Physics Factsheet

September 2002

Number 38

Linear Particle Accelerators

Van der Graaf accelerator

This Factsheet explains how charged particles, such as electrons or protons,

are accelerated by two main types of linear particle accelerators. Before the
particle accelerators are explained, it is important to understand the different
units that are used to denote the energies of accelerated particles.

A Van der Graaf accelerator consists of:

Two rollers (usually coated in silicon tape).

A rubber belt that moves between the two rollers.

A collecting dome, which is made of metal.

Two brushes with fine metal bristles. These are positioned very close
to the rubber belt at the bottom and top rollers. They do not touch the
belt.

A source of charged particles to accelerate, for example the ionised

protons from hydrogen gas.

Particle Energies
Although the standard international unit, or SI unit, of energy is joules, J,
it is not the only unit of energy used to denote the energies of particles. The
joule is quite a large unit of energy when considering particles that have very
small masses so an additional unit is often used, the electronvolt, eV.

Shown below is a cross sectional diagram of a typical Van der Graaf generator.

An electronvolt is the amount of energy gained by an electron when it is

accelerated across 1 volt of potential difference.

upper metal brush

connected to dome

Imagine a negatively charged electron at rest on one metal plate at a potential

of 0 volts, but attracted to a similar metal plate at a positive potential of
+1 volt. The negatively charged electron would be accelerated to the positive
metal plate and as a result it would increase its kinetic energy. This situation
is shown in the diagram below.
0V

collecting dome
ionised air between
brush and belt

+1V

upper roller

electron

positively charged rubber

belt moving upwards

1 V battery

positive ion source,

such as a tube of
hydrogen gas

negative electron gains kinetic energy as

it accelerates towards positive plate
The increase in kinetic energy of the electron is 1eV.

lower roller

If you consider the transfer of energy for this situation, the electron initially
has electric potential energy because it has a charge of 1.6 10-19 coulombs.
This is converted to kinetic energy as the electron accelerates to the
positively charged plate.

ionised air between

brush and belt
lower metal brush

Increase in kinetic energy

accelerated ions head

towards target

Decrease in electric potential energy

charge on electron pd across plates
1.6 10-19 C 1 V
1.6 10-19 J
1.6 10-19 J

1.

Transferring a positive charge to the belt at the bottom roller.

The electronvolt
1 electronvolt is defined as an amount of kinetic energy gained by an
electron when it is accelerated across a potential difference of 1 volt.
1 eV = 1.6 10-19 J

A motor is used to turn the bottom roller, which in turn moves the
belt. Because the roller and belt are made of two different materials,
rubber and silicon, they exchange charge.
Negative electrons are transferred from the rubber belt to the roller.
This has the effect of making the roller negatively charged and the belt
positively charged. As the roller has a smaller surface area than the
belt, the negative charge on the roller is more concentrated.
The negatively charged roller is now able to ionise the atoms of the air
between the belt and the metal brush tips. The neutral air molecules
each lose an electron. The free electrons move to the metal brush tips
and the remaining positive ions are attracted to the rubber belt.
The belt has now become very positively charged at the bottom roller.

Therefore 1 electronvolt

=
=
=
=
=

Physics Factsheet

Linear Accelerators
Transfer of charge:
The transfer of charge will take place between any two electrical insulators
that are in contact with each other. The transferred charge is always
carried with negatively charged electrons that move from one insulator
to the other. The material losing negative electrons will become positively
charged, whilst the material gaining negative electrons will become
negatively charged.

Typical Exam Question

The collecting dome of a Van der Graaf generator is attached to a
metallic brush. A positively charged belt moves past the metallic
brush but without touching it. The diagram below shows the set up.
metallic brush

collecting dome

Ionisation:
Ionisation is the removal of a negatively charged electron from a neutral
atom. Ionisation creates a negatively charged free electron and a
positively charged ion.

2.

Storing positive charge on the collecting dome, via the top roller.

