Photovoltaics Student Guide

Exploring Photovoltaics
20
14
-20
Student Guide
SECONDARY
15
Solar Energy
THE SUN
What is Solar Energy?

Solar energy is radiant energy from the sun. It is vital to us because
it provides the worlddirectly or indirectlywith almost all of its
energy. In addition to providing the energy that sustains the world,
solar energy is stored in fossil fuels and biomass, and is responsible
for powering the water cycle and producing wind.
Every day the sun radiates, or sends out, an enormous amount of
energy. The sun radiates more energy each day than the world uses
in one year. Solar energy comes from within the sun itself. Like other
stars, the sun is a big ball of gasesmostly hydrogen and helium.
The hydrogen atoms in the suns core combine to form helium and
radiant energy in a process called nuclear fusion.
During nuclear fusion, the suns extremely high pressure and
temperature cause nuclei to separate from their electrons. At this
extremely energized state, the nuclei are able to fuse, or combine.
Hydrogen nuclei fuse to become one helium atom of a higher atomic
number and greater mass, and one neutron remains free. This new
helium atom, however, contains less mass than the combined
masses of the hydrogen isotopes that fused. This transmutation of
matter results in some mass being lost. The lost matter is emitted
into space as radiant energy. The process of fusion occurs most
commonly with lighter elements like hydrogen, but can also occur
with heavier nuclei, until iron (Fe) is formed. Because iron is the
lowest energy nucleus, it will neither fuse with other elements, nor
can it be fissioned (split) into smaller nuclei.
Scientists theorize that the time for the energy in the suns core to
make its way to the solar surface takes about 150,000 years. The
nuclear fusion process in the suns core produces, among other
things, gamma rays. These gamma rays are constantly absorbed
and re-emitted as they move through the sun, essentially bouncing
in random directions. By the time this random walk takes them
to the suns surface they have been transformed into visible light.
This light escapes from the photosphere, the visible surface of the
sun, and arrives at Earth about eight minutes later. The solar energy
travels to the Earth at a speed of 3.0 x 108 meters per second (186,000
miles per second), the speed of light. Heat energy is not transmitted
from the sun because the space between the sun and Earth is mostly
a vacuum. Rather, radiant energy transforms into thermal energy
when it strikes the molecules in the atmosphere or on the surface
of the Earth.
Image courtesy of NASA
This image of our sun was captured by NASAs Solar Dynamics

Observatorya space telescope designed to study the sun.
Fusion
The process of fusion most commonly involves hydrogen isotopes combining to
form a helium atom with a transformation of matter. This matter is emitted as
radiant energy.
Hydrogen Isotope
Hydrogen Isotope
Energy
Helium
Neutron
Albedo
Thin clouds
25% to 30%
Thick clouds
70% to 80%
Snow
Forest
50% to 90%
5% to 10%
Asphalt
5% to 10%
Dark roof
Only a small portion of the energy radiated by the sun into space
strikes the Earthone part in two billion. Yet, this amount of energy
is enormous. It was mentioned before that the sun provides more
energy in a day than the world uses in a year. The sun also provides
more energy in an hour than the United States uses in a year!
Where does all this energy go? About 30 percent of the suns energy
that hits the Earth is reflected back into space. Another 25 percent
powers the water cycle; it evaporates water that is then drawn into
the atmosphere, turns into clouds, condenses, and falls back to
Earth as precipitation. Plants, the land, and the oceans also absorb
a portion of solar energy. The rest is reflected and could be used to
10% to 15%
Light roof
35% to 50%
Water
5% to 80%
(varies with sun angle)
Average reflectivity of solar radiation for various surfaces.
supply our energy needs. A surfaces albedo describes how much

solar energy it reflects.
JOHN ERICSSONS SOLAR ENGINE
Solar energy is considered a renewable energy source. Renewable

sources of energy are resources that are continually replenished
by nature, and hence will never run out. Solar power is considered
renewable because the nuclear fusion reactions that power the sun
are expected to keep generating sunlight for many billions of years.
History of Solar Energy

People have harnessed solar energy for centuries. As early as the 7th
century B.C., people used simple magnifying glasses to concentrate
the light of the sun into beams so hot they could cause wood to
catch fire.
In the 1860s in France, a scientist named Auguste Mouchout used
heat from a solar collector to make steam to drive a steam engine.
Around the same time in the United States, John Ericsson developed
the first realistic application of solar energy using a solar reflector to
drive an engine in a steam boiler. With coal becoming widely used,
neither of these inventions became part of the mainstream.
Early in the 1900s, scientists and engineers began seriously
researching ways to use solar energy. The solar water heater gained
popularity during this time in Florida, California, and the Southwest.
The industry was in full swing just before World War II. This growth
lasted until the mid-1950s, when low-cost, natural gas became the
primary fuel for heating homes and water, and solar heating lost
popularity.
The public and world governments remained largely indifferent to
the possibilities of solar energy until the energy crises of the 1970s.
Research efforts in the U.S. and around the world since that time
have resulted in tremendous improvements in solar technologies for
heating water and buildings and making electricity.
Image courtesy of www.stirlingengines.org
John Ericssons Sun Motor. Built in New York in 1872. Ericsson had
intended Californian agriculturists to take up his sun-motor for
irrigation purposes, but in the end nothing came of the project.
Solar Collectors
Heating with solar energy is relatively easyjust look at a car parked
in the sun with its windows closed. Getting the right amount of heat
in a desired location, however, requires more thought and careful
design. Capturing sunlight and putting it to work effectively is
difficult because the solar energy that reaches the Earth is spread
out over a large area. The sun does not deliver that much energy to
any one place at any one time.
Solar Collector
On a sunny day, a closed car becomes a solar collector. Radiant energy from the
sun passes through the window glass, is absorbed by the cars interior, and
converted into thermal energy, which becomes trapped inside.
SOLAR ENERGY
TRAPPED HEAT
How much solar energy a place receives depends on several

conditions. These include the time of day, the season, the latitude of
the area, the topography, and the amount of clouds in the sky.
A solar collector is one way to collect heat from the sun. A closed car
on a sunny day is like a solar collector. As the sunlight passes through
the cars glass windows, it is absorbed by the seat covers, walls, and
floor of the car. The light that is absorbed changes into heat. The
cars glass windows let light in, but do not let all the heat out. This
is also how greenhouses are designed to stay warm year-round. A
greenhouse or solar collector:
allows
sunlight in through the glass;

absorbs
the sunlight and changes it into heat; and

traps
most of the heat inside.
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Photovoltaic Systems
SOLAR TRAFFIC SIGNAL
Photovoltaic (or PV) systems convert light directly into electricity.

The term photo comes from the Greek phos, which means light. The
term volt is a measure of electricity named for Alessandro Volta (17451827), a pioneer in the development of electricity. Photovoltaics
literally means lightelectricity.
Commonly known as solar cells, PV cells are already an important
part of our lives. The simplest PV systems power many of the small
calculators, wrist watches, and outdoor lights we see every day.
Larger PV systems provide electricity for pumping water, powering
communications equipment, and even lighting homes and running
appliances.
In certain applications and remote settings, such as motorist aid call
boxes on highways and pumping water for livestock, PV power is
the cheapest form of electricity. Some electric utility companies are
building PV systems into their power supply networks.
Solar cells provide power

to this traffic signal.
Attached to the support
pole are two boxes: one
that stores batteries for
operation while its dark,
and one that houses a
control panel.
History of Photovoltaics
French physicist Edmond Becquerel first described the photovoltaic
effect in 1839, but it remained a curiosity of science for the next half
century. At the age of 19, Becquerel found that certain materials
would produce small amounts of electric current when exposed to
light. In the 1870s, William Adams and Richard Day showed that light
could produce an electric current in selenium. Charles Fritts then
invented the first PV cell using selenium and gold leaf in 1883, which
converted light to electricity at about one percent efficiency.
ALESSANDRO VOLTA
EDMOND BECQUEREL
The conversion efficiency of a PV cell is the proportion of radiant

energy the cell converts into electrical energy, relative to the amount
of radiant energy that is available and striking the PV cell. This is
very important when discussing PV devices, because improving
this efficiency is vital to making PV energy competitive with more
traditional sources of energy, such as fossil fuels.
During the second half of the 20th century, PV science was
refined and the process more fully developed. Major steps toward
commercializing photovoltaics were taken in the 1940s and 1950s,
when the Czochralski process was developed for producing highly
pure crystalline silicon.
In 1954, scientists at Bell Laboratories depended on the Czochralski
process to develop the first crystalline silicon photovoltaic cell, which
had a conversion efficiency of four percent.
SOLAR PANELS ON THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION
As a result of technological advances, the cost of PV cells has

