Air Cooled Heat Exchanger Design
Air Cooled Heat Exchanger Design
Air Cooled Heat Exchanger Design
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CONTENTS
SECTION
INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
SCOPE
FIELD OF APPLICATION
DEFINITIONS
4.1
4.2
4
9
16
16
19
19
20
21
25
26
33
33
34
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
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CONTROL
35
PRESSURE RELIEF
37
ASSESSMENT OF OFFERS
37
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
General
Manual Checking Of Designs
Computer Assessment
Bid Comparison
37
37
39
40
40
9.1
9.2
Fouling
Corrosion
40
41
10
42
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
Performance Testing
Air-Side Cleaning
Mechanical Maintenance
Tubeside Access
42
45
48
48
11
REFERENCES
50
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APPENDICES
51
TABLES
1
43
52
FIGURES
11
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12
14
10
16
11
18
15
25
16
29
17
HEADER TYPES
32
18
53
19
53
20
55
21
55
57
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INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
SCOPE
This document is intended to provide a guide to the process engineer who may
be involved in the specification or operation of Air Cooled Heat Exchangers
(ACHEs).
It is concerned with such matters as choice of exchanger, specification of duty,
location, and assessment of tenders, control and maintenance.
It does not aim to give detailed information on the thermal design or rating of
ACHEs.
It is assumed that readers of the Guide have some general knowledge of heat
transfer. However, for the benefit of those readers who are unfamiliar with air
cooled heat exchangers, sub clause 5.1 gives a simple description and some of
the more common terminology used to describe these items. It may be beneficial
to read sub clause 5.1 as a precursor to this Guide.
FIELD OF APPLICATION
DEFINITIONS
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HTRI
HTFS
Although this Guide is principally concerned with air cooled heat exchangers,
they are only one of several possible ways of rejecting heat to the environment.
Before deciding on the use of air cooling, the alternatives should be considered
and their relative merits assessed. Moreover, heat rejected to the environment is
wasted. Full benefit should be taken of the work on Process Integration to reduce
this waste heat as far as practicable. See Refs. [14] and [15].
4.1
4.1.1 General
The principal possibilities for process plant heat rejection are:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Indirect cooling using a secondary coolant, with sea or river water as the
ultimate heat sink.
(d)
(e)
(f)
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(g)
Although this Guide is mainly concerned with air cooled heat exchangers, the
relative merits of the other systems need to be considered.
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However, sea water is corrosive and river water may be also, and either may
give rise to severe fouling problems from scaling, sedimentation and
microorganisms. The effective treatment of the large volumes of raw water
involved, to reduce the fouling tendency, is often impracticable.
4.1.4 Indirect Cooling With A Secondary Coolant
An indirect system, as shown in Figure 3, can be used where one or more of the
following conditions apply:
(a)
(b)
(c)
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FIGURE 3
The secondary coolant may be either clean water, dosed with suitable chemicals
to prevent corrosion or, where the mixing of water and process fluid cannot be
tolerated, some other suitable fluid. It is usually cheapest to cool the circulated
fluid in a plate-type exchanger, which can use plates of a corrosion resistant
material, such as titanium, and can be easily cleaned.
This system may be particularly appropriate where there are several separate
cooling duties and the only available water is corrosive or fouling. By providing a
central supply of clean noncorrosive fluid, cooled in one exchanger designed to
handle the raw water, the process exchangers may all be fabricated in less
expensive materials.
This system has the disadvantage that the secondary coolant has to be run at a
temperature above that of the raw water, in order to provide a driving force for
the cooler, so that the available temperature driving force in the process coolers
is reduced.
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A paper exercise was carried out by the author in 2001 to assess the relative
benefits of an indirect system against a conventional cooling water system. The
study showed that there was little overall change in the plant capital for the two
cases, the lower temperature driving force for the indirect system being offset by
the lower fouling resistances that could be used. Un-quantified benefits of the
indirect system would be reduced need for cleaning, and the possibility of using
more compact forms of exchanger. The major disadvantage was the high cost of
the interchanger needed between the closed circuit and the ultimate sink.
However, if the closed circuit enabled the cooling tower to be dispensed with,
using raw water instead, substantial savings could be made. It is emphasized
that each case should be analyzed on its own merits.
FIGURE 4
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The fan-blown option, because the towers are relatively low and the mass
transfer efficiency high, may produce an unpleasant plume, especially in winter.
One of the principal problems of evaporative cooling systems is the quality of
water. The cooling tower can be an ideal environment for the growth of
microorganisms, and the tower itself acts as an efficient scrubber for dust laden
air. Severe fouling and/or corrosion problems can result if an adequate water
treatment program is not maintained, or if the heat exchangers are not carefully
designed or correctly operated.
An evaporative system requires a supply of make-up water, the minimum
acceptable quality of which depends on the nature of the water treatment
program used. In general, modern non-chromate systems require a purer makeup water than do the earlier chromate based treatments. The system, in general,
also requires a blowdown which, because of the treatment chemicals added, may
be subject to environmental constraints. For further information see consult a
Water Technologist.
4.1.6 Cooling Water From A "Dry Cooling Tower"
The "Dry Cooling Tower" of Figure 5 replaces the evaporative cooling pack of an
ordinary cooling tower by radiator elements, with the water in closed tubes. There
is a saving of water, there is no plume and clean water is used for process
cooling. However, dry cooling is more expensive than evaporative cooling, as the
heat transfer coefficient to the air is low, and the temperature approach is to the
dry-bulb temperature rather than the lower wet-bulb value. No example of a dry
cooling tower is known in a process plant, although they have been used in
thermal power stations.
