepines
x Less respiratory depression that benzodiazepines
x Not dependency inducing
x Risk of acute dystonia, akathisia, and parkinsonism
x Avoid long term use because of risk of tardive dyskinesia
Buspirone
x Limited evidence for effectiveness from randomised controlled
trials, few clinicians are convinced
x Causes some nausea and dizziness
Further reading
x Noyes R, Hoehn-Saric R. Anxiety in the medically ill: disorders due
to medical conditions and substances. In: Noyes R, Hoehn-Saric R,
eds. The anxiety disorders. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1998:285-334
x Colon EA, Popkin MK. Anxiety and panic. In: Rundell JR, Wise MG,
eds. Textbook of consultation-liaison psychiatry. Washington DC:
American Psychiatric Press, 1996:403-25
x Westra HA, Stewart SH. Cognitive behavioural therapy and
pharmacotherapy: complementary or contradictory approaches to
the treatment of anxiety? Clin Psychol Rev 1998;18:307-40
x Cochrane Depression Anxiety and Neurosis Group. See list of
reviews at www.update-software.com/abstracts/g240index.htm
Most functional symptoms are transient, but a sizeable minority

become persistent. Persistent symptoms are often multiple and
disabling and may be described as functional syndromes.
Although different medical and psychiatric classifications of
functional syndromes exist, these are simply alternative ways of
describing the same conditions.
Medical syndromes (such as fibromyalgia and chronic fatigue,
chronic pain, and irritable bowel syndromes) highlight patterns
of somatic symptoms, often in relation to particular bodily
systems. Although they are useful in everyday medical practice,
recent studies show there is substantial overlap between them.
Psychiatric syndromes (such as anxiety, depression, and
somatoform disorders) highlight psychological processes and
the number of somatic symptoms irrespective of the bodily
system to which they refer. Depression and anxiety often
present with somatic symptoms that may resolve with effective
treatment of these disorders. In other cases the appropriate
psychiatric diagnostic category is a somatoform disorder.
The existence of parallel classificatory systems is confusing.
Both have merits, and both are imperfect. For many functional
symptoms, a simple description of the symptom qualified with
the descriptors single or multiple and acute or chronic may
suffice. When diagnosis of a functional syndrome seems
appropriate a combination of medical and psychiatric
descriptors conveys the most information, such as irritable
bowel syndrome with anxiety disorder.
A major obstacle to effective management is patients feeling
disbelieved by their doctor. Patients who present with symptoms
that are not associated with disease may be thought by some to
be putting it on. The deliberate manufacture of symptoms or
signs, however, is probably rare in ordinary practice.
Epidemiology
Community based studies report annual prevalences of 6-36%
for individual troublesome symptoms. In primary care only a
small proportion of patients presenting with such symptoms
ever receive a specific disease diagnosis. The World Health
Organization found functional symptoms to be common and
disabling in primary care patients in all countries and cultures
studied. Up to half of these patients remain disabled by their
symptoms a year after presentation, the outcome being worse
for those referred to secondary and tertiary care. The clinical
and public health importance of functional symptoms has been
greatly underestimated.
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Muscle and joint pain (fibromyalgia)

Low back pain
Tension headache
Atypical facial pain
Chronic fatigue
Non-cardiac chest pain
Palpitation
Non-ulcer dyspepsia
Irritable bowel
Dizziness
Insomnia
Ren Descartes, who formulated the philosophical

principle of separation of brain and mind. This has
led to continuing dualismseparation of body and
mindin Western medicine and difficulty in
accepting the interaction of physical and
psychological factors in aetiology
10
Organic cause
8
6
4
2
0
Ch
es
tp
ain
Fa
tig
ue
Di
zz
in
es
s
He
ad
ac
he
Oe
de
m
a
Ba
ck
pa
in
Dy
sp
no
ea
In
so
Ab
m
ni
do
a
m
in
al
pa
in
Nu
m
bn
es
s
Classification of functional syndromes
Some common functional symptoms and

syndromes
3 year incidence (%)
Concern about symptoms is a major reason for patients to seek

medical help. Many of the somatic symptoms that they present
withsuch as pain, weakness, and fatigueremain unexplained
by identifiable disease even after extensive medical assessment.
Several general terms have been used to describe this
problemsomatisation, somatoform, abnormal illness behaviour,
medically unexplained symptoms, and functional symptoms. We
will use the term functional symptoms, which does not assume
psychogenesis but only a disturbance in bodily functioning.
Three year incidence of 10 common presenting symptoms and proportion

of symptoms with a suspected organic cause in US primary care
17
Causal factors
Detection and diagnosis

Almost any symptom can occur in the absence of disease, but
some, such as fatigue and subjective bloating, are more likely to
be functional than others. Surprisingly, the more somatic
symptoms a person has, the less likely it is that these symptoms
reflect the presence of disease and the more likely there is
associated depression and anxiety.
18
Bodily perceptions
Knowledge
Beliefs
Cognitive interpretation
Symptoms
Behavioural change
Disability
Personality
Mental state
Maintaining factors:
Secondary physiological,
psychological, and
behavioural changes
Iatrogenic factors
Reactions to others
Interactive aetiology of unexplained symptoms
Iatrogenic factors in development of medically unexplained

symptoms
x Appearance of uncertainty and inability to provide an explanation
x Expressed concern about disease explanations
x Failure to convince patient that the complaint is accepted as
genuine
x Reassurance without a positive explanation being given
x Ambiguous and contradictory advice
x Excessive investigation and treatment
Individualised aetiological formulation for patient with

chronic pain
Predisposing
factors
Genetic?
Precipitating
factors
Injury at work
Psychological
Lack of care
as child
Trauma
Interpersonal
Family history
of illness
Dissatisfaction
with work
Response of
employer
Causes
Biological
Medical
system
Patients with psychiatric morbidity (%)
The cause of functional symptoms and syndromes is not fully

understood, and it is therefore best to remain neutral regarding
aetiological theories. In practice, functional symptoms are often
attributed to single cause, which may be pathological (such as a
virus) or psychological (such as stress). This simplistic and
dualistic approach is unhelpful both in explaining the cause to
a patient and in planning treatment. The available evidence
suggests that biological, psychological, interpersonal, and
healthcare factors are all potentially important.
The dualistic, single factor view has tended to emphasise
psychological over biological factors, as exemplified by the
commonly used term somatisation. However, recent evidence
suggests that biological factors (especially reversible functional
disturbance of the nervous system) are relevant to many
functional syndromes, as they are to depression and anxiety
disorders. A pragmatic doctor therefore asks not whether
symptoms are physical or mental but whether they are fixed
or are reversible by appropriate intervention.
The role of interpersonal factors in general, and of doctors
and the health system in particular, in exacerbating functional
symptoms has received less attention than it deserves. Raising
fears of disease, performing unnecessary investigations and
treatments, and encouraging disability are probably common
adverse effects of medical consultations. However, denying the
reality of patients symptoms may damage the doctor-patient
relationship and drive patients from evidence based care into
the arms of the unhelpful, unscientific, and unscrupulous.
Aetiological factors can also be usefully divided into the
stage of illness at which they have their effect. That is, they may
be predisposing, precipitating, or perpetuating. Predisposing
and precipitating factors are useful in producing a fuller
understanding of why a patient has the symptom, while
perpetuating factors are the most important for treatment.
Precipitating factorsSymptoms may arise from an increased
awareness of physiological changes associated with stress,
depression, anxiety and sometimes disease and injury. They
become important to the patients when they are severe and
when they are associated with fears of, or belief in, disease.
Predisposing factors increase the chance that such symptoms
will become important. Some people are probably biologically
and psychologically predisposed to develop symptoms. Fear of
disease may result from previous experiencefor example, a
middle aged man with a family history of heart disease is likely
to become concerned about chest pain.
Perpetuating factors are those that make it more likely that
symptoms and associated disability persists. Patients
understandable attempts to alleviate their symptoms may
paradoxically exacerbate them. For example, excessive rest to
reduce pain or fatigue may contribute to disability in the longer
term. Doctors may also contribute to this by failing to address
patients concern or unwittingly increasing fear of disease (such
as by excessive investigation). The provision of disability benefits
can also be a financial disincentive for some patients to return
to jobs they dislike, and the process of litigation may maintain a
focus on disability rather than recovery.
Misleading
explanation of
pain
Perpetuating
factors
Effect of immobility
Physiological
mechanisms
Fear of worsening
pain
Avoid activity
Oversolicitous care
Litigation process
Focus solely on
somatic problems
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
No of symptoms
Association between number of unexplained physical symptoms and

psychiatric disorder (anxiety and depression) in an international study of
primary care attenders

Patients with functional symptoms can be detected by
maintaining an awareness of the problem when seeing new
patients and by the use of somatic symptom questionnaires
(large numbers of symptoms are more likely to be functional).
Management
Although it is essential to consider disease as the cause of the
patients symptoms an approach exclusively devoted to this can
lead to difficulties if none is found. Making explicit from the
start the possibility that the symptoms may turn out to be
functional keeps the option of a wider discussion open. Even if
more specialist treatment is needed, then the problem has, from
the outset, been framed in a way that enables psychological
treatment to be presented as part of continuing medical care
rather than as an unacceptable and dismissive alternative. In
this way it is possible to avoid an anxious disabled patient being
treated by a bewildered frustrated doctor.
Investigation
An appropriate physical examination and necessary medically
indicated investigation are clearly essential. Thereafter, before
further investigation is done, the potential adverse
psychological effect on the patient should be balanced against
the likelihood and value of new information that may be
obtained.
Reassurance and explanation
Most patients are reassured by being told that the symptoms
they have are common and rarely associated with disease and
that their doctor is familiar with them. This is especially so if
accompanied by the promise of further review should the
symptoms persist.
Reassurance needs to be used carefully, however. It is
essential to elicit patients specific concerns about their
symptoms and to target reassurance appropriately. The simple
repetition of bland reassurance that fails to address patients
fears is ineffective. If patients have severe anxiety about disease
(hypochondriasis) repeated reassurance is not only ineffective
but may even perpetuate the problem.
A positive explanation for symptoms is usually more helpful
that a simple statement that there is no disease. Most patients
will accept explanations that include psychological and social
factors as well as physiological ones as long as the reality of
symptom is accepted. The explanation can usefully show the
link between these factorsfor example, how anxiety can lead
to physiological changes in the autonomic nervous system that
cause somatic symptoms, which, if regarded as further evidence
of disease, lead to more anxiety.
Further non-specialist treatment
A minority of patients need more than simple reassurance and
explanation. Treatment should address patients illness fears
and beliefs, reduce anxiety and depression, and encourage a
gradual return to normal activities.
There is good evidence that antidepressants often help, even
when there are no clear symptoms of depression. Practical
advice is needed, especially on coping effectively with symptoms
and gradually returning to normal activity and work. Other
useful interventions include help in dealing with major
personal, family, or social difficulties and involving a close
relative in management. Other members of the primary care or
hospital team may be able to offer help with treatment, follow
up, and practical help.
Functional somatic symptoms were common after combat in the first

world war, such as this soldiers hysterical pseudohypertrophic muscular
spasms. The course and outcome of such symptoms can now be seen to
have been substantially determined by varied medical and military
approaches to prevention and treatment
Principles of assessment
x
x
x
x
x
Identify patients concerns and beliefs

Review history of functional symptoms
Explicitly consider both disease and functional diagnoses
Appropriate medical assessment with explanation of findings
Ask questions about patients reaction to and coping with
symptoms
x Use screening questions for psychiatric and social problems
x Consider interviewing relatives
Principles of treatment
x Explain that the symptoms are real and familiar to doctor
x Provide a positive explanation, including how behavioural,
psychological, and emotional factors may exacerbate
physiologically based somatic symptoms
x Offer opportunity for discussion of patients and familys worries
x Give practical advice on coping with symptoms and encourage
return to normal activity and work
x Identify and treat depression and anxiety disorders
x Discuss and agree a treatment plan
x Follow up and review
Non-specialist specific treatments

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Provide information and advice

Agree a simple behavioural plan with patient and family
Give advice about anxiety management
Encourage use of diaries
Advise about graded increase in activities
Prescribe antidepressant drug
Explain use of appropriate self help programmes
Specialist treatments
x Full and comprehensive assessment and explanation based on
specialist assessment
x Cognitive behaviour therapy
x Supervised programme of graded increase in activity
x Antidepressants when these were previously not accepted or
ineffective
x Illness specific interventions (such as rehabilitation programme for
chronic pain)
19
100
Cognitive therapy
Behavioural stress management
80
Waiting list
60
40
20
Functional symptoms accompanying

disease
Functional symptoms are also common in those who also have
major disease. For example, after a heart attack or cardiac
surgery, minor muscular chest aches and pains may be
misinterpreted as evidence of angina, leading to unnecessary
worry and disability. Explanation and advice, perhaps in the
context of a cardiac rehabilitation programme, may make a
substantial contribution to patients quality of life.
Conclusion
An understanding of the interaction of biological,
psychological, interpersonal, and medical factors in the
predisposition, precipitation, and perpetuation of functional
somatic symptoms allows convincing explanations to provided
for patients and effective treatment to be planned.
Important components of general management include
effective initial reassurance, a positive explanation, and practical
advice. It is also important to identify early those who are not
responding and who require additional specific interventions.
The difficulty that health systems have in effectively dealing
with symptoms that are not attributable to disease reflects both
intellectual and structural shortcomings in current care. The
most salient of these is the continuing influence of mind-body
dualism on our education and provision of care. In the longer
term, scientific developments will break down this distinction.
For the time being, it places primary care in a pivotal role in
ensuring appropriate care for these patients.
The graph of incidence of common presenting symptoms in US primary

care is adapted from Kroenke and Mangelsdorff, Am J Med 1989:86: 262-6.
The graph of association between number of unexplained physical
symptoms and psychiatric disorder is adapted from Kisely et al, Psychol Med
1997;27:1011-9. The picture of a shellshocked soldier is reproduced with
permission of British Pathe. The graph of effects of cognitive behaviour
treatment for hypochondriasis is adapted from Clark DM et al, Br J
Psychiatry 1998;173:218-25.
20
up
up
fo
llo
w
m
on
th
12
m
on
th
fo
llo
w
up
fo
llo
w
m
on
th
3
Po
st
-tr
ea
tm
en
t
M
id
-tr
ea
tm
en
t
0
Pr
et
re
at
m
en
t
Referral for specialist treatment

There is always a temptation to refer difficult patients to another
doctor. However, this can result in greater long term difficulties
if not carefully planned. When there is a good reason for
further medical or psychiatric referral, then a clear explanation
to the patient of the reason and an appropriately worded
referral letter are essential.
Psychiatric treatments that may be required include more
complex antidepressant drug regimens and specialist
psychological interventions. Cognitive behaviour therapy has
been shown to be effective in randomised controlled trials for a
variety of functional syndromes (such as non-cardiac chest pain,
irritable bowel, chronic pain, and chronic fatigue) and for
patients with hypochondriasis.
Time seriously worried about health (%)
Randomised controlled trial of cognitive and behavioural treatments for

hypochondriasis
Evidence based summary points

x Functional somatic symptoms are common in primary care in all
countries and cultures
x Cognitive behaviour therapies are of general applicability
x Antidepressants are of value whether or not patient is depressed
Gureje O, Simon GE, Ustun TB, Goldberg DP. Somatization in cross-cultural
perspective: a World Health Organization study in primary care. Am J Psychiatry
1997;154:989-95
Kroenke K, Swindle R. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for somatization and
symptom syndromes: a critical review of controlled clinical trials. Psychother
Psychosom 2000;69:205-15
OMalley PG, Jackson JL, Santoro J, Tomkins G, Balden E, Kroenke K.
Antidepressant therapy for unexplained symptoms and symptom syndromes.
J Fam Pract 1999;48:980-90
Further reading
x Kroenke K, Mangelsdorff D. Common symptoms in ambulatory
care: incidence, evaluation, therapy and outcome. Am J Med
1989:86: 262-6
x Mayou R, Bass C, Sharpe M. Treatment of functional somatic symptoms.
x Sharpe M, Carson AJ. Unexplained somatic syndromes,
somatisation: do we need a paradigm shift? Ann Intern Med
2001;134:296
x Wessely S, Nimnuan C, Sharpe M. Functional somatic syndromes:
one or many? Lancet 1999;354:936-9
Christopher Bass, Stephanie May
The previous article in this series described the assessment and

management of patients with functional somatic symptoms.
Most such patients make no more than normal demands on
doctors and can be helped with the approach outlined.
However, a minority have more complex needs and require
additional management strategies. These patients typically have
a longstanding pattern of presenting with various functional
symptoms, have had multiple referrals for investigation of these,
and are regarded by their doctors as difficult to help.
Terminology
Because such patients may evoke despair, anger, and frustration
in doctors, they may be referred to as heartsink patients,
difficult patients, fat folder patients, and chronic
complainers. The use of these terms is inadvisable. If patients
read such descriptions in their medical notes they are likely to
be offended and lose faith in their doctor and may make a
complaint. In psychiatric diagnostic classifications these patients
are often referred to as having somatisation disorder. We prefer
the term chronic multiple functional symptoms (CMFS).
Epidemiology and detection

The prevalence of CMFS depends upon the number of different
symptoms required for diagnosis and on the setting. Whilst each
primary care doctor will have an average of 10-15 of such
patients, they are more common in specialist medical settings
where they may account for as many as 10% of referrals.
Most patients with CMFS are women. They often have
recurrent depressive disorder and a longstanding difficulty with
personal relationships and may misuse substances. There is an
association with an emotionally deprived childhood and
childhood physical and sexual abuse. Some patients will clearly
have general disturbances of personality.
The risk of iatrogenic harm from over-investigation and
over-prescribing for somatic complaints makes it important that
patients with CMFS are positively identified and their
management planned, usually in primary care. Potential CMFS
patients may be identified simply by the thickness of their paper
notes, from records of attendance and hospital referral, and by
observation of medical, nursing, or clerical staff.
Charles Darwin (1809-82) suffered from chronic anxiety and varied physical
symptoms that began shortly after his voyage in the Beagle to South America
(1831-6). Despite many suggested medical explanations, these symptoms,
which disabled him for the rest of his life and largely confined him to his
home, remain medically unexplained
Management in primary care

Assessment
It is helpful if one doctor is identified as a patients principal
carer. Once a patient is identified as possibly having CMFS a
systematic assessment is desirable. The case notes should be
reviewed and the patient seen for one or more extended
consultations.
Case notesPatients with CMFS often have extensive case
notes. Unless these are reviewed, much potentially useful
information may remain hidden. It is also helpful to compile a
summary of these records and to evaluate critically the accuracy
of any previously listed complaints and diagnoses. The summary
should include key investigations performed to date and any
information about patients personal and family circumstances.
Long appointmentDuring one or more long appointment a
patients current problems and history should be fully explored.
Fat files are a simple indicator of a high level of contact with medical
services, which may indicate multiple chronic functional somatic complaints
21