The positively charged belt now moves over the top roller, close to
the metal bristles of the top brush. The electrons in the metal bristles
are attracted to the belt and move to the end of the bristles.
The positive belt and negative bristles are now able to ionise the
atoms of the air in between them. The neutral atoms lose an electron.
The free electrons move to the belt, and therefore tend to neutralise it,
whilst the positive ions move to the ends of the metal bristles.
The metal brush is connected to the metal collecting dome and electrons
from the dome travel to the brush (neutralising the brush) and leaving
the dome with a positive charge.

positively
charged belt

In theory, this process could happen indefinitely, with more and more
positive ions being transferred to the collecting dome, creating a larger and
larger positive charge and a larger and larger electric potential energy on the
dome. In practice the potential of the collecting dome is limited by its
environment, such as the breakdown voltage of the surrounding air (~3MV)
when sparks will fly!
3.

Accelerating charged particles

The description of theVan der Graaf generator so far explains how it

provides a large electric potential energy. The electric potential of the
collecting dome can now be used to accelerate charged particles.
A common source of charged particles is hydrogen gas. The Van de
Graaf generators large potential difference will firstly ionise the
hydrogen atoms, creating hydrogen nuclei and free electrons. Secondly,
the hydrogen nuclei, which are single protons, will be accelerated
away from the large positive potential of the collecting dome towards
the target.

(a) Explain how this arrangement transfers a positive charge onto

the collecting dome.(3)
The Van der Graaf accelerator produces protons of energy 2.0MeV
(b) (i) Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of the protons in
joules.(2)
(ii) What limits the maximum energy of a proton accelerated
in a Van der Graaf accelerator? (1)
(a) The positively charged belt induces a negative charge on the metal
bristles of the brush.!
The atoms in the air in the region between the positively charged belt
and negative brush may become ionised.!
Positively charged ions from the atoms in the air move to the metal
brush.!
Electrons from the dome travel to the brush (neutralising the brush)
and leaving the dome with a positive charge.!
(b) (i) Knowing that the maximum energy transferred to the protons is
2.0 MeV we can convert this number to joules.
Note that the prefix of Mega has been used in the question, which
denotes 1 million electronvolts or 106 electronvolts.
Kinetic energy = (2 106)(1.6 10-19) != 3.2 10-12 J !
(ii) The maximum energy of a proton accelerated by a Van de Graaf
accelerator is limited by the maximum electric potential that the
collecting dome can achieve before the air breaks down and the
dome discharges.!

Exam Hint: - Questions that require explanation type answers are best
presented as bullet points as shown in the explanations given about
the Van der Graaf accelerator shown above. They help you to order
your thoughts and make it easier for the examiner to identify the
important points that deserve a mark. All bullet points should remain
as structured sentences as marks are also awarded on exam papers
for your quality of written communication.

Physics Factsheet

Linear Accelerators
Drift Tube Design Linear Accelerator.
This type of linear accelerator consists of successive tubes through which
the charged particles travel. The tubes are alternately connected to opposite
terminals of an alternating voltage. The whole assembly must be inside an
evacuated chamber. The diagram below shows the arrangement.

a.c.
supply

Exam Workshop
This is a typical poor students answer to an exam question. The
comments explain what is wrong with the answers and how they can
be improved. The examiners answer is given below.
(a) A Van der Graaf accelerator and a linear accelerator each produce
protons of energy 15 MeV.
(i)
What is the energy of the protons in joules?
(2)

to the
target

Energy = (15)(1.6 10-19) = 2.4 10-18 J

0/2

The student has not spotted that the energy has been quoted in MeV
path of particles

drift
tube

(ii) Assuming the mass of the proton remains constant at

(3)
1.7 10-27 kg, calculate the velocity of the protons.
Kinetic Energy = mv2 = 2.4 10-18 !
v2 = (2)(2.4 10-18)/(1.7 10-27) = 2.8 109m/s !

If we consider the accelerating particles to be negatively charged

electrons then initially drift tube A is given a positive potential by the
a.c. supply.

The negative electrons are accelerated into the tube.

Inside each drift tube the particles will travel at constant velocity.

As the electrons leave drift tube A the a.c. supply will reverse, giving
tube A a negative potential and tube B a positive potential.

