Eng2601 - Study Guide

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STUDY UNIT 1: English Language systems: persuasion and narration/rhetorical analysis
STUDY UNIT 2: Language and Meaning
22
STUDY UNIT 3: Register and Genre
34
STUDY UNIT 4: Text cohesion
43
STUDY UNIT 5: English language use and variation 58

STUDY UNIT 6: Academic English 73
ENG2601/1/20142017iii
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Introduction
Welcome to this module, which builds on the first-level module, ENG1502,

Foundations in English Language Studies. In this module we will be delving further
into the English language and developing your insight into how language usage creates
different meanings and effects: why the writer or speaker has chosen to use certain
words, or combined them in particular ways. Increasing your critical awareness of
how language is used, and for what purposes, will make you a more thoughtful reader,
a more discerning listener, a less gullible consumer and a more careful writer. In
general this module terms, we hope it will help you make better informed judgements
in a changing social context in which language plays a dominant role in everyday
communication.
The texts we use have, where possible, been taken from the South African context, but
are all in English.
Outcomes
By the end of this module, you should be able to:
analyse and interpret the structure of language of selected texts in different genres;
explain the language system and its functions in various contexts; and
describe English language use and variation.
Because this module comprises applied language studies, we want you to be able to
apply the knowledge contained in your prescribed textbooks and this Study Guide in
a practical way. We hope that you will take the time and trouble to attempt the many
activities included in this Guide, as these are designed to give you practice in achieving
the outcomes of the module. (The feedback to these activities is placed at the end of
each unit.) Ultimately you will be required to demonstrate that you are able to analyse
texts and comment on how the English language functions in various real-life contexts.
This will also entail being able to express yourself clearly and correctly in written
English. Regular practice will develop your ability to write in a style appropriate for
academic purposes.
This module is divided into six units, each dealing with a different aspect of English
language use. We would like you to read this material in conjunction with the sections
of your prescribed texts, Introducing English Language and Working with Texts, indicated
at the beginning of each unit. At the end of every unit there is a Glossary of all the
specialist terms used in the unit. It is necessary for you to become familiar with these
terms, so we have left space for you to fill in the meanings yourself. This is just one of
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the activities you will be required to do, but is a particularly important one. Additional
activities, aimed at giving you more practice, may be found on myUnisa.
We hope you will enjoy this module and that it will develop your critical ability and
appreciation of how the English language works in your studies and in the real world.
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UNIT1
English Language systems: persuasion and narration/rhetorical analysis
Introduction
We have entitled this unit Language systems because it will demonstrate how the
English language systems work in specific writing contexts. This unit draws on all the
grammatical and language features that were introduced in ENG1502. These include
the micro elements of language such as word classes, word sounds, word morphology
and word meaning. The focus of Unit 6, in particular, was on language in action where
it was shown how features of language are adapted to context, audience and purpose.
Key to the discussion was the analysis of language features as used in broader contexts
or situations. In this unit we take this discussion further by examining how these
language features can be adapted for specific genre types. We take an approach known
as rhetorical analysis. Rhetorical analysis is concerned with the force of language for
example how language narrates, persuades, acts, invents and so on as well as the
effect language has on people. Rhetorical analysis is interested in the how and why a
writer chooses certain language features in their writing. To show this, we examine
genres of argumentation and narratives.
Outcomes
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
identify the speaker, purpose, audience and message of argumentation and narration
analyse and describe the different types of texts (argumentation and narratives)
explain the different language features that are used in the texts (such as metaphors, euphemisms, conjunctions, verbs, pronouns, modals, sentence types etc.)
identify and use the different persuasive and narrative techniques in your own
writing
write narratives and argumentative texts
What is an argument? How is it different from persuasion?
What comes to your mind when you hear the word argument?
Does the word persuasion trigger the same thoughts?
The word argument can be used to refer to many things. An argumentative piece
of writing can be defined as a reasoned, logical way of positioning your view,
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opinion or belief as valid. An argument can take place between two people as in a
disagreement over something; it could be among more than two people, as is the case
with a parliamentary debate; or it could be a case where one person or group position
themselves on a particular subject to win others to their viewpoint.
A persuasive piece of writing is subtly different from an argumentative one in that the
validity of the position taken is developed without much consideration of opposing
views. Below are some statements which might help you see the differences:
Persuasive Writing
Argumentative Writing
A persuasive essay aims at getting An argument aims at getting readers

readers to agree with a point of view to see and acknowledge that a view is
on a particular topic.
more valid than another.
Persuasion even though based on fact,
is driven by the writers opinion and
can draw on emotion and passion, and
is therefore subjective.
An argument even though based on

fact, will offer reasoned and credible
claims drawing on a wider range of
evidence (and not emotion) to validate
the claims.
Persuasion wants to convince and win An argument puts a view out there for
support to its side.
people to consider. While it is good to
know they have been convinced, the
aim is to share reasoned views, and not
so much to convince.
In persuasion, once a topic has been In an argument research is necessary
identified, a side is taken and then before a writer can take a position i.e.
presented with supporting reasons.
the research influences the position.
The line dividing the two is indeed very thin. Both types of writing require the writer
or speaker to take a position; substantiate the position with valid reasons with the
ultimate aim of persuading the reader or listener; and in the case of speeches, to agree
with them. This makes the purpose of this type of writing to be one of persuasion.
In our discussion we will see these terms as largely interchangeable.
Examples of persuasive/argumentative texts
There are a number of contexts where persuasion or argument is used. For example,
in newspaper editorials, featured columns in newspapers or magazines, a magazine
commentary, political advertisements, advertisements for advocacy groups, academic
essays, letters and even organisational websites can have a persuasive purpose.
Lets consider some of these in turn below.
1. Academic essays
In academic writing courses, students are trained on how to present an academic
argument. You may have been exposed to this yourself. A common text type is being
given a topic to argue for or against. Here we can think of topics such as:
2
Should high school students be given the freedom to smoke at school?

Is Euthanasia a bad or good practice?
Should capital punishment be re-introduced?
Should same-sex marriage be legalised?
These topics require a writer to take a side but also show how the opposing side is less
valid than the side taken.
2. Text from an advocacy group

Lets take an example of a text produced by an environmental group.
Activity 1
Read the extract on page 124 of your prescribed text (Working with Texts by Carter, et al,
2008). It is a good example of a persuasive text. It persuades the readers to appreciate why
biodiversity is important.
How does this text achieve persuasion? See the commentary below on language features which
help achieve persuasion. Try and identify the language features noted in the commentary.
Commentary
Here are some language features available to a writer who wishes to argue or persuade:
Table 1: Persuasion Language features
Using contrast
Using figurative
language
Using hyperbole
Using the active

voice
Using irony
Using
conjunctions,
reference words
Using
connective
words to create
authority
Using jargon or
buzzwords
Using modality
words
Using lexical
items of
substitution and
connotation
Using questions
Using
quotations as
evidence
Using emotive
language
Some examples of persuasive language from the biodiversity text are given below.
Emotive language: Wild life inspires and fascinates us, and our open spaces are
there to enjoy; we are in danger ; a damaged environment will hurt us
Modality words: a damaged environment will hurt us ; but we can make a
difference
Questions: So whats behind the destruction?
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3. Letters
Activity 2
Imagine you have been told there is a scholarship grant available to students for University
tuition. The grant is accessible through the First Lady (wife to the president). All applications
have to be directed to her. The application should detail why the applicant thinks they deserve
this grant. Write the letter.
In your discussion group, exchange letters and comment on each others letters.
What strategies do you think the writer has used to persuade the First Lady to positively consider
their case? Can you identify words which help achieve the persuasion?
More Activities
Refer to the letter from Waitrose on page 109 of Working with Texts. This letter is
clearly written to persuade Waitrose customers to use the new online buying service,
Ocado. The subtle way in which the reader is persuaded lies in the choice of specific
words. As explained on page 108, the letter uses a number of pronouns to achieve this.
The use of pronouns makes the writing personal, warm and passionate. Shops sell
products so the writer is using persuasive techniques, such as pronoun use to win the
readers emotions. You wouldnt do this in an academic essay.
Study the pronouns that have been used and in your group discuss how effective the
pronouns are as tools of persuasion. Refer back to the language features in Table 1 and
see if you can identify other persuasive rhetorical devices.
4. Websites
Another example of persuasion may be found on websites. Websites use shapes, colour,
words and other devices to persuade a reader. The aim could be to attract a particular
audience to buy a product or enrol in an institution.
Study the following websites. They are examples of persuasion. Comment on how the
text, colours and images contribute to the persuasive purpose.
The examples we have given above clearly illustrate that arguments are not confined
to academic writing; they are used in different social contexts. They dont exist in a
vacuum. In fact, persuasion is an everyday activity which could take the form of an
advertisement, a television commercial, an advert at a coffee shop, a political message,
or a message from a family member requesting that an errand be done for them.
In some occupations such as law, teaching, journalism, writing and graphic design,
persuasion cannot be avoided. The style used will be unique to these professions, of
course, and as such, special training is required for one to learn these unique skills.
Persuasive/Argumentation Techniques
Here we will introduce some techniques you may find useful in your writing of
arguments.
1. Appeal
Appeal is a strategy that has been used frequently in logical reasoning and critical
thinking debates. When you write, you need to keep this in mind because it can be a
powerful way of keeping your writing focused, logical, and indeed persuasive. We can
appeal to a persons emotions (pathos); we can appeal to a persons reasoning (logos);
or we can appeal to a persons wisdom (ethos). The strategies can be visualised in a
triangle as shown below.
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LOGOS: Message
ETHOS: Writer
Internal consistency of the

message itself, the clarity
of its claim, whether it
contradicts itself, whether
it uses strong supporting
evidence. We can think
of it as logic or logical
appeal.
This refers to the

credibility of the
writer. Can be a writers
reputation in the field,
but also how honest the
writing is. Are you hiding
behind words? How do
you treat opposing ideas?
PATHOS: Audience
Refers to suffering, like
the word empathy. How
to make readers open to
your message, engaging
readers emotionally,
hooking them, making
them accept your beliefs,
values and understanding.
As this triangle shows, texts may appeal to:

(a) your reasoning/logic (logos): if you want to sell plates and you want to use logic,
you will use the logic of, lets say, calculating how much it costs to buy the item
now rather than later when the cost of living has shot up.
(b) your emotions (pathos): to persuade somebody you need to use a famous person
to create credibility. For example, if you were selling plates to people in an advert,
you may want to ask a well-known chef to advertise them, which would increase
peoples interest in the product and they will be persuaded to buy it.
N.B. These techniques may not all be used in one essay.
These are indeed very ancient ways of defining logic and persuasion, but when we
examine persuasive writing we find it always appeals to reason, emotion and/or logic.
Other techniques are:
Technique
Explanation
Analogy
Comparison using figures of speech e.g. metaphor, simile.
Anaphora
A form of repetition of a word or phrase to build up emotion.
Anecdote
Using a personal experience or specific details to support your

point.
case study
Make reference to research or facts to support your view-point.
Technique
Explanation
Repetition
Repeating words, phrases and sentences for emphasis.
rhetorical
questions
Asking questions to which no answer is required, so as to tease

readers to think.
word choice
Choose words that appeal to many senses; words with

denotative and connotative meaning.
overgeneralisation
Use words such as all; only, many to influence readers;

create perceptions of what is being described.
What strategies do writers use to persuade?

Writers use different strategies to develop their argument. Some of the strategies are
subtle and indirect, such as paragraph structure and text arrangement. Other strategies
are more overt and direct such as using emotive language, appealing to emotions and
logic. We will start with the subtle and less overt strategies.
1. Text arrangement
In an argumentative essay, the writing will have a title; a beginning: an introductory
paragraph which contains a thesis statement; conclusions; sources; transitions and
acknowledgement of counter-arguments. Lets look at some of these:
(a) Choosing an inviting title
Look at the following titles and comment on them. Your comment can state which
titles you find informative and engaging and why.
Activity3
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Zoos are necessary
The good side of

zoos
Life in prison: zoos

and a miscarriage of
justice
Parents should
have the right to
physically beat their
child
Beating a child is a
parental right
Beating a child: a
slippery road to
abuse
Beer advertising is
good
All beer ads must

be banned
Attacking beer ads:

Dont shoot the
messenger
Comment
Comment: I find the one topic in bold type informative and engaging. The writer reveals his/her
attitude toward the subject without being confrontational or defensive. He/she uses humour to
tone down the attack. Comment on the rest of the topics.
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(b) The thesis statement:

This is the sentence/s in which you give the reader the main/central idea of your piece
of writing.
Activity4
Examine the following thesis statements on the topic:
Should refugee camps be abolished? Provide a well-supported argument of your thesis.
Write your essay with a general audience in mind.
Statement 1: Refugee camps are cruel to human beings and should therefore be abolished.
Comment:
This thesis takes a position on the issue, but overall is quite vague. In what ways
are refugee camps cruel to human beings? Why does this level of cruelty warrant
an abolition of refugee camps?
Statement 2: Refugee camps are good in one way, but not so good in others.
Comment: This thesis is vague in terms of both its position and direction. It takes a fencesitting position in that its unclear whether or not the writer favours the abolition of
refugee camps.
Statement 3: Refugee camps provide an invaluable service and therefore should not be
abolished.
Comment:
This statement is still vague because the word invaluable could mean many
things.
Statement 4: All refugee camps are cruel to human beings; they house helpless people in
unhealthy conditions that breed crime and diseases and lead to premature
deaths. Therefore, these inhumane establishments should be abolished.
Comment:
While this statement is emotional, and very specific in its terms as to why refugee
camps should be abolished, it generalises and therefore could be modified. Not
all refugee camps are unhealthy, not all refugee camps are inhumane.
Statement 5: Refugee camps are a necessary part of African society and must be kept.
Comment:
This is a clear position in terms of keeping refugee camps.
2. The main body of the text

Much takes place in the body of an essay, in fact all the strategies and techniques we
have introduced are used in the body of the essay.
2.1 Use of transitions

Refer to Unit 4 of this guide to see what transitions writers use to create cohesion and
coherence in their writing. In particular, study the transitions which are used to give
examples, additional information, show how things relate in space and time, how
things contrast/compare, show summary and results.
2.2 Elements of style
(a) tone (discussed and exemplified extensively in ENG1502: Unit 6);
(b) sentence structure, words and phrases (this is discussed in chapters 3 and 4 of
Carter et al.)
(c) use of humour and organisation of ideas and points
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(d) text development: use specific rhetorical modes such as narration, description,
example and illustration; process analysis; definition; cause and effect; classification;
comparison and contrast.
2.3 Rhetorical devices

A rhetorical device is a technique of using language that will increase the persuasiveness
of a piece of writing.
Examples of Rhetorical Devices
(a) Rhetorical questions: thoughtful questions that arent meant to be answered.
Example: Can we really expect the government to pay from its limited resources?
(b) Description and Imagery: Imagine being cast out into the cold street, lonely and
frightened.
(c) Parallel structures: To show kindness is praiseworthy; to show hatred is evil.
(d) Figurative Language: (i.e. using metaphor, simile and personification)
Example: While we wait and do nothing, we must not forget that the fuse is already
burning.
(e) Anaphora: the intentional repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of a line
for emphasis.
Example: Will he eat that food? Will he know its good for him?
(f) Hyperbole (using exaggeration for effect)
Example: While we await your decision, the whole school holds its breath.
(g) Anecdote: An anecdote is a short and interesting story taken from your past
experience or that of someone you know or have heard about. Audiences love
anecdotes.
(h) Euphemisms and connotation: using overweight instead of fat, or issue
instead of problems.
(i) Downplaying and understating
(i) Using key words to make important things seem unimportant.
Mere, merely, so-called, however, although, despite
(ii) Expressing things in such a way as to understate their importance.
The earthquake interrupted business somewhat in the Mpumalanga area.
Chapters 3, 4 and 5 of your prescribed text (Carter et al.) explore a number of features
such as words and sentences which writers use as techniques to achieve a particular
effect.
Below is an example taken from a document of an Australian education resource file
showing you how language features have been used to develop this argument.
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Essay on why homework should be abolished

Text Arrangement
Text
Language Features:
examples
INTRODUCTION
Topic can be introduced
with a definition. Position
statement follows.
Many primary schools

give their students
homework at least
two nights a week.
Homework is supposed
to help students with
their learning but does
it? There are some
good arguments why
primary schools should
not give their students
homework.
Present Tense: give