Patients should be encouraged to talk not only about their
symptoms but also about their concerns, emotional state, and
social situation and the association of these with their
symptoms. At the end of the assessment, patient and doctor
should agree a current problem list, which can then be
recorded in the notes.
Management
The initial long interviews serve not only to derive a problem
list but also to foster a positive relationship between doctor and
patient. Thereafter, the doctor should arrange to see the patient
at regular, though not necessarily frequent, fixed intervals.
These consultations should not be contingent on the patient
developing new symptoms. Consultation outside these times
should be discouraged.
Planned review
All symptoms reported by patients during these consultations
must be acknowledged as valid. A detailed review of symptoms
enhances the doctor-patient relationship and minimises the
likelihood of missing new disease.
Reassurance that nothing is wrong may be unhelpful,
possibly because a patients aim may be to develop an
understanding relationship with the doctor rather than relief of
symptoms. Focused physical examination can be helpful, but
there is a risk of patients receiving multiple diagnostic tests and
referrals to specialists, and these should be minimised. Patients
also often accumulate unnecessary prescribed drugs, and if so
these should be reduced gradually over time.
If a satisfactory rapport can be established with a patient,
new information about his or her emotional state, relationship
difficulties, or childhood abuse may be revealed. In such cases
the doctor may need to offer the patient a further long
appointment to reassess the need for specialist psychological
care.
Support for doctors
General practitioners managing patients with CMFS should
arrange ongoing support for themselves, perhaps from a
partner or another member of the primary care team with
whom they can discuss their patients. A doctor and, for
example, a practice nurse can jointly manage some of these
patients if there is an agreed management plan and clear
communication.
Referral to psychiatric services

Not all doctors will consider that they have the necessary skills
or time to manage these patients effectively. Review by an
appropriate specialist can then be helpful. Unfortunately, the
decline in the number of general physicians and specialist
mental health services increasing focus on psychotic illness
mean there are few appropriate specialists to refer to.
If referral is sought two questions must be considered: Are
there any local and appropriate psychiatric services? and How
can I prepare the patient for this referral? If available, liaison
psychiatry services are often the most appropriate and
experienced in this area of practice. To prepare the patient, a
discussion emphasising the distressing nature of chronic illness
and the expertise of the services in this area, together with a
promise of continuing support from the primary care team, can
help to make the referral seem less rejecting. If possible, the
psychiatrist should visit the practice or medical department and
conduct a joint consultation.
22
Assessment of chronic multiple functional somatic

symptoms
x Elicit a history of the current complaints, paying special attention to
recent life events
x Find out what the patient has been told by other doctors (as well as
friends, relatives, and alternative practitioners). Does this accord
with the medical findings?
x Elicit an illness history that addresses previous experience of
physical symptoms and contact with medical services (such as
illness as a child, illness of parents and its impact on childhood
development, operations, time off school and sickness absence)
x Explore psychological and interpersonal factors in patients
development (such as quality of parental care, early abusive
experiences, psychiatric history)
x Interview a partner or reliable informant (this may take place,
consent permitting, in the patients presence)
x After the interview attempt a provisional formulation
Useful interviewing skills for doctors managing patients with

multiple physical complaints
x Adopt a flexible interviewing styleI wonder if youve thought of it
like this?
x Try to remind the patient that physical and emotional symptoms
often coexistIm struck by the fact that, in addition to the fatigue,
youve also been feeling very low and cannot sleep
x Try reframing the physical complaints to indicate important
temporal relationship between emergence of patients somatic and
emotional symptoms and relevant life events
x Respond appropriately to emotional cues such as anger
x Explore patients illness beliefs and worst fearsWhat is your worst
fear about this pain?
Management strategy for patients with chronic multiple

functional somatic symptoms
x Try to be proactive rather than reactiveArrange to see patients at
regular, fixed intervals, rather than allowing them to dictate timing
and frequency of visits
x During appointments, aim to broaden the agenda with patients
This involves establishing a problem list and allowing patients to
discuss relevant psychosocial problems
x Stop or reduce unnecessary drugs
x Try to minimise patients contacts with other specialists or
practitionersThis will reduce iatrogenic harm and make
containment easier if only one or two practitioners are involved
x Try to co-opt a relative as a therapeutic ally to implement your
management goals
x Reduce your expectation of cure and instead aim for containment
and damage limitation
x Encourage patients (and yourself) to think in terms of coping and
not curing
Explanations to the patient

Present patients problems as a summary with an invitation to
comment:
So let me see if Ive understood you properly: you have had a lot of
pain in your abdomen, with bloating and distension for the past four
years. You have been attending the (GP) surgery most weeks because
youve been very worried about cancer (and about your husband
leaving you). You also told me that these pains often occur when you
are anxious and panicky, and at these times other physical complaints
such as trembling and nausea occur.
Im struck by the fact that all these complaints began soon after you
had a very frightening experience in hospital, when your appendix
was removed and you felt that No one was listening to my complaints
or pain.
Have I got that right, or is there anything Ive left out?
Summary of a 15 year segment of the life of a patient with chronic multiple functional somatic symptoms
Date (age) Symptoms (life events)
1970 (18) Abdominal pain
1973 (21) Pregnant (boyfriend in prison)
Referral
GP to surgical outpatients
GP to obstetrics and
gynaecology outpatients
GP to gastroenterology and
neurology outpatients
Investigations
Appendicectomy
Termination of pregnancy
Outcome
Normal appendix
All tests normal
1979 (27) Pelvic pain (wants to be

sterilised)
1981 (29) Fatigue (problems at work)
GP to obstetrics and
gynaecology outpatients
GP to infectious disease
clinic
Sterilised, ovaries preserved
1983 (31) Aching, painful muscles
GP to rheumatology clinic
Mild cervical spondylosis.

No treatment
1985 (34) Chest pain and breathlessness

(son truanting from school)
Accident and emergency to

chest clinic
Nothing abnormal detected,

probable hyperventilation
Diagnosis of irritable bowel

syndrome and unexplained
syncope. Treated with fibre
Pelvic pain persists for 2 years after
surgery
Diagnosis of myalgic
encephalomyelitis made by patient.
Joins self help group
Treated with amitriptyline 50 mg
on referral to pain clinic. Some
improvement
Refer to psychiatric services
1975-7
(23-25)
Bloating, abdominal pain,

blackouts (stressful divorce)
Specialist assessment
Before interviewing a patient, it is useful to request both the
general practice and hospital notes and summarise the medical
history. A typed summary of the illness history can be kept as
a permanent record in the notes. This summary can guide
future management and is especially useful when a patient is
admitted subsequently as an emergency or when the receiving
doctor has no prior knowledge of the patient.
Several important interviewing skills should be used during
the assessment. These skills can be learnt using structured role
playing and video feedback. They form the basis of a technique
called reattribution, which has been developed to help the
management of patients with functional somatic symptoms.
Specialist management
If a patient can understand and agree an initial shared
formulation of the problems, an important first stage is reached.
From this a plan of management can be negotiated. It is best to
adopt a collaborative approach rather than a didactic or
paternalistic manner. If it is difficult to arrive at an
understanding of why the patient developed these symptoms at
this particular time, then an alternative approach may have to
be adopted. In essence this involves the doctor attempting to
address those factors that are maintaining the symptoms.
Assessment and management go hand in hand. One of the
main aims of management is to modify patients often
unrealistic expectations of the medical profession and to
remind them of the limits to medicine. In many cases hopes
may have been falsely raised, and patients expect either a cure
or at least a considerable improvement in symptoms. Although
this is desirable, it may not be attainable. Instead, the doctor
should attempt to broaden the agenda, with an emphasis on
helping patients to address personal concerns and life problems
as well as somatic complaints. It is also necessary to encourage
them to concentrate on coping rather than seeking a cure.
This process requires patience, and a capacity to tolerate
frustration and setbacks. It may require several discussions in
which the same issues are reviewed. In the long term, however,
it can be rewarding for both patient and doctor.
Common problems in management

Management may be complicated by various factors. Firstly,
preoccupation and anxious concern about symptoms may lead
patients to make unhelpful demands of their doctor, which
prove difficult to resist.
Nothing abnormal detected
What is the cause of functional somatic symptoms?

x A variety of biological, psychological, and social factors have been
shown to be associated with functional symptoms; the contribution
of these factors will vary between patients
Recent developments in neuroscience show altered functioning of
the nervous system associated with functional symptoms, making
the labelling of these as entirely psychological increasing
inappropriate
x With our current knowledge, it is best to maintain aetiological
neutrality about the cause of functional symptoms
x The main task of treatment is to identify those factors that may be
maintaining a patients symptoms and disability
Maintaining factors that should be focus of treatment in

patients with multiple somatic symptoms
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Depression, anxiety, or panic disorder

Chronic marital or family discord
Physical inactivity
Occupational stress
Abnormal illness beliefs
Iatrogenic factors
Pending medicolegal and insurance claims
Biomedical approach
Biopsychosocial approach
Symptoms
Engaging with distress
Investigations
Broaden agenda
Drugs
Problem solving
Operations
Involve relatives
Disability
Rehabilitation
Curing
Coping
The aim of treatment for patients with chronic multiple functional

symptoms is to add a biopsychosocial perspective to the existing biomedical
approach
23

Secondly, there may be evidence of longstanding
interpersonal difficulties, as indicated by remarks such as
Nobody cares or Its disgusting what doctors can do to you.
Such comments may suggest that the patients relationship with
the doctor may reflect poor quality parental care or emotional
deprivation in childhood. They are important for two reasons:
firstly, the doctor may take these remarks personally, become
demoralised or angry, and retaliate, which will destroy the
doctor-patient relationship; and, secondly, the attitudes revealed
may require more detailed psychological exploration.
Finally, iatrogenic factors may intervene that are beyond the
treating doctors control. Because these patients have often
visited several specialists, conventional and alternative, they may
have been given inappropriate information and advice,
inappropriate treatment, or, in some cases, frank misdiagnosis.
Factitious disorders and malingering

Factitious disorders
Factitious disorders are characterised by feigned physical or
psychological symptoms and signs presented with the aim of
receiving medical care. They are therefore different from
functional symptoms. The judgment that a symptom is
produced intentionally requires direct evidence and exclusion
of other causes. Most patients with factitious disorders are
women with stable social networks, and more than half of these
work in medically related occupations. Once factitious disorder
is diagnosed, it is important to confront the patient but remain
supportive. When factitious disorder is established in a person
working in health care it is advisable to organise a
multidisciplinary meeting involving the patients general
practitioner, a physician and surgeon, a psychiatrist, and a
medicolegal representative.
If, and only if, the deliberate feigning of symptoms and signs
can be established (such as by observation of self mutilation)
should patients be confronted. It is helpful if both a psychiatrist
and the referring doctor (who should have met to discuss the
aims, content, and possible outcomes of the meeting
beforehand) can carry out the confrontation jointly. This
supportive confrontation is done by gently but firmly telling
the patient that you are aware of the role of their behaviour in
the illness whilst at the same time offering psychological care to
help with this. After confrontation, patients usually stop the
behaviour or leave the clinic. Only sometimes do they engage in
the psychiatric care offered.
Malingering
A distinction should be made between factitious disorders and
malingering. Malingerers deliberately feign symptoms to
achieve a goal (such as to avoid imprisonment or gain money).
Malingering is behaviour and not a diagnosis. The extent to
which a doctor feels it necessary to confront this issue will
depend on the individual circumstances.
Failing to recognise and institute appropriate management for

patients with multiple functional somatic symptoms may lead to
iatrogenic harm from excessive and inappropriate medical and
surgical intervention
Mnchausens syndrome
x Mnchausens syndrome is an uncommon
subtype of factitious illness in which the patient,
who is often a man with sociopathic traits and an
itinerant lifestyle, has a long career of attending
multiple hospitals with factitious symptoms and
signs
x Management is as for factitious disorder, but
engagement with psychiatric treatment is rare

x Prevalence of chronic multiple functional somatic symptoms
depends on how many functional symptoms are requiredthe
fewer symptoms the higher the prevalence
x Patients with chronic multiple functional somatic symptoms
(somatisation disorder) can be effectively managed in primary care,
with resulting cost savings
Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, deGruy FV, Hahn SR, Linzer M, Williams JB, et al.
Multisomatoform disorder. An alternative to undifferentiated somatoform
disorder for the somatizing patient in primary care. Arch Gen Psychiatry
1997;54:352-8
Smith GR, Monson RA, Ray DC. Psychiatric consultation in somatization
disordera randomized controlled study. N Engl J Med 1986;314:1407-13
Suggested reading
Conclusion
Patients with multiple longstanding functional symptoms are
relatively uncommon, but their interaction with the health
system is memorable in that it often leaves both them and their
doctors frustrated. Their effective management requires that
special attention be paid to their interpersonal difficulties
(including those arising in their relationship with the doctor),
the limiting of unhelpful demands, and the avoidance of
iatrogenic harm. As with any chronic illness, confident
management and getting to know a patient as a person can
change what is often a frustrating task into a rewarding one.
24
x Bass C. Management of somatisation disorder. Prescribers J

1996;36:198-205
x Dixon DM, Sweeney KG, Pereira Gray DJ. The physician healer
ancient magic or modern science? Br J Gen Pract 1999;49:309-12
x Fink P, Rosendal M, Toft T. Assessment and treatment of functional
disorders in general practice: the extended reattribution and
management modelan advanced educational program for
nonpsychiatric doctors. Psychosom 2002;43:93-131
x Smith GR. Management of patients with multiple symptoms. In:
Mayou R, Bass C, Sharpe M, eds. Treatment of functional somatic
symptoms. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995:175-87
x Tate P. The doctors communication handbook. Oxford: Radcliffe
Medical Press, 1994
Cancer
Craig A White, Una Macleod
Cancer is the most feared of diseases. Unsurprisingly, it causes

considerable psychological distress in patients, families, carers,
and often those health professionals who care for them. Only a
minority of cancer patients develop psychiatric illness, but other
psychologically and socially determined problems are common.
These include unpleasant symptoms such as pain, nausea, and
fatigue; problems with finances, employment, housing, and
childcare; family worries; and existential and spiritual doubts.
Well planned care that fully involves patients and their families
can minimise these problems.
Psychological consequences
Though often dismissed as understandable, distress is a
treatable cause of reduced quality of life and poorer clinical
outcome. Some patients delay seeking help because they fear or
deny their symptoms of distress. Presentation can be obvious, as
depressed or anxious mood can manifest as increased severity
of somatic complaints such as breathlessness, pain, or fatigue.
Adjustment disorder is the commonest psychiatric diagnosis,
and neuropsychiatric complications may occur. The risk of
suicide is increased in the early stages of coping with cancer.
Depression
Depression is a response to perceived loss. A diagnosis of
cancer and awareness of associated losses may precipitate
feelings similar to bereavement. The loss may be of parts of the
body (such as a breast or hair), the role in family or society, or
impending loss of life. Severe and persistent depressive disorder
is up to four times more common in cancer patients than in the
general population, occurring in 10-20% during the disease.
Anxiety, fear, and panic
Anxiety is the response to a perceived threat. It manifests as
apprehension, uncontrollable worry, restlessness, panic attacks,
and avoidance of people and of reminders of cancer, together
with signs of autonomic arousal. Patients may overestimate the
risks associated with treatment and the likelihood of a poor
outcome. Anxiety may also exacerbate or heighten perceptions
of physical symptoms (such as breathlessness in lung cancer),
and post-traumatic stress symptoms (with intrusive thoughts
and avoidance of reminders of cancer) occasionally follow
diagnosis or treatment that has been particularly frightening.
Certain cancers and treatments are associated with specific
fears. Thus, patients with head and neck cancers may worry
about being able to breathe and swallow. Patients may develop
phobias and conditioned vomiting in relation to unpleasant
treatments such as chemotherapy.
Neuropsychiatric syndromes
Delirium and dementia may arise from brain metastases, which
usually originate from lung cancer but also from tumours of the
breast and alimentary tract and melanomas. Brain metastases
occasionally produce psychological symptoms before metastatic
disease is discovered. Certain cancers (notably cancers of the
lung, ovary, breast, or stomach and Hodgkins lymphoma)
sometimes produce neuropsychiatric problems in the absence
of metastases (paraneoplastic syndromes). The aetiology is
thought to be an autoimmune response to the tumour.
Squamous cell cascinoma on lip after radiotherapy. As well as the fear of

cancer itself, an additional source of distress can be the potentially
disfiguring nature of the disease and its treatment
Distress is an unpleasant emotional experience of a

psychological, social, or spiritual nature that may interfere
with a patients ability to cope with cancer and its
treatment. Distress extends along a continuum, ranging
from common normal feelings of vulnerability, sadness,
and fear to problems that can become disabling, such as
depression, anxiety, panic, social isolation, and spiritual
crisis
US National Comprehensive Cancer Network
Challenges faced by people with cancer

x Maintaining activity and independence
x Coping with treatment side effects
x Accepting cancer and maintaining a positive
outlook
x Seeking and understanding medical information
x Regulating the feelings associated with cancer
experiences
x Seeking support
x Managing stress
25
Who becomes distressed?
Risk factors for psychiatric disorder
The severity of emotional distress is more closely related to a

patients pre-existing vulnerability than to the characteristics of
the cancer. Distress is also more likely to occur at specific points
in a patients experience of cancer:
DiagnosisInvestigation and diagnosis are particularly
stressful and can cause shock, anger, and disbelief as well as
emotional distress. These resolve without intervention in most
patients, but especially high levels of distress at this time are
predictive of later emotional problems. It can help if doctors
explain that patients feelings are expected and normal (I
would expect you to have times when you feel tearful and
cannot get it out of your head).
During treatmentTreatment itself can be a potent cause of
distress. It may involve hospital attendance but also unpleasant
surgery, radiotherapy, or chemotherapy. Side effects include hair
loss and disfigurement. Patients worry about whether treatment
is working and are likely to become distressed at times of
apparent treatment failure.
End of treatmentAt the end of apparently successful
treatment some patients can experience rebound distress
associated with the fear that the cancer might recur or spread.
The ending of a prolonged relationship with the cancer service
staff can lead to a sense of loss and vulnerability. It is only at this
time that some patients become fully aware of the impact of
their cancer experience.
After treatmentLike those with other life threatening
illnesses, patients who survive cancer may reorder their life
priorities and experience psychological benefits including a
greater appreciation of some aspects of their life. Others need
help to overcome continuing worries, including preoccupation
with loss and illness, a tendency to avoid reminders of cancer,
and difficulties coping with intimacy, return to work, and fears
of recurrence. Fear of recurrence can manifest as a form of
health anxiety with misinterpretation of physiological
sensations (such as believing that pain associated with a muscle
strain represents a recurrence of cancer) and the anxious
seeking of reassurance.
RecurrencePatients who believe they have been cured (that
is, those most likely to be surprised by recurrence) are at greater
risk of severe distress if recurrence occurs. Most patients report
recurrence of cancer as more distressing than receiving the
initial diagnosis.
Terminal diseaseAbout 40% of people who develop cancer
will die as a result. The terminal phase commonly brings fear of
uncontrolled pain, of the process of dying, of what happens
after death, and of the fate of loved ones. Depression is
common in the terminal phase, especially in those with poorly
controlled physical symptoms.
Management
People with cancer benefit from care in which psychological
and medical care are coordinated. Apart from the obvious
Patient
x History of psychiatric disorder
x Social isolation
x Dissatisfaction with medical care
x Poor coping (such as not seeking information or
talking to friends)
Cancer
x Limitation of activities
x Disfiguring
x Poor prognosis
Treatment
x Disfiguring
x Isolating (such as bone marrow transplant)
x Side effects
Issues to be considered in planning care