The electrons are now accelerated towards tube B.

Inside tube B the electrons travel at constant velocity.

As the electrons leave drift tube B the a.c. supply will reverse again,
giving tube B a negative potential and tube C a positive potential.

The electrons are accelerated towards drift tube C.

This process of acceleration between the drift tubes carries on until the
electrons leave the final drift tube and head towards the target.

2/3

The student has recalled the equation for kinetic energy. The equation
has been correctly rearranged and the numbers correctly substituted
into it. Unfortunately the student has forgotten to square root there
final answer for velocity. A quick check of this answer would have
revealed that it is unreasonable as it is faster than the speed of light!
(b) On the axes below, sketch a velocity time graph to show how the
velocity of the protons changes as they pass through each
accelerator. Assume that the linear accelerator has 3 drift with
a gap between each tube.
(5)
linear
accelerator

Van der Graaf

accelerator
maximum
velocity

The increasing length of the drift tubes.

The a.c. supply has a constant frequency. This means that it takes a
constant amount of time for the drift tubes to change from a positive
potential to a negative potential and vice versa. This means that the
electrons must spend a constant amount of time inside each drift tube so
that when they emerge from one drift tube, the potential of the next drift
tube has just become positive. As the velocity of the electrons continues
to increase the tubes must be made progressively longer so that the
electrons are inside each tube for a constant amount of time.

maximum
velocity

time

time

3/5

The Van de Graaff accelerator graph is correct. Whilst the linear

accelerator graph correctly shows the same maximum velocity being
reached by the electrons it does not show that there is no acceleration
in the three regions where the electrons would be inside the three drift
tubes.

Qualitative (Concept) Test

(1) Define the electronvolt.
(2) What is ionisation?
(3) How does the rubber belt become positively charged at the bottom
roller of a Van de Graaff accelerator?
(4) Explain how the alternating potential is used with the drift tubes of a
linear accelerator to accelerate electrons.
(5) Why is a drift tube linear accelerator placed in a vacuum?
(6) Why do the drift tubes increase in length along a linear accelerator?

(c) What limits the maximum energy achieved by charged particles

accelerated with a drift tube linear accelerator?
(1)
Number of drift tubes.
Although the number of drift tubes does affect the maximum energy
of the particles, it is the total length of the accelerator that is the
determining factor as the tubes must become progressively longer.
Examiners Answers
(a) (i) Energy = (15 106)(1.6 10-19)! = 2.4 10-12 J !
(ii) Kinetic Energy = mv2 = 2.4 10-12 !
v2 = (2)(2.4 10-12)/(1.7 10-27) = 2.8 1015 !
v = 5.3 107m/s !
linear
(b)
Van der Graaf
accelerator
accelerator

Quantitative (Calculation) Test

(1) What is the energy, in joules, of an electron with 1.0 keV?(2)
(2) A proton has an energy of 1.8 10-12 J. What is the energy of the proton
in electronvolts?(2)
(3) What is the speed of an electron that has a kinetic energy of 500 eV?
The mass of an electron is 9.11 10-31 kg(5)

maximum
velocity

Quantitative Test Answers

(1) Energy = (1 103)(1.6 10-19) = 1.6 10-16 J
(2) Energy = (1.8 10-12)/(1.6 10-19) = 11,250,000 eV = 11.3 MeV (3 s.f.)
(3) Energy = (500)(1.6 10-19) = 8 10-17 J
mv2 = 8 10-17
v2 = (2)(8 10-17)/9.11 10-31) = 1.7563 1014
v = (1.7563 1014) = 13,252,591 m/s = 1.3 107ms-1

maximum
velocity

time
(c)Length of accelerator !

time

Acknowledgements: This Physics Factsheet was researched and written by Jason Slack. The Curriculum Press,Unit 305B, The Big Peg,120 Vyse Street, Birmingham, B18 6NF.
Physics Factsheets may be copied free of charge by teaching staff or students, provided that their school is a registered subscriber. No part of these Factsheets may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any other form or by any other means, without the prior permission of the publisher. ISSN 1351-5136