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FIGURE 5
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FIGURE 6
If the direct air cooler has to be made of expensive material, there may be
an economic case for using an indirect system.
(b)
(c)
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If it is possible for all cooling duties to be done using air cooling, the capital and
running costs of an evaporative cooling system and all the associated fouling and
corrosion problems are removed. Against this, the capital costs of the actual
process exchangers are higher for air cooling, and the coolers require
considerable space within the plant structure and generally require more
maintenance than shell and tube units.
4.2
(b)
(c)
If the average level of heat rejection is 20C or less above air design
ambient temperature, choose water cooling. If 30C or more choose air
cooling. If 20-30C, there is unlikely to be a strong economic case either
way.
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4.2.3 Layout
ACHEs are bulky, and produce noise and warm air. Their siting should be
considered at an early stage of plant design.
The total plot area can be estimated by the method given in Appendix A, or other
methods. It is probable that no convenient area is available at grade for the
coolers, and that they will have to be mounted above other equipment. Pipe
tracks are often convenient. It is usual to find a place for ACHEs without great
difficulty, but remember that high mounted ACHEs will not benefit from any
ground attenuation of noise when community noise calculations are made.
Finding a grade position for the ACHEs might be worth more than 15 dB in the
noise calculations.
A check on possible air recirculation within banks and between banks should be
made. This check will owe more to art than to science, but some guidance may
be helpful.
The airflow pattern into an ACHE shows a high velocity near the edge of the inlet
(see Figure 8). This is associated with a low air pressure, and there is a risk that
the warm air from the outlet will be sucked into the inlet. This is particularly true
of forced draft units. As a general rule, some warm air recirculation will occur with
all long forced draft ACHE banks in a quartering wind (induced draft should avoid
this form of air recirculation). Should the air inlet be restricted, for instance by
neighboring buildings or too low a fan height, this effect will be increased.
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FIGURE 8
If there is more than one ACHE bank on a site, air recirculation between banks is
possible. The following recommendations represent the ideal:
(a)
f the banks are close to each other, then sheet the space between them to
prevent down-flow of air. Otherwise separate the banks by 15 m if on the
same level, or by 30 m if on differing levels. This will prevent recirculation
in "no wind" conditions, but the plume from one bank may be blown to
another in a turbulent wind.
(b)
(c)
(d)
"A" or "V" frame air cooled heat exchangers in a cross wind may suffer
from reverse flow through the upwind and downwind banks respectively.
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In practice, these ideal requirements are unlikely to be met. If they cannot be, the
possible increase in air temperature into the coolers should be estimated, and
the design air temperature to the ACHE adjusted accordingly. For critical duties
in difficult locations, wind tunnel studies may be necessary to determine the
influence of neighboring structures on the performance. However, such tests are
difficult and expensive to conduct, and it may be worth reconsidering the decision
to use air cooling.
4.2.4 Site Conditions
Various site conditions may force the choice of air or water cooling.
(a)
(b)
(c)
When, as is the case in dry tropical climates, there is a large difference between
wet and dry bulb temperature, water cooling will be especially favorable.
unfortunately, water is often in short supply in such climates.
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FIGURE 9
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4.2.5 Noise
Noise specifications fall into two classes:
(a)
(b)
The actual specification of maximum permitted noise levels will vary from case to
case, and is subject to control by the planning authorities. Machinery Section
should be consulted for further information.
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5.1
This sub clause is intended to give a brief description of typical Air Cooled Heat
Exchangers and to explain the terminology for the benefit of those who are not
familiar with the items.
An Air Cooled Heat Exchanger (ACHE) is a device for cooling and/or condensing
a fluid, usually called the Process Fluid, using atmospheric air as the heat sink.
The process fluid flows through the tubeside of one or more bundles of tubes; the
air flows in cross flow over the outside of the tubes, assisted by a fan or fans. An
example familiar to everyone is the motor car radiator. In principle, there are
many ways in which an ACHE could be arranged; this Guide in general is
confined to the sorts of design that are found in the chemical and petrochemical
industry.
Figure 10 shows the major parts of a typical air cooled heat exchanger.
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The tubes are fixed into HEADERS, which serve the same function as those in a
shell and tube exchanger but, because of the shape of the bundle, ACHE
headers are long and narrow. Different forms of header are used, depending on
the duty. See sub clause 5.7.8 and Figure 17 for information on header types. An
ACHE bundle can have either single pass process flow, with the process fluid
inlet connected to the header at one end and the outlet to the other, or a
multi-pass arrangement, with pass partition plates dividing up the header(s).
Unlike shell and tube exchangers, it is common for the different passes to have
significantly differing numbers of tubes. A typical arrangement for an air cooled
condenser where sub cooling is required, for example, is to have several rows of
tubes in parallel performing the condensing part of the duty, followed by a single
row of tubes for the sub cooling duty, resulting in an increased liquid velocity
in this stage. Not all the tubes in one row need be in the same pass.
Bundles are usually mounted horizontally, but for condensers there may be a
slight slope to assist in drainage.
A large ACHE will require several bundles to provide the surface. Bundles are
grouped into BAYS, each bay containing one or more (typically 2-3) bundles in
parallel. The complete UNIT may contain several bays.
Air for cooling is assisted through the bundle by FANS. Axial flow fans, giving a
large volumetric flow for a very low pressure drop (of the order of 1-2 inches
water gauge) are used. On large units these fans are often 3-4 m in diameter;
diameters of 7 m are not unknown. The width of a bay, the chosen tube length
and the fan diameter are loosely interrelated. In order to ensure reasonable air
distribution across the unit, it is desirable to divide each bay up into roughly
square sections between the headers, each section being served by one fan (see
Figure 11). It is normal to have between one and three fans for each bay. On
small units the fans may be driven by a directly coupled electric motor, but it is
more usual for them to be driven through a gearbox or belt drive. See sub clause
5.7.7.