Rhetorical question tag:
but does it?
Modality: should not
1st argument
Topic sentence must be an
argument. The paragraph
is expanded with specific
details
Firstly, homework takes

away from family time.
Students already spend
thousands of hours in
school and they need
to be able to do things
with their families such
as meal preparation.
Also they may have
responsibilities to other
members of the family
such as looking after
younger siblings.
Conjunctions to
organise text: Firstly,
Secondly, Furthermore,
Finally Foregrounding:
homework is put at
the beginning of topic
sentences
Secondly, homework
time stops students
being involved in
sporting activities or
other interests like
music. Children need
time to practise these
interests and build their
teamwork skills.
Nominalisation:
activities, interests
2nd argument
10
Evaluative language:
thousands of hours
(hyperbole: exaggeration
for effect)
Nominalisation:
responsibilities
Text Arrangement
Text
Language Features:
examples
3rd argument
In this paragraph the
argument is extended by
bringing in a related idea
Furthermore,
homework does not
help students with
social skills. Children
need time outside of
school to meet with
their friends either
face to face or through
networking sites. Here
they can have rich
experiences, learn to
be part of social groups
and better prepare
themselves for society.
Evaluative language: rich

experiences, better
4th argument
In this paragraph the
argument is expanded with
an Expert voice
Finally, there is no
convincing evidence
that homework
improves learning.
Experts agree that real
learning occurs in an
interactive classroom
where students are
engaged happily and
work together.
Evaluative language: no
convincing evidence,
real learning, engaged
happily
CONCLUSION
Summary of body of text.
NB: No new ideas
Restate belief/position
Recommendation
It is clear that
homework does not
result in further
learning and imposes
on students personal
and family lives. Time
would be better spent
building other skills
and knowledge outside
of school work, and
socialising more.
Modality: It is clear that,

would be better.
NB: Consistent use
of the simple present
(timeless present) tense
throughout the text.
Parents of primary
school students need
to discuss this issue
with the schools and
recommend to them
that homework be
stopped.
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Activity 5
Read the essay on Animal Experimentation below and analyse the essay using the
following guidelines:
1.
Who could be the intended audience of this essay?
2.
What techniques has the writer used to convince the reader about their position? Discuss,
using examples from the essay.
3.
Identify the thesis statement.
4.
What transitions has the writer used to create a flow in the essay?
5.
Identify any other language features and rhetorical devices that have been used to increase
the effectiveness of this essay. (For more examples, refer to your prescribed texts, e.g.
pages 4347 in Introducing English Language, and Chapters 3, 4 and 5 in Working with
Texts.)
ANIMAL EXPERIMENTATION
There has been a controversy between animal rights supporters and scientists about
whether it is right to use animals in experimental research. Also, it is very debatable
whether using animals for such research results in finding a cure for diseases. From
my point of view, if there are no other alternatives, and if it is possible that this will
contribute to science, animals may be used for experimental research.
Although the animal rights activists claim that people and animals are equal and
thus they should be treated equally, I think that people and animals cannot be seen
as equal, and therefore the death of an animal cannot be the same thing as the death
of a person. For that reason, causing animals to die for science, for the sake of saving
human lives, may be considered ethical to some extent if it will contribute to the
advancement of science and will be to the benefit of humanity in general.
Furthermore, animal rights supporters label scientists as cruel for causing animals to
die in medical experiments, while they do not oppose the people, mostly farmers, who
kill animals for food, even though they know that 99% of animal deaths are caused by
farmers while only a small percentage, i.e. 1% are caused by scientists. The underlying
reason for that is they find scientists easier to attack and cannot deal with farmers who
are organised and strong.
Another basic argument of animal rights defenders is that people and animals are
different genetically and therefore it is useless to use animals in experiments to see
the effects of some substances on people. They claim that it does not make good sense
to use animals in experiments because they are too different, compared to people.
Some of them even assert that it is better to use people directly as they think that the
results of experiments on animals cannot be valid and reliable as long as the same
observation has not been done on man also. However, these people cannot foresee the
disastrous results of such a practice. Many people are likely to die until a healthy result
is obtained.
People and animals may not be the same, but to some degree there are similarities
which can at least give scientists an idea about their experiments. From this point of
view, scientists are right to use animal models to provide themselves with information
about what is happening at a level of detail that could not be achieved in humans.
12
Although there might have been some incidents when animal testing did not prove to
be useful and some effects of some drugs observed on animals could not be observed
on people, there are also a lot of examples that show that using animals resulted in
significant developments and helped to cure some serious illnesses.
On the other hand, there may be alternative methods that should be used instead of
animal experimentation. Then, of course, it is cruel and unethical to use animals. For
example, in some experiments in-vitro methods can be used as an alternative to using
live animals. In such occasions, it is certainly much better and right to employ these
alternatives.
All in all, it can be said that using animals for medical research is ethical as long as it
contributes to scientific development and helps scientists find ways to improve human
health. And this practice is only acceptable on the condition that necessary pains are
taken and animals are treated humanely.
Up to now we have been discussing the genre of persuasion. The next section of this
unit presents the narrative genre.
Narration: Talking about the past
In this section you will learn about how we talk about the past, how we tell events
that happened in the past, and how we recount incidents. In other words, you will
learn about writing and telling narratives. You will learn about the language of
narratives. You will get to understand and appreciate stories better. From as far as
we can remember when we were growing up as young children, we can recall telling
stories at home, during playtimes, in pre-school, or primary school. Some of us were
told stories by our grandparents and relatives while growing up, and some of us were
read stories from books by our parents from a very early stage. As we grew up and
mastered speech, we also took part in storytelling, by being involved in conversations.
Sometimes through responding to prompts like: how was your day? what happened
at school? tell me about the soccer match? what did your teacher do today?, we
create our own narratives.
Read the following short story:
The Three Little Pigs
Once upon a time there were three little pigs. One pig built a house of straw
while the second pig built his house with sticks. They built their houses very
quickly and then sang and danced all day because they were lazy. The third little
pig worked hard all day and built his house with bricks.
A big bad wolf saw the two little pigs while they danced and played and thought,
What juicy tender meals they will make! He chased the two pigs and they ran
and hid in their houses. The big bad wolf went to the first house and huffed and
puffed and blew the house down in minutes. The frightened little pig ran to the
second pigs house that was made of sticks. The big bad wolf now came to this
house and huffed and puffed and blew the house down in hardly any time. Now,
the two little pigs were terrified and ran to the third pigs house that was made
of bricks.
The big bad wolf tried to huff and puff and blow the house down, but he could
ENG2601/113
not. He kept trying for hours but the house was very strong and the little pigs
were safe inside. He tried to enter through the chimney but the third little pig
boiled a big pot of water and kept it below the chimney. The wolf fell into it and
died.
The two little pigs now felt sorry for having been so lazy. They too built their
houses with bricks and lived happily ever after.
(Adapted from ShortStoriesShort.com)
Summary of Narrative Text Features
Purpose
The purpose of a narrative is to entertain and capture the readers interest in a story.
However, narratives can also teach and inform the reader. They can present fascinating
themes and lessons.
Types
There are many types of narratives. They are typically imaginary but can be factual.
They include fairy stories, mysteries, science fiction, choose-your-own-adventures,
romances, horror stories, adventure stories, parables, fables and moral tales, myths and
legends, and historical narratives.
Text Organisation
The focus of the text is on a sequence of events or actions. The simple structure of a
narrative text consists of an orientation, complication and resolution. The structure
that is found in the text above is shown below:
Once upon a time there were three little pigs. One pig built a house of straw
while the second pig built his house with sticks. They built their houses very
quickly and then sang and danced all day because they were lazy. The third little
pig worked hard all day and built his house with bricks. (Orientation)
A big bad wolf saw the two little pigs while they danced and played and thought,
What juicy tender meals they will make! He chased the two pigs and they ran
and hid in their houses. The big bad wolf went to the first house and huffed and
puffed and blew the house down in minutes. The frightened little pig ran to the
second pigs house that was made of sticks. The big bad wolf now came to this
house and huffed and puffed and blew the house down in hardly any time. Now,
the two little pigs were terrified and ran to the third pigs house that was made of
bricks. (Complication)
The big bad wolf tried to huff and puff and blow the house down, but he could
not. He kept trying for hours but the house was very strong and the little pigs
were safe inside. He tried to enter through the chimney but the third little pig
boiled a big pot of water and kept it below the chimney. The wolf fell into it and
died.
The two little pigs now felt sorry for having been so lazy. They too built their
houses with bricks and lived happily ever after. (Resolution)
A narrative usually begins with an orientation, where the writer introduces the reader
14
to the setting, and the main characters. The orientation is in the first paragraph. The
orientation also gives an indication of the actions/events that are forthcoming in
the story. Usually, the details that are given are those which will enhance the later
development of the story (e.g. the personality of the main characters, the type of
situation, and the relationship with other characters). This is where the imaginary or
factual possible world of the story is portrayed. The reader is introduced to the main
character(s) and possibly some minor characters. In the story above, the orientation
is as brief as, Once upon a time there were three little pigs. In some cases it may be
longer than that.
The story is then developed with a series of events or actions, at which point we normally
expect some sort of complication or problem to arise. In order to add interest and
suspense, something unexpected has to happen. This builds some tension or conflict
for the main characters. In most cases, the complication or problem is something that
we can identify with in real life. As readers we then look forward to some kind of
resolution.
In most narratives, there is a resolution of the complication, which leaves us with a
sense of satisfaction, although there are narratives that end with unresolved issues. In
the case of the three pigs, we see that the hard working pig built a stronger house and
this serves as a lesson to the other pigs not to be lazy. This is seen in the final paragraph
of the passage.
Goatly (2000:3133), drawing on William Labov on the narrative structure, gives
a detailed description of narration. The elements that are described are abstract,
orientation, complicating action, resolution, coda, and evaluation. You will learn more
about these in the module ENG2602.
Language features of narration
The following is a summary of some of the language features that are common in
narratives:
The main participants in a narrative are humans or sometimes animals with human characteristics.
There are mainly action verbs [so called material processes] but also many verbs
which refer to what the human participants said, or felt, or thought [verbal and
mental processes] or language used to create an impact on the reader, e.g. adverbs, adjectives, and similes.
Normally narratives are told or written in the past tense.
There are many linking words to do with time, and order of events.
Dialogue is often included, at which point the tense may change to the present
or future.
Descriptive language is used to enhance and develop the story by creating images
in the readers mind.
Narratives can be written in the first person (I, we) or third person (he, she,
they).
The events are narrated in chronological order, except when the plot has been
twisted.
Narratives typically use connectives that signal time (e.g. early that morning,
later on, once.)
The following activities demonstrate some of these language features.
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Different types of processes

To learn more about processes and participants, study pages 7678, in Mullany
and Stockwell, 2010, your prescribed textbook. The key processes that are described
are material, behavioural, mental, verbal, relational, and existential. The following
activities are based on these processes.
Language enables us to represent the world. The world consists of people, places,
objects, animals, plants, concepts, machines and so on. These things are known as
participants in terms of functional grammar. But the world is not stagnant it involves
goings on, events and happenings. In terms of functional grammar, we therefore
describe the world in terms of processes and participants. A whole text, and any type
of text for that matter, can be seen as representing those participants and processes
in language. For example, the following simple sentence (or Clause in Functional
Grammar terminology) shows this:
The students marched to the parliament houses.
[The students](participant) [marched](material process) [to the parliament houses]
(participant).
In traditional grammar, processes are what we call verbs. In your first year module
in Applied English Language Studies, you learnt about the different parts of speech
(verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs and so on). In this module, you are being exposed
to the functions of these components in the production of texts. We usually think of
verbs as doing words but this is insufficient because not all verbs denote doing. There
are many processes that are going on in the world which do not mean doing. That is
why the term processes is broader and all-encompassing. However, the doing part is
captured in material processes. As mentioned above, your textbook gives the following
processes:
Material processes, verbal processes, relational processes, mental processes, and
behavioural processes.
Activity 6: Processes
a.
Identify/Name all the processes in the text below. The orientation has been done for you
as an example:
The Three Little Pigs
Once upon a time there were three little pigs. One pig built a house of straw while the
second pig built his house with sticks. They built their houses very quickly and then sang
and danced all day because they were lazy. The third little pig worked hard all day and built
his house with bricks.
A big bad wolf saw the two little pigs while they danced and played and thought, What juicy
tender meals they will make! He chased the two pigs and they ran and hid in their houses.
The big bad wolf went to the first house and huffed and puffed and blew the house down
in minutes. The frightened little pig ran to the second pigs house that was made of sticks.
The big bad wolf now came to this house and huffed and puffed and blew the house down
in hardly any time. Now, the two little pigs were terrified and ran to the third pigs house that
was made of bricks.
The big bad wolf tried to huff and puff and blow the house down, but he could not. He kept
trying for hours but the house was very strong and the little pigs were safe inside. He tried
to enter through the chimney but the third little pig boiled a big pot of water and kept it below
the chimney. The wolf fell into it and died.
16
The two little pigs now felt sorry for having been so lazy. They too built their houses with
bricks and lived happily ever after.
Example
Verbs
Process
Were
Relational process
Built
Material process
Sang
Material process
Danced
Material process
Worked
Material process
State the total number of each type of process at the end.

Linking words
A story has to be connected. Linking words are used to connect the sequence of events and
actions. For example, additive conjunctions are normally used to add more information, to
join words, sentences or lists. The most commonly used linking word in the narrative above
is the conjunction and. There are other conjunctions in the text. The following table is a
summary of some types of conjunctions and their functions. Read more about cohesion in
Unit 4 in this Study Guide.
Categories of Linking words
Addition
These connectors link additional facts or points. (e.g. and,

as well, moreover, furthermore, in addition, moreover, firstly,
secondly, thirdly ..., finally, equally important).
Cause
These show that one point is a cause of another (e.g. because,

since, seeing that, etc.).
Result
These connect a cause with a result or effect (e.g. so, therefore,

thus, hence, consequently, as a result, etc.).
Contrast
These show an opposition to the main idea of the sentence

(nevertheless, still, but, yet, in spite of, although, however, etc.).
Time sequence or
order of points
Connectors signalling the start (to begin with, in the first place,
secondly, finally, meanwhile, subsequently, etc.).
Comparison
(likewise, similarly, in comparison, in the same way).
Making illustrations
(For example, that is, for instance, to illustrate, in fact, in other

words).
Summarise or
conclude
(To sum up, in summary, in conclusion, on the whole, in short,

thus it may be seen that).
Activity 7: Linking words

Your task is to identify the conjunctions in The three little pigs and then state what function they
are performing in the text.
Draw a table like the following one below.
ENG2601/117
Linking words
Function of the linking word
While
Time sequence
Because
Cause
Activity 8: Tense
The story above begins with the phrase once upon a time. This is a classic opening of stories
about the past. The moment we read or hear it, we shift our focus to the past; usually this is not
a recent past but a far distant past. Sometimes, it is even predated in the sense that we cannot
locate it in the modern calendar, or if we can it refers to ancient times. In most cases, fables,
folklores and fairy tales begin with this phrase. However, even modern stories that occurred a
decade or a few decades ago, can also begin with this phrase.
Most English grammar books have a section on time and tense; we recommend that you study
such books. At the end of this unit, there will be a list of such recommended books.
The following table illustrates the present tense and the past tense.
Present tense verbal groups
Past tense verbal groups
Swims
Swam
Are
Were
See
Saw
Applied linguists argue that when we imagine a timeline that emerges from the past and points
towards the future, tense establishes two points along the timeline: the utterance time (the
time at which the speaker is speaking or the writer is writing), and the reference time (the time
which they are talking about) (Coffin, et al. 2009:126127) . In other words, when using the past
tense, we are talking about a previous time, so the reference time is somewhere before the
utterance time.
On the other hand, the present tense refers to things that are true now; as we are talking, so the
reference time and utterance time coincide. For example, if you say I am just having a cup of
coffee, you are speaking about something happening now.
Activity 9: Tense
Identify the verb tenses in The Three Little Pigs.
18
Tense in Narratives
A narrative moves forward through a series of events. Each sentence normally answers the
question, what happened next? Some questions that could also support the structure and the
development in a narrative are questions such as what was it like? or what was going on?
Sometimes the narrator manipulates the order, or sequence of events. The choice of tense is
used in the sequencing of events.
Some English Grammar books describe finite and non-finite verbal groups, in the verbal groups,
(English Grammar, by Roger Berry).
What are finite and non-finite verbs?
Finite verbs are those verbs that are complete and can take inflections of tense, while non-finite
verbs do not take tenses. The three finite forms are the present, the third person singular (-s);
and past tense forms.
The three non-finite forms are the infinitive (to walk); and -ing (walking); and -ed (walked)
participles. Non-finite verbs cannot make a verb phrase on their own; finite forms can stand on
their own.
How many tenses are there in English?
There are eight verb tense forms. For example, for the verb eat (using he as subject) we have
the following possibilities:
He eats (present simple)
He has eaten (present perfect)
He ate (past simple)
He had eaten (past perfect)
He is eating (present progressive)
He has been eating (present perfect progressive)
He was eating (past progressive)
He had been eating (past perfect progressive)
All the above are in the active voice.
ACTIVITY 10 (Refer to page 128129 Carter et al.)