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Patients and familys understanding of the illness and its treatment

Patients and familys understanding of help available
Explanation of how symptomatic relief will be provided
How the patient can be fully involved in care
Who will be managing the treatment plan
Routine and emergency contact arrangements
Practical help in everyday activities
Support at homerole of hospital and residential care
Involving and supporting family and friends
Depression is common in the terminal phase of cancer,

especially in patients with poorly controlled physical
symptoms (Resignation by Carl Wilhelm Wilhelmson
(1866-1928))
Psychological care for cancer patients

In primary care
x Need for agreed local protocols
x Multidisciplinary skills and resources
x Individually agreed collaborative care for each
patient
x Regular liaison with specialist units and local
agencies
x Local training for all involved
26
In specialist units
x Training in psychological aspects of care for all staff
x Regular review of all individual treatment plans
x Protocols for routine management of at risk patients (such as relapse after chemotherapy)
x Involvement of specialist nurses and other staff with psychological expertise
x Access to psychiatrists and clinical psychologists with special interest in managing cancer
problems for consultation and supervision
x Use of self help methods and voluntary agencies
Cancer
benefits to quality of life, there is some evidence that
encouraging an active approach to living with cancer can
improve survival.
Most of the psychological care of cancer patients will be
delivered in primary care. As for all chronic illness, a
multidisciplinary approach and management protocols that
include psychological as well as medical assessment and
intervention are required. These protocols need not be specific
for cancer as the issues are common to many medical
conditions. The important point is that the staff involved have
the skills to address psychological as well as medical problems.
The danger is that psychological care can be neglected by the
medical focus on cancer treatment. A case manager, whether
nurse or doctor, who can coordinate the often diverse agencies
involved in a cancer patients care can ensure that treatment is
delivered efficiently.
Assessment
Depressive and anxiety disorders are often unrecognised. There
is therefore a need for active screening by simply asking
patients about symptoms of anxiety and depression. A self rated
questionnaire such as the hospital anxiety and depression scale
(HADS) may be helpful. Doctors should be aware that patients
may be distressed because of factors unrelated to cancer.
Treatment
InformationDoctors often underestimate the amount and
frankness of information that most patients need and want. It is
best given in a staged fashion with checks on patients
understanding and desire to hear more at each stage.
Repetition and written information may be helpful. Summaries
of agreed management plans have been found to improve
patients satisfaction and their adherence to medical treatment.
Social supportMost patients will receive this from family
and friends. They may, however, not want to burden others
and consequently may need encouragement to use this support
by talking about their illness. Additional support can be
provided by specific cancer related services such as the primary
care team and specialist nurses.
Addressing worriesStaff often find it most difficult to help
patients who talk about worries that reflect the reality of cancer
(such as, I am going to die). It is important to do so because
this may help planning and may reveal misconceptions, such as
the inevitability of uncontrolled pain, that can then be
addressed by giving accurate information about methods of
pain control.
Managing anxietyAccurate information (such as which
physical symptoms are due to anxiety and which are due to
cancer) and practical help are important. Anxious patients can
be helped by relaxation strategies, including breathing exercises.
Severe persistent anxiety may merit the short term prescription
of anxiolytic drugs such as diazepam.
Managing depressionDepressive disorders should be
managed in the same ways as they are in patients without
cancer. Discussion, empathy, reassurance, and practical help are
essential. Antidepressants have been shown to be effective in
patients with cancer in randomised trials, although surprisingly
few trials have been conducted. If in doubt about what drug to
choose or about possible interactions with cancer treatment, it is
important to check with a pharmacist. Specialist psychological
intervention, such as formal cognitive-behavioural therapy, may
also be required to treat persistent depression or anxiety.
Specialist referral
Structured psychological interventions (such as
psycho-education and cognitive-behavioural based therapies)
Questions for assessing patients anxiety and depression

x How are you feeling in yourself? Have you felt low or worried?
x Have you ever been troubled by feeling anxious, nervous, or
depressed?
x What are your main concerns or worries at the moment?
x What have you been doing to cope with these? Has this been
helpful?
x What effects do you feel cancer and its treatment will have on your
life?
x Is there anything that would help you cope with this?
x Who do you feel you have helping you at the moment?
x Is there anyone else outside of the family?
x Have you any questions? Is there anything else you would like to
know?
Principles of treatment
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Sympathetic interest and concern

A clearly identified principal therapist who can coordinate all care
Effective symptomatic relief
Elicit and understand patients beliefs and needs
Collaborative planning of continuing care
Information and adviceoral and written
Involve patient in treatment decisions
Involve family and friends
Early recognition and treatment of psychological complications
Clear arrangements to deal with urgent problems
Useful sources of information

x National Comprehensive Cancer Network. Distress management
guidelines (www.nccn.org/physician_gls/index.html)
x National Cancer Institute. Cancer.gov (www.cancer.gov/
cancer_information/)
x Cancer BACUP (www.cancerbacup.org.uk)
x Cancer Help UK (www.cancerhelp.org.uk/)
x Macmillan Cancer Relief (www.macmillan.org.uk/)
x Cancer Research UK (www.cancer.org.uk)
x International Psycho-Oncology Society (www.ipos-aspboa.org/
iposnews.htm)
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Antidepressant drugs
Effective drug treatment of pain, nausea, and other symptoms
Problem solving discussion
Cognitive-behavioural treatment of psychological complications
Joint and family interviews to encourage discussion and planning
Group support and treatment
Cognitive-behavioural methods to help cope with chemotherapy
and other unpleasant treatments
Referral decisions
x What specialist expertise in psycho-oncology is available at my local
cancer centre or unit?
x What has helped when this patient has had problems before?
x Are there local cancer support groups that could help?
x Does this patient have problems that might benefit from specialist
psychological or psychiatric intervention?
x Does this patient want to be referred to specialist services?
x Does this patient prefer individual or group based psychological
intervention?
27

have been shown to reduce anxiety and depression in cancer
patients and to improve adherence to medical treatment.
Patients with severe or persistent distress may need referral
to an experienced clinical psychologist or psychiatrist. An
increasing number of mental health professionals are attached
to cancer centres and units, and other staff such as
appropriately trained specialist nurses play an increasingly
important role.
Increasing numbers of non-NHS agencies also offer
psychological care for patients with cancer. When referring
patients to such services it is important to check their quality
and to ensure that their contribution is coordinated within an
overall care plan.
The picture of skin cancer is reproduced with permission of Dr P Marazzi
and Science Photo Library. Resignation is held at the Nationalmuseum,
Stockholm, and is reproduced with permission of Bridgeman Art Library.

x Antidepressants are effective in treating depressed mood in cancer
patients
x Cognitive-behavioural treatments are effective in relieving distress,
especially anxiety, and in reducing disability
x Psychological interventions can be effective in relieving specific
cancer related symptoms such as breathlessness
McDaniel JS, Musselman DL, Porter MR, Reed DA, Nemeroff CB. Depression in
patients with cancer. Diagnosis, biology, and treatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry
1995;52:89-99
Sheard T, Maguire P. The effect of psychological interventions on anxiety and
depression in cancer patients: results of two meta-analyses. Br J Cancer
1999;80:1770-80
Bredin M, Corner J, Krishnasamy M, Plant H, Bailey C, AHern R. Multicentre
randomised controlled trial of nursing intervention for breathlessness in
patients with lung cancer. BMJ 1999;318:901-4
Further reading
x Barraclough J. Cancer and emotion : a practical guide to psycho-oncology.
3rd ed. Chichester: John Wiley, 1998
x Burton M, Watson M. Counselling patients with cancer. Chichester:
John Wiley, 1998
x Faulkener A, Maguire P. Talking to cancer patients and their relatives.
Oxford: Oxford Medical Publications, 1994
x Holland JC. Psycho-oncology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998
x Lewis S, Holland JC. The human side of cancer: living with hope, coping
with uncertainty. London: Harper Collins, 2000
x Scott JT, Entwistle V, Sowden AJ, Watt I. Recordings or summaries
of consultations for people with cancer. Cochrane Database of
Systematic Reviews. 2001
28
Trauma
Minor physical trauma is a part of everyday life, and for most

people these injuries are of only transient importance, but some
have psychiatric and social complications. Most people
experience major trauma at some time in their lives.
Psychological, behavioural, and social factors are all relevant
to the subjective intensity of physical symptoms and their
consequences for work, leisure, and family life. As a result,
disability may become greater than might be expected from the
severity of the physical injuries.
Psychological and interpersonal factors also contribute to
the cause of trauma, and clinicians should be alert to these and
their implications for treatment. Tactful questioning, careful
examination, and detailed record keeping are essential,
especially for non-accidental injury by a patient or others:
x Ask for a detailed description of the cause of the incident
x Ask about previous trauma
x Ask about substance misusealcohol and drugs
x Look for patterns of injuries that may be non-accidental,
deliberate self harm, or inflicted by others
x Check records
x If suspicious speak to other informants
x Discuss findings and suspicions with a colleague.
Dealing with the acute event

At a major incident it is important that members of the
emergency services, especially ambulance staff and police,
should seem calm and in control. This helps to relieve distress
and prevent victims from suffering further injury. Explanation
and encouragement can reduce fear at the prospect of being
taken to hospital by ambulance. The needs of uninjured
relatives and others involved should also be considered. Clearly
recorded details of the incident, injury, and the extent of any
loss of consciousness may be useful in later assessment as well
as in the preparation of subsequent medicolegal reports.
Many people attend hospital emergency departments for
minor cuts, bruises, or pain, or for a check up after being
involved in an incident, whereas others attend their general
practitioner. Immediate distress is common. Clear explanation,
advice, and discussion at the outset can prevent later problems
in returning to normal activities and enable early recognition of
psychological and social consequences. A sympathetic approach
is needed that includes suitable analgesia, reassurance about the
likely resolution of symptoms, and encouragement to return to
normal activity. Some patients may already be considering
compensation, and records should be kept with this in mind.
Advice about return to work and other activities
Patients with painful injuries that should improve within days or
weeks are often uncertain how to behave and how soon to
return to work. The assessment is an opportunity to give advice
about this. Patients need information on the cause of their
symptoms, their likely impact on daily life, and a positive plan
for return to normal activity; this includes discussing the type of
work normally done, the employers attitude to time away from
work, and opportunities for a graded increase in activity. Good,
rapid communication between hospital and primary care is
essential.
Detail of Very
Slippy Weather by
James Gillray
(1757-1815)
Lifetime prevalence of specific traumatic events (n=2181)

Type of trauma
Assault
Serious car or motor vehicle crash
Other serious accident or injury
Fire, flood, earthquake, or other natural disaster
Other shocking experience
Diagnosed with a life threatening illness
Learning about traumas to others
Sudden, unexpected death of close friend or relative
Any trauma
Prevalence
38%
28%
14%
17%
43%
5%
62%
60%
90%
Immediate effects of frightening trauma

x Causes a varied picture of anxiety, numbness, dissociation (feeling
distanced from events, having fragmentary memories), and
sometimes apparently inappropriate calmness
x Those who believe they are the innocent victims of others
misbehaviour are often angry, and this may be exacerbated by
subsequent frustrations
x The term acute stress disorder is now used for a combination of
distress, intrusive memories (flashbacks, nightmares), avoidance, and
numbing in the months after the trauma. It occurs in 20-50% of
those who have suffered major trauma
x The severity of emotional symptoms is much more closely related
to how frightening the trauma was than to the severity of the injury;
even uninjured victims may suffer considerable distress
x Severe distress is usually temporary but indicates a risk of long term
post-traumatic symptoms
Immediate management
x Physical treatment, including adequate analgesia
x Sympathetic discussion of acute distress
x Explanation and appropriate reassurance about treatment and
prognosis
x Appropriate encouragement for graded return to work and other
activities
x Indicate what help will be available for continuing psychological
symptoms and social problems
x Information and support to relatives
29
Intervention, high scorers

No intervention, high scorers
Impact of event scale
Immediate psychological interventions

Many employers and medical and voluntary groups
recommend routine debriefing after frightening trauma.
However, the evidence shows this is not only ineffective but may
be harmful.
It is better, therefore, to concentrate on the immediate relief
of distress through support and sympathetic reassurance and
on practical help, while encouraging further early consultation
if problems persist. This is especially so in groups who may be
regularly exposed to frightening and distressing circumstances,
such as members of the armed forces, police, and ambulance
staff. Severe immediate distress and perception of the trauma as
having been very frightening indicate an increased risk of
chronic post-traumatic symptoms, and early review is
recommended to identify those who need extra help. Victims of
crime can be helped by referral to the charity Victim Support.
Intervention, low scorers

No intervention, low scorers
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
Baseline
4 months
3 years
Assessment
Effect of immediate debriefing on victims of road traffic injury. Those with high
initial scores on the impact of events scale (intrusive thoughts and avoidance)
had worse outcome than untreated controls at 4 months and 3 years
Later consequences and care

Treatment should include clear, agreed plans for mobilisation
and return to optimal activity. Physiotherapists are often
involved in rehabilitation and need to be aware of the
psychological as well as the physical factors that are
perpetuating disability. If necessary, a multidisciplinary
approach should be established.
Homicide and road deaths (0.1%)

Rape and other sexual crimes (1.6%)
Other violence (20%)
Burglary (40%)
Theft (22%)
Criminal damage and arson (11%)
Other crime (5%)
Chronic pain and disability

A small number of those who have suffered trauma continue to
complain of physical symptoms and disabilities that are difficult
to explain. Investigations are negative or ambiguous, and the
relationship between doctors and patients may become fraught.
Doctors may feel their patient is disabled for psychological
reasons, whereas patients may feel that doctors do not believe
that their symptoms are real and that they are unsympathetic
and are not offering appropriate treatment.
Arguments about whether symptoms are physical or
psychological are rarely helpful. Instead, it is essential to agree a
coordinated behavioural and rehabilitative approach with
patient and family that aims to achieve the maximum
improvement. Unfortunately, there is a shortage of appropriate
multidisciplinary specialist services for such people. This leaves
primary care teams in the key role in monitoring progress and
implementing a biopsychosocial approach to rehabilitation.
Psychological symptoms and syndromes
Depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and phobic anxiety
are common after frightening trauma and can be severe,
whether or not there is evidence of previous psychological and
social vulnerability. These psychological complications are not
closely related to the severity of any physical injury. The general
principles of assessment are those for similar psychological
problems occurring in the absence of trauma.
DepressionA failure to recognise depression is distressingly
common, perhaps because care focuses on physical injuries.
Inquiries about depressive symptoms should therefore be
routine.
Post-traumatic stress disorder is also common and disabling. It
is characterised by intrusive memories of the trauma, avoidance
of reminders of it, and chronic arousal and distress. It may be
complicated by alcohol misuse. It usually has an early onset in
the first few weeks (acute stress disorder). Many people improve
rapidly but, if symptoms are still present two or three months
after the injury, they are likely to persist for much longer. A few
cases have a delayed onset. Psychological treatment is effective.
Phobic anxiety may be associated with post-traumatic stress
disorder but can occur separately. A particularly common form
30
Other referrals (0.7%)
Reasons for people being offered help by Victim Support 1997-8
Unexplained and disproportionate disability and pain

x Lack of explanation or overcautious advice often leads to
misunderstandings and secondary disability
x Delays in assessment and treatment exacerbate problems and make
treatment more difficult
x Lack of coordination (between general practice, physiotherapy,
hospital, etc) frequently exacerbates problems
x Low mood, misunderstandings, and inactivity worsen pain and
disability
x Agree on consistent, collaborative plans with patient and family
x Early access to specialist rehabilitation and pain clinics providing
high quality cognitive and behavioural psychological treatments
Psychologically determined consequences of trauma

x Acute anxiety, numbing, arousal
(acute stress disorder)
x Anxiety disorder
x Major depressive disorder
x Post-traumatic symptoms and
disorder
x Avoidance and phobic anxiety
x Pain and apparently

disproportionate disability
x Unexplained physical
symptoms
x Impact on family (such as
family arguments, depression
in family members)
Cognitive behavioural approach to treating post-traumatic

stress disorder
x Talking it throughEncourage victim to discuss and relive feelings
about the incident
x Tackling avoidanceDiscuss graded increase in activities, such as
return to travel after a road crash
x Coping with anxietyAnxiety management techniques (relaxation,
distraction)
x Dealing with angerEncourage discussion of incident and of feelings
x Overcoming sleep problemsEmphasise importance of regular sleep
habits and avoidance of excessive alcohol and caffeine
x Treat associated depressionAntidepressant drugs, limited role for
hypnotics immediately after trauma
Trauma
is anxiety about travel, both as a driver and as a passenger, after
a road traffic crash. This anxiety may lead to distress and
limitation of activities and lifestyle. Early advice about the use of
anxiety management techniques and the need for a graded
return to normal travel is helpful, but more specialist
behavioural treatment may be required and is usually effective.
Detection of psychological problems
During a clinical assessment, a few brief screening questions can
be useful as a guide to identify depression, anxiety,
post-traumatic stress disorder and drinking problems. It is often
helpful to speak to someone close to the victim who can offer
an independent view.
Personal injury and compensation
Victims who believe that others are to blame for their trauma
increasingly consult specialist lawyers, who are alert to
psychiatric complications such as post-traumatic stress disorder
and phobic avoidance. Acrimonious discussion about a small
number of controversial cases of alleged exaggeration and
simulation has obscured a more productive discussion of
psychiatric disorder.
Head injury
Most head injuries are mild. These were once believed to be
without consequences, but recent evidence has suggested that
almost half of patients experiencing mild head injuries
(Glasgow coma scale 13-15) remain appreciably disabled a year
later. The effects of more severe head injuries on personality
and cognitive performance may be greater than is apparent in a
clinical interview and commonly affect executive functions
such as social judgment and decision making.
Such deficits are often not detected by standard bedside
screening tools such as the mini-mental state examination.
Patients with head injury should therefore not be pushed to
return to demanding activities too quickly, and there should be
a low threshold for seeking a specialist opinion or undertaking
psychometric assessment.
Consequences for others