decreased significantly over the past 25 years, as the efficiency has
increased. Todays commercially available PV devices convert 13 to 16
percent of the radiant energy that strikes them into electricity.
In the laboratory, combining exotic materials with specialized cell
designs has produced PV cells with conversion efficiencies as high
as 43 percent. The current expense of these technologies typically
restricts their use to aerospace and industrial applications, where
the unit cost of a solar array that powers, for example, a satellite is a
minor concern.
High efficiency photovoltaic cells power the International Space Station.
Photovoltaic Technology
Photovoltaic Effect
The photovoltaic effect is the basic physical process through which
a PV cell converts sunlight directly into electricity. PV technology
works any time the sun is shining, but more electricity is produced
when the light is more intense and when it is striking the PV modules
directlywhen the rays of sunlight are perpendicular to the PV
modules.
Silicon Atom
Unlike solar systems for heating water, PV technology does not

produce heat to make electricity. Instead, PV cells generate electricity
directly from the electrons freed by the interaction of radiant energy
with the semiconductor materials in the PV cells.
Sunlight is composed of photons, or bundles of radiant energy.
When photons strike a PV cell, they may be reflected, absorbed, or
transmitted through the cell.
Only the absorbed photons generate electricity. When the photons
are absorbed, the energy of the photons is transferred to electrons in
the atoms of the solar cell, which is actually a semiconductor.
With their new-found energy, the electrons are able to escape from
their normal positions associated with their atoms to become part
of the current in an electrical circuit. By leaving their positions, the
electrons cause holes to form in the atomic structure of the cell into
which other electrons can move.
Special electrical properties of the PV cella built-in electric field
provide the voltage needed to drive the current through a circuit and
power an external load, such as a light bulb.
Silicon is used as a semiconductor because it has four valence electrons

and does not want to lose or gain electrons. Therefore, the electrons flow
across it from the boron side to the phosphorus side without the silicon
interfering with the movement.
Sunlight to Electricity
Sun
Electric Load
(-)
Photovoltaic Cells
The basic building block of PV technology is the photovoltaic cell.
Different materials are used to produce PV cells, but siliconthe
main ingredient in sandis the most common basic material. Silicon,
a common semiconductor material, is relatively cheap because it is
widely available and used in other things, such as televisions, radios,
and computers. PV cells, however, require very pure silicon, which
can be expensive to produce.
The amount of electricity a PV cell produces depends on its size, its
conversion efficiency, and the intensity of the light source. Efficiency
is a measure of the amount of electricity produced from the sunlight
a cell receives. A typical PV cell produces 0.5 volts of electricity. It
takes just a few PV cells to produce enough electricity to power a
small watch or solar calculator.
The most important parts of a PV cell are the semiconductor layers,
where the electric current is created. There are a number of different
materials suitable for making these semi-conducting layers, and
each has benefits and drawbacks. Unfortunately, there is no one
ideal material for all types of cells and applications.
Photovoltaic cell
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DC current
flow
Phosphorous-doped (n-type) silicon layer
(+)
Boron-doped (p-type) silicon layer
Types of PV Cells
PV cells come in many
shapes and sizes. The most
common shapes are circles,
rectangles, and squares.
The size and the shape of
a PV cell, and the number
of PV cells required for one
PV module, depend on the
material of which the PV
cell is made.
www.NEED.org
How a Traditional PV Cell is Made

Lets look more closely at how a PV cell is made and how it produces
electricity.
Photovoltaic Cell
Step 1
A slab (or wafer) of pure silicon is used to make a PV cell. The top of the
slab is very thinly diffused with an n dopant, such as phosphorous.
On the base of the slab, a small amount of a p dopant, typically
boron, is diffused. The boron side of the slab is 1,000 times thicker
than the phosphorous side. Dopants are similar in atomic structure
to the primary material. The phosphorous has one more electron in
its outer shell than silicon, and the boron has one less. These dopants
help create the electric field that motivates the energetic electrons
out of the cell created when light strikes the PV cell.
The phosphorous gives the wafer of silicon an excess of free
electrons; it has a negative character. This is called the n-type
silicon (n = negative). The n-type silicon is not chargedit has an
equal number of protons and electronsbut some of the electrons
are not held tightly to the atoms. They are free to move to different
locations within the layer. This silicon has a negative character, but
not a negative charge.
The boron gives the base of the silicon wafer a positive character,
which will cause electrons to flow toward it. The base of the silicon is
called p-type silicon (p = positive). The p-type silicon has an equal
number of protons and electrons; it has a positive character, but not
a positive charge.
Step 2
Where the n-type silicon and p-type silicon meet, free electrons from
the n-layer flow into the p-layer for a split second, then form a barrier
to prevent more electrons from moving between the two sides. This
point of contact and barrier is called the p-n junction.
When both sides of the silicon slab are doped, there is now a
negative charge in the p-type section of the junction and a positive
charge in the n-type section of the junction due to movement of the
electrons and holes at the junction of the two types of materials.
This imbalance in electrical charge at the p-n junction produces an
electric field between the p-type and n-type.
Step 3
If the PV cell is placed in the sun, photons of light strike the electrons
in the p-n junction and energize them, knocking them free of their
atoms. These electrons are attracted to the positive charge in the
n-type silicon and repelled by the negative charge in the p-type
silicon. Most photon-electron collisions actually occur in the silicon
base.
Step 4
A conducting wire connects the p-type silicon to an external load

such as a light or battery, and then back to the n-type silicon, forming
a complete circuit. As the free electrons are pushed into the n-type
silicon, they repel each other because they are of like charge. The
wire provides a path for the electrons to move away from each other.
This flow of electrons is an electric current that can power a load,
such as a calculator or other device, as it travels through the circuit
from the n-type to the p-type.
In addition to the semi-conducting materials, solar cells consist of a
top metallic grid or other electrical contact to collect electrons from
the semiconductor and transfer them to the external load, and a
back contact layer to complete the electrical circuit.
PV Modules and Arrays

For more power, PV cells are connected together to form larger units
called modules. Photovoltaic cells are connected in series and/
or parallel circuits to produce higher voltages, currents, and power
levels. A PV module is the smallest PV component sold commercially,
and can range in power output from about 10 watts to 300 watts.
Photovoltaic Arrays Are Made of Individual

Cells
PV cell
A typical PV module consists of PV cells sandwiched between a clear

front sheet, usually glass, and a backing sheet, usually glass or a type
of tough plastic. This protects them from breakage and from the
weather. An aluminum frame can be fitted around the PV module
to enable easy affixing to a support structure. Photovoltaic arrays
include two or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, fieldinstallable unit. A PV array is the complete power-generating unit,
consisting of any number of modules and panels.
module
PV System Components
Although a PV module produces power when exposed to sunlight,
a number of other components are required to properly conduct,
control, convert, distribute, and store the energy produced by the
array. Depending on the type of system, these components may
include:
Power Inverter
PV modules, because of their electrical properties, produce direct

current rather than alternating current. Direct current (DC) is
electric current that flows in a single direction. Many simple devices,
such as those that run on batteries, use direct current. Alternating
current (AC), in contrast, is electric current that reverses its direction
of flow at regular intervals (120 times per second). This is the type of
electricity provided by utilities, and the type required to run most
modern appliances and electronic devices.
array
Parts of a Photovoltaic Array
In the simplest systems, DC current produced by PV modules is used

directly. In applications where AC current is necessary, an inverter
can be added to the system to convert DC to AC current.
ARRAY
Battery System
CELLS
PV systems cannot store electricity, so batteries are often added. A