Give the following verb phrase forms for the verb beat. Use she as subject.
ex. (she beats
she is being beaten)
i.
Present (simple) passive:
ii.
Present progressive passive:
iii.
Present perfect passive:
iv.
Present perfect progressive passive:
v.
Past (simple) passive:
vi.
Past progressive passive:
vii.
Past perfect passive:
viii.
Past perfect progressive passive:
ENG2601/119
Activity 11
Analyse the language/lexicogrammar (e.g. processes and participants) and structure of the
following short narrative:
I think Peters always been a bit foolhardy. I remember once we were on holiday in Cornwall, and
it was one of those lovely sunny breezy days which are just right for a picnic. So wed decided to
go down to Clodgy point, the rocky cliffs of the Atlantic coast. After a picnic lunch, Peter and his
brother asked if they could go for a walk while me and my husband had a nap. So off they went.
They hadnt come back in two hours, so we went to look for them. We walked quickly along the
cliff for half an hour, and, as we came round a promontory we caught sight of them at the foot
of the cliff on the rocks at the opposite side of the cove. I was terrified. How had they got down
there? We called frantically for them to come back. They climbed up the steep grassy slope,
which must have been about 60 degrees. I dont know how they did it. When they met us at the
top I said, Why did you go down there. Dont you know its dangerous? Peter held out a black
and white striped snail shell, and all he said was If we hadnt gone down there I would never
have seen this.
So nowadays Im never surprised to hear hes involved in some dangerous adventure or other.
Extract from Goatly, A. (2000:34)
Compare your answer to this activity to our example on myunisa.
Activity 12: Stories in the Media (Project)

Most of us read daily newspapers and watch news on television. Compare and contrast a
newspaper story with television coverage of the same news item. What are the similarities and
differences? Comment on the genre of newspapers. What are some of the differences from
television?
Summary of types of texts and their social purposes
20
Genre/text type
Personal recount
Social purpose
To retell a sequence
of events in the
narrators life
Biographical
recount
To retell the events

of a persons life
Narrative
To tell a story
Procedure
To give instructions
Generic stages
Orientation
Record of events
Language features
past tense
temporal adjuncts
declarative mood
(reorientation)
personal pronoun
past tense
Orientation
(present tense
Record of events
can be used for
(evaluation of a person)
effect)
temporal adjuncts
declarative mood
third person
pronoun he/she
past tense
Orientation
temporal adjuncts
Complication
declarative mood
Evaluation
Resolution
Goal
Material
Steps (1n)
Present tense
Adjuncts of place
Imperative mood
Genre/text type
Discussion
Social purpose
To consider different
perspectives on an
issue
Generic stages
Issue
Arguments for
Arguments against
(positions)
Explanation
To explain how
something works
Identification of
phenomenon
Explanation sequence
Language features
present tense
(and past where
appropriate)
declarative mood
(some use of
interrogatives in
spoken mode)
modality
generic nominal
groups
present tense
declarative mood
generic nominal
groups
causal and
temporal
connectors
Adapted from Coffin et al. (2009:260261).
References
Berry, R. (2012). English Grammar: A Resource Book for Students. London: Routledge.
Carter et al. (2008). Working with Texts. London: Routledge.
Coffin, C., Donohoue, J. and North, S. (2009). Exploring English Grammar, from
Formal to Functional. London: Routledge.
Derewianka, B. (1990). Exploring how Texts Work, NSW Australia: Primary English
Teaching Association.
Goatly, A. (2000). An Introductory Coursebook: Critical Reading and Writing. London:
Routledge.
Mullany and Stockwell, (2010). Introducing English Language. London: Routledge.
ENG2601/121
UNIT2
Language and Meaning
Relevant parts from your prescribed textbooks:

Mullany and Stockwell. (2010). Introducing English Language, pages 1014.
Carter et al. (2008). Working with Texts, Units 3 and 4.
Outcomes
By the end of the module you should be able to:
distinguish between linguistic meaning and speakers meaning

understand the relationship between intonation and meaning
identify and explain speech acts
distinguish between conceptual and associative meaning
understand the concepts of sense and reference.
Introduction
This section of the study unit looks more closely at the relationship between aspects of
the English language and meaning. Meaning and language are interdependent. When
human beings communicate they inevitably use language to express ideas, thoughts and
to convey certain messages. Hence meaning cannot be separated from language, and it
is not an abstract entity with an independent existence outside language. Similarly, we
cannot speak of meaning as an abstract and impenetrable concept without examining
the meaning of individual words and how they are used in sentences (Heinemann
2009, p. 113).
The main aim is to introduce you to some of the units of English grammar, such as
words, sentences and phrases, and how they function to convey meaning. Meaning
exists in both smaller (e.g. individual words) and larger (e.g. sentences, phrases) units
of language. Knowing about these grammatical units and understanding how they
function will enable you to see how and what meanings are created. Furthermore,
such knowledge is an important basis for interpreting both spoken and written texts.
Grammar is an essential component for creating and communicating meaning, hence
it is important to understand how it systematically works in speech and texts. As
discussed in Unit 3 of the prescribed textbook Working with Texts, the relationship
between words and meanings is complex. This implies that meaning is not fixed or
straightforward. The meaning of the same word, sentence or phrase can shift according
to its use, the speakers or writers intended message and purpose, and the specific
context of use.
22
Look at the following examples and see how the same word (hot) changes meaning
according to how it is used in these sentences. In all five sentences the meanings are
different owing to the context and the speakers or writers intention to communicate
a particular message that s/he has in mind. The dictionary meaning of the individual
word hot is ambiguous because it can suggest a range of things such as burning,
boiling, warm, scorching or sweltering. In order to be able to interpret the content of
the message that the speaker or writer aims to convey, it is important to understand
the function of the word hot as it used in each sentence. Throughout this section of
the unit, we will emphasise the interrelationship between words, sentences or phrases;
and the purpose and context of communication.
1.
She opened the windows because the room was hot.

This sentence refers to the temperature in the room.
2.
The students were involved in a hot debate.

This means that nature of the debate was engaging, thoughtful and issues raised
were topical.
3.
What a hot curry she cooked!

This sentence suggests that the food was very spicy.
4.
Strike while the iron is hot.

This is an English idiomatic expression that implies that it is better to do
something or to take action immediately while you have a good chance of
success.
5.
Police are hot on the trail of the bank robbers.

This means that the police are close to a successful solution and possible arrests
are imminent.
6.
She is a hot girl.

It is an informal way (colloquial usage) of indicating that the particular girl
being referred to is good-looking, dazzling and sexually attractive.
Activity 1
Here is a list of words that you can use to create your own sentences. Write at least 3
different sentences using the same word. Your 3 sentences in each case should show
how the same word can be used to mean different things. Make sure that your sentences
include one idiomatic expression as illustrated in sentence 4 in the examples above.
Explain the meanings of all the sentences you have created.
Grass
Blue
Green
Bank
In the previous section we focused on the meaning of individual words and how they
are used in sentences. This section builds on the preceding discussion to illustrate how
we can use stresses or intonation to completely change the meaning of a sentence or a
phrase. Intonation refers to the way in which the voice rises (high pitch) and falls (low
pitch) when you speak. The role of intonation in speech is to stress and to emphasise
ENG2601/123
a specific word, sentence or phrase in order to highlight an idea or point of view. For
example, a speaker may change the main idea of what s/he is saying by simply shifting
the intonation from one word to the other. Therefore, the very same sentence with the
same word order might result in a completely different idea that goes beyond the exact
meaning of words (i.e. linguistic meaning) to show how the speaker feels (i.e. speakers
meaning). We shall define linguistic and speakers meaning fully in the sections that
follow.
Now let us look at how the meaning of the same sentence and phrase shifts depending
on where the stress or intonation is placed. Read out the following sentences and
make sure that you stress all the words that are in bold with a high pitch in order to
demonstrate the type of intonation used. Pay particular attention to how the high
pitch influences message communicated in each sentence.
1.
I did not write the exam yesterday.

By stressing the personal pronoun I the speaker is drawing our attention to the
fact that s/he did not write the exam that was scheduled for yesterday, but others
or other students did.
2.

In this case, the emphasis is on the verb tense did not suggesting that if the
listener thought that speaker wrote the exam yesterday, s/he actually didnt.
3.

Giving emphasis to the verb write implies that instead of writing the exam
yesterday, the speaker did something else instead or was involved in another
project.
4.

By stressing the definite article the in this sentence would mean that the
speaker wrote the exam yesterday, but not the one that the listener is thinking
of. S/he wrote a different exam.
5.

In this example, the speaker is highlighting the noun exam to say that s/he did
not write the specific exam in question but wrote something else. Perhaps s/he
wrote a book instead.
6.

Giving emphasis to the noun yesterday would mean that the speaker actually
wrote the exam. S/he did not write the exam yesterday but on some other day.
As you can see above, there are six varied interpretations of the same sentence. You
are saying the same words every time. However, by pronouncing a different word at
a higher pitch in each sentence you are actually saying a different thing every time.
Why is intonation important? When the listener of a speech or the reader of a written
text is aware of the various intonation patterns that the speaker or writer employs
in the process of communication s/he will be able to identify and make sense of the
intended/actual message that is being conveyed. That is to say, when we talk or write
something we may deliberately highlight a particular word, sentence or phrase in order
to draw the listener or readers attention to a particular point of view. If your intonation
is unclear or you put emphasis on the wrong word, it is possible that you may not be
24
understood and your audience may misinterpret the intended message. In other words,
you get to understand people better, and people will understand you better as well.
Activity 2
Below is a list of sentences with six possible interpretations. These sentences are the
same but the emphasis (intonation) in each case is on a different word. Read out the
sentences by emphasising the words in bold at a higher pitch, and then explain how
intonation affects meaning in each case.
1.
He is not flying to London tomorrow.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The preceding sections discussed how words and intonation can affect meaning and
create ambiguity (where more than one meaning is possible). In the following section
we shall pay particular attention to the relationship between meaning and context.
This section of our Study Guide aims to build on Learning Unit 4 (pages 5766) in
ENG1502 in which you were briefly introduced to the importance of context. Here
we give you an extended discussion on the relationship between meaning and context.
We will focus specifically on the relationship between linguistic meaning and speaker
meaning including speech acts; content and structure words; and sense and reference.
All these factors play an important part in how we interpret and understand meaning.
Firstly, let us look at linguistic meaning and speakers meaning.
Linguistic Meaning and Speakers Meaning
The concepts of linguistic meaning and speakers meaning are important characteristics
of communication because they distinguish between what is said (i.e. sentence meaning
or explicit meaning) and what is meant (i.e. what is implied, or implicit/proposed
meaning). The difference between the two concepts is that the former refers to the
literal linguistic meaning of words, sentences or phrases; and the latter has to do with
the speakers intended meaning.
Linguistic meaning can be understood as a context-independent phenomenon as
meaning is often conventional, predictable, and obvious. In other words, there is
a direct link between a word, sentence, or phrase and its denotation or dictionary
meaning.
Speakers meaning, on the other hand, is context-dependent because in order to
comprehend what the speaker means and intends to convey the listener would need to
know about the purpose and context in which something is said. This process is called
implicature, a technical term coined by H.P. Grice.
Implicature is mainly used in pragmatics to refer to that which is suggested or
implied by an utterance.
ENG2601/125
What is suggested in an utterance may be different from the actual or the exact
meaning depending on the context. The interpretation of what people say or write is
based on more than just the words themselves.
There are two types of contexts: linguistic context and physical context.
Linguistic context has to do with the meaning of individual words in relation to
other words within a sentence.
Physical context refers to the circumstances under which words are spoken or written.
In other words, it is necessary to know who is speaking, to whom, as well as the
situation in which that particular communication takes place.
For example, the following sentence: Mary had a baby girl and got engaged
suggests that Mary had a baby girl first and then she got engaged. However, it is
possible that Mary could have been engaged before she had the baby girl. In order to
fully comprehend Marys situation in the case, we will need to know more about the
context. The meaning of this sentence is indefinite because the distinction between
what is actually said and what is merely conveyed by the utterance is unclear. If the
utterance included additional contextual information such as Mary had a baby girl
in January and got engaged in December of the same year we would be able to give
a precise interpretation of the message that is being conveyed.
It is important to realise that when two people communicate, where one is a speaker
and the other is a listener, there may not be a direct correlation between what is said
(i.e. actual words, sentences or utterances) by the speaker and what is understood
(i.e. implicature) by the listener. In other words, a speaker may say something with
a particular message in mind but that same information can be understood and
interpreted differently by the listener. These differences can create misunderstanding.
Let us look at the sentence Tom has been to prison. This sentence is vague and the
meaning is ambiguous. As a result, it can be interpreted in different ways. When we
read it we are unclear whether the writer is referring to a specific place, time of activity,
a meeting, someones behaviour or the information that the person has access to. There
are several possible meanings:
Tom has been to prison
1 He had visited the prison or went there for some business, meeting or a gathering
of some sort. (Meeting)
2 Tom may have a tendency toward criminal behaviour hence he was locked up
or detained before. (Behaviour or attitude)
3 The sentence could imply that Tom is not home or where they thought they will
find him but instead he has already left for prison. (Place).
4 Tom knows a lot or something about this place called prison. If you would like
to know something or want some information regarding prison he may be able
to assist. (Knowledge or information about something)
5 Tom went to prison in the morning and now he is back. (Time)
6 Tom is familiar with prison life or is interested in activities that take place there.
(Perhaps he has conducted research in prison.)
The six interpretations of the same sentence that we have provided above illustrate the
26
importance of knowing something about the context. Without such knowledge we

are unsure whether what is suggested in the sentence is the actual meaning of what
the speaker or writer intended to convey. This is so because the information that can
be drawn from the utterances used is not always sufficient to determine the content
and exact meaning. That is to say, sentence/linguistic meaning (i.e. what is said or
written) alone is often ambiguous and can sometimes convey information/ideas
that contradict the speaker or writers intended meaning. At times, this can result in
miscommunication or even communication breakdown. Thus contextual information
is necessary in order to determine the exact meaning.
For example, if the sentence is changed to: Tom has been to prison last year for
robbing a bank then the message becomes clearer. The contextual information
provided here makes it possible for us to realise that Tom was in jail the previous year
for the crime that he committed.
Activity 3
Here are 3 sentences. All these sentences are ambiguous. Carefully read them and give
the suggested meaning (i.e. implicature) in each case. Then explain how and what kind
of information about context we need in order to get a clearer understanding of the
exact meaning.
1.
It is getting hot.
2.
It was absolutely full.
3.
Pass me the salt.
In this section of the study unit we have discussed the concepts of linguistic meaning
and speakers meaning; and further showed how these factors influence meaning.
The following section looks at speech acts in order to explain the processes of how
meanings are constructed within a conversation (Mullany and Stockwell, 2010, p. 12).
Speech Acts
Before you read this section, make sure that you know and understand the different
grammatical elements (e.g. noun phrases, pronouns, modals verbs) in English including
their respective functions in sentences. In particular, concentrate on the relationship
between these elements and meaning. These are explained in Unit 4 Sentence and
Structures of the prescribed textbook Working with Texts. Do all the activities in
Unit 4 and then compare your answers with the commentaries provided. In addition,
read the section titled Speech Act Theory on pages 1214 of the prescribed textbook
Introducing English Language.
Speech acts or communicative acts generally refer to those actions that are performed
when something is said for the purpose of accomplishing some communicative goal.
Speech acts are taken to include acts such as greeting, inviting, warning, requesting,
promising, ordering or congratulating. Speech acts illustrate the fact that language
can be used to perform an action rather than merely to convey information. A speech
act usually implies that the hearer is expected to respond in a particular way, by using
verbal or non-verbal communication. It is important to note that each speech act,
ENG2601/127
depending on how it is used, represents a different function. In this sense we can

associate different functions of speech acts with different meanings. For example:
Giving orders:
Making requests:
Giving information:
Making promises:
Giving warning:
Giving advice:
Be quiet!
Please pass me the salt.
Thabo went to school.
I promise to take you dancing.
Do not drink and drive.
You ought to start taking your health seriously.
Sentence Type
Speech Act
Functions
Declaratives
Assertion
These are statements that are mainly used

to convey information.
Interrogatives
Question
These are questions and used to elicit or

request certain information.
Imperatives
Orders and Requests Imperative sentences are directives

used mainly to ask for something or tell
someone to do something.
Exclamatives
Command
Exclamations are used to express an

opinion about a situation or a strong
feeling about something.
Speech acts can be categorised as either direct or indirect.