Family members may also suffer distress, especially if they
have been involved in the traumatic incident. Seeing the
relatives of the traumatised person is usually helpful in the
management of persistent problems.
Those involved in treating trauma will encounter particularly
distressing incidents with severely injured victims and distraught
relatives. These often occur when those involved in treatment
are working under considerable pressure. Clear procedures for
training and support of staff are essential. For those working in
large emergency services the provision of regular specialist
support is advisable.
Types of trauma
The pattern of consequences varies with the type of trauma
experienced. All services that see trauma emergencies need
management plans for psychological as well as medical care.
This includes planning for major events in which there are
many victims and for the much commoner road traffic and
other incidents in which there are often several victims, some of
whom may be severely injured and who may well be related or
know one another. Emergency departments and primary care
need procedures for helping the patients and for supporting
the staff that are involved.
Treating avoidance and phobic anxiety

x Diary keepingEncourage detailed diary of activity and associated
problems as a basis for planning and monitoring progress
x Anxiety (stress) managementRelaxation, distraction, and cognitive
procedure for use in stressful situations
x Graded practiceDiscuss a hierarchy of increasing activities;
emphasise importance of not being overambitious and need to be
consistent in following step by step plan
Compensation
x Simulation of disability and exaggeration are uncommon in routine
clinical contacts
x Many victims want recognition of their suffering as much as
financial compensation
x Innocent victims of trauma are generally slower to return to work
than those victims who accept that they were to blame
x Financial and social consequences of trauma and blighting of
ambitions may be considerable and are often unrecognised
x Compensation procedures and reports may hinder development
and agreement about treatment and active rehabilitation
x Compensation may allow interim payments and funding of
specialist care to treat complications and prevent chronic disability
Head injury
x Assessment should involve questions about possible
unconsciousness and post-traumatic amnesia
x Cognitive consequences of minor head injury are often not
recognised
x Minor impairments may be obscured in clinical situations but be
disabling in work and everyday activities
x Recovery may be prolonged
x Complaints of confusion and poor memory can be due to
depression
x Specialist assessment may be needed
Relatives needs
Immediately after severe or frightening trauma
x Make comfortable
x Inform relatives of trauma in a sympathetic manner
x Practical assistance
x Clear information
Later
x Information about injuries, treatment, and prognosis
x Discuss effects on everyday life
x Discuss needs for practical help and availability
x Ask about possible psychiatric problems and indicate help available
Types of trauma
x OccupationalReturn to work often slower than in other types of
injury. Liaison with employer essential. Compensation issues may
impede return to work
x SportingMay be associated with physical unfitness or with
inappropriate activity for age
x DomesticAssess role of alcohol, consider possible family and other
problems, assess risk of further incidents
x Assault (including sexual)Assess role of alcohol, keep detailed
records, suggest availability of help for major, and especially for
sexual, assault
x Road traffic crashPsychological complications may occur even if no
significant physical injury. Whiplash injuries should be treated by
well planned mobilisation and encouragement, together with
alertness to possible psychological complications
31

Disasters
All medical services and other institutions should have a
disaster plan that is readily available and regularly reviewed. It
should include a specification for immediate psychological care
and information, together with proactive follow up so that
psychological problems are identified early. Those involved in
coping with disasters also require support and encouragement,
and a minority may require specialist psychological help. The
disaster plan should also set out procedures for giving
information to relatives and offering them practical help.
Conclusion
The psychological aspects of trauma may be important, even
when injury seems trivial. Clear, sympathetic care, which takes
account of patients needs, can do much to promote optimal
recovery. Specialist advice should be sought for persistent
problems within the first few months of an injury. Long delays
in providing adequate assessment and treatment lead to
unnecessary suffering and disability and may make such
problems much more difficult to treat.
The print Very Slippy Weather is reproduced with permission of Leeds
Museum and Art Galleries and Bridgeman Art Library. The table of
lifetime prevalence of traumatic events is adapted from Breslau et al. Arch
Gen Psychiatry 1998;55:626-32. The graph of effect of immediate
debriefing on the psychiatric wellbeing of victims of road traffic injury is
adapted from Mayou et al Br J Psychiatry 2000;176:590-4. The figure
showing reasons for people being offered help by Victim Support is
adapted from Information in the Criminal Justice System in England and Wales.
Digest 4, London: Home Office, 1999.
32

x Cognitive behaviour therapy is effective in treating post-traumatic
stress disorder
x Early critical incident debriefing after trauma is potentially harmful
Sherman JJ. Effects of psychotherapeutic treatments for PTSD: a meta-analysis
of controlled clinical trials. J Trauma Stress 1998;11:413-36
Wessely S, Rose S, Bisson J. Brief psychological interventions (debriefing) for
trauma-related symptoms and the prevention of post traumatic stress disorder
Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2999;(2):CD00050
Suggested reading
x Mayou RA, Bryant B. Outcome in consecutive emergency
department attenders following a road traffic accident. Br J
Psychiatry 2001;179:528-34
x McDonald AS, Davey GCL. Psychiatric disorders and accidental
injury. Clin Psychol Rev 1996;16:105
x NIH Consensus Development Panel on Rehabilitation of Persons
with Traumatic Brain Injury. Rehabilitation of persons with
traumatic brain injury. JAMA 1999;282:974-83
10
Fatigue
Michael Sharpe, David Wilks
Weary 1887 by Edward Radford (1831-1920)
No of patients
Fatigue can refer to a subjective symptom of malaise and

aversion to activity or to objectively impaired performance. It
has both physical and mental aspects. The symptom of fatigue
is a poorly defined feeling, and careful inquiry is needed to
clarify complaints of fatigue, tiredness, or exhaustion and
to distinguish lack of energy from loss of motivation or
sleepiness, which may be pointers to specific diagnoses (see
below).
PrevalenceLike blood pressure, subjective fatigue is
normally distributed in the population. The prevalence of
continuously significant fatigue depends on the threshold
chosen for severity (usually defined in terms of associated
disability) and persistence. Surveys report that 5-20% of the
general population suffer from such persistent and troublesome
fatigue. Fatigue is twice as common in women as in men but is
not strongly associated with age or occupation. It is one of the
commonest presenting symptoms in primary care, being the
main complaint of 5-10% of patients and an important
subsidiary symptom in a further 5-10%.
Fatigue as a symptomPatients generally regard fatigue as
important (because it is disabling), whereas doctors do not
(because it is diagnostically non-specific). This discrepancy is a
potent source of potential difficulty in the doctor-patient
relationship. Fatigue may present in association with
established medical and psychiatric conditions or be idiopathic.
Irrespective of cause, it has a major impact on day to day
functioning and quality of life. Without treatment, the
prognosis of patients with idiopathic fatigue is surprisingly
poor; half those seen in general practice with fatigue are still
fatigued six months later.
6000
5127
5000
4000
3000
2287
Causes of fatigue
2000
The physiological and psychological mechanisms underlying

subjective fatigue are poorly understood. Fatigue may rather be
usefully regarded as a final common pathway for a variety of
causal factors. These can be split into predisposing,
precipitating, and perpetuating factors.
Predisposing factors include being female and a history of
either fatigue or depression.
Precipitating factors include acute physical stresses such as
infection with Epstein-Barr virus, psychological stresses such as
bereavement, and social stresses such as work problems.
Perpetuating factors include physical inactivity, emotional
disorders, ongoing psychological or social stresses, and
abnormalities of sleep. These factors should be sought as part
of the clinical assessment.
Other physiological factors such as immunological
abnormalities and slightly low cortisol concentration are of
research interest but not clinical value.
1000
Diagnoses associated with fatigue

Among patients who present with severe chronic fatigue as
their main complaint, only a small proportion will be suffering
from a recognised medical disease. In no more than 10% of
patients presenting with fatigue in primary care is a disease
cause found. The rate is even lower in patients seen in
secondary care.
Fatigue is a major symptom of many psychiatric disorders,
but for a substantial proportion of patients with fatigue the
1968
1288
625
146
0-4
1387
893
541
276
-6
-8
325
163 114
84
-10 -12 -14 -16 -18 -20 -22 -24 -26 -28 >28
Fatigue score
Distribution of the complaint of fatigue in the population
Medical conditions that may present with

apparently unexplained fatigue
x GeneralAnaemia, chronic infection,
autoimmune disease, cancer
x Endocrine diseaseDiabetes, hypothyroidism,
hypoadrenalism
x Sleep disordersObstructive sleep apnoea and
other sleep disorders
x NeuromuscularMyositis, multiple sclerosis
x GastrointestinalLiver disease
x CardiovascularChronic heart disease
x RespiratoryChronic lung disease
33

symptom remains unexplained or idiopathic. In general, the
more severe the fatigue and the larger the number of associated
somatic (and unexplained) complaints, then the greater the
disability and the greater the likelihood of a diagnosis of
depression.
Chronic fatigue syndromes
Chronic fatigue syndrome is a useful descriptive term for
prominent physical and mental fatigue with muscular pain and
other symptoms. It overlaps with another descriptive term,
fibromyalgia, that has often been used when muscle pain is
predominant but in which fatigue is almost universal. There is
also substantial overlap of the diagnoses with other symptom
based syndromes, the so called functional somatic syndromes.
The term myalgic encephalomyelitis (or encephalopathy)
has been used in Britain and elsewhere to describe a poorly
understood illness in which a prominent symptom is chronic
fatigue exacerbated by activity. This is a controversial diagnosis
that some regard as simply another name for chronic fatigue
syndrome and that others regard as a distinct condition. This
article will focus on chronic fatigue syndrome.
Prevalence and outcomeChronic fatigue syndrome can be
diagnosed in up to 2% of primary care patients. Untreated, the
prognosis is poor, with only about 10% of patients recovering in
a two to four years. A preoccupation with medical causes seems
to be a negative prognostic factor.
Assessment and formulation

HistoryThe nature of the fatigue is an important clue to
diagnosis, and it is therefore important to clarify patients
complaints. Fatigue described as loss of interest and enjoyment
(anhedonia) points to depression. Prominent sleepiness
suggests a sleep disorder. The history should also cover
x Systematic inquiry for diseases and medications often
associated with fatigue
x Symptoms of depression anxiety and sleep disorder
x Patients own understanding of their illness and how they
cope with it
x Current social stresses.
ExaminationBoth a physical and mental state examination
must be performed in every case, to seek medical and
psychiatric diagnoses associated with fatigue.
Routine investigationsIf there are no specific indications for
special investigations, a standard set of screening tests is
adequate.
Special investigationsImmunological and virological tests
are generally unhelpful as routine investigations. Sleep studies
can be useful in excluding other diagnoses, especially
obstructive sleep apnoea and narcolepsy.
Psychological assessmentIt is important to inquire fully about
patients understanding of their illness (questions may include
What do you think is wrong with you? and What do you
think the cause is?). Patients may be worried that the fatigue is
a symptom of a severe, as yet undiagnosed, disease or that
activity will cause a long term worsening of their condition.
FormulationA formulation that distinguishes predisposing,
precipitating, and multiple perpetuating factors is valuable in
providing an explanation to patients and for targeting
intervention.
General management
Persistent fatigue requires active management, preferably before
it has become chronic. When a specific disease cause of fatigue
34
Psychiatric diagnoses commonly associated

with fatigue
x
x
x
x
x
Depression
Anxiety and panic
Eating disorders
Substance misuse disorders
Somatisation disorder
Diagnostic criteria for chronic fatigue syndrome

Inclusion criteria
x Clinically evaluated, medically unexplained fatigue of at least 6
months duration that is
Of new onset (not life long)
Not result of ongoing exertion
Not substantially alleviated by rest
Associated with a substantial reduction in previous level of activities
x Occurrence of 4 or more of the following symptoms
Subjective memory impairment, sore throat, tender lymph nodes,
muscle pain, joint pain, headache, unrefreshing sleep,
post-exertional malaise lasting more than 24 hours
Exclusion criteria
x Active, unresolved, or suspected medical disease or psychotic,
melancholic, or bipolar depression (but not uncomplicated major
depression), psychotic disorders, dementia, anorexia or bulimia
nervosa, alcohol or other substance misuse, severe obesity
Screening tests for fatigue

x Full blood count
x Erythrocyte sedimentation rate or C reactive
protein
x Liver function tests
x Urea, electrolytes, and calcium
x Thyroid stimulating hormone and thyroid
function tests
x Creatine kinase
x Urine and blood tests for glucose
x Urine test for protein
Factors to consider in a formulation of chronic fatigue

Predisposing
cause
Biological
vulnerability
Precipitating
cause
Acute disease
Psychological
Vulnerable
personality
Stress
Social
Lack of support
Life events
Social or work
stress
Biological
Perpetuating
cause
Pathophysiology
Excessive inactivity
Sleep disorder
Side effects of drug
treatment
Untreated disease
Depression
Unhelpful beliefs
about cause
Fearful avoidance of
activity
Reinforcement of
unhelpful beliefs
Social or work stress
Fatigue
Management of chronic fatigue

1 Assessment
Empathise
History
Examination
Limited investigation
Biopsychosocial formulations
2 Treat treatable medical and psychiatric conditions
3 Help patient to overcome perpetuating factors
Educate
Reduce distress
Gradual increase in activity
Solve social and occupational problems
4 Follow up
Checklist individual strength

(CIS) - fatigue
Patients should be encouraged to gradually increase their activity (Mrs

Bradburys establishment for the recovery of ladies nervously affected)
60
55
50
45
40
Most patients with fatigue are managed in primary care, but

certain groups may require referral to specialist care:
x Children with chronic fatigue
x Patients in whom the general practitioner suspects occult
disease
x Patients with severe psychiatric illness
x Patients requiring specialist management of sleep disorders
x Patients unresponsive to management in primary care.
Support groups
Natural course
Cognitive behaviour therapy
35
0
2000
Functional impairment
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
0
Referral for specialist management
Fatigue severity
30
Sickness impact profile (SIP) - total
can be identified this should be treated. If no disease diagnosis

can be made, or if medical treatment of disease fails to relieve
the fatigue, a broader biopsychosocial management strategy is
required. A discussion with the patient about fatigue and its
treatment can be supplemented with written material (see
below).
Patients should be told that they are suffering from a
common and treatable condition that the doctor takes seriously
and for which behavioural treatment can be helpful. While
patients may be concerned about possible disease and the need
for medical investigation and treatment, it can be explained that
no disease has been found, and hence there is no disease based
treatment, but that with help there is a great deal that the
patients can do themselves.
Identifying unhelpful beliefsPotentially unhelpful beliefs
should be discussed. If a patient has a simple aetiological model
(such as It is all due to a virus) an alternative approach based
on a biopsychosocial formulation can be outlined. This has the
advantage of highlighting potential perpetuating factors, as
these may be regarded as obstacles to recovery. Doctor and
patient can then work together to overcome these. It is rarely
productive to argue over the best name for the illness; instead,
the emphasis should be on agreeing a positive and open
minded approach to rehabilitation.
Managing activity and avoidanceGradual increases in activity
can be advised unless there is a clear contraindication. It is
critical, however, to distinguish between carefully graded
increases carried out in collaboration with patients and forced
exercise. It is also important to explain that erratic variation
between overactivity on good days and subsequent collapse
does not help long term recovery and that stabilising activity
is a prerequisite to graded increases.
Depression and anxietyIf there is evidence of depression a
trial of an antidepressant drug is worth while. Patients with
fatigue are often sensitive to the side effects of antidepressants.
However, if they are given adequate information about what to
expect when treatment begins, with small doses, most patients
can tolerate them. Randomised trials have shown psychological
therapies such as cognitive behaviour therapy to be equally
effective for mild to moderate depression.
Managing occupational and social stressesPatients who
remain in work may be overstressed by it. Those who have left
work may be inactive and demoralised and may not wish to
return to the same job. These situations require a problem
solving approach to consider how to manage work demands,
achieve a return to work, or to plan an alternative career.
Drug Treatments for FatigueA variety of pharmacological
drugs including stimulants and steroids have been advocated
for the treatment of fatigue. There is a limited evidence base for
any of these pharmacological treatments, most of which may
lead to substantial adverse effects. The role for these drugs is
therefore limited and they should only be prescribed with great
caution.
8
10
12
14
Time since randomisation (months)
Efficacy of cognitive behaviour therapy for treating chronic fatigue syndrome
What is cognitive behaviour therapy?

x
x
x
x
x
Brief pragmatic psychological therapy

Targets beliefs and behaviours that might perpetuate symptoms
An established treatment for depression and anxiety
Has been adapted for somatic complaints of pain and fatigue
Requires a skilled therapist
35

Referral may be to a physician or psychiatrist as is deemed
most appropriate. Psychologists may be able to offer cognitive
behaviour therapy. Where available, joint medical and
psychiatric clinics are ideally suited to the assessment of chronic
fatigue and related problems. It is essential there is close liaison
between primary and specialist care to ensure a clear,
consistent, and encouraging approach by all concerned.
Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation based on behavioural principles is currently the
most effective specialist treatment approach.
Cognitive behaviour therapy is a collaborative psychological
rehabilitation that incorporates graded increases in activity but
also pays greater attention to patients beliefs and concerns.
Graded exercise therapy is a structured progressive exercise
programme administered and carefully monitored by a
therapist.
Both may be used in conjunction with antidepressant drugs.
Both have been found to be effective in randomised trials of
hospital referred cases of chronic fatigue syndrome. Some
general practitioners are able to provide graded exercise or
cognitive behaviour therapy in their practice or clinic. Others
may wish to refer to a trained therapist.
Conclusion
Fatigue is a ubiquitous symptom that is important to patients
and has a major impact on their quality of life. It remains poorly
understood and has hitherto probably been not been given
adequate attention by doctors. Early and active management of
fatigue in primary care may prevent progression to chronicity.
Patients who have developed a chronic fatigue syndrome can
benefit from specific treatments. Paying more attention to the
symptom of fatigue may help to avoid the distress and poor
outcome that is associated with patients feeling that their
problems are neither accepted nor understood. It may also
reduce the numbers who turn to a variety of unproved, and
even harmful, alternative approaches.
36
What is graded exercise therapy?

x Explanation of fatigue as a physiological
consequence of inactivity, poor sleep, and
disturbed circadian rhythms
x Discussion, agreement, and implementation of
graded exercise plans
x Monitoring of progress and setting of
appropriate new targets

x Chronic fatigue syndrome is a descriptive term for a disabling
syndrome that probably has multiple causes (physical and
psychological)
x Graded exercise and cognitive behaviour therapies are effective in
treating chronic fatigue syndrome
Wessely S. Chronic fatigue: symptom and syndrome. Ann Intern Med
2001;134:838-43
Whiting P, Bagnall AM, Sowden AJ, Cornell JE, Mulrow CD, Ramirez G.
Interventions for the treatment and management of chronic fatigue syndrome:
a systematic review. JAMA 2001;286:1360-8
Further reading
x Wessely S, Hotopf M, Sharpe M. Chronic fatigue and its syndromes.
x Campling F, Sharpe M. Chronic fatigue syndrome: the facts. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2000
x Reid S, Chalder T, Cleare A, Hotopf M, Wessely S. Chronic fatigue
syndrome. Clinical Evidence 2001 (Nov)
The painting Weary is held at Russell-Cotes Art Gallery and Museum,