The fans are mounted within a FAN RING and connected to the bundle by a
PLENUM chamber. This may be a simple rectilinear box, as shown in Figure 10,
or may be shaped to reduce the pressure drop associated with the change in
flow from the circular fan ring to the rectangular bundle. The fan and plenum may
be mounted above the bundles, as shown in Figure 10, giving an INDUCED
DRAUGHT arrangement, or below it, giving FORCED DRAUGHT (see sub
clause 5.8). It is also possible to arrange pairs of bundles in an "A" or "V"
formation (see Figure 9(e)), but this is not common in the process industries.
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Air flow through the bundle can be controlled by mounting LOUVRES across the
inlet or exit from the bundle. It is more usual, however, to control air flow, if
desired, either by using variable pitch fan blades, variable speed drives or
switching off some fans (see Clause 6). In certain cases, especially in locations
with extremely cold winters, STEAM COILS may be mounted below the bundle,
warming the inlet air somewhat, to prevent over-cooling of the process fluid.
The inlet and exit headers on each bundle will have at least one connection for
the process fluid; on wide bundles there may be several, to aid flow distribution.
The several inlets or outlets will be connected by MANIFOLDS. See sub clause
8.3.2 for a discussion of distribution problems.
The complete ACHE installation will include a support framework to mount it
clear of other equipment, to avoid restricting the air flow, and walkways, stairs
etc. for access to the bundle and fans.
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5.2
General
Unlike shell and tube exchangers, where the thermal and mechanical design are
frequently done "in-house", it is not usual within GBH Enterprises to design an
air cooled heat exchanger. The normal approach is to specify the required duty,
and place the thermal and mechanical design out to tender with selected ACHE
manufacturers. In order to obtain an acceptable design, the manufacturer needs
to know not only the process conditions, but also any constraints that GBH
Enterprises wish to place on the design. These will include layout constraints,
noise specifications, preferred fans and drive systems, control requirements and
economic factors.
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5.3
(b)
The engineer may wish to make provision for future plant uprating. If it is
probable that the plant will be uprated at some future date, there may be a
case for increasing the design throughput, with a corresponding increase
in heat load. However, the heat transfer coefficient under the initial
operating conditions will be lower than the design figure because of the
lower velocities; the performance under the initial operating conditions
should be checked to determine the expected design margin. It may be
preferable to make provision for increasing the size of the ACHE at some
later date, by adding further bundles in parallel with the original ones.
(c)
(2)
(3)
(4)
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5.4
As a general rule, high heat transfer coefficients tend to be associated with high
pressure gradients. In some cases the section of the plant upstream of the ACHE
is required, for process reasons, to run at a higher pressure than the
downstream, and any pressure drop not absorbed by the exchanger will be taken
by a control valve. An example of this might be where the product from a
pressure reactor is to be cooled before storage at atmospheric pressure. In
these cases the pressure drop can be regarded as "free" and it will usually pay
the engineer to design the unit to absorb as much of the available pressure drop
as possible, consistent with the requirements for control. However, in general,
pressure drop has to be provided by a pump or compressor. The cost of pressure
drop may be considerable, especially with less dense fluids, as the power
absorbed is proportional to the volumetric throughput times the pressure
drop. However, a large pressure drop with viscous fluids, by improving the
process side heat transfer coefficient and hence reducing the exchanger capital
cost, may more than outweigh the cost of the pressure drop.
For low pressure condensation duties, particularly vacuum condensers, it is
usually necessary to limit the pressure drop, as the condensing temperature, and
hence the driving force, falls with reducing pressure.
Fouling resistances specified frequently take no account of the effect of fouling
layer thickness on pressure drop. As the pressure drop for a single phase fluid
through a pipe varies inversely with the fifth power of the diameter, any
significant fouling layer can have a noticeable effect.
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The effect of pressure drop on ACHE cost is so complex, especially with viscous
products, that it is not possible to suggest simple rules. Comparison of the
estimated exchanger and pressure drop costs, together with common sense,
should show if there is a serious problem. If so, the only solution is to make
several designs at varying pressure drop, with a computer, and compare the
resultant overall costs. (see also sub clause 8.3)
5.5
(b)
(c)
The normal ambient air temperature within the plant will be higher than
that for the surroundings, due to heat escapes from other items of
equipment. The proximity of potential sources of warm air (e.g. furnaces)
should be considered when choosing the location of the air cooled heat
exchanger, and selecting the design temperature. As a guide, the in-plant
temperature may be 2-3C over the local ambient temperature.
The minimum expected air temperature should be specified, as this not
only determines the performance of the unit on cold days, and shows up
any tendency for process freezing etc., but is also needed to determine
the maximum power drawn by the fans.
FIGURE 15 TYPICAL TEMPERATURE VARIATION THROUGHOUT A HOT
SUMMER'S DAY
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5.5.2 Altitude
Although within Europe most plants are sited at an altitude not far
above sea level, this may not be the case for overseas locations.
The performance of a given air cooled heat exchanger will
be less at higher altitude due to the fall-off in air density, and hence
volumetric heat capacity. (At 1500 m the air density is
approximately 85% of that at sea level for the same ambient
temperature).
5.6
Although manufacturers of air cooled heat exchangers will generally have access
to physical property data for the more common fluids encountered, they are
unlikely to have reliable data for many of the mixtures that are used within all
industries, especially where these exhibit non-ideal behavior. The best way of
supplying these data, especially for multi-component condensation, is in the form
of a "Physical Properties Profile", where the properties of the vapor and liquid
phases together with the heat load and weight fraction vapor are given for a
range of temperature values spanning the expected operating conditions. Such
data can be generated for most cases. See GBHE-PEG-HEA-500.