A direct speech act is where the meaning of the utterance is literal and matches action
or function that it is intended to perform. Put differently, the content of the speakers
utterance is neither vague nor ambiguous and links directly with the intended message
of communication.
Imagine a stranger asking: What is your name? Considering that fact the speaker and
listener are not familiar with each other, this question is a genuine request to find out
what your name is. Another example of a direct speech act is a question form sentence
that is used to ask for information as in the following: Do you know where I put my
purse? This question could be a genuine request by a mother addressed to her child in
which she tries to find out whether s/he has seen the purse or not. The response that
the speaker will receive in this case, be it a yes or a no answer, will be directly linked
to the function of this speech act that is, to elicit some information.
An indirect speech act is where the meaning of an utterance is dependent on the
physical context in which it is spoken or written. Unlike direct speech acts, the speaker
may utter a sentence with a different propositional content. In other words, there may
not be a direct correlation between the speakers actual utterance and the function of
that utterance. S/he may say one thing and mean something else.
Example 1. Can you reach the salt? This could be meant as a request (imperative
sentence) for someone to pass salt to him/her, or a question (interrogative sentence)
that may require a yes or no answer.
Example 2. It is getting cold in here. The speaker may be using this sentence to indirectly
ask someone to close the window or door that is open. In this way this utterance will
28
be intended as an order or request (imperative sentence) rather than as an assertion

(declarative sentence) to convey information about the temperature in the room.
Activity 4
Read the following sentences and indicate whether they are direct or indirect speech
acts. In addition, describe the function in each case and explain in detail how you arrived
at that answer.
I would appreciate it if you could get off my foot.

It is hot.
Can I ask you a question?
The nerve of that student!
I wonder where Sipho went.
Would you mind getting us an extra menu?
I declare this new library open.
Sense and Reference

You are advised to read pages 1012 of the prescribed textbook Introducing English
Language for a further discussion on sense and reference. Unit Three in Working with
Texts, your other prescribed textbook is also relevant here. It is important to study the
relevant sections in the two textbooks before you attempt read this section of the study
unit. This will help you to get a fuller understanding of the two concepts.
Sense and reference are important components of meaning as they both form part
of the foundation of every facet of study in semantics (Mullany and Stockwell 2010,
p. 10). Semantics is the study of meaning of linguistic expressions such as words,
phrases, signs and symbols. In order to understand what these linguistic expressions
represent or denote we will need to know their denotation or connotation.
Denotation has to do with the explicit or literal meaning of linguistic expressions.
Connotation refers to the subjective cultural or emotional association that a specific
word, phrase, or sign carries.
Denotation and connotation are as crucial as sense and reference in meaning.
Sense refers to the central meaning of a linguistic form and how it relates to the other
expressions within the language system (Mullany and Stockwell 2010, p. 10). Put
differently, sense has to do with the way that the word, phrase or term refers to an
object. Sense of an expression is the thought it expresses.
Reference can be defined as the characterising relationship between language and
the world, in particular, specific entities that are being focused upon (Mullany and
Stockwell 2010, p. 10). In other words, reference has to do with the object to which the
term, word or phrase refers and represents.
It is important to note that reference depends on sense. That is, the reference of an
expression depends on the sense of the expression. Consider the following example:
ENG2601/129
The sense of the word house makes us think of a structure, in general terms.
The reference would make us think of a particular house such as a cottage, a
mansion or a cabin.
This discussion of sense and reference leads to the question of conceptual and
associative meaning.
Conceptual and Associative Meaning
Conceptual meaning covers those basic, essential components of meaning that are
conveyed by the literal use of a word (Yule 1996, p. 62). Conceptual meanings are
definitions that we often find in dictionaries. For example, some of the basic components
of the word needle would be thin, sharp, steel instrument and the word tomato might
include shiny red edible fruit. These basic components that we have described would
form part of the conceptual meaning of both words: needle and tomato.
Associative meaning relates to the fact that different people might have different
associations, ideas, feelings or connotations attached to the two words. In the case
of the word needle, for example, they might associate it with drugs, thread, piercing,
stitching or knitting. The word tomato might include associations such as fresh,
healthy, tasty or juicy. These associations (often referred to as connotations of a word),
are part of the associative meaning of that particular word.
Connotations or associative meanings may be personal and differ from one person to
the next. For example, a person who does not like needles may attach connotations
such as illness, pain, hospital, fear to the word needle; the word tomato might be
associated with a sharp, acidic, unpleasant taste.
Activity 5
This activity requires you to give the conceptual and associative meanings of the words
provided below. Motivate your answers.
Nurse
Snow
Snake
Blue
Summary
In this study unit you were introduced to the relationship between language and
meaning. Language and meaning are mutually constitutive and cannot be looked at
as independent of each other. Words, sentences and phrases that we utter are not said
in a vacuum. Speakers always have a meaning or message in mind that they would
like to convey to listeners. However, as we have illustrated, meanings are not always
straightforward and listeners may misinterpret what the speaker intended to say. This
misinterpretation may be as a result of ambiguous utterances or lack of sufficient
contextual information. Contextual information, whether linguistic or non-linguistic,
is important if we are to learn more about a particular communication exchange.
Knowledge of things like the body language of the speaker, the situation in which
30
something took place or the place where an activity was carried out, help in clarifying
the purpose and meaning.
References
Yule, G. (2010). The Study of Language. 4th ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Mullany, L. and Stockwell, P. (2010). Introducing English Language. London and New
York: Routledge.
Heinemann, G. (2009). Investigating English. Pretoria: UNISA.
Glossary of Terms
Note that the definitions of the terminology below can be found in the study unit. You
can also refer to your prescribed textbooks for further clarification.
Linguistic Meaning
Speakers Meaning
Implicature
Intonation
Ambiguous
Sense
Reference
Utterance
Pragmatics
Direct Speech Act
Indirect Speech Act
Semantics
Denotation
Connotation
Conceptual meaning
Associative meaning
Feedback to Activities
Activity 1
In this activity you were required to formulate sentences using the words that were
provided. Below are some of the examples in which the specific words are used in
sentences.
Grass
1.
He used to smoke grass when he was at university.

Meaning: Grass is used informally here to refer to cannabis, marijuana or
dagga.
2.
The gardener mows my neighbours grass on Saturdays.

Meaning: Grass here means a lawn.
3.
How can you lend Thabo your car? He is a snake in the grass.
Meaning: Thabo is a sneaky person who cannot be trusted.
ENG2601/131
4.
He is always doing something. He never lets the grass grow under his feet.
Meaning: He is always busy trying new things. He likes challenges and does
not stay in one place, job or situation for a long time.
Blue
1.
I explained events to the police officer until I was blue in the face.
Meaning: The speaker was exhausted and speechless after a lengthy discussion
with the police officer.
2.
The inheritance from my aunt came out of the blue as a stroke of good fortune.
Meaning: The sentence implies that the inheritance came suddenly and
unexpectedly.
3.
Collins is the blue-eyed boy at our school.

Meaning: This means that Collins is liked and admired by many people.
4.
Mary bought herself a nice pair of blue shoes.

Meaning: The colour of the shoes Mary bought is blue.
Green
1.
My new dress made my neighbour green with envy.

Meaning: The neighbour appeared jealous and envious.
2.
Tom bought a green car.

Meaning: The colour of the car is green.
3.
The childs face turned green as grass just before he vomited.

Meaning: His complexion was tinged with green.
4.
The grass is always greener on the other side.

Meaning: This implies that we often imagine we would be happier in a different
set of circumstances, as compared to our present situation.
Bank
32
1.
Melanie and her friend were walking along the bank of the Jukskei river when the
accident happened.
Meaning: This means the two friends were walking on ground on the side of
the river.
2.
The bank does not open on Sundays.

Meaning: The sentence refers to a financial institution where people save or
invest their money.
3.
Can I bank on you for support at the meeting?

Meaning: The speaker is asking whether s/he can rely on the listener or trust
that the listener will back or support him/her at the meeting.
4.
Her business is doing well and she is laughing all the way to the bank.
Meaning: This means that the success of her business earns her a lot of money.
Activity 2
These examples illustrate how intonation in each of the following sentences influences
meaning.
1.

This example means that its not he who is travelling but someone else. As in:
He isnt flying to London tomorrow. His brother is.
2.

Here, the emphasis is on the words is not to say that, its not true that he is
flying. As in: Do you know that John is flying to London tomorrow? He is
not flying to London tomorrow. He was intending to but he changed his mind
later.
3.

By stressing the word flying, we intend to say that this is not what hes going
to do but maybe something else. As in: He isnt flying to London tomorrow.
He is actually driving.
4.

If you say the word to louder, youre sayingthis is not the direction hes flying
into. As in: He isnt flying to London tomorrow. He is actually flying back
from London.
5.

Stressing the word London, in this example, would mean thatthis is notthe
actual destination of Johns flight. As in: He is not flying to London. Hes
flying to New York.
6.

Giving emphasis to the word tomorrow would mean that its not tomorrow
hes flying but another day. As in: He isnt flying to London tomorrow. He said
he would be flying the day after tomorrow.
Feedback from Activities 3 to 5 may be found on myUnisa.
ENG2601/133
UNIT3
Register and Genre
Prescribed reading
1.
Mullany and Stockwell, pp. 141; 172; 175.
2.
Carter et al., pp. 73; 88; 109; 127.
These sections should be read in conjunction with the study material that follows.
Introduction
This study unit deals with discourse analysis with specific focus on Register and
Genre. It highlights how discourse works in specific contexts by analysing different
texts. The belief is that we can understand a text by knowing the situation in which it
was produced and also by looking at the lexis (vocabulary) used in that text. Situations
are different and will determine the type of language used. For example, when you
discuss your research topic with your friend over a cup of coffee, when you speak to
your lecturer about that research topic in his office or when you present the findings
of your topic at a conference, you will use language differently. This is because the
formality or informality of a piece of language cannot be looked at outside the context
in which it occurs.
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS:
1.
Genre: refers to a type or category of literature which has shared recognisable

textual properties, features or conventions. These are the broad categories:

2.
34
Fiction
Advertisements
Drama
Epic
Poetry
Lyric
Register: refers to features of either a spoken or written text that identify it

as belonging to a particular type of linguistic activity or a particular field or
discourse, e.g. Science, Law, Religion. This is largely determined by lexis (the
words or vocabulary of which the text is composed).
Outcomes
By the end of this study unit, you should be able to:
recognise different genres in different texts;

identify some of the features of a text that constitute a particular genre;
analyse brief texts to identify different genres;
identify particular examples of lexis in a text that help constitute a particular
genre;
recognise and understand register categories.
Register and Genre
Texts fall into recognisable categories. For example, a science research report will differ
from a business letter or an academic essay. Each text type has its own particular
purpose together with its distinct linguistic or textual properties, including the layout
or structure. This is known as genre.
Genre can be defined as a category of texts marked by a distinctive style, form or
context. For example, classical poetry and rap lyrics belong to different genres.
Genres of texts involve textual properties that are specific to them. These textual
properties include a certain type of register, and a particular medium of production
(e.g. written as opposed to spoken language). There are features of a text which help us
identify it as belonging to a particular genre. Text classification will often involve (but
is not limited to) the following aspects:
what a text is about, i.e. what its topic is;
the speakers or writers intention (the reason why the text was produced);
the medium of its production and reception, i.e. spoken or written, or written
but meant to be spoken in performance, etc.;
the type of the register that constitutes the text;
the relationship between writer or speaker and the recipient or audience, for
example, a lecturer and a student, a lawyer and a client, a student and her friend.
Words associated with the term genre include category, kind, variety and type.
Now that you have an idea of what genre is, do the activity below based on the
introduction you have just read.
Activity 1
Look at the following passages in your prescribed texts; Mullany and Stockwell; 141; 136137;
Carter et al.; 126.
Are these different from each other? If so, what makes them different? Explain the differences.
Now that you have attempted to explain their differences, attempt to classify the texts
using the table below as an example (characteristics of a specific genre). Please note that
the table below includes only some examples (there are many genre varieties that you
might think of).
ENG2601/135
Activity 2
Try to fill in all the remaining open spaces on your own.
Genre Type
Example of
registers/words
Title of text
Mode of production
(Written/Spoken)
Poetry
1.
Sonnet 116
1.
2.
2.
1.
1.
2.
2.
Environmental
text
1. climate
1. written
2. species
2.
Biography
1.
1.
2.
2.
1.
1. Spoken
2.
2.
Novel
Political
speech
Some genres have a specific function and some texts are written to influence the addressees
behaviour or attitudes, e.g. to persuade. This applies to advertisements, as discussed in Unit 1.
Activity 3
Look at the texts in Carter et al.: 124; 159 and Mullany and Stockwell: p. 166;
What do you think are the attitudes that the writers want to evoke in the reader and for what
purpose? Pick one article and comment on it.
The lexis (words) we use varies according to the type of situation, that is, according
to the social context of language use and this is sometimes what is called language
appropriateness. Sometimes this appropriateness is determined by the register being
either formal or informal. Registers include the varieties of language associated with
peoples professions. For example, a qualified lawyer does not use the same register to
address everyone he or she speaks to. A lawyer may use an informal register at home
with family and friends while at work he or she may use a more formal register with
clients. Many professionals such as nurses and agriculturalists have a jargon (specific
vocabulary) of their own. This is the lexis (vocabulary or lexical items) commonly used
in their profession.
36
Activity 4
In the table below, fill in examples of appropriate lexis.
Profession A : Medical doctor
Words associated with the profession.
Profession B : Lawyer
Words associated with the profession.
1....................
2................
3................
4................
5................
1................
2................
3................
4................
5................
Now that we hope you have a fair grasp of registers and their professional association,
do the activity below.
Activity 5
Read the passages provided in your prescribed text, Carter et al.: 126; 127; 124 and then
attempt to classify them, based on their register.
Language varies according to the addressor, addressee, speakers social class, ethnic
group, age, and sex. This variation sometimes is brought by the informal and the
formal factor variable. Formal register is a type or category of register that involves
standard language and is used by professionals in their respective institutions, whereas
informal register involves casual conversations between the speaker and close associates
or people who are familiar with the speaker.
Register also involves attitude and level of formality associated with a variety of
language. There is a relationship between the following two variables: the writers
attitude and the language variety he/she chooses. Attitude is mostly reflected in faceto-face conversations. However in the written mode, it is sometimes subtle. There
are different registers for different contexts, for example, we can have frozen, formal,
consultative, causal and intimate registers.
Frozen: Language that rarely changes e.g. words of a song or prayer
Formal: one way communication e.g. presentation, lecture
Consultative: two way communication e.g. between a doctor and patient
Casual: communication with a friend
Intimate: Language shared between close couples e.g. the partner sometimes finishes
the other ones sentences. This type of language is sometimes full of code words (words
known to only those involved).
ENG2601/137
Activity 6
Read the following five sentences and explain what kind of register is used in each case. (Refer
to the above-mentioned registers.)
1.
All students are requested to submit their assignments immediately.
2.
You must stop smoking as it damages your lungs and affects your health negatively.
3.
I am fed up with your excuses.
4.
How are you, my lovey-dovey?
5.
Words of your national anthem.
Any speech community uses language differently in different situations.