Bournemouth, and is reproduced with permission of Bridgeman Art
Library. The graph of distribution of fatigue in the population is adapted
from Pawlikowska T, et al BMJ 1994;308:763-6. The box of diagnostic
criteria for chronic fatigue syndrome is adapted from Fukuda K, et al Ann
Intern Med 1994;121:953-9. The print of Mrs Bradburys establishment for
the recovery of ladies nervously affected is reproduced with permission of
Wellcome Library. The graph showing efficacy of cognitive behaviour
therapy is adapted from Prins JB, et al Lancet 2001;357:841-7.
11
Chris J Main, Amanda C de C Williams
Musculoskeletal symptoms of various types (neck pain, limb

pain, low back pain, joint pain, chronic widespread pain) are a
major reason for consultation in primary care. This article uses
the example of low back pain because it is particularly common
and there is a substantial evidence base for its management.
The principles of management outlined are also applicable to
non-specific musculoskeletal symptoms in general.
The increasing prevalence of musculoskeletal pain,
including back pain, has been described as an epidemic. Pain
complaints are usually self limiting, but if they become chronic
the consequences are serious. These include the distress of
patients and their families and consequences for employers in
terms of sickness absence and for society as a whole in terms of
welfare benefits and lost productivity. Many causes for
musculoskeletal pain have been identified. Psychological and
social factors have been shown to play a major role in
exacerbating the biological substrate of pain by influencing pain
perception and the development of chronic disability. This new
understanding has led to a biopsychosocial model of back
pain.
Research has also shown that there are many different
reasons for patients to consult their doctor with painseeking
cure or symptomatic relief, diagnostic clarification, reassurance,
legitimisation of symptoms, or medical certification for work
absence or to express distress, frustration, or anger. Doctors
need to clarify which of these reasons apply to an individual
and to respond appropriately.
Managing acute back pain

Most patients can be effectively managed with a combination of
brief assessment and giving information, advice, analgesia, and
appropriate reassurance. Minimal rest and an early return to
work should be encouraged. Explanation and advice can be
usefully supplemented with written material.
Doctors tasks include not only the traditional provision of
diagnosis, investigation, prescriptions, and sickness certificates
but also giving accurate advice, information, and reassurance.
Primary care and emergency department doctors are
potentially powerful therapeutic agents and can provide
effective immediate care, but they may also unintentionally
promote progression to chronic pain. The risk of chronicity is
reduced by
x Paying attention to the psychological aspects of symptom
presentation
x Avoiding unnecessary, excessive, or inappropriate
investigation
x Avoiding inconsistent care (which may cause patients to
become overcautious)
x Giving advice on preventing recurrence (such as by sensible
lifting and avoiding excessive loads).
Research evidence supports a change of emphasis from
treating symptoms to early prevention of factors that result in
progression to chronicity. This has led to the development of
new back pain management guidelines for both medical
management and occupational health. The shift in emphasis
from rest and immobilisation to active self management
requires broadening the focus of the consultation from
examination of symptoms alone to assessment, which includes
Social
Illness
behaviour
Psychological
distress
Attitudes
and beliefs
Pain
Biopsychosocial model of the clinical presentation and assessment of low

back pain and disability at a point in time
Excerpt from information booklet The Back Book*

Its your back
Backache is not a serious disease and it should not cripple you unless
you let it. We have tried to show you the best way to deal with it. The
important thing now is for you to get on with your life. How your
backache affects you depends on how you react to the pain and what
you do about it yourself.
There is no instant answer. You will have your ups and downs for a
whilethat is normal. But look at it this way
There are two types of sufferer
One who avoids activity, and one who copes
x The avoider gets frightened by the pain and worries about the future
x The avoider is afraid that hurting always means further damageit
doesnt
x The avoider rests a lot and waits for the pain to get better
x The coper knows that the pain will get better and does not fear the
future
x The coper carries on as normally as possible
x The coper deals with the pain by being positive, staying active, or
staying at work
*Roland M et al, Stationery Office, 2002.
37

patients understanding of their pain and how they behave in
response to it. The shift towards self directed pain management
recasts the role of primary care doctor to the more rewarding
one of guide or coach rather than a mere mechanic.
Identify risk factors for chronicity
Guidelines for primary care management of acute back pain
highlight the identification of risk factors for chronicity. A useful
approach has been developed in New Zealand. It aims to
involve all interested partiespatient, the patients family,
healthcare professionals, and, importantly, the patients
employer. Four groups of risk factors or flags for chronicity
are accompanied by recommended assessment strategies, which
include the use of screening questionnaires, a set of structured
interview prompts, and a guide to behavioural management.
The focus is on key psychological factors or yellow flags that
favour chronicity:
x The belief that back pain is due to progressive pathology
x The belief that back pain is harmful or severely disabling
x The belief that avoidance of activity will help recovery
x A tendency to low mood and withdrawal from social
interaction
x The expectation that passive treatments rather than active self
management will help.
The assessment of red flags will identify the small number
of patients who need referral for an urgent surgical opinion.
Similarly, patients with declared suicidal intent require
immediate psychiatric referral. These two groups of patients
need to be managed separately.
For the vast majority of patients, however, the identification
of contributory psychological and social factors should be seen
as an investigation of the normal range of reactions to pain
rather than the seeking of psychopathology. Questions in the
form of interview prompts have been designed to elicit
potential psychosocial barriers to recovery in the yellow flags
system. They can be used at the time of initial presentation by
the general practitioner.
Establish collaboration
Recent studies of miscommunications between doctors and
patients with pain show that adequate assessment and
collaborative management cannot be achieved without good
communication between doctors and patients: only then will
patients fully disclose their concerns.
The essence of good communication is to work toward
understanding a patients problem from his or her own
perspective. In order to do this, the doctor must first gain the
patients confidence. A patient who has been convinced that the
doctor takes the pain seriously will give credence to what the
doctor says. Unfortunately, the converse is more common, and
patients who feel that a doctor has dismissed or under-rated
their pain are unlikely to reveal key information or to adhere to
treatment advice.
Enhance accurate beliefs and self management strategies
It is easy to overlook the value of simple measures. Many
patients respond positively to clear and simple advice, which
enables them to manage and control their own symptoms.
Factors associated with chronicity and outcome

Distress
x Symptom awareness and concern
x Depressive reactions; helplessness
Beliefs about pain and disability
x Significance and controllability
x Fears and misunderstandings about pain
Behavioural factors
x Guarded movements and avoidance patterns
x Coping style and strategies
Clinical red flags
Organic pathology
Biomedical factors
Concurrent medical problems

Iatrogenic factors
Beliefs
Clinical yellow flags
Coping strategies
Distress
Psychological or
behavioural factors
(predictors)
Illness behaviour
Willingness to change
Occupational blue flags
Family reinforcement
Work status
Socio-occupational black
flags
Health benefits and insurance
Social and economic

factors
Litigation
Work satisfaction
Working conditions
Work characteristics
Occupational
factors
Social policy
The clinical flags approach to obstacles to recovery from back pain and
aspects of assessment
Structured interview prompts

x What do you understand is the cause of your back pain?
x What are you expecting will help you?
x How are others responding to your back pain (employer,
coworkers, and family)?
x What are you doing to cope with back pain?
x Have you had time off work in the past with back pain?
x Do you think that you will ever return to work? When?
Guidelines for collaborative management of patients with

pain
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Listen carefully to the patient

Carefully observe the patients behaviour
Attend not only to what is said but also how it is said
Attempt to understand how the patient feels
Offer encouragement to disclose fears and feelings
Offer reassurance that you accept the reality of the pain
Correct misunderstandings or miscommunications about the
consultation
x Offer appropriate challenges to unhelpful thoughts and biases
(such as catastrophising)
x Understand the patients general social and economic
circumstances
Examples of simple management strategies

x Explain the difference between hurt and harm
x Reassure patients about the future and the benign nature of their
symptoms
x Help patients regain control over pain
x Get patients to pace activitiesthat is, perform activities in
manageable, graded stages
38
x Advise that analgesic drugs be taken on a regular rather than a

pain contingent basis
x Set realistic goals such as small increases in activity
x Suggest rewards for successful achievement (such as listening
to some favourite music)
Some of these strategies may seem self evident or even
trivial, but they are not. Only by building confidence slowly is it
possible to prevent the development of invalidity. Occasionally
patients will seem to get stuck and become demoralised or
distressed. Suggesting ways to enhance positive self
management can help maintain progress towards a more
satisfactory lifestyle.
The success of the cognitive and behavioural approach
described below has stimulated the development of secondary
prevention programmes designed to prevent those with low
back pain from becoming chronically incapacitated by it.
Intervention programmes based on cognitive behaviour
therapy have also been shown to be effective in reducing
disability.
Manage distress and anger
If patients show evidence of distress or anger, find out why.
Various strategies for dealing with distress and anger have been
developed.
Managing disabling chronic back

pain
A minority of patients become increasingly incapacitated and
require more detailed management of what has become a
chronic pain problem. Research has shown that the most
important influences on the development of chronicity are
psychological rather than biomechanical. The psychological
factors are high levels of distress, misunderstandings about pain
and its implications, and avoidance of activities associated with a
fear of making pain worse.
For patients with established chronic disabling pain
specialist referral is required. The treatment of choice is an
interdisciplinary pain management programme (IPMP). In
these programmes the focus is changed from pain to function,
with particular emphasis on perceived obstacles to recovery.
These pain management programmes address the clinical
flags. The most commonly used therapeutic approach is a
cognitive-behavioural perspective with emphasis on self
management. Treatment approaches based on cognitive and
behavioural principles have been found to be more effective
than traditional biomedical or biomechanically oriented
interventions.
Ways of enhancing positive self management

Get patients to
x Identify when they are thinking in unrealistic, unhelpful ways about
their pain (such as It will keep getting worse) and to change to
making a more balanced positive evaluation
x Notice when they are becoming tense or angry and then take steps
to interrupt their thoughts and to use relaxation strategies
x Change how they respond when the pain gets bad (such as pause
and take a break)
x Document their progress
x Elicit and use the help of others to establish and maintain
successful coping strategies
Key strategies for assessing and managing distress and anger

associated with pain
x Distinguish distress associated with pain and disability from more
general distress
x Identify iatrogenic misunderstandings
x Identify mistaken beliefs and fears
x Try to correct misunderstandings
x Identify iatrogenic distress and anger
x Listen and empathise
x Above all, dont get angry yourself
Disability
Disuse
Depression
Avoidance
Conclusion
There needs to be a revolution in the day to day management
of musculoskeletal pain. Not only do we need to abandon
prolonged rest and enforced inactivity as a form of treatment,
but we also need to appreciate that addressing patients beliefs,
distress, and coping strategies must be an integral part of
management if it is to be effective.
Recovery
Painful experiences
Catastrophising
Fear of movement
or injury
Specific chronic pain syndromes

Many specific and more widespread pain syndromes have been
describedsuch as chronic pain, late whiplash syndrome,
chronic widespread pain, fibromyalgia, somatoform pain
disorder, repetitive strain disorder. It seems unlikely that these
are distinct entities, and they are best seen as overlapping
descriptive terms that do not have specific aetiological
significance. Multidisciplinary treatment that includes
psychological, behavioural, and psychiatric assessment and
interventions is usually required.
Back pain
Confrontation
No fear
Effects of confrontation or avoidance of pain on outcome of episode of low

back pain: fear of movement and re-injury can determine how some people
recover from back pain while others develop chronic pain and disability
Defining characteristics of modern pain management

programmes
x
x
x
x
x
x
Focus on function rather than disease

Focus on management rather than cure
Integration of specific therapeutic ingredients
Multidisciplinary management
Emphasis on active rather than passive methods
Emphasis on self care rather than simply receiving treatment
39

Lessons learnt in the management of chronic low back pain
have direct relevance to the early and specialist management of
musculoskeletal pain in general.
The photograph of a man with back pain is reproduced with permission

of John Powell/Rex. The figure showing the biopsychosocial model of low
back pain is adapted from Waddell G, The back pain revolution, Edinburgh:
Churchill Livingstone, 1998. The figure showing the clinical flags
approach to assessing back pain and the box of defining characteristics of
modern pain management programmes are adapted from Main CJ and
Spanswick CC, Pain management: an interdisciplinary approach, Edinburgh:
Churchill-Livingstone, 2000. The boxes of guidelines for collaborative
management of patients with pain, of key strategies for managing distress
and anger associated with pain, of structured interview prompts, and of
ways to enhance positive self management are adapted from Main CJ and
Watson PJ, in Gifford L, ed, Topical issues in pain, vol 3, Falmouth: CNS
Press (in press). The figure showing effects of confrontation or avoidance
of pain on outcome of episode of low back pain is adapted from Vlaeyen
JWS et al, J Occup Rehabil 1995;5:235-52.
40

x Acute back pain is best treated with minimal rest and rapid return
to work and normal activity
x Psychological and behavioural responses to pain and social factors
are the main determinants of chronic pain disability
x Specialist psychological treatments and pain management
programmes are effective in treating chronic pain
Burton AK, Waddell G, Tillotson KM, Summerton N. Information and advice to
patients with back pain can have a positive effect. A randomised controlled trial
of a novel educational booklet in primary care. Spine 1999;24:2484-91
Linton SJ. A Review of psychological risk factors in back and neck pain. Spine
2000;25:1148-56
Morley SJ, Eccleston C, Williams A. Systematic review and meta-analysis of
randomised controlled trials of cognitive behaviour therapy and behaviour
therapy for chronic pain in adults, excluding headache. Pain 1999;80:1-13
Further reading
x Clinical Standards Advisory Group. Clinical Standards Advisory
Group report on back pain. London: HMSO, 1994
x Kendall NAS, Linton SJ, Main CJ. Guide to assessing psychosocial
yellow flags in acute low back pain: risk factors for long term disability and
work loss. Wellington, NZ: Accident Rehabilitation and
Compensation Insurance Corporation of New Zealand and the
National Health Committee, 1997
x Royal College of General Practitioners. Clinical guidelines for the
management of acute low back pain. London: RCGP, 1996
x Waddell G, Burton K. Occupational health guidelines for the
management of low back pain at workevidence review. London: Faculty
of Occupational Medicine, 2000
x Roland M, Waddell G, Klaber-Moffett J, Burton AK, Main CJ. The
back book. 2nd ed. Norwich: Stationery Office, 2002
12 Abdominal pain and functional gastrointestinal

disorders
Elspeth Guthrie, David Thompson
Various functional gastrointestinal pain syndromes have been

defined, but there is substantial overlap between them. There is
also substantial overlap with other functional disorders such as
chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, and chronic pelvic pain.
The classification system for functional gastrointestinal
disorders (FGID) therefore remains controversial and is seldom
used outside specialist and research settings. Furthermore, the
psychological management of these different syndromes is
essentially similar.
In primary care about half of the patients seen with gut
complaints have FGID, the most common disorder being
irritable bowel syndrome. A UK general practitioner is
estimated to see eight patients with irritable bowel syndrome
every week, one of whom will be presenting for the first time.
The quality of life of patients with chronic FGID is far
poorer than in the general population, and is even significantly
lower than in patients with many other chronic illnesses. These
patients are not merely the worried well. It is also important to
resist the temptation to think of FGID as exclusively
psychological disorders. A biopsychosocial approach is
preferable. Physiological studies have suggested that patients
with FGID have abnormal visceral sensation and abnormal
patterns of bowel motility. Both psychological and physiological
factors are involved, with the relative contribution of these
varying among patients.
Aetiological factors include physiological and psychological
predisposition, early life experience, and current social stresses.
It has been shown that a combination of psychological factors
and sensitisation of the gut after infection can trigger irritable
bowel syndrome in adults.
Emotional distressThe degree of associated emotional
distress with FGID depends on the treatment setting. In the
community and general practice the prevalence of psychological
distress in patients with functional abdominal pain is about
10-20%, whereas in clinic and outpatient settings it is 30-40%, and
is even higher for patients who are treatment resistant.
AbuseWomen with severe FGID often have a history of
sexual and emotional abuse. This is as high as 30% in those
attending gastroenterology clinics.
Functional gastrointestinal disorders

x
x
x
x
x
x
Functional dyspepsia
Ulcer-like dyspepsia
Dysmotility-like dyspepsia
Unspecified dyspepsia
Functional diarrhoea
Functional constipation
x
x
x
x
x
Irritable bowel syndrome

Functional abdominal bloating
Unspecified functional bowel disorder
Functional abdominal pain syndrome
Unspecified functional abdominal
pain
Diagnostic criteria for irritable bowel syndrome

In preceding 12 months at least 12 weeks of abdominal discomfort with
2 of 3 features: relieved with defecation, onset associated with change in
frequency of stool, onset associated with change in form of stool
Supportive symptoms include
x Fewer than 3 bowel movements a week x Hard or lumpy stools
x More than 3 bowel movements a day
x Loose or watery stools
x Straining during bowel movement
x Passing mucus
x Urgent bowel movements
x Abdominal fullness,
x Feeling of incomplete bowel movement
bloating, or swelling
Physiology
Sensation
Motility
Early life
Genetics
Environment
Abuse
Life stress
Psychiatric illness
Coping
Social support
Symptoms
Behaviour
Outcome
Medications
Doctor visits
Daily function Quality of life
Biopsychosocial model for functional abdominal pain
Primary care
Physical and psychosocial assessment
Elicit concerns
Link physical and psychological
Reassure about cancer
Detect and treat depression with antidepressants Advice about simple treatments
Refer for brief psychological treatment if psychosocial issues prominent
Not improved
Initial management
Most patients with FGID have relatively mild symptoms and can
be managed effectively in primary care. Only a third of patients
seen in primary care with irritable bowel syndrome are referred
to gastrointestinal specialists for further assessment and
treatment.
Symptomatic treatmentDrug treatments for FGID are aimed
at improving the predominant symptoms, such as constipation,
diarrhoea, abdominal pain, or upper gastrointestinal symptoms.
Standard treatments for lower bowel symptoms, depending on
the predominant symptom, include dietary fibre, laxatives,
antispasmodic agents (including anticholinergics and direct
smooth muscle relaxants), and antidiarrhoeals. Treatment for
upper gastrointestinal symptoms include H2 receptor
antagonists and prokinetics. There are several useful reviews of
the efficacy of these agents in FGID (see further reading).
70% improved
Gastrointestinal clinic
Detailed assessment, including psychosocial Clear explanation
factors
Brief treatment with standard agents
Appropriate limited investigations
Consider antidepressants for pain
Not improved
75% improved
Brief psychological treatment

Cognitive therapy
Hypnosis
Interpersonal or relational therapies Behavioural therapy
Not improved
60-80% improved
Review diagnosis
Consider hypnosis or interpersonal therapy if have not been tried
Consider pain management programme
Not improved
60% improved
Implement long term management

Close liaison between general practitioner and physician
Advice from liaison psychiatrist or psychologist may help
Algorithm for treating patients with functional gastrointestinal disorders
41