PV system with a battery is configured by connecting the PV array
to an inverter. The inverter is connected to a battery bank and to any
load. During daylight hours, the PV array charges the battery bank.
The battery bank supplies power to the load whenever it is needed.
A device called a charge controller keeps the battery properly
charged and prolongs its life by protecting it from being overcharged
or completely discharged.
MODULES
PV systems with batteries can be designed to power DC or AC

equipment. Systems operating only DC equipment do not need an
inverter, only a charge controller.
It is useful to remember that any time conversions are made in a
system, there are associated losses. For example, when an inverter
is used there is a small loss of power that can be described by the
inverters conversion efficiency. Likewise, when batteries are used
to store power, not only is there additional expense to purchase
the batteries and associated equipment, but due to the internal
resistance of the batteries there is a small loss of power as the charge
is drawn out of the batteries.
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PV Systems
Two types of PV systems are grid-connected systems and standalone systems. The main difference between these systems is that
one is connected to the utility grid and the other is not.
Grid-Connected Systems
Grid-connected systems are designed to operate in parallel with,

and interconnected with, the national electric utility grid. What
is the grid? It is the network of cables through which electricity is
transported from power stations to homes, schools, and other places.
A grid-connected system is linked to this network of power lines.
The primary component of a grid-connected system is the inverter,
or power conditioning unit (PCU). The inverter converts the DC
power produced by the PV system into AC power, consistent with
the voltage and power quality requirements of the utility grid. This
means that it can deliver the electricity it produces into the electricity
network and draw it down when needed; therefore, no battery or
other storage is needed.
Grid-Connected Systems
Solar Grid-connected System
Stand-Alone Systems
As its name suggests, this type of PV system is a separate electricity

supply system. A stand-alone system is designed to operate
independent of the national electric utility grid, and to supply
electricity to a single system. Usually a stand-alone system includes
one or more batteries to store the electricity.
Historically, PV systems were used only as standalone systems in
remote areas where there was no other electricity supply. Today,
stand-alone systems are used for water pumping, highway lighting,
weather stations, remote homes, and other uses away from power
lines.
Solar Standalone
System
Stand-Alone
Systems
Energy Source
PV Array
Energy Conversion
Inverter/
Power Conditioning Unit
Distribution Panel
AC Loads
Electric Utility
Energy Use
Energy Inversion
and Conditioning
Energy
Storage
Energy Distribution
Grid
Image courtesy of PG&E
PG&Es Vaca-Dixon Solar Station in California is a 2-MW gridconnected system.
The Mars Rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, are powered by standalone systems because they operate far away from Earth.
Scale of PV Systems
There are three general scales at which photovoltaic systems are
generally installed. They are:
Residential
A residential system is designed to offset power usage at an individual

residence. While usually unable to provide all power used by the
homeowners, the system could help to offset the homes electricity
usage. This type of system might produce enough electricity to
power part, or all, of one homes electricity needs.
Commercial
A commercial system is designed to offset power usage at a business

or industrial site. These systems are much larger than residential
systems that can produce more power due to the often expansive
roof-top space available for their installation. An example would be a
grocery store that contracts with a company to place a solar array on
their flat roof while simultaneously contracting to buy power from
the installer at a fixed rate for many years. This type of system might
produce enough electricity to operate all or part of the business or
industrial site.
Utility
Utility systems are employed by energy companies to produce baseload or peak-load power for sale to consumers. Large areas of land
are typically required for their installation. An example would be
a large PV array that is employed to produce power at peak usage
times in the summer months when air conditioning accounts for a
large part of the electrical usage. The array produces the most power
when the sun is at its peak and causing consumers to turn down their
thermostatsrequiring the extra electricity produced by the array.
Other Solar Technologies
Like solar cells, solar thermal systems use solar energy to make
electricity. Concentrated solar power (CSP) technologies focus
heat in one area to produce the high temperatures required to

make electricity. Since the solar radiation that reaches the Earth is
so spread out and diluted, it must be concentrated to produce the
high temperatures required to generate electricity. There are several
types of technologies that use mirrors or other reflecting surfaces to
concentrate the suns energy up to 2,000 times its normal intensity.
Parabolic troughs use long reflecting troughs that focus the sunlight
onto a pipe located at the focal line. A fluid circulating inside the
pipe collects the energy and transfers it to a heat exchanger, which
produces steam to drive a turbine. The worlds largest parabolic
trough power plant is located near Phoenix, Arizona. The Solana
plant has a total generating capacity of 280 megawatts, enough
power to supply 70,000 homes. Another large grouping of parabolic
troughs can be found in the Mojave Desert of California. This cluster
of plants, known as SEGS, consists of several sites owned by different
companies. Collectively, they can generate 354 megawatts.
Solar power towers use a large field of rotating mirrors to track the
sun and focus the sunlight onto a thermal receiver on top of a tall
tower. The fluid in the receiver collects the heat and either uses it
to generate electricity or stores it for later use. The Ivanpah Solar
Electric Generating System, located in California, uses three power
towers and 170,000 heliostats to generate electricity for over
140,000 homes. It is the largest CSP facility of any kind in the entire
world and can generate 392 MW.
Dish/engine systems are like satellite dishes that concentrate
sunlight rather than signals, with a heat engine located at the focal
point to generate electricity. These generators are small mobile units
that can be operated individually or in clusters, in urban and remote
locations.
Concentrated solar power technologies require a continuous supply
of strong sunlight, like that found in hot, dry regions such as deserts.
Developing countries with increasing electricity demand will
probably be the first to use CSP technologies on a large scale.
Average Size of Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems, 2012
Average Size of Photovoltaic Systems, Grid Connected, 2012
RESIDENTIAL
6.2 kW
120 kW
RESIDENTIAL
6.2 kW
COMMERCIAL
UTILITY
COMMERCIAL
UTILITY
120kW
4.3MW
U.S. Total Installed Solar Electricity Capacity
Annual Installed Grid-Connected PV Capacity by Sector
8000
3500
7000
4.3 MW
CSP
PV
3000
6000
2500
Utility
5000
2000
4000
Non-Residential
Residential
1500
3000
1000
2000
500
1000
0
2002
2003
2004
20002001 2001
2002
2003
Data:
Interstate
Renewable
Energy
Council
Data: DOE
EERE
2012 Renewable
Energy
Data
Book, IREC
2005
2006
2007
2011
2012
2004
2005
2006 2008
2007200920082010 2009
2010
2011
1.800.875.5029
www.NEED.org
2012
Emerging PV Technologies
THIN-FILM TECHNOLOGY
Today there are many new PV technologies either on the market, in

the pipeline, or in the research phase. These technologies will have
a direct effect on how much of our energy we derive from solar
power in the future. Look for technologies that will make things less
expensive or serve multiple purposes as they are applied to new
designs.
Ribbon Silicon
Thin crystalline silicon sheets are drawn out of molten silicon rather
than being sawed from an ingot. This method is less expensive and
less wasteful to produce silicon. However, the finished product is
usually a lower quality material. In some cases, they will have cells of
a higher conversion efficiency.
Thin-Film Technologies
This new class of materials allows the production of PV cells that are
smaller and more flexible than the delicate silicon wafer technology
that has dominated PV cell production in the past. These materials
are not crystalline, but amorphous, in structure. This type of PV cell
can actually be applied to a variety of materials to make any number
of materials that you might use for another purposesuch as glazing
for a window, or shingles for a roof. Imagine windows that produce
electricity! Materials used for dual purposes (building material and
PV cell) are called Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV).
CdTe: Cadmium Telluride
This thin-film technology has higher solar spectrum absorption

and lower costs to manufacture. It can have a conversion
efficiency of up to 17%. There are concerns about the toxicity and
scarcity of chemicals necessary for its production.
CIGS: Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide
The gallium is added to these thin-film cells to increase the

energy absorption of the cells, which increases efficiency. This
technology, although slightly more complicated, has a similar
conversion efficiency of 20%.
Earth Abundant Materials
Manufacturing PV cells from abundant, low cost resources

is a research priority. One of the promising technologies is
sulfoselenide or CZTS. The drawback to CZTS is a lower efficiency
than other PV cells.
Thin-film materials are much cheaper to produce and are lightweight.