A speech community is a group of people who share a set of norms and expectations
with reference to the use of language. For example, university students form a speech
community and are expected to use formal, academic language.
Register is related to genre; for example, the register of a students memorandum of
grievances and the autopsy report from a pathologist will be different. This means that
we can work out the register of a text by looking at its genre features.
Activity 7
Match the following genres with their potential register associations.
Column A: Genre
Column B: Registers
1.Biographies
1. President Mandela
2.Romance
2.Adore
3.Informational
3.Antibiotics
4.Fantasy
4.Crime
5.Health
5.Myth
Research has shown that register is also determined by the medium or mode of
discourse, the main distinction being speech and writing. It should be noted that
speech may also vary in situations such as debates, lectures, conversations, discussions,
etc. The other argument postulated is that context of situation is in a text and that the
way we work out this context of situation is through the register of the text in question.
By now you should understand that there is a connection between register and genre
of a text. We have shown that certain registers tend to be found in certain genres. We
hope you now understand that register is one of the ways we recognise that a particular
text belongs to a particular genre. Look at the following text:
Activity 8
Read the following text, then answer the question below.
According to a recent released report by Love-Life, an advocacy body involved in HIV/Aids
awareness, around 60% of all adults who acquire HIV become infected before they turn 25.
38
Thus all indicators point to the fact that the young and economically productive are the most
likely to be felled by the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Experts say this is as a result of this age groups
unprotected sexual activity, and by extension, sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). But an
area on which research is scant is the indirect relationship between substance abuse and
the spread of HIV/AIDS. Since substance abuse affects behavioural patterns, the effects of
alcohol or experimentation with drugs promote or increase the high risk behaviour, particularly
unprotected sex. Consequently, young men and women who would normally, in a sober state,
use protection like condoms, would, under the influence of alcohol or drugs be less inclined to
do so.
(Adapted from Khadjia Magardine, Substance abuse aids Aids in Mail&Guardian, 1522 June,
2000, from Study Guide LIN3705 p. 81.)
What genre does this text belong to? Which features of the language contributed to your answer?
Activity 9
GLOSSARY
Fill in the definitions of the following terms, used in the course of this unit
Consultative context ...................
..................................................................................................................................................
Genre....................
..................................................................................................................................................
Casual..................
..................................................................................................................................................
Register................
..................................................................................................................................................
Frozen context ................
..................................................................................................................................................
Intimate context ..................
..................................................................................................................................................
Lexis.................
..................................................................................................................................................
Formal context ...................
..................................................................................................................................................
Summary of this unit

In this unit we have discussed genre and register and we have also explored how they
are connected. We hope that the texts cited in your prescribed textbooks helped you
to understand the above-mentioned concepts. With regard to these, the texts you
have read in your prescribed textbooks gave you examples of how an author, speaker
or a writer tunes his or her speaking or writing to serve different purposes for different
audiences. It is imperative that you become aware of the above-mentioned aspects as
they are likely to impact on your studies and your professional life. In general what
we have discussed is that we have different ways of using language depending on the
context. We hope this unit will further help your understanding of other aspects of
discourse analysis.
ENG2601/139
FEEDBACK TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 1
Passages in your prescribed texts: Mullany and Stockwell 136138 and 141. Carter et
al. 126.
Question 1: Are the passages listed above different?
Answer
Yes, the above mentioned passages are different in content, layout, genre and lexis.
Passage on page 141:
The conversation is a political one and the mode is spoken. Register e.g. trade, ceasefire,
government.
Text on page 136137:
It is poetry. The layout and style is different from other written texts such as a business
letter. The language is also archaic because it was written in an earlier era.
Passage on page 126 of Carter et al.
This is an advertisement. It is a visual text. It consists of words and a picture.
Feedback to Activity 2
Genre Type
Example of
registers/words
Poetry
1.
2.
Novel
1.
2.
Environmental 1intestinal
text
flora
2.nutrients
Biography
1.
2.
Political speech 1. Ceasefire
2.Government
Title of text
Mode of production
(Written/Spoken)
Sonnet 116
1.
2. Written
1.
2.
Back to your roots 1. written
2.
1.
2.written
1. spoken
2.
The article on page 159, titled An open letter to mothers of fast-growing children is
meant to inform mothers (the audience) about how to care for their children by giving
them healthy diets.
40
Profession A: Doctor & Nurse
Profession B: Lawyer
Words associated with the profession. Words associated with the profession.
1.syringe
1.court
2.medicine
2.bail
3.matron
3.defence
4.midwife
4.verdict
5.infection
5.sentence
The passages on page 124 and page 126 are from the same genre and they use the same
register. They are all environmental texts. Look at lexis such as wildlife, mammal,
species, pollination, lactobacillus, bacteria, intestinal flora.
The passage on page 127 is about computers, therefore it uses computer jargon such as
Gb (gigabytes), hard disk, RAM, printer.
Frozen: Words of your national anthem.
Formal: All students are requested to submit their assignments immediately.
Consultative: you must stop smoking as it damages your lungs and affects your
health negatively.
Casual: I am fed up with your excuses.
Intimate: How are you my lovey-dovey?
Column A: Genre
1.Fantasy
2.Romance
3.Informational
4.Biographies
5.Health
Column B: Registers
1.Myth
2.Adore
3.Crime
3. Former president Mandela
4.Antibiotics
This is a health report (even though it comes from a newspaper article). The register
and lexis that contributed to the above answer are: HIV/AIDS, felled, pandemic,
STDs, condoms, drugs.
ENG2601/141
All the definitions of these terms can be found in this unit.
42
UNIT4
Text cohesion
Prescribed reading
The parts from your prescribed texts which are relevant to this Unit are:
Mullany and Stockwell: Introducing English Language, pp. 20, 212, 28, 66, 87, 205,
2206.
Carter et al.: Working with Texts, pp. 144178.
Introduction
In this Study Unit, we are going to explore the concept of cohesion in texts. We will
discuss grammatical cohesion and look at the four types of grammatical cohesion.
We will also discuss lexical cohesion. In addition we will look at the subtle differences
between cohesion and coherence.
Outcomes
By the end of this Study Unit, you should be able to:
define the following terms: cohesion; cohesive elements; grammatical cohesion;
reference cohesion; substitution cohesion; ellipsis cohesion and lexical coherence;
understand the relationship between cohesion and coherence;
apply your knowledge of these concepts;
describe the role of grammatical and lexical cohesion in texts; and how these elements shape the meaning and unity of a text.
Text cohesion
Let us begin our discussion by looking at the term text. You will have already
encountered the term text many times in your studies of the English Language.
Activity 1
In a few sentences, write down your own understanding of the term text. Now look up the
word text in your dictionary. How does the dictionary definition compare with yours? Which of
the dictionary meanings is relevant to the way we use the word in our language studies? What
examples of texts can you think of?
Feedback: There is no commentary on this activity
ENG2601/143
Now that we have reminded ourselves of what a text is, let us look at cohesion
within a text.Text cohesion can be seen as the glue that brings sentences together.
There are two main types of text cohesion: Grammatical cohesion and lexical
cohesion.
We are going to look at each one in order to see how cohesion is achieved in a text. Let
us begin by discussing lexical cohesion.
The word lexical relates to words and the choice of vocabulary in a text as opposed
to the grammatical aspects of the text. Remember earlier we said that cohesion is the
glue that brings sentences together? Thus lexical cohesion is the way words (and the
choice of vocabulary) are used to create a cohesion in a text. Let us look at the different
types of lexical cohesion:
Repetition cohesion
This involves the repetition of key words (or related words) to help create cohesion in a
text. Consider the following text
Hoping for more success in the marketing of tobacco products, the company last
year started selling tar-reduced cigarettes. The cigarettes have been a hit and
a celebration was recently held to mark the sale of one million boxes. The lucky
customer who bought the millionth box was given a cheque equivalent to 1% of the
profits made in the previous month.
Can you see how the writer has repeated certain words in the text? What effect do you
think the repetition of words in the above text has?
Activity 2
Identify all the occurrences of repetition cohesion in the text below by underlining them. Write
down the lexical items down. Do you regard this text as lexically cohesive?
Text
Children do not require any explicit teaching, but simply seem to pick up language quickly and
effortlessly from hearing it spoken around them and participating in conversational interaction
with others. First words emerge when children are about one year old, although this differs
slightly from child to child. Children seem to be better equipped for picking up languages than
adults, as you will know if you have experienced the hard work, slow progress and frustrations
of learning a new language in later life. But adults have an advantage over children in that they
have more advanced abilities and better concentration spans.
Study Guide for LIN2035 (2001:35)
The examples of lexical repetition cohesion in the text are
This text is not lexically cohesive, because ..............
44
A second type of lexical cohesion is synonymy where words have similar meanings.
Examples of synonyms are
beautiful: attractive, lovely, pretty
unhappy: miserable, depressed, sad
sofa: couch
murder: kill
As you can see some synonyms may not have the exact same meaning. If we take our
example of murder and kill, to murder someone involves intention, while you can kill
someone by accident. While murder and kill are slightly different in meaning, they
are still similar enough for us to recognise that they mean more or less the same thing
(i.e.) someone ends up dead. Lets look at examples of synonymy cohesion more closely.
The wedding reception was held in the hall next to the church. This was a great relief
to the guests because it solved their parking problems. And made it easier for those
who left the party after midnight to find their cars! Although some of the real partyanimals were in no state to drive their motorcars.
The expressions wedding reception and party are synonyms and create cohesion
in the text above. Another example of synonymy cohesion is cars and motorcars.
Synonymy cohesion, like other types of cohesion connects the sentences of a text. Did
you also notice the repetition cohesioncreated by party and party-animals?
Activity 3
Identify the synonymy cohesive elements in the text below by first underlining and then
writing them down in the space provided.
The planning of their wedding took months, because both the bride and groom have large
families. Every distant aunt, uncle, and cousin had to be invited. All of them wanted to attend the
ceremony as well as the party that usually follows these traditional weddings. The bigheadache
was accommodation for the guests. Every available room had to be found. The neighbours
offered their garage and even suggested they would pitch a tent in their backyard. Once the
sleeping arrangements were sorted out, enough food had to organised to feed the visitors. After
all, they had come far and would need sustenance.
Examples of synonymy cohesion in this text are:
Another example of text cohesion is antonymy cohesion. Antonyms are words that
have opposite meanings. Some examples of antonyms are
slow-fast, large-small, live-die, bride-groom
Antonyms share some semantic features, for example bride and groom share a
meaning in the sense that both are involved in a wedding ceremony. Thus although
the meanings are different (bride=female, groom=male), by sharing some semantic
features they create cohesion in a text. The text below is lexically cohesive because of
the antonyms.
ENG2601/145
The bride and groom did not arrive at the same time. The bride followed tradition
by arriving late and this caused the usual panic in the church. Was she fashionably
late, or did she change her mind? But at the end of the ceremony they were legally
husband and wife and afterwardsold and young celebrated.
In the text there are at least three instances of antonymy cohesion: bride-groom,
husband-wife and old-young. Although these words are opposites, they still share
sufficient semantic features to create cohesion.
Activity 4
Identify the antonymy cohesive elements in the text below by underlining them and then writing
them down in the space provided.
Some of the games will take place at night. However, most of them will be during the day. An
effort has been made to create inclusive teams. The team members will be black, white, old,
young, male, female, abled and disabled. A truly rainbow nation team will represent South
Africa. The only problem will be integrating deaf and hearing players into this team, because
most of the hearing players dont understand sign language.
The antonymy cohesive elements in this text are:
The final lexical cohesion feature that we will concern ourselves with is Collocation
Cohesion. Collocation is a term to describe words which tend to occur together in
certain contexts, for example, the words education, classroom, lesson and teacher would
most probably occur in a text about teaching Note that noun-verb pairs may also form
collocations, for example, to prepare a lesson or to write an assignment. In the following
text we have some collocations which all help to make the text more cohesive.
Being far from home, I am often homesick. Therefore, the telephone has become my
best friend. I get excited when I hear the phone ringing and rush to get there first.
Because there is only one line in the hostel, we constantly fight to use the phone. Some
of my calls cant get through because the phone is often engaged. The worst situation is
when I pick up the phone and there is no dial tone. This happens when the lines are
down due to a thunderstorm or cable theft.
The collocation cohesive elements in the text above are:
Telephone, phone, ringing, call, dial tone, line and engaged. These words often
occur together because they all pertain to using a telephone. If you were discussing
gardening, the words seeds, vegetables, fertiliser, water, hosepipe, rake, spade, soil etc. are
obvious choices, as these words are collocations of each other. They belong to the same
semantic field.
Activity 5
Identify the collocation cohesive elements in the text below by underlining then and writing
them down in the space provided.
46
Parenting is not as easy as it looks. First there is the pregnancy which can be a difficult time
for both partners. Then, once the baby is there, the first few months can be very exhausting.
Its nappies and midnight feeds, not to mention the inevitable colic. A baby with colic is a very
unhappy little one and even gripe water does not help. Its when you are walking up and down
and rocking the baby in the middle of the night that you realise what hard-work parenting really
is.
The collocation cohesive elements in this text are:
Activity 6
Let us see if we understand lexical cohesion by reading this newspaper extract carefully. Then
identify the different types of lexical cohesive elements.
The Deadly Threat of Bird Strikes
Next time you fly it is worth bearing in mind that the biggest threat to your safety is not terrorists,
technical failure or lightning but birds.
Officials suspect that the Hudson River plane crash in New York was caused by a collision
with a flock of geese, which damaged both of the aircrafts engines. Bird Strike is the general
term used when any flying animal or bird collides with a plane sometimes with devastating
consequences. They are most likely to happen during take-off and landing when the plane is
flying low.
The Civil Aviation Authority explains that bird strikes have long been an area of concern, often
leading to aborted take-offs and emergency landings. Bird Strikes are the main hazards
aircrafts face it happens often, a spokesman said.
The most serious kind of strike happens when birds fly into the jet engine causing it to fail.
Modern plane engines are designed to withstand impacts with multiple birds of up to 5.5 lbs
in weight but collisions with larger birds, such as geese, are harder to protect against. Airports
employ measures such as bird scare patrols to prevent or reduce bird strikes, which have been
effective, the CAA says. However the risk still exists.
Adapted from Study Guide LIN3705, pp. 467.
Types of lexical cohesion Cohesive element
Repetition
Synonymy
Antonymy
Collocation
Another important type of text cohesion is known as grammatical cohesion. This

simply means the use of grammatical elements to create cohesiveness in a text.
Grammatical cohesion refers to the use of grammatical elements to tie a text together.
There are four subcategories of grammatical cohesion. These are: reference cohesion,
substitution cohesion, ellipsis cohesion and conjunctive cohesion.
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Let us look at each subcategory separately. We will begin with Reference Cohesion.
Consider the following sentence:
You cant see Theo now. He is in a meeting.
In the above sentence you can see that there is a connection between Theo and he .
Clearly, he refers to Theo. Thus when you read the sentence, you understood who he
is, by referring back to Theo. So we see that both words he and Theo refer to the
same thing. Let us look at another example:
Professor Jenkinson went to London for a conference. The weather was freezing there and
she had to buy a new winter coat. Can you see that the word there refers to London and
the pronoun she refers to Professor Jenkinson?
There are particular words that are often used for reference purposes. Let us have a
look at some of these words.
Personal pronoun reference: I; you (singular); he; she; one; we; you (plural); they
References can also occur in different forms. Here are some possible variants: me; him;
her; us; the; there; it.
Activity 7
Identify the reference cohesion elements in the text below:
Thomas prefers a holiday in South Africa to Egypt. Im not sure that I do. He says it is cheaper
and less stressful. That is what he told me when I saw him last week. He was then booking a
week for himself and his family at the local hotel in Port Elizabeth because he likes it very much.
This hotel is older than any others in the town and this is his main reason for staying there.
Im afraid I dont have the same affection for that ancient place. On the contrary I have always
disliked it, and he knows I have. I often take a holiday to Egypt, but he has never had one
Now let us look at another type of grammatical cohesion.