5.7
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Aluminium:
is the most cost effective of the three, having good thermal
conductivity and reasonable cost per square meter. (The cost of
heat transfer surface is "per square meter", not "per ton").
Aluminium has adequate corrosion resistance for most ACHE
applications, though it is reasonable to have some reservations on
this question. The almost universal choice of aluminium fins in
process ACHEs involves the use of helical fins on round tubes. The
performance of aluminium fins is much better than that of steel fins,
and they are much cheaper than copper helical fins.
(b)
Steel fins:
often galvanized, are occasionally used in process plants. Steel,
galvanized, is much the same cost "per square meter" as
aluminium. However, it is rather a poor conductor, resulting in low
fin efficiencies. The result is that steel finned exchangers are much
more expensive than are aluminium finned. They are, in some
atmospheres, more resistant to corrosion. They are also much
stronger than are aluminium fins, but cost has limited their
use to some particularly corrosive services.
The efforts made to improve air quality at these sites has been
such that aluminium finned tubes are now acceptable, and there
now seems hardly any market for steel finned ACHEs on process
plants.
(c)
Copper:
is about the same cost/ton as aluminium, and over three times its
density. It is thus more expensive "per square meter" and little
advantage can be taken of its superior thermal conductivity in round
helical fin tubes, where fin thickness is dictated by manufacturing
considerations, resulting in very high fin efficiencies for aluminium
fins. Especially when tinned, copper offers superior corrosion
resistance to either of the other metals. The cost disadvantage of
copper in relation to aluminium is reversed if very thin fins can be
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"G" Fins:
This is the recommended form of tubing for process duties most typically
recommended by GBH Enterprises. These finned tubes are
manufactured by opening up a groove in the base tube, tension winding a
strip of fin material into the grove, and then peening the base tube so that
the fin is securely held. The resultant tubing is robust, with little likelihood
of the fin coming away from the base tube. It is sometimes suggested that
water can enter the crack between tube and fin and cause a thermal
resistance at this point. Some tubes submitted to the British Non-ferrous
Research Association for long term marine and industrial corrosion tests
indeed show corrosion at this point; however, when tested for heat
transfer, they showed a small increase in heat transfer coefficient
compared to new tubes. There is a suspicion that preferential corrosion
may occur near the base of "G" fins, which would lead to a weakening of
the fins and a loss of performance. There is no known evidence to support
this suggestion, but it remains a nagging doubt.
The remaining types of finned tubing are not generally recommended for process
duties, but are described below for completeness.
(b)
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(c)
"L" Fin:
This is similar in construction to the "I" fin, except that the strip from which
the fin is made has an "L" foot formed in it before the strip is tension
wound onto the tube, to give more or less continuous cover of aluminium
over the tube. Although this construction does give an improved heat
transfer area between the tube and the fin and more positive location, its
use is not recommended. A particularly damaging form of corrosion occurs
when a bundle is wetted, possibly during construction or shut-down. Water
between the fins can infiltrate the space between tube and fin by capillary
action. A galvanic cell is set up between aluminium and steel, and
aluminium oxide corrosion product is formed. This makes an effective
insulating blanket between tube and fin.
Although only indirectly concerned with corrosion, there is another point to
avoid with "L"!fins. The base of the fin will not be truly flat, and there will
only be a relatively small proportion of the base of the fin in contact with
the tube. In the case of fins made with McElroy machines, this proportion
might only be 20-30%. The result is that any interface thermal resistance
will be multiplied by this ratio, when related to the whole outside surface
of the tube. Such a resistance will be present if mill scale is not removed
from the tube before finning, and can be appreciable. Values as high as
0.0008 W/m2.K (based on bare tube area) have been measured with "L"
fin tubes in new condition. If the mill scale is removed, then the tube is
very liable to corrosion before the finning is applied. Some McElroy
machines have a sand blast incorporated, thus avoiding these troubles.
Careful inspection of tubing is necessary before "L" fins are applied.
(d)
"LL" Fins:
These fins, which are like "L" fins but with the flange extended to be under
the neighboring fin, are sometimes specified. These are intended to give
better cover of the base tube with the aluminium. Since there is no risk of
corrosion of the base tube, there seems little point in paying extra for this
type of tube. They have the disadvantages of simple "L" fins.
(e)
"E" Fins:
Fintube can be formed by an extruding operation, rather like an
exaggerated thread rolling process. If an aluminium tube is threaded over
a steel tube, and fins formed on the aluminium, then a "muff" fin or "E" fin
is formed. Many advantages are claimed for these fintubes, especially that
the continuous cover of the steel prevents corrosion. However, no
external corrosion of the steel will occur in any case, because of the
galvanic protection afforded by ordinary aluminium fins, so this advantage
can be dismissed. The fins are, however, stronger than are "G" fins, so
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resist damage from being walked on or from cleaning better than do other
aluminium fins.
(f)
Elliptical tubing:
The specification of rectangular steel fins galvanized onto elliptical tubing
was based on the normal design of exchanger offered by GEA.
GEA claimed as the advantage for this type of tubing that the airside
pressure drop characteristics are superior to those of round tube. Recent
experience of trying to re-tube exchangers dating from that period has
shown that the elliptical tubing is expensive and hard to obtain. Moreover,
the manufacturing process for the finned tube, which involved rolling round
tube to an elliptical cross section, threading the fins on and re-rolling the
ends to a circular cross section for welding into the tubesheet, was prone
to cause cracking of the tube ends. GEA appear no longer to offer it as
their standard.