They are very versatile in how they can be applied to many structural
materials. They can also be less efficient than current silicon crystal
PV cells. However, what they lack in efficiency may be overcome by
their flexibility of application and low cost.
Multijunction Technologies
This category actually combines multiple layers of materials that

are designed to absorb different wavelengths of solar energy
improving the efficiency of the cell by combining the output of the
various layers. Multijunction cells are a high-cost PV technology, but
can reach efficiencies of over 43 percent.
10
The Schapfen Mill Tower is a flour mill in Germany. The southern facade
is faced with 1,300 thin-film solar modules.
Dye Sensitized Solar Cells
This organic-inorganic hybrid technology shows promise to be a

very low cost technology. Using a small-molecule dye that absorbs
photons, an acceping material such as zinc ozide, and an electrolyte,
this technology is easy to manufacture from abundant materials.
Research continues to improve durability and efficiency.
Benefits and Limitations

Benefits
Limitations
Photovoltaic systems offer many advantages:
There are also some practical limitations to PV systems:
they
are safe, clean, and quiet to operate;
PV
systems cannot operate all the time;
they
are highly reliable;
PV
systems are not well suited for energy-intensive uses such as
heating;
they
require virtually no maintenance;

they
are cost-effective in remote areas and for some residential and

commercial applications;
they
are flexible and can be expanded to meet increasing electrical

needs for homes and businesses;
they
can provide independence from the grid or back-up during

outages; and
the
fuel is renewable and free.
grid-connected
systems are rarely economical, primarily because

the current cost of the PV technology is much higher than the cost
of conventional electricity in the United States;
large
amounts of land or space are required for utility or large scale

generation; and
the
process to make PV technologies can have harmful effects on
the environment.
Up On the Roof
MUNICH INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT
TOYS R US
Image courtesy of BP Solar
Image courtesy of Constellation and Toys R Us, Inc.

Photo credit: Advanced Green Technologies
In 2002, BP Solar installed a photovoltaic facility on the roof of Terminal 2 of the Munich International Airport in Germany. This facility
produces an average of approximately 500,000 kWh a year equivalent to the electricity needs of around 200 households. The project
used otherwise unused space and helps the airport offset its operational costs. High production of energy is guaranteed even in winter
through the use of polycrystalline silicon cells and the optimal alignment of the solar modules at a 20 angle facing south. Germany is
a global leader in PV generation because of projects like this. However, many airports and businesses across the United States and the
globe have taken on similar projects.
Toys R Us, Inc. is one example of a company using solar energy to meet its energy and environmental needs. Toys R Us contracted
with Constellation Energy to install over 37,000 thin-film solar panels on the roof of its Flanders, New Jersey, distribution center. This
rooftop installation has a generating capacity of 5.38 MW and can help the facility offset over 60 percent of its annual electricity needs.
Stadiums, businesses, warehouses, and airports are becoming prime locations for solar installations like these. Companies can help
reduce their long-term operating costs while reducing their environmental impact.
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11
Measuring Electricity
Electricity makes our lives easier, but it can seem like a mysterious
force. Measuring electricity is confusing because we cannot see it.
We are familiar with terms such as watt, volt, and amp, but we do
not have a clear understanding of these terms. We buy a 60-watt
light bulb, a tool that requires 120 volts, or an appliance that uses 8.8
amps, but we do not think about what those units mean.
Using the flow of water as an analogy can make electricity easier
to understand. The flow of electrons in a circuit is similar to water
flowing through a hose. If you could look into a hose at a given point,
you would see a certain amount of water passing that point each
second. The amount of water depends on how much pressure is
being appliedhow hard the water is being pushed. It also depends
on the diameter of the hose. The harder the pressure and the larger
the diameter of the hose, the more water passes each second. The
flow of electrons through a wire depends on the electrical pressure
pushing the electrons and on the cross-sectional area of the wire.
Voltage
The pressure that pushes electrons in a circuit is called voltage. Using
the water analogy, if a tank of water were suspended one meter
above the ground with a one-centimeter pipe coming out of the
bottom, the water pressure would be similar to the force of a shower.
If the same water tank were suspended 10 meters above the ground,
the force of the water would be much greater, possibly enough to
hurt you.
wires take the place of the pipe. As the cross-sectional area of the
wire increases, so does the amount of electric current (number of
electrons) that can flow through it.
Resistance
Resistance (R) is a property that slows the flow of electrons. Using
the water analogy, resistance is anything that slows water flow, such
as a smaller pipe or fins on the inside of a pipe.
In electrical terms, the resistance of a conducting wire depends on
the properties of the metal used to make the wire and the wires
diameter. Copper, aluminum, and silvermetals used in conducting
wireshave different resistance.
Resistance is measured in units called ohms (). There are devices
called resistors, with set resistances, that can be placed in circuits
to reduce or control the current flow. Any device placed in a circuit
to do work is called a load. The light bulb in a flashlight is a load. A
television plugged into a wall outlet is also a load. Every load has
resistance.
Voltage
Water Tank
Voltage (V) is a measure of the pressure applied to electrons to

make them move. It is a measure of the strength of the current in a
circuit and is measured in volts (V). Just as the 10-meter tank applies
greater pressure than the 1-meter tank, a 10-volt power supply (such
as a battery) would apply greater pressure than a 1-volt power
supply.
10 m
AA batteries are 1.5-volt; they apply a small amount of voltage for

lighting small flashlight bulbs. A car usually has a 12-volt batteryit
applies more voltage to push current through circuits to operate the
radio or defroster. The standard voltage of wall outlets is 120 voltsa
dangerous voltage. An electric clothes dryer is usually wired at 240
voltsa very dangerous voltage.
Current
The flow of electrons can be compared to the flow of water. The
water current is the number of molecules of water flowing past a
fixed point; electric current is the number of electrons flowing past
a fixed point.
Electric current (I) is defined as electrons flowing between two
points having a difference in voltage. Current is measured in amperes
18
or amps (A). One ampere is 6.25 x 10 electrons per second passing
through a circuit.
With water, as the diameter of the pipe increases, so does the amount
of water that can flow through it. With electricity, conducting
12
Water Tank
1m
Current
Water Tank
1 cm diameter
pipe
Water Tank
10 cm diameter
pipe
Ohms Law
George Ohm, a German physicist, discovered that in many materials,
especially metals, the current that flows through a material is
proportional to the voltage. He found that if he doubled the voltage,
the current also doubled. If he reduced the voltage by half, the
current dropped by half. The resistance of the material remained the
same.
Resistance
Water Tank
Water Tank
No
Resistance
Resistance
Water Tank
Water Tank
This relationship is called Ohms Law and can be described using a

simple formula. If you know any two of the measurements, you can
calculate the third using the following formula:
voltage = current x resistance
V = IxR
or
V = Ax
Electric Power
Power (P) is a measure of the rate of doing work or the rate at which
energy is converted. Electric power is the rate at which electricity is
produced or consumed. Using the water analogy, electric power is
the combination of the water pressure (voltage) and the rate of flow
(current) that results in the ability to do work.
Electric Power
A large pipe carries more water (current) than a small pipe. Water at a
height of 10 meters has much greater force (voltage) than at a height of
one meter. The power of water flowing through a 1-centimeter pipe from
a height of one meter is much less than water through a 10-centimeter
pipe from 10 meters.
Electric power is defined as the amount of electric current flowing due
to an applied voltage. It is the amount of electricity required to start or
operate a load for one second. Electric power is measured in watts (W).
The formula is:
power = voltage x current
P= VxI
or
W = VxA
Electrical Energy
Electrical energy introduces the concept of time to electric power. In
the water analogy, it would be the amount of water falling through
the pipe over a period of time, such as an hour. When we talk about
using power over time, we are talking about using energy. Using our
water example, we could look at how much work could be done by
the water in the time that it takes for the tank to empty.
The electrical energy that an appliance or device consumes can be
determined only if you know how long (time) it consumes electric
power at a specific rate (power). To find the amount of energy
consumed, you multiply the rate of energy consumption (measured
in watts) by the amount of time (measured in hours) that it is being
consumed. Electrical energy is measured in watt-hours (Wh).
energy
E=Pxt
= power x time
or E = W x h = Wh
Another way to think about power and energy is with an analogy

to traveling. If a person travels in a car at a rate of 40 miles per hour
(mph), to find the total distance traveled, you would multiply the
rate of travel by the amount of time you traveled at that rate.
If a car travels at 40 miles per hour for 1 hour, it would travel 40 miles.
distance = 40 mph x 1 hour = 40 miles
The distance traveled represents the work done by the car. When we
look at power, we are talking about the rate that electrical energy is
being produced or consumed. Energy is analogous to the distance
traveled or the work done by the car.
A person would not say he took a 40-mile per hour trip because that
is the rate. The person would say he took a 40-mile trip or a 120-mile
trip. We would describe the trip in terms of distance traveled, not
rate traveled. The distance represents the amount of work done.
The same applies with electric power. You would not say you
used 100 watts of light energy to read your book, because a watt
represents the rate you use energy, not the total energy used. The
amount of energy used would be calculated by multiplying the rate
by the amount of time you read.
If you read for five hours with a 100-W light bulb, for example, you
would use the formula as follows:
energy = power x time (E = P x t)
energy = 100 W x 5 hours = 500 Wh
One watt-hour is a very small amount of electrical energy. Usually,

we measure electric power in larger units called kilowatt-hours
(kWh) or 1,000 watt-hours (kilo = thousand). A kilowatt-hour is the
unit that utilities use when billing most customers. The average cost
of a kilowatt-hour of electricity for residential customers is about
$0.12.
To calculate the cost of reading with a 100-W light bulb for five hours,
you would change the watt-hours into kilowatt-hours, then multiply the
kilowatt-hours used by the cost per kilowatt-hour, as shown below:
If a car travels at 40 miles per hour for 3 hours, it would travel 120
miles.
500 Wh / 1,000 = 0.5 kWh