Substitution: This refers to situations where one word is substituted for another word
to avoid direct repetition. Let us look at some examples.
Example 1
Sentence A: I want to buy a new handbag and I have my eye on that gorgeous green
leather one. In this sentence, you can see how we have substituted the words new
handbag with the word one. We could have written the sentence as follows: Sentence
B: I want to buy a new handbag and I have my eye on that gorgeous green leather new
handbag. Can you see how Sentence A seems to hang together better than Sentence
B. Sentence A is less cluttered and avoids unnecessary repetition. Thus it is easier to
read. (Can you see how coherence is linked to readability of a text?)
Example 2
My brother had to go for a dental appointment but he did not want to do so. In this
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sentence, we could have written My brother had to go for a dental appointment but
he did not want to go to the dental appointment. We substituted going for a dental
appointment with do so to make our sentence clearer, easier to read and more
coherent.
Example 3
Sentence A: Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen is a classic, timeless novel and the same
is also true of Persuasion. In this sentence if we did not use substitution, we could end
up with the following sentence:
Sentence B: Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen is a classic timeless novel and
Persuasion is a classic timeless novel. As we can see, Sentence B is clumsy, repetitive
and uninteresting.
Activity 8
Create 3 sentences of your own in which you use substitution to create cohesion. Explain why
you have chosen to substitute the items.
Activity 9
Identify the substitution elements in the text below:
Thomas prefers a holiday in South Africa to Egypt. Im not sure that I do. He says it is cheaper
and less stressful. That is what he told me when I saw him last week. He was then booking a
week for himself and his family at the local hotel in Port Elizabeth because he likes it very much.
This hotel is older than any others in the town and this is his main reason for staying there.
Im afraid I dont have the same affection for that ancient place. On the contrary I have always
disliked it, and he knows I have. I often take a holiday to Egypt, but he has never had one.
Have you noticed the difference in the occurrence of substitution as compared to

reference cohesion? There are many more reference cohesion elements in this text than
there are substitution elements. Although the differences are not usually quite as great
in spoken language, where substitution cohesion is more common, reference cohesion
is almost always the type of cohesion with the highest frequency of occurrence.
Note: What is important to remember about using substitution is that the items being
substituted should always be exchangeable.
Ellipsis
Hmmm I wonder what an ellipsis is ...
Did you notice what I just did there?
Ellipsis is very similar to substitution, however, whereas with substitution we swap
elements in a sentence that are the same, with ellipsis we omit elements altogether. You
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can think of ellipsis as zero substitution. Ellipsis often involves omitting elements to
avoid redundancy.
Consider the following sentence.
There are our two cats. We used to have three ....
The word cats is omitted because it can be easily understood that the three refers
to cats. If the writer did not use ellipsis, the sentence would read as follows: These are
our two cats. We used to have three cats. Can you see that the second sentence seems
repetitive?
Let us look at another example:
Mother: Thabo have you been playing in the mud again?
Thabo: Yes, I have ....
Thabos answer contains an omission. The phrase been playing in the mud has been
left out. Ellipsis cohesion is typical in conversation when yes-no questions are used:
Dennis: Are they going to the stadium tonight?
Tony: Yes ....
Here the clause they are going to the stadium tonight has been omitted.
You will have noticed that ellipsis, like substitution, is not very common in writing,
but occurs frequently in conversation.
Conjunction:
The term conjunction means joining. Thus conjunctive cohesion refers to the use of
linking words to not only link sentences but to also demonstrate how the items should
be linked. Let us look at some examples:
Example 1
Sentence A: Firstly we should send out the invitations because we are running out of time.
In this sentence we have used joining words such as firstly and because. We do
this to indicate that) the first thing we need to do is to send out the invitations (the
implication here is that there are other duties we have to do but this one appears to
take priority). We use because to provide a reason for the first action. Here is the
sentence without the conjunctions: Sentence B We should send out the invitations. We
are running out of time. Without the conjunctions our sentences sounds fragmented
and disjointed. The two sentences are not joined and appear to have nothing to do
with each other.
Example 2
I missed my flight to London but I was able to catch the next flight out. Think about the
use of the word but. It is clear that it indicates that the word but is used to revise the
first part of the sentence.
50
Example 3
In addition you need to study page 167 of your prescribed book: Working with Texts. In
this sentence we are being informed that in addition to what we are reading now, we
also need to read page 167 of our prescribed book. (By the way, you really do need to
read page 167 of your prescribed textbook!)
Do note that different types of writing will tend to use different types of connecting
words and not just the ones we have used in our examples.
Activity 10
Identify examples of conjunctive cohesion below by underlining them
They went on a picnic in spite of the weather. Nomsa drove them in her mothers car. She cannot
pass her driving test until she is eighteen. Consequently she is driving without a license. She
has already received a fine because she drove without it. Although Nomsa is a good driver, it is
illegal to drive without a license but I do not think she cares about that.
We have discussed the various types ofgrammatical cohesion. Now let us work on
an activity to make sure that we understand the four types of grammatical cohesion.
Activity 11
Identify the types of grammatical cohesion in the sentences below. Write down the type of
grammatical cohesion in the space provided.
1.
Cathy has a car, but I dont have one.
2.
They asked who would like to write for the magazine and I said that Thuli wants to.
3.
I heard the news last night, but couldnt leave in the dark.
4.
Sandra and Andy went to Hawaii for their honeymoon.
5.
Unisa has over 400 000 students. It must be the largest university in Southern Africa.
We have seen that grammatical cohesion consists of four subcategories, namely

reference cohesion, substitution cohesion, ellipsis cohesion and conjunctive
cohesion.
Texts that contain more cohesive elements are easier to read and understand than
texts that contain fewer cohesive elements. Research has shown that the ability to
recognise reference cohesion is important for reading comprehension. Students who
could correctly identify the reference elements in theirtextbooks had higher pass rates
than students who could not. Thus, it is important for a text to be cohesive because it
helps the reader make sense of the text. Skilled readers are able to correctly identify the
cohesive elements and, therefore the meaning of a text while they read.
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Activity 12
Carefully read the text below and underline all instances of reference cohesion. In the light of
reference cohesion, decide whether you consider this text to be cohesive.
Text A
Viognier, the grape varietal, which is now much loved by wine drinkers around the world, almost
disappeared from France, its place of origin. In 1965 there are only eight hectares of Viognier
in its Northern Rhone homeland. Initially it was grown to blend with other whites and reds
character to well known varieties. This varietal can also be found in Chile, Argentina, Uruguay,
Brazil, New Zealand, and South Africa. Viognier is a difficult grape to grow because it is prone
to mildew. It produces low and unpredictable yields, and needs to be picked when fully ripe. If it
is picked too early it fails to develop its classic aromas and rich tastes. When picked under the
ideal circumstances, Viognier has an amazing clear, golden color and the aroma of flowers and
fruits. It is very aromatic. It is best known for its apricot, peach and spice flavors.
Activity 13
Read the following newspaper extract carefully and identify the different types of grammatical
cohesive elements.
Aussie survives attack by 5 m shark
Sydney An Australian swimmer who was mauled by a 5 m shark and survived, said on
Sunday, he saw a shadow in the water seconds before the attack and thought it was a dolphin.
The shark, believed to be a great white, seized Jason Cull by the left leg as he was swimming
at Middletone beach in south-western Australia on Saturday.
Cull, 37, survived after grappling with the beast and after a lifesaver came to his aid. The shark
was one of three that swimmers reported seeing at the beach on Saturday. Officials closed the
beach after the attack.
From his hospital bed where he was being treated for deep lacerations, Cull said he saw a
shadow moving in the water just before the attack and mistook it for a dolphin. It was much
bigger than a dolphin when it came up, Cull said. It banged straight into me I realized what
it was: it was a shark. I sort of touched it, and it grabbed me by the leg and dragged me under
the water he said. I just remembered being dragged backwards underwater. I felt along it and
found its eye and I poked it in the eye and thats when it let go
Adapted from LIN3703 Unisa Study Guide
Coherence
What do we mean when we say a text is coherent? Coherence simply means that you,
the reader or listener, can understand the text. Does the text make sense? Imagine
that you are having a conversation with someone who is very drunk. Very often
people who are under the influence of alcohol tend to be incoherent, In other words
you cannot really understand what they are saying. Consider the following text:
52
The police car and the crunchy peanut butter said hello in New York. This is such a
lovely day the penguin sighed. And then we went home.
Does that above text make sense to you? I hope not! It is an example of a text that lacks
coherence.
Let us look at another example.
Once upon a time there was a purple rabbit named Wibbles. The phone kept ringing
incessantly and she continued to ignore it. Thank you for the chocolates, they were
delicious! So that is why they got married in Jamaica.
In this example, each sentence on its own is a correct and acceptable English sentence.
However, when we string the sentences together, it no longer makes sense. Thus
coherence relates to the way in which sentences relate to each other. For a text to be
considered coherent each sentence should follow on in a logical manner.
Read the following text:
This is an explanation of how the Bushmen lived:
The Bushmen were hunters who moved from place to place in search of food. They
were adept at tracking wild animals which they killed with spears or arrows. The
arrows were tipped with sharp stone or bone and these weapons were deadly in the
skilled hands of the better hunters. They used to disguise themselves as bushes, buck or
ostriches, in order to get close to the herd. During the rainy season in particular, they
supplemented their diet with food from the veld which included wild roots, berries,
locusts and fish.
Do you think this text is coherent? What is the reason for your answer?
We have seen that Cohesion can be thought of as how all the grammatical and lexical
elements of a text link one part of a text to another. Coherence is how the sentences
and meanings of ideas relate to each other logically. This enables understanding.
Activity 14
Glossary
Fill in the definitions of the following terms used in this Unit:
Cohesion
Coherence
Grammatical cohesion
Reference cohesion
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Substitution cohesion
Ellipsis
Conjunctive cohesion
Lexical cohesion
Repetition cohesion
Synonymy cohesion
Antonymy cohesion
Summary
In this Study Unit we have looked at the phenomenon of text cohesion, particularly
at grammatical cohesion and its four subcategories. We looked at reference cohesion,
substitution cohesion, ellipsis and conjunctive cohesion. We should now be able to
recognise grammatical cohesion in texts and identify its four categories. You should
also have become more aware of grammatical cohesion in your own writing and
reading. In addition we discussed lexical coherence and the way it can be used to
create cohesion in a text. Finally we looked at coherence and we discussed what makes
a text coherent. Do try and apply what we have learned in this Study Unit to your own
reading and writing. Be aware of these features whenever you read or write a text.
Feedback to activities
Activity 1: There is no commentary on this Activity.
Activity 2: Repetition Cohesion
The lexical repetition cohesive elements in Text A are: pick up picking up, language
languages, children child and adults adults. This text is lexically very cohesive,
because of the many repetitions that link the sentences.
Activity 3: Synonymy cohesion
The synonymy cohesion elements are wedding ceremony-party, guests visitors,
accommodation-room-sleeping arrangements-tent, food sustenance. From these examples
54
we can see that synonymy is not always exact. While visitors and guests mean the same
thing, accommodation and tent do not have exactly the same meaning. However, they
are related in sense.
Activity 4: Antonymy cohesion
The antonymy cohesion elements in this text are: night-day, black-white, young-old,
male-female, abled-disabled, deaf-hearing.
Activity 5: Collocation cohesion
Words such as parenting, pregnancy, baby, nappies, might feeds, colic, little one, gripe
water and rocking often occur together and belong to the same semantic field. These
words all act as collocation cohesive elements which connect the sentences in the text
above and make it a cohesive text.
Activity 6: Lexical cohesion
Type of lexical cohesion
Repetition: birds, flying, plane, take-off
Synonymy: impacts (collisions), impacts (strikes) aircraft (plane, jet), hazards (threat)
Antonymy: landing (take-off) , risk- (safety)
Collocation: aviation (airports, flying, jets, planes etc)
Activity 7
The reference cohesion elements are in bold.
Thomas prefers a holiday in South Africa to Egypt. Im not sure that I do. He says it is
cheaper and less stressful. That is what he told me when I saw him last week. He was
then booking a week for himself and his family at the local hotel in Port Elizabeth because
he likes it very much. This hotel is older than any others in the town and this is his main
reason for staying there. Im afraid I dont have the same affection for that ancient place.
On the contrary I have always disliked it, and he knows I have. I often take a holiday to
Egypt, but he has never had one.
This is a very cohesive passage and it shows us how reference cohesion is important in
making a text hang together.
Activity 8: There is no feedback for this activity.
Activity 9: Substitution elements
The substitution cohesion elements are in bold
Thomas prefers a holiday in South Africa to Egypt. Im not sure that I do. He says it is
cheaper and less stressful. That is what he told me when I saw him last week. He was
then booking a week for himself and his family at the local hotel in Port Elizabeth because
he likes it very much. This hotel is older than any others in the town and this is his main
reason for staying there. Im afraid I dont have the same affection for that ancient place.
ENG2601/155
On the contrary I have always disliked it, and he knows I have. I often take a holiday to
Egypt, but he has never had one
Activity 10: Conjunctive cohesion
They went on a picnic in spite of the weather. Nomsa drove them in her mothers car. She
cannot pass her driving test until she is eighteen. Consequently she is driving without a
license. She has already received a fine because she drove without it. Although Nomsa is a
good driver, it is illegal to drive without a license but I do not think she cares about that.
Activity 11: Grammatical cohesion
1.
Cathy has a car, but I dont have one. (Substitution cohesion)
2.
They asked who would like to write for the magazine and I said that Thuli
wants to. (Ellipsis)
3.
I heard the news last night, but couldnt leave in the dark. (Conjunctive cohesion)
4.
Sandra and Andy went to Hawaii for their honeymoon (Reference cohesion)
5.
Unisa has over 400 000 students. It must be the largest university in Southern
Africa. (Reference cohesion)
Activity 12: Reference cohesion
Text A contains many instances of reference cohesion. There are at least no examples
where it refers back to Viognier. In light of these many reference cohesions
elements, one could regard this text as very cohesive. Although Text B consists of only
four sentences, there are four examples of reference cohesion and is also very cohesive.
Remember that the inclusion of other languages serves to illustrate that text linguistics
also applies to other languages.
Activity 13: Grammatical cohesive elements
Some of the cohesive elements in the text are underlined.