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5.8 Arrangement
5.8.1 Introduction
The manufacturer needs to be informed of the available space where the
exchanger is to be located, and also what provisions are to be made for
access.
The process engineer may have a preference for a forced or induced
draught unit. There are no hard and fast rules governing which type of unit
should be used. The major relative advantages of the two types are
outlined in 5.8.2 and 5.8.3.
5.8.2 Forced Draught Units
(a)
(b)
(c)
The fans are closer to the ground and thus are easier to support
and maintain.
(d)
The fan and drive are not exposed to the hot exit air.
The bottom rows of tubes, which are those most prone to fouling,
are more accessible forcleaning.
(b)
(c)
(d)
If the process fluid is a liquid, leaks from the bundle should not fall
onto the fan. (But spray could be thrown over a wider area than
with forced draught units).
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It has been accepted in the past that it is easier to achieve good air distribution in
an induced draught unit. However, work by Russell and Berryman of HTFS on
scale models have suggested that the reverse is in fact the case, but that the
overall effect on performance is not great in either case.
Particularly if the ACHE is a large unit, with multiple bundles, the arrangement of
the manifolds connecting the units to the remainder of the plant could cause
maldistribution problems. This is discussed more fully in sub clause 10.1.2.
(b)
(c)
The fin pitch in the lower two rows should be limited, perhaps to 275
fins/meter (7!fins/inch).
(d)
The tube pitch should be such as to give at least ins (9 mm) between
the fin tips.
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(e)
The fan selection should allow for a suitable margin to avoid stalling when
fouled. If allied to a tight noise specification, this will lead to an
exceptionally expensive design of ACHE, owing to the limitation of fan
static pressure, leading to a very low face velocity of the air.
(2)
(3)
Sacrificial dummy tube rows may be provided before the tube bundle. It
might be more effective, cheaper and less wasteful of power to provide a
simple air filter of the plate type.
5.10
Any ACHE design is a compromise between high fan power and a smaller and
cheaper exchanger, and low fan power with a larger exchanger - thus a balance
between capital and running cost has to be struck. If it is hoped to optimize these
parameters the manufacturer needs information on the relative value to the
project of capital and operating costs. There are many ways of performing such
comparisons, but the simplest, which is generally adequate for this purpose, is to
tell the ACHE manufacturers by how much their offer will be penalized for
each of kW of fan power installed. (i.e. 1 kW is equivalent to $USD x of capital.).
It is essential to impress on the tenderer that the offers will in fact be penalized
as indicated, and to do so. Unless this is done, past experience will convince the
tenders that good intentions will last no longer than the arrival of the lowest cost
quotation, and that they might as well use as much fan power as they think they
can get away with. You will not then have properly optimized designs offered.
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The calculation of the capitalized cost of fan power is very complex; it should
have been supplied among the economic data of the plant, but often it is missing.
If so, then a figure found by multiplying the power cost by the hours running per
year and by the number of years payoff will suffice.
When power saving methods of control (i.e. auto-variable pitch fans or variable
speed drives) are used, then the annual power absorption is considerably
reduced. (see Clause 6). The calculation of this reduction is difficult and
uncertain, though a manufacturer might give an estimate for a large unit. An
annual power consumption of 40% the full power consumption may be assumed
if better data are not available - so multiply the capitalized cost of a kWh by
0.4 when power saving control is to be used.
The cost of electric supply (cabling, switching etc.) is not small, and this cost may
also be added to the offers, in terms of the cost of each motor of a given power.
This parameter is also probably unknown; if so, then this factor might be ignored,
on the grounds that lower powered designs will use more fans, although each is
lower powered. In certain circumstances there may be additional constraints on
electricity supply. These could be either the need to run in an additional supply if
the additional demand exceeds a certain value, or the need for a new switch
house if more than a certain number of additional drives are required. Either of
these cases can result in a step change in the installed cost of the air cooled heat
exchanger. Such constraints are most likely to occur when considering
extensions to existing plant.
6 CONTROL
Ref. [2] is an excellent guide to the control of air cooled heat exchangers, and
should be referred to by the engineer wishing to study the control in detail. It is
not intended to duplicate this reference here, but some of the key points are
given.
ACHEs invariably form parts of a system involving other types of equipment. A
review of the control requirements as a whole is therefore necessary before
ACHE controls are considered. This may show that no ACHE controls are
required, or only coarse controls suitable for start up or extremes of climate.
Alternatively, the review may indicate that precise control of the ACHE
is desirable. The commonly used methods for controlling an ACHE are:
(a)
(b)
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(c)
Louvers.
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
Steam Coils.
(h)
(j)
Table 1, which is extracted from Ref. [2], sets out the general attributes of the
various options. Ref. [2] should be consulted for further information.
TABLE 1
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Notes:
(a)
Methods (4), (5) and (6) are primarily used with fixed pitch fans.
(b)
Methods (6) and (9) have more complicated mechanisms which can be
expected to produce higher maintenance costs.
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
One particular control requirement which should not be overlooked is that known
as "winterization". This is the protecting of the performance of the exchanger
from the adverse effects of low temperatures, which could cause the process
fluid to freeze, crystallize or become very viscous. The engineer should
remember that even if calculations show that the bulk fluid leaving the exchanger
is above the temperature which could cause severe problems, the fluid in the
bottom row of tubes may well be below this temperature. A detailed row by row
examination of the predictions should highlight this.