Psychological managementInitial management can be
enhanced by incorporating brief psychological management
strategies. Many patients with FGID are afraid that they have a
serious underlying disease such as cancer, and attempts should
be made to elicit such fears and address them. It is also
important to provide a positive and credible explanation for the
symptoms. The explanation should include both physiological
and psychological factors. One way of explaining symptoms is
to describe how the bowel is a segmented tube in which food is
propelled down by the sequential squeezing of each segment.
The nervous control of this system is delicate and complicated,
and disruption of it consequently produces muscle spasm in the
bowel wall, which results in pain and gas. Stress and other
psychological factors such as anxiety cause bowel symptoms by
affecting this nervous control.
AntidepressantsA recent meta-analysis of 12 randomised
controlled trials of antidepressants for treating FGID concluded
that they are moderately effective. On average, 3.2 patients need
to be treated to substantially improve one patients symptoms.
Antidepressants should therefore be considered if there is clear
evidence of a depressive disorder, but they may also help to
reduce pain in the absence of depression.
Management of chronic problems

In the case of patients with chronic symptoms that have not
responded to treatment, psychological factors are likely to be
important. Doctors should try to elicit patients concerns, seek
evidence of emotional distress, and, over several consultations if
necessary, help them to make tentative connections between
psychological factors, life stresses, and the pain.
The following strategies are suggested:
x Set aside an appointment that is longer than usual, so there is
time to deal with a patients concerns. This is better than several
fruitless, rushed consultations focusing only on symptoms
x Make sure that any investigations are based on the patients
history and examination. Do not allow yourself to be pushed
into ordering investigations that are not clinically indicated. Try
to avoid setting up a referral matrix, with the patient being
referred on from one specialty to another
x Emphasise the role that patients can play in improving or
relieving pain by carrying out agreed strategies or exercises.
Include the patient in decision about treatment options.
Encourage membership of self help groups and organisations.
The International Federation for Functional Gastrointestinal
Disorders is a well respected organisation that provides useful
information for patients. For patients with irritable bowel
syndrome, the IBS Network is UK based and is also helpful
x Avoid changing treatments too often; improvement will be
slow. Patients are likely to raise concerns about their condition
at every consultation, so be prepared to give an explanation of
the symptoms more than once. Make a note in the records of
what you have said so that you dont contradict yourself
x Be prepared for patients to continually question your
approach and think about ways to address this before each
consultation. It may be helpful to discuss your management
with a psychologist or psychiatrist with a special interest in
somatic problems, even if patients do not wish to be referred for
psychological treatment
x If you are concerned about a potential complaint, keep a
detailed record of consultations, including any requests for
investigations and the medical reasons for not ordering them.
Repeated investigations that are not medically indicated can be
unhelpful in increasing a patients illness concerns. If you are
worried about possible litigation, discuss the situation with a
colleague and ask him or her to review the notes
42
Tension and
stress
Nervous control
of gut
Pain
Muscle spasm
in gut wall
Underlying
malfunction
Explanation of how physiological and psychological factors combine to

produce abdominal pain
Management of chronic functional abdominal pain

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Set the agenda

Provide unambiguous information about findings
Time planning: a longer planned session may save time in long run
Identify psychosocial factors
Set limits for investigations
Encourage patient to take responsibility
Dont treat what patient doesnt have
Gastrointestinal
clinic
General
practitioner
Neurology
Holistic
approach
Psychiatry
Gynaecology
Urodynamic
studies
Immunology
Referral matrix that can develop when managing a patient with chronic
functional abdominal pain
Helpful patient organisations

x International Foundation for Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders.
www.iffgd.org/
x IBS Network. http://homepages.uel.ac.uk/C.P.Dancey/ibs.html
Abdominal pain and functional gastrointestinal disorders

x The aim of treatment should be to improve patients
symptoms and functioning rather than to abolish them. Although
some patients may remain chronically disabled despite treatment,
appropriate and consistent management can prevent
deterioration and protect patients from unnecessary surgery.
Referral for psychological treatment

For patients who have not responded to initial management,
four different kinds of psychological treatment have been
evaluated in FGID. They are cognitive therapies, behavioural
therapies, interpersonal therapies, and hypnosis. Each therapy
has a different mechanism of action, but they have the common
aims of reducing symptoms and improving functioning. Most
treatments are delivered on a one to one basis, once weekly,
over a period of two to four months.
Although most trials indicate a positive outcome for
psychological treatment, many have methodological flaws and
further studies are required before definitive recommendations
about treatment can be given. The most convincing evidence
for the efficacy of specific psychological treatments is for
patients with chronic or refractory abdominal symptoms.
However, there may also be an important role for earlier
intervention in order to prevent such long term difficulties.
Psychological treatments are not always available. As in any
other specialty, therapists need to have experience of treating
chronic abdominal pain or chronic bowel disorders to develop
and retain competence. Psychological services based in primary
care are an option for patients with mild to moderate
symptoms, but counsellors are unlikely to develop the expertise
to enable them to treat patients with severe or refractory
abdominal symptoms. Similarly, referral to a psychiatrist or
psychologist who is more used to managing severe mental
illness is unlikely to be fruitful. Dedicated medical liaison
services with experience of somatic problems are more likely to
be effective. If these do not exist consideration should be given
to establishing a hospital based psychological medicine service.
The diagram of a biopsychosocial model for functional abdominal pain is
adapted from Drossman DA et al, Gut 1999;45(suppl):II25-30.
Psychological treatments
Cognitive therapy
x Modifies patients maladaptive beliefs about their pain and
symptoms
x Encourages associated behaviour changes
x Patients keep diaries to monitor pain and other symptoms,
associated thoughts, and behaviour
x As therapy progresses, it may be possible to identify underlying
beliefs or fears about pain that drive preoccupation and worry
x Therapeutic work directed at activating three change mechanisms:
1 Rational self analysis or self understanding (patients explore
idiosyncratic beliefs and fears and connect these to their pain)
2 Decentring (patients gain distance from their selves by identifying
their self talk and labelling it)
3 Experiential disconfirmation (patients challenge their fears or
irrational beliefs through planned behavioural experiments)
Behavioural therapies
x Focus on changing behaviour; they do not address motives or fears
x Patterns that reinforce abnormal behaviour are identified and
reversed
x Activity is gradually increased, particularly for functional activities
such as social recreation and physical exercise
x Pain behaviours are ignored and activity related behaviours are
reinforced
x Patients usually receive educational packages to increase their
understanding of the condition
x Anxiety management strategies often included in treatment
x Biofeedback can be used to teach patients to reduce tension in
affected muscles and to promote relaxation as a coping strategy
Interpersonal therapies
x Focus on resolving difficulties in interpersonal relationships that
underlie or exacerbate abdominal symptoms
x Key problem areas include unresolved grief or loss, role transitions,
and relationship discord
x Initial focus is on the patients abdominal symptoms, which are
explored in great detail
x Emotional distress and abnormal feeling states arising from or
linked to physical symptoms are identified
x Key problem areas in relationships and their link to physical and
psychological symptoms are understood
x Maladaptive relationship patterns, which may have developed after
key childhood experiences (such as sexual abuse) are identified
x Solutions to interpersonal difficulties are tested out in therapy and
implemented in real world
Hypnosis
x Directed at general relaxation
x Hypnosis is induced using an arm levitation technique, which is
followed by deepening procedures
x General positive comments about health and wellbeing are made
x Patients are asked to place their hand on abdomen, feel a sense of
warmth, and relate this to asserting control over gut function
x This is reinforced with visualisation (if patient has ability to do this)
x Sessions are concluded with positive, ego strengthening suggestions
x After third session patients are given a tape for daily autohypnosis
Further reading
x Thompson WG, Heaton KW, Smyth GT, Smyth C. Irritable bowel
syndrome in general practice: prevalence, characteristics, and
referral. Gut 2000;46:78-82
x Drossman DA, Creed FH, Fava GA, Olden KW, Patrick DL, Toner
BB, et al. Psychosocial aspects of the functional gastrointestinal
disorders. Gastroenterol Int 1995.1995:8:47-90
x Jailwala J, Imperiale TF, Kroenke K. Pharmacologic treatment of the
irritable bowel syndrome: a systematic review of randomized,
controlled trials. Ann Intern Med 2000;133:135-47
x Akehusrt R, Kaltenthaler E. Treatment of irritable bowel syndrome:
a review of randomized controlled trials. Gut 2001;48:272
x Bytzer P. H2 receptor antagonists and prokinetics in dyspepsia: a
critical review. Gut 2002;50(suppl IV):58-62

x Treating functional gastrointestinal disorders with antidepressants
is effective even in the absence of depression
x Although several psychological treatments show promise in
treating functional bowel disorders, no trial has yet provided
unequivocal evidence of effectiveness
Jackson J, OMalley PG, Tomkins G, Balden E, Santoro J, Kroenke K. Treatment
of functional gastrointestinal disorders with antidepressant medications: a
meta-analysis. Am J Med 2000;108:65-72
Talley NJ, Owen BKO, Boyce P, Paterson K. Psychological treatments for
irritable bowel syndrome: a critique of controlled treatment trials. Am J
Gastroenterol 1996;91:277-86
43
13
Chest pain
Christopher Bass, Richard Mayou
Chest pain is one of the commonest reasons for consultation in

primary care. Chest pain is usually mild and transient, but
further management is required in some cases. These are of two
main typesacute severe pain and persistent pain associated
with distress and functional limitation. Acute central chest pain
accounts for 20-30% of emergency medical admissions.
Chronic chest pain is the commonest reason for referral to
cardiac outpatient clinics.
Management of chest pain

The improved diagnosis and early treatment of ischaemic heart
disease have not been accompanied by similar advances either
in the delivery of long term rehabilitation of patients with
ischaemic heart disease or in the management of non-cardiac
causes of chest pain. Since at least half of those referred to
cardiac outpatient clinics and about two thirds of emergency
admissions have a non-cardiac cause for their chest pain, there
is a pressing need to address this problem.
Primary care
Primary care doctors have a major responsibility for the
continuing care of patients with angina and those with chronic
non-cardiac chest pain, as well as a role in secondary
prevention. They therefore need good communication with
specialist cardiac services and access to appropriate resources,
including psychological treatments.
Patients with a low risk of coronary disease (such as young
women with no cardiac risk factors and atypical pain) do not
usually need cardiac investigation. Some, however, especially
those with chest pain who have a family history of heart disease
or other risk factors, may need investigation. In such cases it is
important that the possibility of a non-cardiac cause of the
chest pain is explained before referral. If investigation reveals
no cardiac cause for the pain patients need their worries to be
fully discussed, need advice about coping with symptoms, and
should be encouraged to maintain activity.
Patients with an intermediate or high risk (such as middle aged
male smokers) often require investigations even if the chest pain
is not typical of ischaemic pain. This will usually be achieved
by referral to a cardiology outpatient clinic or to an emergency
assessment service. When referring patients in whom the cause
of chest pain is uncertain it is important to avoid giving them
the impression that the diagnosis of ischaemic heart disease is
already established (such as by prescribing anti-anginal drugs).
This is because, if patients come to believe that they have
ischaemic heart disease, such beliefs can be difficult to change
even if they are subsequently disproved by investigation.
Secondary care
The best way to organise emergency care remains uncertain. A
long wait for specialist investigations such as angiography is
likely to increase anxiety and disability, as has been shown in
patients waiting for coronary artery surgery. Quicker access to
assessment (such as by rapid access clinics and observation
units) can be helpful but needs to be accompanied by a greater
emphasis on aftercare for all patients assessed, not only those
who have had infarction or are undergoing cardiac surgery.
44
British soldier admitted for observation with the

diagnosis of disordered action of the hearta
post-combat syndrome in the first world war
characterised by rapid heartbeat, shortness of breath,
fatigue, and dizziness. (From Lewis T. The tolerance of
physical exertion, as shown by soldiers suffering from
so-called irritable heart. BMJ 1918;i:363-5)
Assessment and management of chest pain in primary care

x History of pain, other symptoms and risk factors
x If at high risk of heart disease, refer for specialist assessment
x If at low risk:
Identify non-cardiac causes
Give a positive explanation
Advise how to cope with symptoms and return to normal activity
Discuss worries
Offer review if symptoms are persistent
Clinical priorities in managing patients with chest pain

Primary care
x Recognise and refer possible heart disease
x Reassure minor chest pain
x Basic treatment of persistent non-cardiac pain
x Reassess chronic pain as required, monitor and coordinate
continuing care
x Advise on secondary prevention need
Hospital emergency care
x Immediate diagnosis and treatment plus initiating continuing care
of angina
x Make a positive diagnosis; reassure if non-cardiac and arrange
follow up to determine investigation and treatment needs
x Full and rapid communication with primary care
Cardiac outpatient care
x Initiate immediate and continuing care of angina
x Reassure and advise if non-cardiac; plan treatment or review
Other specialist care
x Cardiac rehabilitation or aftercare
x Psychological or psychiatric referral
Chest pain
Types of chest pain

Angina
The English national service framework for coronary heart
disease recognises that patients beliefs, attitudes, emotions, and
behaviour are powerful determinants of clinical outcomes and
suggests not only routine psychosocial assessment but also the
integration of psychological approaches into cardiac
rehabilitation programmes. Self help behavioural treatment
programmes have also been shown to be of benefit. The general
principles of treatment described below for non-cardiac chest
pain are also applicable to angina.
Myocardial infarction and depression
About one in six patients who have a myocardial infarction
develop major depression. The occurrence of depression has
been found to be independently associated with poor outcome,
including poor quality of life, increased heart disease, and
probably increased mortality. There is some evidence that those
who have the severest heart disease are at greatest risk of an
adverse outcome attributable to depression. It is in just these
patients that depression is most likely to be missed because
both doctor and patient understandably focus their attention on
the heart disease and its treatment, rather than on psychological
factors.
Myocardial infarction, angina, and non-cardiac chest pain
Patients who have had a myocardial infarction or who have
proved angina often report other chest pains that are clearly
non-cardiac. Inevitably, they tend to misinterpret these
symptoms as evidence of heart disease. The consequence is
often greater disability and distress and a high and
inappropriate use of medical care.
Non-cardiac chest pain
Fewer than half of the patients referred to emergency
departments and cardiac outpatient clinics have heart disease.
Over two thirds of these continue to be disabled by symptoms
in the long term, and many also remain dissatisfied with their
medical care. Some continue to take cardiac drugs and to
attend emergency departments, primary care, and outpatient
clinics. Hence, although these patients have a good outcome in
terms of mortality, they suffer considerable morbidity.
It is desirable to make an early and confident diagnosis of
non-cardiac chest pain because appropriate management of
this condition in primary care can reduce subsequent morbidity.
Causes of non-cardiac chest pain
Explanations in terms of a single cause are rarely helpful.
Instead, the cause is often best understood as an interaction of
biological, psychological, and social factors. In many cases there
is an interaction between normal or abnormal physiological
processes (such as extrasystoles, oesophageal spasm or reflux,
and costochondral discomfort), psychological factors (such as
how somatic sensations are perceived, interpreted, and acted
on), and the behaviour and reactions of other people, including
doctors.
Establishing a positive diagnosis of

non-cardiac chest pain
The key to establishing a positive diagnosis of non-cardiac chest
pain, both in primary care and cardiac clinics, is, first, to
consider the pattern of chest pain symptoms and, second, to
seek evidence for non-cardiac causes.
Main components of cardiac rehabilitation treatment

programme for patients with myocardial infarctions
x Provide education about heart attacks and secondary prevention
and correct misconceptions
x Agree and record goals for exercise, return to work, and everyday
activities; provide copies for patients, medical notes, and primary
care
x Offer home exercise programme or community group exercise, or
both
x Routine early review of symptoms, activity, and progress with
rehabilitation and secondary prevention goals
x Menu of specific interventions, including stopping smoking, diet,
and identification and treatment of psychological and behavioural
difficulties
Non-cardiac pain in patients with diagnosis of angina

Diagnostic uncertainty may result in
x Non-cardiac pain being wrongly attributed to angina
x Increased antianginal medication
x Increased iatrogenic distress and disability
x Unnecessary investigations
x Unnecessary admissions and consultations
Common causes of non-cardiac chest pain

x Oesophageal disordersGastro-oesophageal reflux, oesophageal
dysmotility
x MusculoskeletalCostochondritis, increased muscular tension
x Referred pain from thoracic spine
x Hyperventilation
x PsychologicalPanic attacks, depression
Physical perceptions
Physiological
Pathological
Illness experience
Heart disease
Other illness
Interpretation
Psychosocial factors
Personality
Current life events(s)
Psychiatric disorders such
as panic disorder
Maintaining factors
Iatrogenic
Reaction of others
Symptoms
Psychological
Physical
Disability
Interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors to cause

non-cardiac chest pain and subsequent disability
Iatrogenic factors maintaining symptoms and disabilities

x Giving probable diagnosis of angina before investigation
x Immediate prescription of antianginal drugs without explanation of
possible causes before investigation
x Lack of explanation for distressing and continuing symptoms
x Inconsistent or ambiguous information
x Reassurance contradicted by continued antianginal drugs or other
indications of uncertainty
x Lack of communication with all involved in care leading to
contradictory and conflicting advice
45
Evidence for common non-cardiac causes

Oesophageal disorders are often associated with chest pain, but
chest pain is poor correlated with objective oesophageal
abnormalities. Symptomatic treatment (such as proton pump
inhibitors) can be useful. Psychological issues may need
addressing whether or not there is oesophageal pathology.
Gastro-oesophageal reflux is an important cause of atypical
chest pain, but there is no convincing evidence that such chest
pain is often related to disturbances of oesophageal motility.
Emotional disordersOnly a minority of patients who present
to family doctors with non-cardiac chest pain are suffering from
conspicuous anxiety or depressive disorders. The rate of such
disorders is, however, higher among those referred for specialist
assessment in cardiac clinics, especially those who undergo
angiography and are shown to have normal coronary arteries. It
is important to seek evidence of (a) the key symptoms of
depression (which include hopelessness; lack of interest,
pleasure, and concentration; poor sleep; and irritability as well
as low mood) and (b) an association of the chest pain with
anxiety and panic attacks.
Patients beliefs and worries
Even if no definite psychiatric diagnosis can be made, it is
essential to ask patients what goes through their mind when
they experience chest pain.
Stressful life events
Distressing life events can precipitate not only anxiety and
depressive disorders, but also functional symptoms such as
chest pain. Events signifying loss, threat, and rejection are of
particular importance. Open questions are most effective in
eliciting thesesuch as: Tell me about any changes or setbacks
that occurred in the months before your chest pain began.
Questions to differentiate patients with non-cardiac chest

pain from those with coronary heart disease
Response
Question
Typical Atypical
If you go up a hill (or other stressor) on 10 separate 10/10 < 10/10
occasions on how many do you get the pain?
Of 10 pains in a row, how many occur at rest?
< 2/10 >2/10
How many minutes does the pain usually last?
<5
>5
When answers to all three questions are atypical the chance of coronary
disease is only 2% in patients aged < 55 years and 12% in those aged >55
General population
Primary care
Psychiatric outpatient clinic
Cardiac outpatient clinic
Patients given treadmill
exercise test
Patients given angiography
and with normal results
0
10
20
30
Prevalence of
panic disorder in
different medical
settings
40
Prevalence (%)
Screening questions for panic attacks

x In the past six months have you ever had a spell or an attack when
you suddenly felt frightened, anxious, or very uneasy?
x In the past six months have you ever had a spell or an attack when
for no reason your heart suddenly began to race, you felt faint, or
you couldnt catch your breath?
If the answer is yes to either question then continue
x Obtain description
x Did any of these spells happen when you were not in danger or the
centre of attention, such as in a crowd or when travelling?
x How many times have you had these spells in the past month?
Life event score
Quality of chest pain