Aussie survives attack by 5 m shark
Sydney An Australian swimmer who was mauled by a 5 m shark and survived, said
on Sunday, he (reference cohesion) saw a shadow in the water seconds before the attack
and thought it (reference cohesion) was a dolphin. The shark, believed to be a great
white, seized Jason Cull by the left leg as he (reference cohesion) was swimming at
Middleton beach in south-western Australia on Saturday.
Cull, 37, survived after grappling with the beast (substitution cohesion) and after a
lifesaver came to his aid. The shark was one (substitution cohesion) of three (ellipsis)
that swimmers reported seeing at the beach on Saturday. Officials closed the beach
after the attack,
From his hospital bed where he was being treated for deep lacerations, Cull said he saw
a shadow moving in the water just before the attack and mistook it for a dolphin. It
was much bigger than a dolphin when it came up, Cull said. It banged straight into
me I realized what it was: it was a shark. I sort of touched it, and it grabbed me
by the leg and dragged me under the water he said. I just remembered being dragged
56
backwards underwater. I felt along it and found its eye and I poked it in the eye and
(conjunctive cohesion) thats when it let go ... (ellipsis)
Activity 14:
The definitions of all these terms may be found in this unit.
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UNIT5
English language use and variation
Prescribed reading
The parts from your prescribed texts which are relevant to this unit are:
Mullany and Stockwell: Introducing English Language, pp. 3543; 91103; 255256.
Carter et al.: Working with Texts, pp. 1117; 249255; 305315.
Introduction
In this study unit, we consider the way that English language use changes according
to context. Context includes the geographical region in which the language occurs,
and the social situation in which the language is used. We discuss what is meant by
standard and non-standard English, and when it is appropriate to use which variety.
The differences between spoken and written English are considered as well. We also
discuss the characteristics of the variety of English required for academic study.
We would like you to attempt the activities included in this unit before you consult the
feedback and answers which are provided at the end of the unit.
Outcomes
At the end of this study unit, you should be able to:
recognise different varieties of English that occur in different parts of the world
and in South Africa;
understand that English usage varies according to its social context and purpose;
identify some of the features that distinguish spoken from written English;
distinguish between standard and non-standard English;
use the standard variety of English when it is appropriate to do so.
English language use and variation
English originated in England about 1 500 years ago. Today it is a global language and
is used as a lingua franca a language used to enable communication between people
all over the world with different mother tongues. How and why has this phenomenon
occurred? How could a language coming from one country a tiny island become
a world language?
58
The spread of English worldwide is largely the legacy of colonialism which imposed
English usage on the peoples it dominated in various parts of the world. This reflected
the power of the British Empire, at its height in the 19th century. English then
developed in different ways in different geographical regions, absorbing elements of
indigenous languages. English continued to spread and grow after the colonial era
because of its use in technology, commerce and science. The globalisation of English
is also the result of the power of America, particularly American media and popular
culture, disseminated worldwide through television and film.
During the colonial era, English was imposed on colonised people; in other words,
they had no option but to learn to speak it. Now that the colonial era is over, why, do
you think, do more and more and more people choose to learn English? Why are you
studying it?
Mullany and Stockwell make the point that since the colonial era, people are no longer
coerced into learning English, but have the desire to learn it for pragmatic reasons.
They realise that they need to learn English because it is an international language,
even though this may threaten their own languages, cultures and ways of thinking
(2010:256). Today, English has far more second- and foreign-language speakers than
it has first-language speakers.
Like most UNISA students, you are studying English because it is an essential part
of higher education and because you probably realise that it provides the key to
employment and economic opportunities. To succeed at university, you need to be
proficient in Standard English. But what exactly do we mean by Standard English?
Standard English is the variety taught at school and used for official purposes.
It is the kind of English used in the newspaper and by news-readers on the radio
and television. It is fairly formal and most common in the written form. Standard
English is associated with prestige. There are definite social and educational benefits
of being able to use Standard English.
English is now used all over the world, but it is not used in the same way. On pages
4041 of your prescribed text, Introducing English Language, Mullany and Stockwell
discuss Kachrus circles model, and use a number of acronyms which describe the way
English is used in different countries of the world. Read these pages before answering
the following questions.
ACTIVITY 1
What do the three circles in Kachrus model refer to?
What do the following acronyms stand for?
ENL
ESL
EFL
ELF
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According to Mullany and Stockwell, which of the above acronyms applies most closely to the
way English is used in South Africa?
World Englishes
Over time, as already mentioned, different varieties of English have evolved across
different regions of the world. National varieties of English such as American, British,
Australian, South African and Indian English are recognised as distinct from one
another. In the inside front cover of the Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary there
is a list of 15 varieties of English worldwide. In the dictionary itself, abbreviations
such as IndE, NAmE or SAfrE are written next to certain words to indicate that
the word is Indian, North American or South African in origin or spelling. For this
reason, some people believe that we should talk of Englishes rather than English. In
your prescribed text, Introducing Language: A Resource Book for Students, Mullany and
Stockwell use the terms monomodel and polymodel to describe different views on
the issue of different English varieties:
A monomodel approach supposes that English is homogenous, a single variety, it
is English as an international language . A polymodel approach, on the other
hand, supposes variability (2010:256).
This is a hotly debated issue. Some scholars uphold the monomodel approach,
contending that Standard English should be the British-based, educated, nativespeaker variety. Non-British varieties of English which include language features that
are particular to other parts of the world are considered non-standard, and unique
linguistic features are regarded as deviations from the norm.
Supporters of the polymodel approach, however, argue in favour of the acceptance of
second-language varieties of English which include words and grammatical features
derived from other contexts and influenced by local languages. Such features are
seen in positive terms as signs of enrichment and innovation rather than undesirable
deviations.
ACTIVITY 2
American English uses vocabulary and spelling which differ from British English. South Africa
follows British spelling and language conventions.
Insert South African equivalents for the following American words and spellings in the spaces
provided.
US English

60
SA English
Vocabulary
Diaper
..........
Pacifier
..........
Sidewalk
.........
Elevator
..........
Automobile
..........
Gasoline
..........
Icebox
...........
Fries
..........
Spelling
Favorite
..........
Traveler
..........
Theater
..........
Color
..........
Tire
..........
Center
..........
Defense
............
We are now going to consider another national variety of English.

(Listen to your CD where you can hear a reading of the text that follows.)
ACTIVITY 3
Read the extract below, which comes from the novel Zoo City, by Lauren Beukes. Identify the
linguistic clues in the passage that indicate in which country this novel is set. Underline or circle
them, then write notes in the space below the passage.
Im telling you straight. Some human scum burned a homeless ou to death on Tuesday.
Patrick Serfontein lived under a Troyeville bridge in a cardboard box until he was
beaten up and necklaced with a tyre over his head by one or more tsotsis who are still
unidentified and walking around free and easy because no one saw anything.
The poor homeless ous face was so badly burnt up that the cops had to identify him
by what they hope is his ID book, which they found among some personal goeters in
an old shopping trolley near the body. The SAPS refused to speculate on the motive
behind the violent killing. Is this the first sign of another serial killer like Moses Sithole
on the loose?
Other uglinesses that happened yesterday: The body of a missing nine-year-old in
Ventersdorp has been discovered, drowned in a farm dam. At least his parents can
make peace because his body has been found. The number of people who just sommer
go missing in this city never to be seen again is just sad, mense.

(Zoo City, Lauren Beukes, p. 286)
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Regional Englishes
The previous two activities illustrate how English usage varies according to its national
location. But apart from national varieties of English, there are also regional varieties
or dialects within a national variety.
What does the term dialect mean?
Dialect refers to a particular variety of a language. Its features will be seen in
distinctive lexis (vocabulary), syntax (grammar) and phonology (accent and
pronunciation).
Not all South Africans speak the same kind of English: there is no single variety called
South African English. If speakers are second (or additional) language speakers of
English, their primary language or mother tongue as well as other social and economic
factors will influence the way they speak English. In addition to general South African
English (SAE), linguists recognise South African Indian English (SAIE), characterised
by expressions like I had so much of housework, instead of I had so much housework;
and we went and visited the family an all. There is also the dialect spoken by the
Cape Coloured community which comprises a mixture of English and Afrikaans.
Black South African English (BSAE) is also seen as a distinct variety of SAE.
It needs to be pointed out that non-standard features of certain varieties may, over
time, become accepted as standard usage. Language is in a continual process of
change, and what is unacceptable usage today may become acceptable tomorrow. In
South Africa, Black South African English is now widely used in government and
other public domains, so some of its features may eventually come to be regarded as
standard. This demonstrates how issues of power may affect the status of a language.
ACTIVITY 4
The following are examples of Black South African English (BSAE). Identify the non-standard
features and rewrite each sentence in standard English below each example.
(Listen to your CD where you can hear a reading of the sentences that follow.)
62
Drugs they are dangerous.

...........................................................................................................................................
The teacher gives too much homeworks.
...........................................................................................................................................
Now that I have saved up enough money, I can be able to buy the car.
...........................................................................................................................................
My mother is having a bad temper.
...........................................................................................................................................
My father he works very hard.
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He swear that he will pay the money back.
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The wife told his husband to get out of the house.
...........................................................................................................................................
She did not give him chance to explain.
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She was very much suspicious.
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This made him to become angry.
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This misfortunes made them to divorce.
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He no longer has a peace of mind.
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ACTIVITY 5
The following poem, which comprises an account of a murder, is written in the coloured dialect
and has a number of non-standard linguistic features.
(Listen to your CD where you can hear a reading of the text.)
Read it, and underline or circle the non-standard features; lexis (vocabulary), spelling, and
grammar (syntax). Then rewrite the poem in Standard English, cutting out the repetition in the
original.
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Hotknife
by Sydney Clouts
Innie pondok he wait for me
he say you know wy
he say you know wy, Hotknife
He say
you know wy, hotknife
you know wy, you Skollie baasted
So engry, maaster.
No one say dat to me.
Ony my farer say dat to me.
Nellie newwe
tol me she was married sir
she newwe tol me she was married sir.
It was luck
but it was bad luck, maaster.
I am Hotknife
of Capricorn
an she was in the Crab sir. It was tiekets.
She newwe tol me she was married sir.
She was hot for me, hot.
Im sorrie sir: are you married, maaster?
Im a man sir
ennytime, bu dis was ekstra special condieshns.
She say Hotknife, swietaat, you a fat man.
Sa! Ten years for luff sir.
Ill newwe kiela man again
no, not till I die, maaster
not for a woman, maaster.
She can be so hot for me and Ill not kiela man sir ... .
(The lava of this land p. 11)
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Why do you think the poet chose to use this dialect when writing this poem? Would
the poem have the same impact if it was written in Standard English?
Sydney Clouts chooses to use this dialect for the authentic quality it lends the poem.
Had it been written in Standard English, it would not have conveyed the unique
character of the speaker, or the distinctive socio-cultural environment he inhabits.
However, if this variety of English were used in a formal context (such as a court of
law), the speaker would probably be stigmatised (refer to Mullany and Stockwell, p.
923), and this could count against him in the verdict. Unjust as it seems, this serves
to highlight the fact that the standard variety carries status and is generally seen as
the mark of the educated person. It is associated with respectability. Such impressions
are based on prejudice rather than fact, but they reflect the reality that language is
perceived as a marker of social status and character.
Implicit in this poem are unequal power relations: the speaker refers to the addressee
as sir and maaster, indicating that he positions himself as subordinate. His use of
language, a non-standard variety, supports his inferior position and reinforces the
unequal power relations in the text. You could say that the way he speaks traps him in
a lower social class.
(Some of you may be familiar with the story of the film My Fair Lady, where Eliza
Doolittle has to be taught to speak a different variety of English in order to move in
ENG2601/165
a higher social circle. This story has a British context but the principle it illustrates is
valid for other countries as well.)
Language use and social context
Do you always use the same kind of English wherever you are, and no matter whom
you are with? Or does your English usage differ according to the situation you are in?
Think about this before you go on reading.
Languages contain varying styles and levels of formality according to the situation and
purpose of the speaker or writer. Most of us use different styles of language depending
on the situation we are in, and our audience. Whether we are speaking or writing will
also have an influence on the kind of English we use.
Consider the following communication from a student to a lecturer. Would you regard
the language use as appropriate for the context, audience and purpose?
Hey Doc, Im still waiting 4 my books for this course. I havent got the bucks to
buy them right now. Im like how can I be able to do my assignments if I havent
got the books? Im stressing big time. Itd really be cool if you could give me more
time. Pleez!
thanx
Thandi
It is very obvious that the tone and actual language usage is inappropriate for the
audience and purpose of this text. While this kind of language would be perfectly
acceptable if the recipient was a friend, the tone is too familiar (friendly and casual) for
a student/lecturer relationship. The language is also far too informal and colloquial.
SMS language (4 instead of for) and slang (bucks, cool) replace Standard English
vocabulary, and irregular spellings (Pleez and thanx) are used instead of please and
thanks. Although this is a written text (sent as an e-mail), the language has many
features of spoken English (discussed below).
If we were to rewrite it in appropriate English, it would look something like this:
Dear Dr. Horne
I am still waiting for my prescribed texts for the module ENG1502. I cannot
afford to buy them at the moment. Without these texts I cannot complete my
assignments and this is causing me great anxiety. I would be very grateful if you
could grant me an extension of two weeks.
Thank you and kind regards
Ms T. Mazibuko (St. No. 3276690)
Notice that this version has a suitably formal, courteous tone, uses correct sentence
structure, vocabulary and spelling, and is clear and accurate.
The difference between spoken and written English
Spoken English, except in the case of formal speeches which are pre-written and then
read, usually differs in several respects from written English. Chats between friends
will most likely contain colloquialisms; contractions (dont; isnt); incomplete
66
sentences; tag questions (such as have you in remarks like, you havent told him,
have you?); borrowings from other languages, such as Afrikaans or isiZulu, while
speaking English (this apple is vrot inside; the issue caused a whole indaba) and
various other markers of informal speech. Non-fluency features, like the fillers er and
umm will occur, as speakers hesitate or struggle to find the right word. We also make
use of expressions like as I said, or you know, as well as repetition to fill gaps in the
flow of speech. These are all perfectly acceptable qualities of spoken language, which
is, by its very nature, unplanned and spontaneous (refer to your prescribed text: Carter
et al., pages 2535).
Formal speeches, news reports and academic writing, on the other hand, are
characterised by full sentences, absence of slang, and Standard English vocabulary.
Generally, written English contains more words that are long and polysyllabic than
spoken English which makes greater use of shorter, more common words. Written
texts tend to use longer sentences and more complex clauses.
ACTIVITY 6
Consider the two texts which follow. Both of them deal with the same topic: power cuts, or what
South Africans call load shedding.
(Listen to your CD where you can hear a reading of the texts that follow.)
Which text was written and which was spoken? Find examples and make notes on the linguistic
features that enabled you to answer this question. Consider vocabulary (colloquial vs. formal;
short vs. polysyllabic words), length and construction of sentences and any other features you
found significant.
TEXT 1
Im sick and tired of the blackouts we keep having. This morning I couldnt even make
a cup of tea before going to work, never mind put on the washing machine. And you
know theres no warning. The lights go off and we dont know for how long. Its about
time the municipality jacked up its services. This is not good enough. Im fed up.
TEXT 2
As a ratepayer who regularly pays my bills, I wish to lodge a complaint about the
frequent power cuts we are experiencing. This causes serious inconvenience and
interferes with normal daily routines. We are not warned in advance that the power
will be interrupted for indefinite periods, so are unable to prepare ourselves. The service
you provide is entirely unsatisfactory in this regard and I would like the assurance that
you are investigating the problems and devising ways of solving them. The present
situation is most annoying and completely unacceptable.
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Note that the same person produced both texts in the above activity. As individuals,
we are capable of using more than one variety of a language because we adapt our
usage according to the situation and whom we are speaking to, or writing for. This is
known as diglossia or bidialectism, which means proficiency in (or the use of) two
dialects or varieties of the same language.
Eusebius McKaiser, an announcer on Radio 702, recounts an incident from his youth
which illustrates diglossia perfectly. He is coloured, and grew up in a coloured township
in Grahamstown. His home language was coloured English. However, he attended
a predominantly white school where he acquired proficiency in a different variety of
English. Read his experience.
I remember my embarrassment once when a friend called me while I was at
home and I spoke to him in English. My little cousin could not stop giggling
while listening to me being white on the phone! I simply had to grin and bear
it. But I didnt give my number out to any other white friends after that. The
embarrassment was something of a double whammy: a cousin laughing at me
speaking English but, also, the phone being answered by someone in my family
responding in incorrect English to my white friend at the other end!
Such is the personal struggle of coconut* teenagers: a private reality filled with
complexities that you keep to yourself and hope to carefully manage like a good
piece of choreography.
Andrew, my first white friend, one of my best friends at school, had never visited
my grandparents home, never visited my mothers house. He never asked. And
I never invited him. Of course I could have invited him home. But I didnt.
I was ashamed of my poor neighbourhood. Language, class and race divisions
all combined to make me skilled at wearing different hats, negotiating different
worlds rather than integrating them.