Another aspect of ACHE operation related to control is the performance of the
unit under conditions of fan failure. Because of natural convection, an air cooled
exchanger will continue to dissipate heat, albeit at lower than design rate, even
without the fans running. Induced draught units perform better than do forced
draught units in this respect, as the plenum chamber and fan ring form a chimney
above the bundle.
The behavior of an ACHE under natural draught conditions may be estimated
using commercially available computer programs.
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PRESSURE RELIEF
ASSESSMENT OF OFFERS
8.1
General
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Choose one design as a reference and calculate for each design a measure of
heat transfer rate given by:
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Using this technique, all the measures of heat transfer rate should reduce
to approximately the same value. Designs producing relatively high values
should be treated with reserve.
8.2.3 Process Pressure Drop
A pressure drop parameter is defined as:-
The diameter/length ratio will often be constant for a set of designs, and then it
may be omitted. A relatively low value of this pressure drop parameter will
indicate a relatively optimistic claim for pressure drop.
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8.3
Computer Assessment
8.3.1 Introduction
The manual comparison described in 8.2 will not show if all the tenderers
have cheated equally. The air cooled heat exchanger market is highly
competitive, and manufacturers are tempted to design very tightly,
knowing that in many cases the actual performance will be hard to check.
This emphasizes the need for the process engineer to do proper checks
himself, using a computer code. Such a check also allows the engineer to
study the performance of the unit in more detail. Items which should be
considered may include the performance under turndown conditions,
including the effect this might have on fan performance if louvers are used
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for air flow control, and the performance of the unit under natural
convection conditions, to model the effect of power failure.
The only good check on cooler thermal design is by using an advanced
computer code to analyze the offers. This may not be practical in many
cases; or, perhaps, only the apparently best one or two offers might be
checked.
The preferred computer program for rating Air Cooled Heat Exchangers is
the HTFS program.
8.3.2 Process Flow Distribution
The computer programs used for ACHE rating are based on the
assumption of good flow distribution between different tubes within the
same pass of an exchanger. In practice there may be some
maldistribution from a variety of causes, which will in general reduce the
performance of the unit. This should be remembered when assessing the
likely performance. Sub clause 10.1.3 should be consulted for a fuller
discussion of this subject.
8.4
Bid Comparison
Having checked the bids for thermal and mechanical acceptability, the engineer
may find that more than one design will meet the required process duty, and that
the cost differential is not significant. The decision on which unit to purchase will
then depend on other factors, many of which may be subjective. However, if a
power penalty, as suggested in sub clause 5.10 of this Guide, has been
specified, then it is morally incumbent on the purchaser to apply it rigorously;
and it is in the long and short term interest of GBHE to do so.
9.1
Fouling
Only airside fouling is considered here; tubeside fouling problems are generally
not specific to air cooled exchangers. Over a decade ago fouling was described
by Taborek as the major unsolved problem in heat transfer. Since then many
millions of pounds have been spent on fouling in shell and tube exchangers, but
very little on air side fouling of ACHE fintubes. Little progress has been made on
tube fouling; there is virtually no information available on process ACHE airside
fouling.
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(b)
The air may contain organic material, particularly some forms of seeds,
which may be trapped on and in the fintube matrix.
(c)
(d)
If there is a liquid leak near an ACHE, sticky oil may be carried onto the
ACHE tubes. The matrix may then start acting as an air filter. This may
produce a baked-on fouling, especially if the tube is hot, and may prove
very difficult to remove.
(e)
Units in coastal areas may become fouled with salt derived from airborne
sea spray which has evaporated off in the exchanger. The use of spray
water to maintain the efficiency may also lead to similar problems if the
water contains a high proportion of dissolved solids.
Light fouling causes only a slight decrease in heat transfer coefficient for a
constant air flowrate, but leads to a significantly increased pressure drop. As the
axial flow fans used in ACHEs have relatively flat characteristics, the effect of the
increased flow resistance is to move the fan operating point back up the
characteristic curve, resulting in a significant reduction in air flowrate. In extreme
cases, air flows of less than 50% of the design have been measured, and
reductions of 10 to 20% are common. This in turn results in both a poorer heat
transfer coefficient and a reduction in the mean temperature difference. It is
these effects, rather than the direct thermal resistance of the fouling layer, that
are mainly responsible for the fall off in ACHE performance when fouled.
Work by HTRI on tubes with very heavy fouling showed both a decrease in heat
transfer coefficient and an increase in pressure drop.
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Experience shows that fouling is mainly confined to the first two tube rows in the
air flow path, presumably because these rows are acting as air filters. This is
confirmed in work by Covrad, on tube-in-fin matrices.
There seems to be a general belief in GBHE that low air velocities lead to lighter
fouling but the reverse is probably the case. Control of temperature by the
restriction of air flow can aggravate fouling since the lower air velocity provides a
better opportunity for particles of dust to settle out. The fouling associated with a
variable pitch fan is often heavier than that associated with neighboring fixed
pitch fans.
9.2
Corrosion
9.2.1 Introduction
As with fouling, only air side corrosion is considered here. As explained in
sub clause 5.7.2, in general it will be the fin material which corrodes
preferentially when aluminium fins are used. Corrosion problems are
dependent on location. If the exchanger is located such that it receives
clean air, corrosion is not likely to be a problem. On the other hand, on a
chemical works there is likely to be chemical contamination of the
atmosphere. SOx, NOx, HCl and chlorine are common trace contaminants
on many sites, and in the presence of water can give rise to serious
corrosion problems with aluminium fins. GBH Enterprises recommends
the use galvanized mild steel finned tube in customer plants. Modern
hygiene standards have resulted in a significant improvement in the
atmospheric quality within the works, and unprotected aluminium finned
tubes have given acceptable service in more recent years.