Attempts to identify certain characteristics of chest pain that
can help to establish a positive diagnosis of non-cardiac chest
pain have been encouraging. For example, as few as three
questions can differentiate patients with chest pain but normal
coronary arteries from those with coronary heart disease.
Treatment of non-cardiac pain
46
Time
sthymia
Dy
pain, palpitatio
es t
n
Ch anic, phobi
a
P
y
h
m
st
ia
Dy
Anxiety
Anxiety
Early and effective intervention is crucial, but how can this best
be provided? Because patients vary not only in the frequency
and severity of symptoms and associated disability but also in
their needs for explanation and treatment of their physical and
psychological problems, management needs to be flexible.
Avoiding iatrogenic worriesA consultation for chest pain is
inherently worrying. Inevitably, many patients assume that they
have severe heart disease, which will have major adverse effects
on their life. These concerns may be greatly increased by delays
in investigation, by comments or behaviours by doctors, and by
contradictory and inconsistent comments.
Symptomatic treatmentIn some patients the pain is obviously
musculoskeletal in origin and can be treated with non-steroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs. Proton pump inhibitors provide
effective relief from the symptoms typical of gastro-oesophageal
reflux, even in those with an essentially normal oesophageal
mucosa. In some cases oesophageal function testing may reveal a
motility disorder or acid reflux unresponsive to first line drugs.
These patients may require specialist gastroenterological referral.
CommunicationProblems in the care of patients with chest
pain often arise from failures in communication between primary
and secondary care. Lack of information and contradictory or
inconsistent advice makes it less likely that patients and their
Anxiety
Anxiety
Life events and symptom reporting. Stress of adverse life events may result
in increases in reporting of psychological and physical symptoms
Management of non-cardiac chest pain

General management
x Explanation of the diagnosis
x Reassurance that it is a real, common,
and well recognised problem
x Advice on specific treatments
x Advice on behavioursuch as not
avoiding exercise
x Discussion of concerns
x Provision of written information
x Involvement of relatives
x Follow up to review
x Cognitive behaviour
therapy
x Antidepressant drugs
x Psychosocial intervention
for associated
psychological, family, and
social difficulties
Chest pain
families will gain a clear understanding of the diagnosis and of
treatment plans. The increasing use of computerised exchange of
key information may reduce this problem, although it remains
important to ensure that the information is passed on to and
understood by patients and relatives.
Effective reassuranceThose with mild or brief symptoms may
improve after negative investigation and simple reassurance.
Further hospital attendance may then be unnecessary. Others
with more severe symptoms and illness concerns will benefit
from a follow up visit four to six weeks after the cardiac clinic
visit (or emergency room visit), which allows time for more
discussion and explanation. This may be with either a cardiac
nurse in the cardiac clinic or a doctor in primary care. It also
provides a valuable opportunity to identify patients with
recurrent or persistent symptoms who may require further help.
Specialist treatmentsPsychological and
psychopharmacological treatment should be considered for
patients with continuing symptoms and disability, especially if
these are associated with abnormal health beliefs, depressed
mood, panic attacks, or other symptoms such as fatigue or
palpitations. Both cognitive behaviour therapy and selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors have been shown to be effective.
Tricyclic antidepressants are helpful in reducing reports of pain
in patients with chest pain and normal coronary arteries,
especially if there are accompanying depressive symptoms.
Organising care
Because of the heterogeneity of the needs of patients who
present with chest pain, we propose a stepped approach to
management. A cardiologist working in a busy outpatient clinic
may require access to additional resources if he or she is to
provide adequate management for large numbers of patients
with angina or non-cardiac chest pain. One way of doing this is
to employ a specialist cardiac nurse who has received additional
training in the management of these problems. The nurse can
provide patient education, simple psychological intervention,
and routine follow up in a separate part of the cardiac
outpatient clinic. For those patients who require more specialist
psychological care, it is important for the cardiac department
(possibly the cardiac nurse) to collaborate with the local
psychology or liaison psychiatry service.
Effective reassurance
x Accept reality of symptoms
x Give explanation of causes
x Explain that symptoms are common, well recognised,
and have a good prognosis
x Understand patients and familys beliefs and worries
x Plan and agree simple self help
x Provide written information and plans
x Offer to see patients partner or other close relative
x Offer follow up if required
Inpatie
n
need in t treatment
(depen
patient
ds
be
psychod with combon resources
;
in
logical
interve ed physical may
and
ntion)
Severe
ly disa
bled pa
tients
Referr
psychoal to gastroe
nte
lo
cognitivgical treatme rologist
n
e beha
viour tht such as
Severe
erapy
+ psyc, disabling
hologic sympto
al distr
ms
ess
Consid
er pro
supportton pump in
hibitor:
or tricy
p
clic an
tidepresychological
ssants
Pers
activitisytant sympto
ps y c
m
hologics, limitatio
al distr n of
Expla
ess
behavionation, discu
ssion o
ural ad
f worrie
vice by
in clinic
s,
s
or doc
tor in ppecialist nurs
e
rimary
care
Contin
uing m
ild sym
ptoms
Inform
a
(suffic tion, educati
ient fo
r 30-40on, reassura
nc
% of p
atients e
)
Mild sy
mptom
s of s h
ort dura
tion
Stepped care in the management of non-cardiac chest pain

x Half of patients referred from general practice to a cardiac clinic
with chest pain or palpitations do not have cardiac disease, but,
despite the absence of disease, their symptoms tend to persist
x Psychological treatment and antidepressant drugs can be effective
in treating non-cardiac chest pain
Mayou R, Bryant B, Forfar C, Clark D. Non-cardiac chest pain and benign
palpitations in the cardiac clinic. Br Heart J 1994;72:548-53
Conclusion
The management of coronary heart disease has received much
attention in recent years, whereas non-cardiac chest pain has
been relatively neglected. The structuring of cardiac care for
both angina and non-cardiac chest pain to incorporate a
greater focus on psychological aspects of medical management
would be likely to produce considerable health gains.
The picture of a soldier with disordered action of the heart is

reproduced with permission of Wellcome Trust. The box of questions to
identify patients with non-cardiac chest pain is adapted from Cooke R et
al, Heart 1997;78:142-6. The figure showing link between life events and
range of psychological and physical complications is adapted from Tyrer P,
Lancet 1985;i:685-8. The figure of stepped care for managing non-cardiac
chest pain is adapted from Chambers J et al, Heart 2000;84:101-5.
Mayou R, Bryant B, Sanders D, Bass C, Klimes I, Forfar C. A controlled trial of

cognitive behavioural therapy for non-cardiac chest pain. Psychol Med 1997;
27:21-31
Cannon RO 3rd, Quyyumi AA, Mincemoyer R, Stine AM, Gracely RH, Smith
WB, et al. Imipramine in patients with chest pain despite normal coronary
angiograms. N Engl J Med 1994;330:1411-7
Suggested reading
x Mayou RA, Bass C, Hart G, Tyndel S, Bryant B. Can clinical
assessment of chest pain be made more therapeutic? Q J Med
2000;93:805-11
x Cooke R, Smeeton M, Chambers JB. Comparative study of chest
pain characteristics in patients with normal and abnormal coronary
angiograms. Heart 1997;78:142-6
x Creed F. The importance of depression following myocardial
infarction. Heart 1999;82:406-8
x Jain D, Fluck D, Sayer JW, Ray S, Paul EA, Timmis AD. One-stop
chest pain clinic can identify high cardiac risk. J R Coll Physicians
Lond 1997;31:401-4
x Thompson DR, Lewin RJ. Management of the post-myocardial
infarction patient: rehabilitation and cardiac neurosis. Heart
2000;84:101-5
47
14
Delirium
Tom Brown, Michael Boyle
Delirium is a common cause of disturbed behaviour in

medically ill people and is often undetected and poorly
managed. It is a condition at the interface of medicine and
psychiatry that is all too often owned by neither. Although
various terms have been used to describe itincluding acute
confusional state, acute brain syndrome, and acute organic
reactiondelirium is the term used in the current psychiatric
diagnostic classifications and the one we will use here.
Clinical features
Delirium usually develops over hours to days. Typically, the
symptoms fluctuate and are worse at night. The fluctuation can
be a diagnostic trap, with nurses or relatives reporting that
patients had disturbed behaviour at night whereas doctors find
patients lucid the next day.
Impaired cognitive functioning is central and affects
memory, orientation, attention, and planning skills. Impaired
consciousness, with a marked variability in alertness and in
awareness of the environment is invariably present. A mistaken
idea of the time of day, date, place, and identity of other people
(disorientation) is common. Poor attention, and disturbed
thought processes may be reflected in incoherent speech. This
can make assessment difficult and highlights the need to obtain
a history from a third party. Relatives or other informants may
report a rapid and drastic decline from premorbid functioning
that is useful in distinguishing delirium from dementia.
Disturbed perception is common and includes illusions
(misperceptions) and hallucinations (false perceptions). Visual
hallucinations are characteristic and strongly suggest delirium.
However, hallucinations in auditory and other sensory
modalities can also occur.
Delusions are typically fleeting, often persecutory and
usually related to the disorientation. For example, an elderly
person may believe that the year is 1944, that he or she is in a
prisoner of war camp, and that the medical staff are the enemy.
Such delusions can be the basis of aggressive behaviour,
Delirium can have a profound effect on affect and mood. A
patients affect can range from apathy and lack of interest to
anxiety, perplexity, and fearfulness that may sometimes amount
to terror. A casual assessment can result in an erroneous
diagnosis of depression or anxiety disorder.
Disturbances of the sleep-wake cycle and activity are
common. A behaviourally disturbed patient with night time
agitation wandering around the ward is usually easy to
recognise. However, presentations where a patient is hypo-alert
and lethargic may go unrecognised.
Sensory misperceptions, including hallucinations and illusions, are common

in delirium. (Don Quixote and the Windmill by Gustave Dor, 1832-1883)
Diagnostic criteria for delirium*

x Disturbance in consciousness with reduced ability to focus, sustain,
or shift attention
x Change in cognition (such as memory, disorientation, speech,
disturbance) or development of perceptual disturbance not better
accounted for by pre-existing or evolving dementia
x Disturbance develops over hours to days and fluctuates in severity
*Adapted from Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition
(DSM-IV)
Detection of delirium
Delirium often goes undiagnosed. Non-detection rates as high
as 66% have been reported. Detection and diagnosis are
important because of the associated morbidity and mortality:
although most patients with delirium recover, some progress to
stupor, coma, seizures, or death. Patients may die because of
failure to treat the associated medical condition or from the
associated behaviourinactivity may cause pneumonia and
decubital ulcers, and wandering may lead to fractures from falls.
48
Alcohol addiction often goes undetected at the time of admission to hospital.

All admitted patients should be asked about their alcohol consumption
Delirium
Differential diagnosis
The main differential diagnosis of delirium is from a functional
psychosis (such as schizophrenia and manic depression) and
from dementia. Functional psychoses are not associated with
obvious cognitive impairment, and visual hallucinations are
more common in delirium. Dementia lacks the acute onset and
markedly fluctuating course of delirium. Fleeting hallucinations
and delusions are less common in dementia. It is important to
note that delirium is commonly superimposed on a pre-existing
dementia.
Distinguishing delirium from dementia

Onset
Course
Conscious level
Cognitive
defects
Prevalence
Hallucinations
Most prevalence studies of delirium have been carried out in

hospitalised medically ill patients, in whom the prevalence is
about 25%. Most at risk are elderly patients, postoperative
patients, and those who are terminally ill. The epidemiology of
delirium in primary care and the community is unknown, but,
with shorter length of stay in hospital and more surgery on a
day case basis, it is likely to be increasingly common in the
community and in residential care homes. It has been estimated
that, among hospital inpatients with delirium, less than half
have fully recovered by the time of discharge.
Delusions
Aetiology
Delirium has a large number of possible causes. Many of these
are life threatening, and delirium should therefore be regarded
as a potential medical emergency. It is increasingly recognised
that most patients have multiple causes for delirium, and
consequently there may be several factors to be considered in
diagnosis and management. Causes of delirium may be
classified as
x Underlying general medical conditions and their treatment
x Substance use or withdrawal
x Of multiple aetiology
x Of unknown aetiology.
Prescribed drugs and acute infections are perhaps the
commonest causes, particularly in elderly people. Prescribed
drugs are implicated in up to 40% of cases and should always
be considered as a cause. Many prescribed drugs can cause
delirium, particularly those with anticholinergic properties,
sedating drugs like benzodiazepines, and narcotic analgesics.
Withdrawal from alcohol or from sedative hypnotic drugs is
a common cause of delirium in hospitalised patients separated
from their usual supply of these substances. Delirium tremens is
a form of delirium associated with alcohol withdrawal and
requires special attention.
In addition to looking for precipitating causes of delirium, it
is important to consider risk factors. These include age (with
children and elderly people at particular risk), comorbid
physical illness or dementia, and environmental factors such as
visual or hearing impairment, social isolation, sensory
deprivation, and being moved to a new environment.
Psychomotor
activity
Delirium
Acute or subacute
Fluctuating, usually
revolves over days to
weeks
Often impaired, can
fluctuate rapidly
Poor short term
memory, poor
attention span
Common, especially
visual
Fleeting,
non-systematised
Increased, reduced, or
unpredictable
Dementia
Insidious
Progressive
Clear until later stages

Poor short term memory,
attention less affected until
severe
Often absent
Often absent
Can be normal
Prevalence of delirium
Setting
Hospitalised medically ill patients*
Hospitalised elderly patients
Hospitalised cancer patients
Hospitalised AIDS patients
Terminally ill patients
% with
delirium
10-30%
10-40%
25%
30-40%
80%
*High risk conditions and procedures include cardiotomy,

hip surgery, transplant surgery, burns, renal dialysis, and
lesions of the central nervous system
Causes of delirium due to underlying medical conditions

x Intoxication with drugsMany drugs implicated especially
anticholinergic agents, anticonvulsants, anti-parkinsonism agents,
steroids, cimetidine, opiates, sedative hypnotics. Dont forget alcohol
and illicit drugs
x Withdrawal syndromesAlcohol, sedative hypnotics, barbiturates
x Metabolic causes
Hypoxia, hypoglycaemia, hepatic, renal or pulmonary insufficiency
Endocrinopathies (such as hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism,
hypopituitarism, hypoparathyroidism or hyperparathyroidism)
Disorders of fluid and electrolyte balance
Rare causes (such as porphyria, carcinoid syndrome)
x Infections
x Head trauma
x EpilepsyIctal, interictal, or postictal
x Neoplastic disease
x Vascular disorders
Cerebrovascular (such as transient ischaemic attacks, thrombosis,
embolism, migraine)
Cardiovascular (such as myocardial infarction, cardiac failure)
Features of delirium tremens
Management
There are four main aspects to managing delirium:
x Identifying and treating the underlying causes
x Providing environmental and supportive measures
x Prescribing drugs aimed at managing symptoms
x Regular clinical review and follow up.
Good management of delirium goes beyond mere control
of the most florid and obvious symptoms.
x Associated with alcohol withdrawal

x Delirium with prominent anxiety and autonomic
hyperactivity
x There may be associated metabolic disturbance
and fits
x Chronic alcoholics are at risk of Wernickes
encephalopathy, in which delirium becomes
complicated by ataxia and ophthalmoplegia.
Urgent treatment with parenteral thiamine is
required to prevent permanent memory damage
49

Making the diagnosis
Most patients with delirium are identified only because of
marked behavioural disturbance. It would be preferable for all
older patients to be screened for risk factors at admission to
hospital. These would include substance misuse (particularly
alcohol) and pre-existing cognitive impairment (assessed with
the Hodkinson mental test or similar). Although such screening
questions are part of the admission form in many hospitals, in
our experience junior doctors seldom complete them. Once
patients are admitted, minor episodes of confusion, behavioural
disturbance, or increasing agitation should be taken seriously
and investigated as appropriate. They should not be simply
dismissed as old age or psychological reactions to
hospitalisation.
Identifying and treating the cause
Delirium, by definition, is secondary to one or more underlying
cause. Identifying such causes is often difficult, especially when
patients are unable to give a coherent history or cooperate with
physical examination. On occasions, it can be necessary to
sedate a patient before conducting an adequate assessment. The
interviewing of third parties is often helpful. Once a cause is
found, appropriate treatment should be started without delay.
The environment
The aims of environmental interventions are, firstly, to create
an environment that places minimum demands on a patients
impaired cognitive function and, secondly, to limit the risk of
harm to the patient and others that may result from disturbed
behaviour. Nursing should, as far as possible, be done by the
same member of staff (preferably one trusted by the patient).
This consistency should be supported with other strategies
such as clear and if necessary repeated communication,
adequate lighting, and the provision of clocks as aids to
maintaining orientation. Visits from family and friends and
provision of familiar objects from home can also be helpful.
The correction of sensory impairments (such as by providing
glasses or hearing aids) to help patients grip on reality is
sometimes overlooked.
It is also be important to minimise any risk to a delirious
patient, other patients on the ward, and staff by ensuring that
the patient is in a safe and separate area and that potentially
dangerous objects are removed.
Drug treatment
Drug treatment of delirium should only be used when essential
and then with care. This is because drugs such as antipsychotics
and benzodiazepines can make the delirium worse and can
exacerbate underlying causes (for example, benzodiazepines
may worsen respiratory failure).
Antipsychotic drugs
Antipsychotics are the most commonly used drugs. Their onset
of action is usually rapid, with improvement seen in hours to
days. Haloperidol is often used because it has few
anticholinergic side effects, minimal cardiovascular side effects,
and no active metabolites. As it is a high potency drug it is less
sedating than phenothiazines and therefore less likely to
exacerbate delirium. It is, however, prone to causing
parkinsonism, which may exacerbate a patients tendency to fall.
Low dose haloperidol (1-10 mg/day) is adequate for most
patients. In severe behavioural disturbance haloperidol may be
given intramuscularly or intravenously.
It is preferable to use a fixed dose that is frequently reviewed
from the time of diagnosis rather than always giving the drug
as required in response to disturbed behaviour. It is essential,
50
Hodkinson mental test