0.5 kWh x $0.12/kWh = $0.06
distance = 40 mph x 3 hours = 120 miles
Therefore, it would cost about six cents to read for five hours with a 100W light bulb.
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Review Questions
1. Identify and explain the nuclear reaction in the sun that produces radiant energy.
2. Define renewable energy. Explain why solar energy is considered renewable.
3. Explain why a car parked in the sun becomes hot inside.
4. Why is a solar cell called a PV cell? What does the word photovoltaic mean?
5. Explain the conversion efficiency of a PV cell. How efficient are PV cells today?
6. How do new thin-film technologies compare to conventional PV cells?
7. Explain briefly how a PV cell converts radiant energy into electricity.
8. Do PV modules produce AC or DC current? Which type of current do most appliances use? What device converts DC to AC current?
9. Define the following electrical measures and the unit of measurement for each.
voltage:
current:
resistance:
power:
10. What is the average cost of a kilowatt-hour of electricity for U.S. residential customers?
14
Calculation of Power
Power (P) is a measure of the rate of doing work or the rate at which energy is converted. Electric power is defined as the amount of electric current
flowing due to an applied voltage. Electric power is measured in watts (W). The formula is:
power = voltage x current

P= VxI
or
W = VxA
Series Circuits
Single PV Module
+
+
2
3
4
5
+
6
Itotal = I1 = I2 = I3
In series circuits, the current remains constant while

the voltage changes. To calculate total voltage, add
the individual voltages together:
1.5 V
1.5 V
1.5 V
Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3
Series - 2 PV Modules
+
+
2
3
4
5
+
6
Series - 3 PV Modules
+
+
2
3
4
5
3.0 V
0.1 A
1.5 V
0.1 A
4.5 V
+
6
4.5 V
0.1 A
Parallel Circuits
Itotal = I1 + I2 + I3
In parallel circuits, the voltage remains constant

while the current changes. To calculate total
current, add the individual currents together:
Single PV Module
+
+
2
3
4
5
+
6
1.5 V
0.1 A
1.5 V
1.5 V
1.5 V
Vtotal = V1 = V2 = V3
Parallel - 2 PV Modules
+
+
+
2
3
4
5
6
1.5 V
0.2 A
1.5 V
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Parallel - 3 PV Modules
+
+
+
2
3
4
5
6
1.5 V
0.3 A
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15
Basic Measurement Values in Electronics

SYMBOL
VALUE
METER
UNIT
Voltage (the force)
Voltmeter
Volts (V)
Current (the flow)
Ammeter
Amps/Amperes (A)
Resistance (the anti-flow)
Ohmmeter
Ohms ()
1 Ampere = 1 coulomb/second
1 Coulomb = 6.24 x 1018 electrons (about a triple axle dump truck full of sand where one grain of sand is one electron)
Prefixes for Units

Smaller
(m)illi x 1/1000 or .001

() micro x 1/1000000 or .000001
(n)ano x1/100000000 or .000000001
(p)ico x 1/1000000000000 or .000000000001
Bigger
(K)ilo x 1,000
(M)ega x 1,000,000
(G)iga x 1,000,000,000
Formulas for Measuring Electricity

V=IxR
I = V/R
R = V/I
The formula pie works for any three

variable equation. Put your finger on
the variable you want to solve for and
the operation you need is revealed.
Series Resistance (Resistance is additive)

RT= R1 + R2 + R3 +Rn
Parallel Resistance (Resistance is reciprocal)

1/RT= 1/R1 + 1/R2+ 1/R3 +1/Rn
Note: ALWAYS convert the values you are working with to the BASE unit. For exampledont plug kilo-ohms (K) into the
equationconvert the value to first.
16
Digital Multimeter
V ---
1000
OFF
200
200
20
2000
m
2000
20
m
200
m
200
2000
K
200K
B
E
E
B
E
10
20K
C
E
750
200
NPN PNP
hFE
2000
200
CE
DIGITAL
MULTIMETER
A ---
10A max
unfused
10ADC
VmA
750VAC
1000VDC
200m A max
COM
500V max
Directions
DC Voltage (
1. Connect RED lead to VmA connector and BLACK to COM.

2. Set SWITCH to highest setting on DC VOLTAGE scale (1000).
3. Connect leads to the device to be tested using the alligator clips provided.
4. Adjust SWITCH to lower settings until a satisfactory reading is obtained.
5. With the solar modules or array, the 20 DCV setting usually provides the best reading.
DC Current (
1. Connect RED lead to VmA connector and BLACK to COM.

2. Set SWITCH to 10 ADC setting.
3. Connect leads to the device to be tested using the alligator clips provided.
Note: The reading indicates DC AMPS; a reading of 0.25 amps equals 250 mA (milliamps).
4. With the solar modules or array, the 200mA DC setting usually provides the bets reading.
YOUR MULTIMETER MIGHT BE SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT FROM THE ONE SHOWN. BEFORE USING THE MULTIMETER READ THE OPERATORS
INSTRUCTION MANUAL INCLUDED IN THE BOX FOR SAFETY INFORMATION AND COMPLETE OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS.
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17
Solar 1
TO MEASURE CURRENT,
Ampmeter (set to DC Amps)
? Question
How do similar PV modules in an array vary in electrical output? Think about which
varies more, current or voltage.
Hypothesis
Develop a hypothesis to address the question.
TO MEASURE VOLTAGE,
Voltmeter (set to DC Volts)
Materials
Bright
light source
Alligator
clips
Electrical
load (motor/fan, light, or buzzer)
PV
array
2
Multimeters
Procedure
1. Test each PV module in the array by connecting the electrical load to each cell.
2. With the multimeter, measure the current and voltage of each PV module in the
array under identical external conditions.
Note: Solid and dashed lines in the diagram

represent different sets of clips or wires.
3. Record the data below and compare.

4. Calculate the power (current x voltage), or wattage of each trial. Record results in the chart below.
Observations
Data
CURRENT (A)
VOLTAGE (V)
POWER (W)
LEFT PV MODULE
CENTER PV MODULE
RIGHT PV MODULE
Conclusion
Reflections
Were the output currents of the PV modules similar?
Were the output voltages of the PV modules close to one another?
18
Solar 2
TO MEASURE CURRENT,
? Question
How does a PV array wired in series affect the electrical output? Think
about what will happen to current and voltage output.
Hypothesis
TO MEASURE VOLTAGE,
Materials
PV
array
Electrical
load
2
Multimeters
Alligator
clips
Procedure
1. Attach the multimeter to the PV array wired in series with an
electrical load. See diagram to the right.
2. Measure the current and voltage. Record data in the chart below.