9.2.2 Protective Coatings
Protection of aluminium fintube was considered necessary for ACHEs, at
and was adopted in other plants. This was invariably by dipping the tube
after finning in a polyurethane paint bath, a double dipping with shaking
being specified. This was applied to the bottom two rows of the bundles.
GBHE specifically requests this treatment. In general, this treatment has
proved satisfactory, but a badly applied coating can lead to the coating
peeling from the fins, causing severe flow restrictions.
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10.1
Performance Testing
10.1.1 General
During the life of an ACHE there may be occasions when it is
necessary to assess its actual performance. This could be as part
of the acceptance trials, or subsequently when it is suspected of
falling short, or when plant uprating is being considered. Ref. [6]
gives a detailed discussion of the requirements for testing and
advice on the methods to adopt. Sub clause10.1.2 indicates some
of the problems that may arise. For further information, see Refs.
[6] and [16]. Table 2, which is extracted from Ref. [16], indicates
some of the possible faults which may be found, together with
remedies.
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10.1.2
(a)
(b)
(c)
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(d)
The exit air temperature is not constant across the face of the exchanger, either
on the macro or micro scale. On the macro scale the exit air temperature will be
greater at the process inlet end of the exchanger. In some of the more complex
pass arrangements, with passes side by side rather than underneath one
another, there will be different zones within the exchanger. On the micro scale,
the air temperature leaving the "jet" between neighboring tubes will differ from
that in the wake behind the tube. Obtaining a mean exit temperature requires an
averaging process of uncertain accuracy.
Similarly, the air velocity leaving the bundle varies, both from maldistribution due
to the use of circular fans in rectangular bundles, and because the air leaves in
the form of jets from between neighboring tubes. The majority of methods for
measuring velocity (e.g. pitot tubes or vane anemometers) depend on the air
momentum, which varies as the square of the velocity, so variations in velocity
can lead to serious errors.
To obtain reliable air side data requires good instrumentation, which is not readily
available in most works. There is also some skill in obtaining the best results
from its use. Because of this, there is a case for obtaining specialist assistance.
HTFS run a contract research organization called "Air Cooled Heat Exchanger
Advisory Service", who are fully equipped to perform such measurements on a
confidential basis.
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For typical performance testing of an exchanger with 10 fans and 10 bundles the
setting up and on-site testing would take about 1 days. A further 2 days would
be required for analysis and preparation of a written report. The total cost
is thus about $USD 6,000. For a greater number of exchangers on the same site,
the cost per exchanger would be less.
Note that commercially available computer programs, have provision for allowing
a limited air flow variation across the face of the bundle. If reliable measurements
have been obtained, the measured flow distribution should be used when running
performance checks on the computer.
10.2
10.2.1
Air-Side Cleaning
General
Cleaning of ACHEs is not general in the oil industry, and many refiners do
not clean an air cooler externally during the life of the plant. There is,
however, a lively bundle re-tubing industry. Possibly because chemical
works tend to be dirtier than refineries, GBHE has always been more
concerned with ACHE cleaning than most users. Inspection for evidence
of fouling is difficult, especially with forced draught units. Fortunately,
most of the fouling occurs on the bottom row, but only the bottom of this
can readily be seen. Some inspection of the top of the bottom row and the
bottom of the second row may be possible using a mirror and lamp, but
this is usually rather restricted. Similar inspection of the upper rows is
possible, but rarely reveals any appreciable fouling.
Although fouling will result in a reduced air flow rate, this is often not easy
to detect directly. Unlike centrifugal fans, the power vs. flowrate curves for
the axial flow fans used in air cooled heat exchangers tend to be flat, so
are not much help in estimating air flow. Some estimate of changes in air
flow can be made using an anemometer, but the results can be sensitive
to position of the instrument. The extent of fouling can often only be
determined from a fall-off in overall exchanger performance. This may of
course be due to either air side or tube side fouling (see sub clause 10.1).
There is not a great deal of information in the literature about ACHE
cleaning
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Methods Of Cleaning
Seven methods can be considered for cleaning the outside of fintubes:
mechanical, air, combined air and water, low pressure water, high
pressure water, steam, and flame cleaning. A preliminary detergent soak
may be used before washing or air blast. The methods are outlined
further in 10.2.2.1 to 10.2.2.7, in general order of preference, so the first in
the list that can do the job may be adopted.
10.2.2.1
Mechanical Cleaning
Air Cleaning
Cleaning by air lance is simpler and less messy than water cleaning. Air
alone can only remove rather friable deposits. Manufacturers tests
showed that the air pressure was, within reason, unimportant, and nozzles
incorporating eductors to increase the air flow at the expense of air
pressure were used. If oil contamination of the bundle is suspected, a
degreasing solvent used with the air can be helpful.
10.2.2.3
(b)
(c)
The fins are water washed using water through a inch bore hose.
(d)
Using the air lance, inducing water, the fins are sprayed to remove
most of the debris and dirt.
(e)
Finally, the fins are blown clear using the lance with air only.
10.2.2.4
The techniques of shell and tube exchanger cleaning with high pressure
water are well understood. A contractor will usually do the work, using a
truck mounted diesel powered ram pump. This will be capable of
pressures up to some 1,000 bar. Water delivered from such a
pressure will destroy aluminium fins, so when cleaning ACHEs the
pressure is normally limited to well below this value. Tests at some
manufacturers indicate that aluminium fins can withstand nozzle
pressures of up to 300 bar, with a fan jet reasonably normal to the tube
bank. Steel fins could withstand full rig pressure with a pencil jet. Most
contractors will limit pressure at site to 30 bar, at which pressure no
damage to aluminium fins should occur. Rather surprisingly and
disappointingly, the cleaning of the steel finned ACHEs at one clients
plant is done with pressure limited to 30 bar, to avoid damage to the fins. It
is assumed that the zinc fixing the fins to the tubes deteriorates with time,
so that the fins are displaced under rather low pressure.