Score one point for each question answered
correctly and give total score out of 10
Question
x Patients age
x Time (to nearest hour)
x Address given, for recall at end of test (42 West
Street)
x Name of hospital (or area of town if at home)
x Current year
x Patients date of birth
x Current month
x Years of the first world war
x Name of monarch (or president)
x Count backwards from 20 to 1 (no errors
allowed but may correct self)
Environmental and supportive measures in delirium

x Education of all who interact with patient (doctors, nurses, ancillary
and portering staff, friends, family)
x Reality orientation techniques
Firm clear communicationpreferably by same member of staff
Use of clocks and calendars
x Creating an environment that optimises stimulation (adequate
lighting, reducing unnecessary noise, mobilising patient whenever
possible)
x Correcting sensory impairments (providing hearing aids, glasses, etc)
x Ensuring adequate warmth and nutrition
x Making environment safe (removing objects with which patient
could harm self or others)
Simple measures to help orientation (such as glasses, hearing aids, and

clocks) are effective in the management of delirium
In postoperative patients judicious use of oxygen can treat delirium

effectively
Delirium
yet often forgotten, to monitor patients for both adequate
response and unacceptable side effects. While a patient is in
hospital this consists of at least a daily assessment of symptoms,
level of sedation, and examination for extrapyramidal and other
unwanted drug effects.
Preliminary experience with new antipsychotics suggest they
may also be effective in delirium, but their advantages remain
unestablished.
Benzodiazepines
Benzodiazepines are usually preferred when delirium is
associated with withdrawal from alcohol or sedatives. They may
also be used as an alternative or adjuvant to antipsychotics
when these are ineffective or cause unacceptable side effects.
Intravenous or intramuscular lorazepam may be given up to
once every four hours. In patients with delirium due to hepatic
insufficiency, lorazepam is preferred to haloperidol. Excessive
sedation or respiratory depression from benzodiazepines is
reversible with flumazenil.
Review
One of the most consistent failings in the management of
delirium is lack of review. The acute symptoms are usually dealt
with out of hours by junior staff and are forgotten by the next
day. It is essential to review management of delirium and of the
underlying causes for the duration of the hospital stay.
Patients capacity and consent
Increasingly issues of capacity and informed consent may be
raised in relation to the treatment of delirium. Urgent
interventions needed to prevent serious deterioration or death
or necessary in the interests of a patients safety are deemed to
be covered by common law in the United Kingdom. Although
opinions differ, most agree that (a) if medical colleagues would
deem a treatment appropriate and (b) if reasonable people
would want the treatment themselves, then it can be given if
urgently necessary.
Explaining the diagnosis
Effective management requires that not only the doctors and
nurses caring for a patient understand the condition, but that
the patients family and friends appreciate the reasons for the
dramatic change in the persons behaviour and that it is usually
a reversible condition.
Aftercare
Many patients with delirium still have residual symptoms at the
time of discharge from hospital. There is therefore a need for
continued vigilance about medication, environmental change,
and sensory problems during discharge planning and aftercare.
Close liaison between hospital and primary care is an essential
part of discharge planning.
Patients or their families will often need reassurance that an
episode of delirium is not the start of an inevitable progression
to dementia and that a full recovery can usually be expected.
Delirious patients may erroneously be placed in long term care
as demented: decisions to place patients in care should be
made only after an adequate assessment that differentiates
delirium from dementia.
The picture of alcohol consumption is reproduced with permission of

J Sutton and Rex Features. The picture of a patient receiving oxygen is
reproduced with permission of Antonia Reeve and the Science Photo
Library. The picture of pills is reproduced with permission of AJHD/
DHD Photo Gallery
Excessive use of sedative drugs often causes more

problems that it solves
Key medicolegal judgments about patients capacity and

consent (English Law)
Re c (mental patients: refusal of treatment) [1994] 1 WLR 290
An adult has the capacity to consent to or refuse treatment if he or
she can
x Understand and retain the information relevant to the decision in
question
x Believe that information
x Weigh the information in the balance to arrive at an informed choice
Re f (mental health sterilisation) v West Berkshire Health
Authority (1989) 2 WLR 1025: (1989) All ER 673
not only (1) must there be a necessity to act when it is not practicable
to communicate with the assisted person but also (2) the action taken
must be such as a reasonable person would in all circumstances take,
acting in the best interests of the assisted person.
Action properly taken to preserve life, health or wellbeing of the
assisted person (which) may well transcend such measures as surgical
operations or substantial treatment and may extend to include such
humdrum matters as routine medical or dental treatment, even such
simple care as dressing and undressing and putting to bed.

x A quarter of hospitalised elderly patients will have delirium
x Occurrence of delirium predicts poorer outcome and greater
length of stay even after controlling for other variables, including
severity of illness
x Positive identification and management of risk factors can reduce
incidence and severity of delirium in elderly patients
Francis J, Martin D, Kapoor WN. A prospective study of delirium in hospitalized
elderly. JAMA 1990;263:1097-101
OKeeffe S,.Lavan J. The prognostic significance of delirium in older hospital
patients. J Am Geriatr Soc 1997;45:174-8
Cole MG, Primeau FJ, Elie LM. Delirium: prevention, treatment, and outcome
studies. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 1998;11:126-37
Further reading
x American Psychiatric Association. Practice guideline for the treatment
of patients with delirium. Washington, DC: APA, 1999
x Meagher DS. Deliriumoptimising management. BMJ
2001;322:144-9
x Meagher DS, OHanlon D, OMahony E, Casey PR. The use of
environmental strategies and psychotropic medication in the
management of delirium. Br J Psychiatry 1996;168:512-5
x Taylor D, Lewis S. Delirium. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry
1993;56:742-51
51
Index
Page numbers in bold refer to figures in the text; those in italics refer to tables or boxed material
abdominal pain
explanation of causes 42
see also functional gastrointestinal disorders
abnormal illness behaviour see functional somatic
symptoms/syndromes
abuse, women 41
active listening 1, 2
activity levels
in fatigue 35, 36
importance of 6, 16
acute back pain 379
acute stress disorder 29
adjustment disorders 10, 11
alcoholism 48
alcohol withdrawal 42
alprazolam 16
anger 3
angina 45
assessment 44
diagnostic uncertainty 45
treatment 467
angiography 46, 46
anticonvulsants 15
antidepressants 12, 19
in cancer patient 27
causing anxiety 15
for chest pain 47
comparative studies 12
for fatigue 35
for functional gastrointestinal disorders 42
antimicrobials 15
antipsychotics 16, 5051
anxiety 10
cancer patient 25, 26, 27
characteristics of abnormal 14
classification 14
detection and assessment 15
drugs causing 15
medical conditions causing or mimicking 15
non-cardiac chest pain 46
symptoms and signs 3, 14, 18
treatment 1516
unpleasant procedures 16
anxious adjustment disorder 14
Aretaeus of Cappadocia 10
assault 29, 31
assessment, as treatment 56
attitudes 4, 5
avoidance
in back pain 37, 39
in fatigue 35
following trauma 31
of threat 16
blockers 16
Back Book, The 37
back pain 37
biopsychosocial model 37
clinical course 12
management of acute 379
management of chronic 3940
Beck depression inventory (BDI) 11
behavioural therapies
anxiety disorders 16
functional bowel disorders 43
hypochondriasis 20
see also cognitive behaviour therapy
behaviour change, motivation 3
beliefs 2, 4
back pain 38
and chest pain 45, 46
identifying unhelpful 35
of relatives 5
benzodiazepines 16, 50, 51
biopsychosocial models
functional gastrointestinal disorders 41
low back pain 37
bipolar disorder 10
brain metastases 25
brief psychological therapies 16
bronchodilators 15
buspirone 16
calcium channel blockers 15
cancer 25
challenges of patient 25
distress 25, 267
psychological assessment and care 268
psychological consequences 256
recurrence 26
risk of psychiatric illness 26
support organisations 27
treatments 26
capacity, patient 51
cardiac disease
and depression 10, 45
functional symptoms 20, 45
cardiac nurse 47
cardiac rehabilitation 20, 45
chemotherapy 26
chest pain 20, 44
assessment and early management 44
causes of non-cardiac 20, 45, 46
establishing a diagnosis 456
treatment of non-cardiac 467
types 45
chronic back pain 3940
53
Index
chronic complainers 21
chronic fatigue syndromes 34
chronic illness
care delivery skills 8
changes in organisation of care 89
effective management principles 78
chronic multiple functional symptoms
common management problems
234
defined 21
epidemiology and detection 21
example of patient history 23
primary care management 212
psychiatric referral 223
see also factitious disorders
chronic pain
aetiological factors 18
following trauma 30
lower back 3940
syndromes 39
clinical flags system in back pain 38
cognitive assessment 50
cognitive behavioural approach
back pain 39
post-traumatic stress disorder 30
cognitive behaviour therapy
chest pain 47
defined 35
depression 13
fatigue 36
in functional syndromes 20
cognitive function 48, 4950
collaborative management
chronic multiple functional symptoms 23
depression 13
musculoskeletal pain 38
collaborative self care
back pain 378, 39
chronic illness 89
communication 13, 5, 38
anxious patient 1516
between doctors 4
chest pain 467
effective 5
non-verbal 1
written 4, 5
community mental health services 13
compensation claims 31
consent, informed 51
consultation 13
disease centred v patient centred 4
positive 6
three function model 1
correspondence 4, 5
corticosteroids 15
crime victim 29, 30, 31
critical incident debriefing 30
cues, patients 1
Cullen, William 14
Darwin, Charles 21
debriefing, critical incident 30
delirium
aetiology 49
54
in cancer 25
clinical features 48
detection and diagnosis 489, 50
differential diagnosis 49
management 4951
prevalence 49
delirium tremens 49
delusions 48, 49
dementia 25, 49
denial 2
depression
in cancer 25, 26, 27
classification 10
clinical features 10
drug treatment 12
epidemiology 10
and fatigue 35
following trauma 30
mental health services 13
and myocardial infarction 10, 45
physical symptoms 3, 11, 18
psychological treatment 13
recognition and diagnosis 11
risk factors 11
Descartes, Ren 17
diabetes management 8
diagnosis, consultation 4
digitalis 15
disaster plan 32
disasters, debriefing 30
disease registry 8
disorientation 48
distress
back pain 39
cancer 25, 267
linking to somatic symptoms 3
doctor-patient communication 13, 5, 38
doctor-patient relationship 22
see also reassurance
domestic trauma 31
Don Quixote and the Windmill 48
dopamine 15
Dor, Gustave 48
drugs
causing anxiety 15
causing delirium 49
causing depression 10
dependence 12, 16
withdrawal 16, 49
see also named drugs and drug groups
dual focus 1
dualism 17, 20
dysthymia 10
emergency department 29
emotional distress see distress
emotions
detecting and responding to 1, 23
linking to physical symptoms 3
exercise programme 36
expectations, and experience 4
expert patient programme 4, 7
explanations to patient
Index
functional somatic symptoms 19
explanatory model, patient 2
factitious disorders 24
family
cancer patient 27
chronically ill patient 7
delirious patient 51
thinking family 2, 5
trauma victim 31
fat folder patient 21
fatigue 10
assessment 34
causes 334
general management 345
medical conditions associated with 33
prevalence 33
specialist management 356
fear 3, 25
fibromyalgia 34
flags, clinical system in back pain 38
flumazenil 51
follow up
in chronic illness 8
value of 6
functional gastrointestinal disorders
biopsychosocial model 41
classification 41
explaining symptoms 42
initial management 412
patient organisations 42
psychological referral 43
functional somatic symptoms/syndromes
causal factors 18
classification 17
detection and diagnosis 1819
epidemiology 17
management 1920
in medical disease 20
see also chronic multiple functional symptoms
gastro-oesophageal reflux 46
general health questionnaire 15
generalised anxiety disorder 14
Gillray, James 29
graded exercise therapy 36
hallucinations 48, 49
haloperidol 16, 50
head injury 31
health anxiety 16
health beliefs see beliefs
Hippocrates 2
Hodkinson mental test 50
hospital anxiety and depression scale (HADS)
11, 15
hypnosis 51
hypocapnia 15
hypochondriasis 20
hypoxia 15
iatrogenic factors
anxiety 15
chest pain 45, 46
functional somatic symptoms 18, 21, 24
IBS Network 42
imipramine 16
information, patient 1, 2, 4, 5, 15, 27
informed consent 51
injuries
compensation 31
head 31
see also trauma
inotropes 15
insulin 15
interdisciplinary pain management programme 39
International Federation for Functional
Gastrointestinal Disorders 42
interpersonal difficulties 24
interpersonal therapy 16, 43
interview
chronic multiple functional symptoms 22, 23
style and techniques 12, 5
investigations see tests
irritable bowel syndrome
diagnostic criteria 41
initial management 412
patient organisations 42
psychiatric referral 43
irritable heart 44
letters, primary/secondary care 4, 5
levodopa 15
liaison psychiatry services 13
life events 46
listening skills 1, 2
lorazepam 51
major depressive disorder 10
major incidents 2930
malingering 24
management plan 2
manic depressive (bipolar) disorder 10
medical conditions
causing or mimicking anxiety 15
presenting with fatigue 33
medical syndromes 17
medicolegal judgments 51
ME (myalgic encephalomyelitis) 34
mental assessment 43
mental health services 13, 15
metastases, brain 25
mind-body dualism 17, 20
motivation, for change 3
multiple functional somatic symptoms see chronic multiple
functional symptoms
Mnchausens syndrome 24
musculoskeletal pain
causes and prevalence 37
management of acute 379
myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME) 34
myocardial infarction
and depression 10, 45
rehabilitation programme 45
National Electronic Library of Health 5
neuropsychiatric syndromes 25
neurotic symptoms, epidemiology 10
55
Index
NHS Direct, online 5
non-cardiac chest pain 20, 45
causes 45, 46
establishing a diagnosis 456
treatment 467
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs 15
non-verbal cues 1
nursing staff 56
occupational stresses 35
occupational trauma 31
oesophageal disorders 46
oestrogen 15
organisation of care
chest pain 47
chronic illness 89
pain
distress and anger 39
see also chronic pain
pain control 15
pain management programmes 39
panic disorder 10
detection 15
features 14
prevalence in medical settings 46
screening questions 46
treatment 1516
paraneoplastic syndromes 25
parkinsonism 50
paroxetine 16
participatory management 2, 4, 78, 9
patient
cues 1
expectations and experience 4, 23
explanatory model of problem 2
participation in care 2, 4, 78, 9
providing information 1, 2, 4, 5, 15, 27
patient centred consultation 4
patient information materials 5
patient organisations
cancer 27
personal injury claims 31
phobia 10, 14
phobic anxiety 301
physiotherapists 30
post-combat syndromes 19, 44
postoperative patient 50
post-traumatic stress disorder 30
primary care team
depression management 13
management of chronic illness 89
stepped care approach 8, 47
problem solving 13
proton pump inhibitors 46
psychiatric referral
cancer patient 28
chronic multiple functional symptoms
223
fatigue syndromes 35
psychiatric syndromes 17
psychological therapies
brief 6, 16
56
for functional bowel disorders 43

see also named therapies
questionnaires
anxiety 15
cancer patient 27
depression 11
panic attacks 46
questions 1, 2, 15
Radford, Edward 31
radiotherapy 26
reassurance 2, 56
anxiety 1516
chest pain 47
complexity of 5
functional somatic symptoms 19
referrals see psychiatric referral; specialist referral
reflux, gastro-oesophageal 46
relationships, personal 16, 24
relatives see family
Resignation 26
road traffic accident 29, 30, 31
Royal College of Psychiatrists 12
screening instruments
anxiety 15
depression 11
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
(SSRIs) 12, 16, 47
self care, collaborative
back pain 378, 39
chronic illness 89
self-report questionnaires
anxiety 15
cancer patient 27
depression 11
shellshock 19
sleepiness 34
sleep problems 10, 33, 48
sleep-wake cycle 48
social support 27
soldiers 19, 44
somatic symptoms
cognitive model 6
linking to emotional distress 3
see also chronic multiple functional symptoms; functional
somatic symptoms/syndromes
somatoform disorder 17
specialist referral
cancer patient 278
functional symptoms and syndromes 20
letters 4
see also psychiatric referral
squamous cell carcinoma 25
SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) 12, 16, 47
state-trait anxiety inventory 15
stepped care 7, 8, 47
stress 34, 35, 46
stroke 11
suicide risk 12, 25
support organisations
cancer 27
Index
terminal disease 26
tests
explaining negative 6
psychological impact 6, 46
unpleasant 16
thinking family 2, 5
thyroxine 15
trauma
acute management 2930
consequences and care of patient 301
family and carers 31
head 31
lifetime prevalence of events 29
personal injury and compensation 31
types 29, 31
treadmill exercise test 46
treatment
anxiety about 26
communication with patient 4, 5

compliance 16
future planning 6
principles 45
tricyclic antidepressants 12, 16, 47
verbal cues 1
Very Slippy Weather 29
Victim Support 30
war, functional symptoms/syndromes 19, 44
Weary 33
Wilhelmson, Carl Wilhelm 26
withdrawal syndromes 16, 49
women 10, 21, 24, 33, 41
work stresses 35
World Health Organization 10, 17
57

Abc of Psychological Medicine

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Abc of Psychological Medicine

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Abc of Psychological Medicine

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ABC

Edited by Richard Mayou, Michael Sharpe and Alan Carson

BMJ Publishing Group 2003

Organising care for chronic illness

Depression in medical patients

Anxiety in medical patients

Functional somatic symptoms and syndromes

Chronic multiple functional somatic symptoms

Abdominal pain and functional gastrointestinal disorders

Linda Gask, Tim Usherwood

The success of any consultation depends on how well the

Starting the interview

Visiting the sick woman, by Quiringh Gerritsz van Brekelenkam (c 1620-68)

Three functions of the medical consultation

Responding to patients cues

Aspects of interview style that aid assessment of patients

ABC of Psychological Medicine

Active listening skills

Surveying the fieldRepeated signals that further details are wanted:

Eliciting a patients explanatory model

Negotiating a management plan

Appropriate use of reassurance

Helping patients to change their behaviour

Key stages in linking somatic symptoms of emotional

Evidence based summary

Jonathan Price, Laurence Leaver

Traditionally, the management of newly presenting patients has

Mismatch of expectations and experiences

What some patients get

To know the cause

Explanation and information

Poor explanation that does not

Advice and treatment

Feeling that doctor is uninterested

Disease centred versus patient centred consultations

Taking time to listen to and address patients ideas, concerns, and

Communication between doctors

The assessment as treatment

Gaining understanding of patients concerns

Showing your understanding of patients concerns

The complexity of reassurance

ABC of Psychological Medicine

Planning for the future

The painting of Charcot is reproduced with permission of the

Characteristics of brief psychological intervention

Brief, single session intervention

A simple cognitive model of physical symptoms. A cognitive model is one in

Evidence based summary

Organising care for chronic illness

Michael Von Korff, Russell E Glasgow, Michael Sharpe

A major and increasing task for health services is the

Principles of effective management

Treating chronic conditions must involve the family

Common elements of effective chronic illness management

Collaboration between service providers and patients

Understanding of patients beliefs, wishes, and circumstances

The UK expert patient programme*

Encouragement of self care protocols, nationally and locally

ABC of Psychological Medicine