3. Calculate the power (current x voltage), or wattage and record represent different sets of clips or wires.
results in the chart below.
Observations
Data
CURRENT (A)
VOLTAGE (V)
POWER (W)
SERIES
Conclusion
Reflections
How did the current produced in a series circuit compare to the current of an individual PV module?
How did the voltage produced in a series circuit compare to the voltage of an individual PV module?
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19
TO MEASURE CURRENT,
Solar 3
? Question
How does light intensity affect the electrical output of a PV array wired in series?
TO MEASURE VOLTAGE,
Hypothesis
Materials
2
Multimeters
PV
array
Bright
light source
Dim
light source
Electrical
load
Alligator
clips

Note
Procedure
When comparing light output

of different sources (e.g., bulbs),
lumens should be used to
compare light intensity rather
than watts, which compare
power consumption.
1. Attach the multimeter to the PV array wired in series with an electrical load.
2. Place the PV array under the bright light source.
3. Measure the current and voltage produced by the PV array.
4. Record data in the chart below.
5. Place the PV array under the dim light source.
6. Measure the current and voltage produced by the PV array.
7. Record data in the chart below.
8. Calculate the power (current x voltage), or wattage of each trial. Record results in the chart below.
Observations
Data
CURRENT (A)
VOLTAGE (V)
POWER (W)
BRIGHT LIGHT
DIM LIGHT
Conclusion
Reflections
What differences did you observe in the variables of the two light intensities?
How does light intensity affect the output of the PV array?
20
TO MEASURE CURRENT,
Solar 4
? Question
How does the angle of a PV array (wired in series) relative to the light source
affect the electrical output?
TO MEASURE VOLTAGE,
Hypothesis
Materials
PV
array
Bright
light source
Electrical
load
2
Multimeters
Alligator
clips
Protractor

Procedure
2. Measure current and voltage when the PV module is at an angle of 90 relative to the light. Record data in the chart.
3. Using the protractor to adjust the angle, measure current and voltage when the PV module is at an angle of 75 relative to the light.
Record data in the chart.
4. Using the protractor, measure current and voltage when the PV module is at an angle of 60, 45, 30, and 15 relative to the light. Record
data in the chart.
5. Calculate the power (current x voltage), or wattage of each trial. Record results in the chart.
6. Graph your experimental results, wattage (y) vs. degrees (x).
Data
DEGREES
CURRENT (A)
VOLTAGE (V)
POWER (W)
90
75
60
45
30
15
Conclusion
Reflections
From the graph of your data, what is the relationship between the angle of a PV array to wattage produced?
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Solar 5
TO MEASURE CURRENT,
? Question
How does the distance from a light source affect the electrical output of a PV
array wired in series?
TO MEASURE VOLTAGE,
Hypothesis
Materials
PV
array
Bright
light source
Electrical
load
2
Multimeters
Alligator
clips
Measuring
tape or meter stick

Procedure
2. Place the PV array at increasing distances from a light source according to the data chart below.
3. At each distance, measure current and voltage, and record data in the chart.
5. Graph your experimental results, wattage (y) versus distance (x) from light source.
Data
DISTANCE (CM)
CURRENT (A)
VOLTAGE (V)
POWER (W)
10 CM
20 CM
35 CM
50 CM
75 CM
100 CM
Conclusion
Reflections
From the graph of your data, what is the relationship of wattage to distance from the light source?
22
TO MEASURE CURRENT,
Solar 6
? Question
TO MEASURE VOLTAGE,
How does covering different parts of the PV array wired in series affect its electrical output?
Hypothesis
C ARD B OARD
Develop a hypothesis to address the question using the following format: If (manipulated
variable) then (responding variable) because ...
Diagram 1
TO MEASURE CURRENT,
Materials
Bright
light source
Electrical
load
PV
array
2
Multimeters
Alligator
clips
3x5
Piece of cardboard
TO MEASURE VOLTAGE,
Procedure
1. Attach the multimeter to the PV array wired in series with an electrical load. Measure current
and voltage and record in the data chart as trial 1.
C ARDBOARD
2. Using the cardboard, cover half the PV array horizontally as in diagram 1. Measure and record
the current and voltage in the data chart as trial 2.
3. Using the cardboard, cover half of the complete cells vertically as in diagram 2. Measure and
record the current and voltage in the data chart as trial 3.
Data
TRIALS
CURRENT (A)
VOLTAGE (V)
Diagram 2
Note: Solid and dashed lines in the

diagram above represent different sets
of clips or wires.
POWER (W)
1 - NO COVER
2 - COVER HORIZONTALLY
3 - COVER VERTICALLY
Conclusion
Reflections
What did you observe about the differences in your data?
What function does the silver strip perform in the PV array?
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Solar 7
TO MEASURE CURRENT,
? Question
How does concentrating the light from a light source affect the electrical output
of a PV array wired in series?
Hypothesis
TO MEASURE VOLTAGE,
Materials
PV
array
Electrical
load
Bright
light source
2
Multimeters
Alligator
clips
Fresnel
lens
Metric
ruler
Procedure

2. Measure the current and voltage and record data in the chart.
3. Lay the Fresnel lens over the PV array.
4. Measure the current and voltage. Record data in the chart.
5. Conduct additional trials with the lens, changing the distance from the lens to the PV array.
Data
TRIALS
CURRENT (A)
VOLTAGE (V)
POWER (W)
NO LENS
LENS (0 cm)
LENS ____cm
LENS ____cm
LENS ____cm
Conclusion
Reflections
From your observations, what is the affect of concentrating the light on a PV array?
24
Solar 8
TO MEASURE CURRENT,
? Question
How does surface temperature affect the electrical output of a PV array wired in
series?
Hypothesis
TO MEASURE VOLTAGE,
Materials
PV
array
Electrical
load
2
Multimeters
Alligator
clips
Ice
water
Bright
light source
Stopwatch

Procedure
2. Place the array in the bright light for 10 minutes.
3. After the 10 minutes, record data in the chart.
4. With the conductors at the top of the array, hold the PV array at an angle of 45, and carefully pour ice water across the surface of the PV
array.
Caution: DO NOT LET WATER TOUCH LEADS.
5. Measure change in voltage every 15 seconds as the surface of the PV module cools. Record data in the chart.
6. Graph data with voltage (y) vs. time (x).
Data
TIME (SEC)
VOLTAGE (V)
0
15
30
45
60
Conclusion
Reflections
How does cooling down the surface of the PV array affect the voltage produced? Why do you think this is?
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Solar 9
? Question
How does a PV array wired in parallel affect the electrical output? Think about what will happen to current and voltage output.
Hypothesis
Materials
PV
array
Electrical
load
2
Multimeters
Alligator
clips
Bright
light source
TO MEASURE CURRENT,
Procedure
1. Attach the multimeter to the PV array wired in parallel with an electrical load. See the
diagram to the right.
3. Calculate the power (current x voltage), or wattage. Record results in the chart.
TO MEASURE VOLTAGE,
Data
TRIALS
CURRENT (A)
VOLTAGE (V)
POWER (W)
PARALLEL
Conclusion
Note: Solid and dashed lines in the
diagram represent different sets of
clips or wires
Reflections
In previous investigations the array was wired in series. How has the current changed in parallel connections?
In previous investigations the array was wired in series. How has the voltage changed in parallel connections?
26
Extension 1
? Question
How do changes in supplied current and voltage affect the operation of electrical loads or devices?
Hypothesis
Materials
PV
array
2
Fan motors (electrical loads)
2
Multimeters
Bright
light source
Procedure
1. Assemble 2 PV modules in series with 2 fan motors.
2. Measure current and voltage. Record data and observations below.
3. Assemble 3 PV modules in series with 2 fan motors.
5. Assemble 2 PV modules in parallel with 2 fan motors.
7. Assemble 3 PV modules in parallel with 2 fan motors.
9. Calculate the power (current x voltage), or wattage. Record data and observations below.
Data
CIRCUIT TYPE
# MODULES
SERIES
SERIES
PARALLEL
PARALLEL
CURRENT (AMPS)
VOLTAGE (VOLTS) POWER (WATTS)
OBSERVATIONS
Conclusion
Reflections
How did the current change when the PV module was connected in series versus in parallel?
What was observed when two modules were used? When three modules were used?
What was the difference in fan performance between series and parallel circuits?
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27
Extension 2
? Question
How do changes in different circuit configurations affect the operation of multiple loads in the circuit?
Hypothesis
Materials
2
PV arrays
3
Fan motors (electrical loads)
2
Multimeters
Alligator
clips
Bright
light source
Procedure
1. Connect three PV modules in series and three PV modules in parallel.
2. Measure the changes in current and voltage of two fans and then three fans connected in series to each of the PV module configurations.
Record data and observations below.
3. Measure the changes in current and voltage of two fans and then three fans connected in parallel to each of the PV module configurations.
Record data and observations below.
4. Calculate the power (current x voltage), or wattage. Record data and observations below.
Data
CIRCUIT TYPE
PV ARRAY
NUMBER
OF FANS
CIRCUIT
TYPE FANS
SERIES
SERIES
SERIES
SERIES
SERIES
PARALLEL
SERIES
PARALLEL
PARALLEL
SERIES
PARALLEL
SERIES
PARALLEL
PARALLEL
PARALLEL
PARALLEL
CURRENT
(AMPS)
VOLTAGE
(VOLTS)
POWER
(WATTS)
OBSERVATIONS
Conclusion
Reflections
What was observed when two fans were used? When three fans were used?
Give examples of loads in parallel and series circuits that you have at home?
What might happen if too many loads are drawing power in your classroom?
28
Extension 3
? Question
What effects on current and voltage will using different light sources have?
Hypothesis
Materials
1
PV array
Electrical
load
1
Multimeter
Alligator
clips
Various
light sources
Procedure
Design a procedure to compare the output of the PV array using natural sunlight and a variety of artificial light sources (e.g., incandescent,
CFL, halogen, LED).
Data
Conclusion
Reflections
How would you do this activity differently to improve the electrical output of your circuit?
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Extension 4
? Question
Below are twelve 12-volt photovoltaic modules rated at 80 watts each.