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Steam Cleaning
Flame Cleaning
Results
Surveys of plant operators conducted by GBH Enterprises found that
cleaning was a problem that they could cope with. However, if fouling
problems were difficult on a plant, then it was a considerable nuisance,
and some plants were limited in throughput in summer by ACHE fouling.
The advantages of induced draught ACHEs were evident both for access
for inspection and for cleaning. Experience from one European plant at
shows that jetting should be done from the air inlet side, which is easier
with induced draught units.
Some sites claim to be successful with on-line cleaning. Generally, it is to
be anticipated that a crew will clean a section (with two bundles and two
fans) in a shift. To this has to be added the time taken to isolate the unit,
bag the motors for protection, lash the fans and scaffold for access. If
regular cleaning is expected to be necessary, the provision of permanent
access platforms could be cost effective.
Many sites reported that polyurethane coating was stripped off with the
fouling, when bundles were cleaned. Since polyurethane coating need
only be used on those sites where rather harsh cleaning methods will
probably be necessary, there seems little to be said in favor of such
coatings. However, GBHE reported that good quality coated bundles were
easier to clean than uncoated ones.
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Preferred Contractors
Experiences with different contractors are variable, and to some extent are
subjective.
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10.4
Tubeside Access
Access to the inside of the header boxes of ACHEs may be required for
tube cleaning, inspection, tube fixing repair, or tube plugging. Should tube
replacement be required, it is normal to remove the complete tube bundle.
All these operations are greatly eased if the header is of the cover plate
type (Figure 17(b)) rather than the plug type (Figure 17(a)). Should cover
plate headers be preferred, then they will generally be found to be more
expensive than plug headers, and there is a design pressure limit, usually
about 30 bar, above which the cover plate becomes so heavy that it is
considered impractical. If the temperature difference between top and
bottom of the cover plate is great - more that 140C, then joint leakage is
to be feared.
"D" type headers (Figure 17(c)) are rarely used in process ACHEs,
although they are common enough in other industries. They are cheaper
than cover plate headers, and can stand higher pressures. They have the
advantages of cover plate headers, but suffer from the added
disadvantage that pipework has to be dismantled to gain access to the
tubesheet. Many of the advantages of easier cleaning are achieved, at
small or no cost, if plug headers are used for the inlet headers, and "D"
type headers at the return end. With even passes, there is no piping on
the return header; with odd passes, the break in the piping joint is a simple
lift-off.
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Manifold headers (Figure 17(e)) are the most expensive type, usually used
for high pressures (1500!bar and above) or for services with stringent
leakage requirements. Tubeside access is virtually impossible, so
tubeside cleaning will be by chemicals and repairs will be a workshop
job.
Platform access should be adequate; the usual header platforms suffice
for any probable in situ work on the tubeside.
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BASIC METHOD
(b)
Estimate "r", the sum of the process film resistance and the process
fouling resistance, from Table 3.
(c)
Estimate the Cost Function "C" and Area Function "K" from Figures 18
and 19, interpolating if necessary.
(d)
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(e)
The plot area, fan power and cost are then obtained from the following
equations:
Estimated plot area
= K S (m2)
= 0.723 K S
Estimated cost
= i C S (USD ex works)
(kW)
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TABLE 3
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Mild steel tubes 25.4 mm o.d. 12 b.w.g. 9.14 m (30 ft) long.
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Variations from this standard will have an effect on plot area and cost. Figure 7
gives three correction factors by which the basic cost for an exchanger with a
given extended surface area should be multiplied to allow for variations in fin
pitch, design pressure and materials of construction. However, the correction
factor for fin pitch should be viewed with caution, as exchangers with the same
extended surface area but different fin pitches may not give the same
performance, due to changes in coefficients. Equally, the effect of fin pitch on plot
area is hard to determine.
The original method in Russell et al assumed large exchangers. For these units,
the cost is directly proportional to the plot area, as the units are built up from
standard modules. This linear relationship tends to break down for small units, as
is shown in Figure 7. Allowance can be made for this by multiplying the cost
obtained by the above method by the correction factor given in Figure 21.
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Process Technology Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
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A.2
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
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supplied by Russell this was determined to require a four row unit. The
cost of a "standard" exchanger 6.1 m (20 ft) wide with four rows was
estimated from Figure 7 and also by the original method of Russell et al.
This gave an inflation factor between the date of the original work and the
base date for Figure 7. All other points on Russell's curves were scaled by
this factor. This approach may introduce some unquantifiable errors into
the method, but the only alternative would be the very time consuming one
of redeveloping the method from a series of optimized and costed
designs.
Russell suggests that, provided the value of "r" is correctly estimated and
the other assumptions given above hold, the method should give costs
accurate to 10%. In view of the changes made in updating the method,
which did not involve going back to original data, this may be rather
optimistic, but an accuracy of 30% is probably reasonable.
In practice, the optimization of capital cost against fan power and
variations in the economics of bundle fabrication between differing
manufacturers may lead to exchangers with considerably different
dimensions, fan power and capital cost from those arrived at by these
methods. Moreover, the quoted cost for an exchanger depends not only
on the dimensions of the unit, but also on market related factors such as
the competitive position and work load of the manufacturer. There is no
substitute in the long run for a quotation.
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
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GBHE-PEG-HEA-504
GBHE-PEG-HEA-508
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
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ENGINEERING SPECIFICATIONS
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Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com