Design an array to deliver 48 volts to the inverter by using a combination of series and parallel circuits.
Use dashed lines to represent the black (-) wires, and solid lines to represent the red (+) wires.
Reflections
Write an algebraic equation representing the 48-volt circuit you created.
48V DC INVERTER
Is there more than one design that could have created the 48-volt circuit?
30
Can Solar Energy Meet Your Electricity

Demands?
Part One: How much energy do you need per day?
1. How much electricity does your family consume each month (in kilowatt hours, kWh)? _____________ kWh
2. What is your daily electricity use in kWh? _____________ kWh
3. What is your daily electricity use in watt-hours? _____________ watt-hours
Part Two: How much energy can a module produce on an average day where YOU live?
1. Peak sun hours are the number of hours per day where solar insolation equals 1,000 watts/square meter. Use the U.S. Solar Resource Map
to determine how many peak sun hours your home city receives each day. _____________ peak sun hours
2. How much energy will one 235-watt solar module generate on the average day?

235 watts x _______ peak sun hours = ________watt-hours daily production per module
Part Three: How big does your system need to be for where you live?
1. How many 235-watt solar modules would you need to produce enough electricity for your home?

Answer: _______modules
2. If each module costs $800.00 installed, how much would it cost for the number of solar modules you need? Answer: $______________
Part Four: How many years will it take before the system has paid for itself?
1. Calculate your current cost for electricity (multiply your monthly total kWh use by the rate in your city/town).
2. A) How much do you pay each month? $___________ B) How much do you pay each year? $_____________
3. The payback period is the time it will take for your system price to be offset by the electrical energy bills that will be avoided. Divide the
total system cost (Part 3, Step 2) by your annual cost for electricity (Part 4, Step 2B).

Answer:_______________ years
Part Five: Reflect

1. What are the different factors that impact payback period?
2. Under what circumstances is it NOT worth installing a solar generating system?
3. Think about when you use the most electricity. Do these hours
coincide with peak sun hours? What would you need in order
to use solar energy around the clock?
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U.S. Solar Resource Map

Annual Average Solar Concentration
Note: Alaska and Hawaii not shown to scale
5 to 6
4 to 5
3 to 4
Annual Average Solar Concentration (kWh/m2/Day)

HIGH
More than 6
LOW
Less than 3
32
Your Solar-Powered Cabin

Your crazy old Uncle Ed has just willed you a cabin that he has on a river near Page, AZ. The only problem is that the
cabin has no electricity. Uncle Ed believes in hard work and hes specified one conditionif you are to take possession
of this prime parcel, you must plan and install a PV system to support the following four specifications:
a light for the kitchen (LED, 12 volts at 15 watts);
a power supply for charging your laptop (12 volts at 90 watts);
an electric pump for the well (12 volts at 100 watts intermittent); and
a refrigerator (12 volts at 50 watts intermittent).
Before you can collect your inheritance, Uncle Eds lawyer will need to see:
a description of the PV modules that you will use along with their ratings;
a schematic diagram of your system design; and
a spreadsheet detailing your budget and sources for parts.
Have fun!
Extension
When you finish your plan, design a battery system to store the electrical energy generated for use at night or during
storms.
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Solar-Powered Cabin Planning Page

Description of Modules:
Diagram of Design:
Budget Information:
34
Glossary
albedo
the amount of solar energy reflected back from the Earths surface; different surfaces have different levels
of reflectivity
alternating current (AC)
an electric current that reverses its direction at regular intervals or cycles; in the U.S. the standard is 120
reversals or 60 cycles per second; typically abbreviated as AC
amorphous
lacking shape or form
ampere (A)
a unit of measure for an electric current; the amount of current that flows in a circuit at an electromotive
force of one volt and at a resistance of one ohm; abbreviated as amp
array
a systematic arrangement, in rows, of photovoltaic cells
base-load power
the minimum amount of electricity a utility must have available to its customers, at all times
charge controller
a device that controls or limits how much electric current is added to or removed from a storage device
or battery
concentrated solar power
technologies that focus the energy from the sun onto one smaller area creating high temperatures that
can produce electricity
conversion efficiency
a ratio of useful energy output compared to the energy input
Czochralski process
a method of growing crystals for semiconductors
direct current (DC)
an electric current that flows in only one direction through a circuit, as from a battery; typically abbreviated
as DC
dopant
an element that is inserted into a substance to alter the conductivity or electrical properties
efficiency
the ratio of useful energy delivered compared to energy supplied
electric current (I)
the flow of charged particles like electrons through a circuit, usually measured in amperes
electric power
the rate at which energy is transferred; electrical energy is usually measured in watts; also used for a
measurement of capacity
gamma rays
energy in the form of high-energy, short wavelength, electromagnetic radiation released by the nucleus;
gamma rays are similar to x-rays and are best stopped or shielded by dense materials, such as lead
grid
the layout of an electrical distribution system
heliostat
a sun-tracking or seeking mirror
ingot
a material (usually metal) cast into a shape; semiconductors in bulk cast by a mold
inverter
device that converts direct current to alternating current
kilowatt-hour (kWh)
a measure of electricity as a unit of work or energy, measured as 1 kilowatt of power expended for 1 hour
module
multiple PV cells connected together in larger units
n-type silicon
layer of silicon in a solar cell that has been doped with phosphorus to have a negative character and repel
electrons
nuclear fusion
when the nuclei of atoms are combined or fused together; the sun combines the nuclei of hydrogen atoms into helium atoms in a process called fusion; energy from the nuclei of atoms, called nuclear energy,
is released from fusion
ohm ()
the unit of resistance to the flow of an electric current
Ohms Law
a mathematical relationship between voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R) in a circuit; Ohms Law
states the voltage across a load is equal to the current flowing through the load times the resistance of
the load (V = I x R)
p-type silicon
layer of silicon in a solar cell that has been doped with boron to have a positive character and attract
electrons
peak-load power
amount of power needed to supply consumers during times of high demand
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35
photons
particles that transmit light
photosphere
the outer layer of the sun or a star, light is radiated from the photosphere
photovoltaic cell
a device, usually made from silicon, which converts some of the energy from light (radiant energy) into
electrical energy; another name for a solar cell
photovoltaic effect
creating electric current through exposure of a material to light; excited electrons become free, eventually
being converted into electric energy
photovoltaic system
an arrangement of components to supply power from the sun, often including the PV module(s), storage
component, inverter, and connections
power
the rate at which energy is transferred, measured in watts
radiant energy
any form of energy radiating from a source in electromagnetic waves
renewable
fuels that can be easily made or replenished; we can never use up renewable fuels
resistance (R)
a measure of the amount of energy per charge needed to move a charge through an electric circuit, usually measured in ohms
semiconductor
any material that has a limited capacity for conducting an electric current; semiconductors are
crystalline solids, such as silicon, that have an electrical conductivity between that of a conductor and an
insulator
solar collector
an item, like a car or greenhouse, that absorbs radiant energy from the sun and traps it within
thermal energy
the total potential and kinetic energy associated with the random motions of the atoms and
molecules of a material; the more the molecules move and vibrate the more energy they possess
transmutation
a process involving a change in the number of protons or neutrons in the nucleus, resulting in the formation of a different isotope; this occurs during alpha and beta emissions
volt (V)
measure of electric potential or electromotive force; a potential of one volt appears across a resistance of
one ohm when a current of one ampere flows through that resistance
voltage
the difference in electrical potential between any two conductors or between a conductor and the ground;
it is a measure of the electric energy per electron that electrons can acquire and/or give up as they move
between the two conductors
watt (W)
a metric unit of power, usually used in electric measurements, which gives the rate at which work is done
or energy is used
36
B L A N K
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P A G E
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37
B L A N K
38
P A G E
NEEDs Online Resources

NEEDS SMUGMUG GALLERY
SOCIAL MEDIA
http://need-media.smugmug.com/
Stay up-to-date with NEED. Like us on Facebook! Search for

The NEED Project, and check out all weve got going on!
On NEEDs SmugMug page, youll find pictures of NEED students

learning and teaching about energy. You can also find pictures
from NEED workshops, and photos of energy from around the
country that were submitted for the Great American Energy Scavenger Hunt. Would you like to submit images or videos to NEEDs
gallery? E-mail info@NEED.org for more information.
Also use SmugMug to find these visual resources:
Follow us on Twitter. We share the latest energy news from

around the country, @NEED_Project.
Follow us on Instagram and check out the photos taken at
NEED events, instagram.com/theneedproject.
NEED ANNUAL REPORT
Videos
Need a refresher on how to use Science of Energy with your
students? Watch the Science of Energy videos. Also check out our
Energy Chants videos! Find videos produced by NEED students
teaching their peers and community members about energy.
Online Graphics Library
NEEDs Annual Report gives summaries of the best state and national
Youth Awards projects for 20132014, as well as information about
The NEED Project and our state programs. Download the report
online at www.NEED.org.

Would you like to use NEEDs graphics in your own classroom

presentations, or allow students to use them in their
presentations? Download graphics for easy use in
your classroom.
E-Publications
The NEED Project offers e-publication versions
of various guides for in-classroom use. Guides
that are currently available as an e-publication
will have a link next to the relevant guide title
on NEEDs curriculum resources page,
www.NEED.org/curriculum.
Dont see what youre looking for?

Check back often, as new e-pubs will be
added throughout the year.
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National Sponsors and Partners

American Electric Power
American Wind Energy Association
Arizona Public Service
Arizona Science Center
Arkansas Energy Office
Armstrong Energy Corporation
Association of Desk & Derrick Clubs
Audubon Society of Western Pennsylvania
Barnstable County, Massachusetts
Robert L. Bayless, Producer, LLC
BP
Blue Grass Energy
Boulder Valley School District
Brady Trane
Cape Light CompactMassachusetts
L.J. and Wilma Carr
Chevron
Chevron Energy Solutions
Columbia Gas of Massachusetts
ComEd
ConEdison Solutions
ConocoPhillips
Constellation
Daniel Math and Science Center
David Petroleum Corporation
Denver Public Schools
Desk and Derrick of Roswell, NM
Dominion
DonorsChoose
Duke Energy
East Kentucky Power
Eastern Kentucky University
Elba Liquifaction Company
El Paso Corporation
E.M.G. Oil Properties
Encana
Encana Cares Foundation
Energy Education for Michigan
Energy Training Solutions
First Roswell Company
FJ Management. Inc.
Foundation for Environmental Education
FPL
The Franklin Institute
Frontier Associates
Government of ThailandEnergy Ministry
Green Power EMC
Guam Energy Office
Guilford County Schools North Carolina
Gulf Power
Gerald Harrington, Geologist
Harvard Petroleum
Hawaii Energy
Houston Museum of Natural Science
Idaho National Laboratory

Illinois Clean Energy Community Foundation
Independent Petroleum Association of
America
Independent Petroleum Association of New
Mexico
Indiana Michigan Power An AEP Company
Interstate Renewable Energy Council
Kentucky Clean Fuels Coalition
Kentucky Department of Education
Kentucky Department of Energy Development and Independence
Kentucky Power An AEP Company
Kentucky River Properties LLC
Kentucky Utilities Company
Kinder Morgan
Leidos
Linn County Rural Electric Cooperative
Llano Land and Exploration
Louisiana State University Cooperative
Extension
Louisville Gas and Electric Company
Maine Energy Education Project
Maine Public Service Company
Marianas Islands Energy Office
Massachusetts Division of Energy Resources
Michigan Oil and Gas Producers Education
Foundation
Miller Energy
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Division
Mojave Environmental Education Consortium
Mojave Unified School District
Montana Energy Education Council
NASA
National Association of State Energy Officials
National Fuel
National Grid
National Hydropower Association
National Ocean Industries Association
National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Nebraska Public Power District
New Mexico Oil Corporation
New Mexico Landmans Association
NRG Energy, Inc.
NSTAR
OCI Enterprises
Offshore Energy Center
Offshore Technology Conference
Ohio Energy Project
Oxnard School District
Pacific Gas and Electric Company
Paxton Resources
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PECO
Pecos Valley Energy Committee
Petroleum Equipment Suppliers Association
Phillips 66
PNM
Read & Stevens, Inc.
Rhode Island Office of Energy Resources
River Parishes Community College
RiverQuest
Robert Armstrong
Roswell Geological Society
Sandia National Laboratory
Saudi Aramco
Science Museum of Virginia
C.T. Seaver Trust
Shell
Shell Chemicals
Society of Petroleum Engineers
Society of Petroleum Engineers Middle
East, North Africa and South Asia
David Sorenson
Southern Company
Southern LNG
Space Sciences UniversityLaboratory of the
University of California Berkeley
Tennessee Department of Economic and
Community DevelopmentEnergy Division
Tioga Energy
Toyota
Tri-State Generation and Transmission
TXU Energy
United States Energy Association
United Way of Greater Philadelphia and
Southern New Jersey
University of NevadaLas Vegas, NV
University of Tennessee
University of Texas - Austin
University of Texas - Tyler
U.S. Department of Energy
U.S. Department of EnergyHydrogen
Program
U.S. Department of EnergyOffice of Energy
Efficiency and Renewable Energy
U.S. Department of EnergyOffice of Fossil
Energy
U.S. Department of EnergyWind for Schools
U.S. Department of the InteriorBureau of
Land Management
U.S. Energy Information Administration
West Bay Exploration
Western Massachusetts Electric Company
W. Plack Carr Company
Yates Petroleum Corporation

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Exploring Photovoltaics

What is Solar Energy?

Image courtesy of NASA

This image of our sun was captured by NASAs Solar Dynamics

Average reflectivity of solar radiation for various surfaces.

supply our energy needs. A surfaces albedo describes how much

JOHN ERICSSONS SOLAR ENGINE

Solar energy is considered a renewable energy source. Renewable

History of Solar Energy

Image courtesy of www.stirlingengines.org

How much solar energy a place receives depends on several

sunlight in through the glass;

the sunlight and changes it into heat; and

most of the heat inside.

2014 The NEED Project

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SOLAR TRAFFIC SIGNAL

Photovoltaic (or PV) systems convert light directly into electricity.

Solar cells provide power

The conversion efficiency of a PV cell is the proportion of radiant

SOLAR PANELS ON THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION

As a result of technological advances, the cost of PV cells has

Image courtesy of NASA

High efficiency photovoltaic cells power the International Space Station.

Unlike solar systems for heating water, PV technology does not

Silicon is used as a semiconductor because it has four valence electrons

2014 The NEED Project

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Phosphorous-doped (n-type) silicon layer

Boron-doped (p-type) silicon layer

How a Traditional PV Cell is Made

A conducting wire connects the p-type silicon to an external load

PV Modules and Arrays

Photovoltaic Arrays Are Made of Individual

A typical PV module consists of PV cells sandwiched between a clear

PV modules, because of their electrical properties, produce direct

Parts of a Photovoltaic Array

In the simplest systems, DC current produced by PV modules is used

PV systems cannot store electricity, so batteries are often added. A

PV systems with batteries can be designed to power DC or AC

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Grid-connected systems are designed to operate in parallel with,

Solar Grid-connected System

As its name suggests, this type of PV system is a separate electricity

Image courtesy of PG&E

Image courtesy of NASA

PG&Es Vaca-Dixon Solar Station in California is a 2-MW gridconnected system.

A residential system is designed to offset power usage at an individual

A commercial system is designed to offset power usage at a business

Other Solar Technologies

heat in one area to produce the high temperatures required to

Average Size of Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems, 2012

Average Size of Photovoltaic Systems, Grid Connected, 2012

U.S. Total Installed Solar Electricity Capacity

Annual Installed Grid-Connected PV Capacity by Sector

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Today there are many new PV technologies either on the market, in