(Eusebius McKaiser: A Bantu in my Bathroom, pp. 1958.)
What is noteworthy about this anecdote is the fact that Eusebius McKaiser was
speaking English in both situations, home and school. However, they were different
varieties of English. It was appropriate for him to speak one variety of English at
home and a different variety at school. One variety was not better than the other
*Coconut is a critical term which refers to individuals who, like coconuts, are dark outside but white inside; in other words,
they appear to be black, but they speak and behave like white people.
68
in linguistic terms: each served its communicative purpose and was the best for the
particular social context. He had learned to adapt his language usage according to the
different worlds he belonged to.
Academic English is a particular variety of English which you are required to use in
your tertiary studies. This variety is discussed in the next, final, unit.
Activity 7
Glossary
Fill in the definitions of the following terms, used in the course of this unit.
Standard English .............................................................................................................................
ENL ...................................................................................................................................................
ESL...................................................................................................................................................
EFL...................................................................................................................................................
ELF...................................................................................................................................................
monomodel......................................................................................................................................
polymodel........................................................................................................................................
dialect...............................................................................................................................................
SAE..................................................................................................................................................
SAIE.................................................................................................................................................
BSAE................................................................................................................................................
fillers .................................................................................................................................................
diglossia...........................................................................................................................................
bidialectism......................................................................................................................................
Summary of this unit

In this unit we have discussed variations in English usage as a result of where and
why it occurs. Whether the variety used is appropriate for the audience and purpose
is context-dependent. Non-standard varieties are perfectly acceptable in informal
situations. However, there are definite social and educational advantages of gaining
proficiency in the standard variety of English, which certain situations call for. We
hope this unit has helped you to understand and develop your awareness of variation
in English, and sensitivity to which variety of English is appropriate to which contexts.
ENG2601/169
FEEDBACK TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 1
ENL English as a Native Language. In the UK, Canada, Australia and New
Zealand (the Inner circle countries), English is spoken mostly as a first language.
ESL English as a Second Language. In countries like Nigeria, Singapore, India
and Malaysia (the Outer circle), English is an official language but is spoken mainly
as a second language.
EFL English as a Foreign Language. In countries like China and Japan (the
Expanding circle), English is used as a foreign language.
ELF English as a Lingua Franca. English is used as common language by people
with different first languages.
According to Mullany and Stockwell, ELF applies most closely to the way English is
used in South Africa. It is only one of eleven official languages, but it is the one used
in government, in social situations between people with different mother tongues, and
in the media.
Activity 2
US English
SA English
Vocabulary
Diaper napkin/nappy
Pacifier dummy
Sidewalk pavement
Elevator lift
Automobile car
Gasoline petrol
Icebox refrigerator/fridge
fries chips
Spelling
Favorite
favourite
Traveler traveller
Theate theatre
Color colour
Tire tyre
Center
centre
Defense defence
Activity 3: Zoo city text
You probably found it easy to recognise that this is a South African text. Proper
names such as Patrick Serfontein, Troyeville, Moses Sithole and Ventersdorp are
unmistakably South African. Other common nouns such as ou (man), goeters (things)
and mense (people), are uniquely South African, having been borrowed from Afrikaans,
while tsotsi (thug) comes from isiZulu. The word necklaced, used here as a verb rather
than its more usual function as a noun, refers to a particularly cruel practice of placing
a burning tyre round a persons neck in order to kill him or her and originated during
70
the South African anti-apartheid struggle. People from overseas countries may not
understand what the term necklacing entails.
Activity 4: Black South African English
Drugs they are dangerous. (unnecessary use of pronoun they.)
The teacher gives too much homeworks. (homework cannot be used as a plural noun
in standard English.)
Now that I have saved up enough money, I can be able to buy the car. (can be able is
a non-standard construction; standard usage would be I can buy the car or I am able
to buy the car) (This particular example of BSAE is now so commonly used it could
soon become standard usage.)
My mother is having a bad temper. (incorrect use of present continuous tense: my
mother has a bad temper)
My father he works very hard. (unnecessary use of pronoun he)
He swear that he will pay the money back. (concord error: singular subject he must
take the singular verb swears)
The wife told his husband to get out of the house. (confusion of masculine/feminine
pronoun: the pronoun co-reference for wife is her)
She did not give him chance to explain. (missing article/determiner: a chance).
She was very much suspicious. (unnecessary adverb much)
This made him to become angry. (unnecessary infinitive)
This misfortunes made them to divorce. (confusion of singular pronoun this with
plural noun misfortunes: should be These misfortunes. to divorce; unnecessary
infinitive)
He no longer has a peace of mind. (insertion of unnecessary article/determiner)
Activity 5: Poem Hotknife
Vocabulary
pondok; this South African colloquialism refers to a shack; a small, badly-built dwelling.
skollie; this is roughly equivalent in meaning to tsotsi; it refers to an unemployed person
who indulges in criminal activities.
hot in she was hot for me; this slang usage of hot means she desired me sexually.
Spelling
The wrongly spelt words in the poem are based on the phonology of the Coloured
dialect: words are spelt the way they are pronounced, and the pronunciation is strongly
influenced by Afrikaans.
baasted; maaster; swietaat; these spellings indicate the prolonged vowel sound of the a.
engry and ennytime; these spellings reflect the South African tendency to pronounce
a as an e.
innie; is a contraction of the Afrikaans in die (in the).
ENG2601/171
newwe; This spelling of never is derived from Afrikaans phonology which spells v
as w.
ekstra; this is the Afrikaans spelling of extra.
luff; the v sound in love is unvoiced and pronounced as an f.
tiekets; condieshns; swietaat; kiela; all these words indicate the sharp pronunciation of
the i vowel sound in the Coloured dialect.
wy; this spelling is not phonologically very different from why; the poet probably uses
this spelling to indicate the speakers lack of education. This is how he would spell the
word.
Grammar
He wait; he say; the verb form in these constructions is ungrammatical. If in the past
tense, the statements should read: he waited, he said. If the speaker is using the
historic present (past events told in the present tense), he is making an error of concord:
he should have said he waits, he says (singular, to agree with the singular subject).
Some words are run together; in die becomes one word; innie. Kiela represents the
two words kill a.
Activity 6: Written and spoken English
You probably had no difficulty in working out that the first text is spoken while the
second one is written most likely as part of a formal letter of complaint to the
municipality. Some examples of the contrasting linguistic features are shown in the
table below.
TEXT 1: Spoken text
TEXT 2: Written text
Vocabulary
Informal usage: sick and tired; you Formal usage: lodge a complaint;
know; about time; jacked up; fed up entirely unsatisfactory; unacceptable
Short simple words: how long; Polysyllabic words: indefinite periods;
frequent power cuts we are experiencing
blackouts we keep having
Contractions: Im; couldnt; theres; No contractions
dont; its
Syntax:
Longer, more complex sentences: We

Short sentences: The lights go off and are not warned in advance that the power
will be interrupted for indefinite periods,
we dont know for how long.
so are unable to prepare ourselves.
The service you provide is entirely
unsatisfactory in this regard and I
Its about time the municipality jacked would like the assurance that you are
up its services.
investigating the problems and devising
ways of solving them.
Im fed up.
The present situation is most annoying

and completely unacceptable.
Activity 7: Glossary
All the definitions of these acronyms and terms can be found in the text of this unit.
72
UNIT6
Academic English
Prescribed reading:
The part from your prescribed text which is relevant to this unit is:
Carter et al.: Working with Texts, Unit 5.
This section should be read in conjunction with the study material that follows.
Also relevant to this unit is Unit 6 of ENG2602, An academic toolkit.
Introduction
This study unit is slightly different in approach as it focuses on a particular variety of
English required for university level study. This variety is known as academic English.
This study unit also introduces you to writing at university level. You are specifically
taught how to follow the conventions of academic writing as this type of writing is
the recognised variety at university level. It is formal as opposed to an informal way of
writing. Most undergraduate students are not sure how to approach extended writing
tasks and often use the trial-and-error method in their writing.
Some of you might have already been introduced to this variety in other modules
you previously enrolled for. However, in this unit we delve more deeply into issues
of academic English, fill in the gaps left in those modules and also build a strong
foundation for postgraduate studies where you will definitely need to be proficient in
this variety of English.
Outcomes
At the end of this study unit, you should:
understand what academic English is;
have developed your own academic writing skills.
Academic writing
Academic writing is a formal type of writing used at university and other institutions
of higher learning. Students are expected to acquire this type of writing and use it in
their assignments and examinations. Students at undergraduate level are gradually
introduced to writing essays as well as extended texts. Some authors define academic
writing as any writing that fulfils the purpose of education in a university or college
ENG2601/173
while others define it as a process of thinking that uses written language (Thaiss and
Zawacki 2006; Henning, Gravett and van Rensberg (2002)). From these authors we
can deduce that proficiency in academic writing is not an overnight event but a process.
You cannot write an assignment today and submit it immediately. Unfortunately, most
undergraduate students do this. They wait until the last minute to submit written
assignments and it is no wonder they do not get good marks.
Activity 1
The following verbs are often used in academic writing. Check for the meaning of their words in
the dictionary and start using them gradually in your academic essays:
Argue:...............................................................................................................................................
Assert:..............................................................................................................................................
Contend:...........................................................................................................................................
Maintain:...........................................................................................................................................
Juxtapose:........................................................................................................................................
Affirm: ...............................................................................................................................................
Confirm: ............................................................................................................................................
Posit:.................................................................................................................................................
Postulate:.........................................................................................................................................
Suggest:...........................................................................................................................................
Concur:.............................................................................................................................................
Declare:............................................................................................................................................
Report:.............................................................................................................................................
Discuss:............................................................................................................................................
Aver:.................................................................................................................................................
The writing process

The process of writing should begin with thinking which subsequently leads to
planning, drafting, revising, editing, proofreading and writing the final version. The
student should think, brainstorm and do free writing. Brainstorming is the process
of generating ideas. Every student should start any writing project by engaging in the
process of brainstorming on a specific topic given as an assignment. Most writing tasks
at undergraduate level require students to research. By research we mean you will need
to visit the library to look for sources of information like books, articles, electronic
reserves and the Internet. Your ideas need to be supported by the body of knowledge
or existing literature on the topic you are writing on. You do not just write your own
ideas and make claims that are not corroborated by research. However, that does not
mean that your writing should be dominated by what other authors are saying. Rather,
you should be able to say so-and-so says this on the topic but this is my view. Your
74
voice should be audible on the subject you are writing about. Most students will just
accept what is written in a book at face value without any critique at all. They treat
written and published work as the gospel and simply think because this is a book
or a published article, then it is the absolute truth. At university we want to develop
students who are independent critical thinkers who are able to challenge popular ideas
through reasoning.
The second process of writing is planning. Planning involves gathering of information
and working out how that information will be presented. Most lecturers will give
instructions regarding any writing task in terms of the length and how the answer
should be structured.
The third process is drafting. As indicated earlier, students are prone to submitting
the first written draft as a final draft which they submit for evaluation. Your writing
should be organised in a way that you have several drafts before you even think of
submitting the work for evaluation. We suggest two drafts which you need to give to
a critical reader who will give comments.
ACTIVITY 2
We want you to reflect on your writing habits in the past. What did you do before submitting your
written work for evaluation? Please be honest with yourself.
The fourth process involves editing and proofreading. This is the most important
process before you submit your written assignment. Students need to spend a lot of
time preparing and checking written tasks. Any writing that is full of grammar errors,
poor sentence construction and lack of coherence just demonstrates that the work
has not been edited and proofread. In English courses, these kinds of mistakes will
be penalised accordingly. We advise you not to lose marks unnecessarily on language
matters such as these.
The last part of the process is the writing of the final version. After following all the
processes above, your written work is now ready for submission. You need to ensure
that your work is clean and all grammar mistakes have been corrected. Your final
version should be work you are proud of. Students who attempt to follow these steps in
their writing are likely to perform well in their written assignments.
How to structure your essay writing
Essays are mostly used as a way of assessing students at university. They should be well
structured and also flow coherently. Your essay needs to have an introduction, body
and conclusion.
ENG2601/175
Writing an Introduction
An introduction is the first paragraph of your essay. It aims to introduce readers to
the topic as well as highlight points/issues that will be discussed in the rest of the
essay. It needs to be like a road map that prepares the reader before undertaking the
reading journey. As first impressions last, it is important for the introduction to be
presented in a way that makes the reader keep reading. Normally, an introduction
should give a background on the topic concerned, explain or define the topic to the
reader, should have a thesis statement which tells us the writers standpoint on the topic
concerned and also highlight the scope or the issues to be discussed. From reading
your introduction, your reader should have an overview of what your essay will be all
about. Failure to capture the attention of your reader from the beginning is evidence
that your introduction needs to be reworked and revised.
Activity 3
Write an introduction on the following topic:
The use of excessive force by the police should be discouraged. Agree or disagree with this
topic.
After the introduction, the body of the essay comes in the form of paragraphs. We
always advise our students not to take their reader by surprise. In other words, they are
not going to discuss a point they did not mention in the introduction.
Writing paragraphs
What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a group of sentences or a single sentence that form a unit (Lunsford &
Connors 1990:116)
There is unity and coherence of ideas among the sentences.
It should have one central idea.
Its ending should guide the reader to understand what has already been read.
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Wrong assumptions about paragraphs

A paragraph is just a collection of sentences.
A paragraph is at least 5 sentences.
A paragraph is half a page.
You can put in as many ideas as you wish in a paragraph.
A paragraph should have long sentences.
A paragraph is used to segment a page so that the layout looks good.
What to put in a paragraph
A controlling idea in your specific piece of writing.
Information that will help support the idea.
What every paragraph should do
It should
be unified;
well-developed;
have one main idea;
communicate;
be coherent flow together as a unit.
An example of a paragraph
Learning how to submit assignments on time is one of the invaluable skills that
students can take with them to the working world. Though the work force may not
give a writing assignment in the traditional sense, many of the objectives and jobs that
need to be completed require that employees work with deadlines. The deadlines that
students encounter in the classroom may be different in content when compared to the
deadlines of the work force, but the importance of meeting those deadlines is the same.
Both environments necessitate the signing of a contract. Therefore, developing good
habits in submitting assignments now as current students, will aid your performance
and position as future participants in the working world.
Activity 4
Based on the above guidelines on paragraphs, write a paragraph of your own on the topic of
police brutality you introduced earlier.
ENG2601/177
Writing a conclusion
A conclusion summarises points covered through the body of the essay.
A conclusion should
stress the importance of the thesis statement

give the essay a sense of completeness
leave a final impression on the reader
summarise all the main points.
How not to conclude:
Well thats it.

This is all I can say.
I think I can stop here.
Bring in a new idea.
Activity 5
Using the topic of police brutality, write a conclusion to your argument.
Paraphrasing and plagiarism

It is very important to cite your sources when you have used ideas other than your own
in a text. This may lead you to commit an offence known as plagiarism. Plagiarism
is when you are using someones ideas without acknowledgement. It is also known as
academic theft and you may be suspended from your studies for up to a period of 5
years. You may also fail the course as a result of plagiarism.
To avoid plagiarism, you should insert quotations as well as the name of the source,
date and page number. This is what we call in-text referencing. Look at the following
example:
Othello predicates his success in love on his success as a soldier, wooing Desdemona
with tales of his military travels and battles. No longer having a means of proving his
manhood or honor in a public setting such as the court or battlefield, Othello begins to
feel uneasy with his footing in a private setting, the bedroom (http://sparknotes.com)
Adapted from Shober (2010:116)
78
Another way of avoiding plagiarism is by paraphrasing. Paraphrasing involves writing

an extended version of the original thought using your own words. But that does not
mean that one should not acknowledge the source. You still need to give merit to
the source of the information. Paraphrasing is one of the most important skills that
university students should acquire.
Referencing styles
It is also important as a student to be acquainted with referencing styles preferred by
your disciplines. There are a number of referencing styles, namely: Havard referencing
style, American Psychological Association (APA), Modern Languages Association
(MLA).
Harvard referencing style
This style is commonly used by some institutions, departments, publishers or
government offices.
Single author
The Havard referencing system follows this format: surname, initials, year, book title,
City of Publication, Publisher. For example, Shobe, D. (2008). Writing English with
style. Pretoria, van Schaik Publishers.
Multiple authors
Ronald Carter et al. (2008). Working with Texts: A core introduction to language analysis.
New York, Routledge.
Edited books
Beard, A. ed. (2011). Introduction to English Studies. Cape Town, Cambridge University
Press.
Article in a journal
Laura Czerniewicz and Cheryl Brown. (2005) Access to ICT for teaching and learning:
From single artefact to inter-related resources. International Journal of Education
and Development using Information and Communication Technology (IJEDICT), Vol.
1 Issue 2, pp. 4256.
Article in a newspaper
Molefi, M. (2013) Mediocrity in South African soccer. Sowetan. 20 March, p. 10.
Dissertation
Chokwe, J. (2011). Academic Writing in English Second Language contexts: Perceptions
and experiences of first year university students. Unpublished Masters Dissertation,
University of South Africa. Pretoria.
Government Publications
South Africa. Department of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology (1999). White
Paper on Arts, Culture and Heritage. Pretoria: Government Printers.
ENG2601/179
Summary
This chapter introduced you to academic writing which is a genre or variety used
to write academic texts in higher education. You have been shown how to structure
your essay writing in terms of introduction, body and conclusion. The writing process
and referencing styles were also discussed. It is crucial for you to start using this style
of writing as it is expected from you at university level. It is important to also check
with your specific department about their preferred referencing style. We hope the
outcomes of this unit will also be a valuable learning experience and what you have
learned will be useful for those of you who would like to pursue postgraduate studies.
Feedback to Activities
Activity1
You should have found answers by checking for the meaning of the words in this unit
and in the dictionary.
Activity2
This was a reflection activity and could have elicited different responses based on an
individuals background.
Activity3
A possible answer to this activity could be:
Recently, the media have reported on a number of incidents of police brutality
where the police were involved in killing members of the public. It seems that
there is a lack of skills by the members of South African Police Services (SAPS) to
handle riots, public violence and individual crime suspects. This has now reached
unacceptable levels in South Africa where the police who are entrusted with the
duty of protecting the public are now a danger to the public. This essay argues
in support of the statement that police brutality should be discouraged and be
rejected with the contempt it deserves. The following points will be discussed:
ongoing in-service training of police is required; irresponsible policing should
be punished; exemplary leadership is required; the police need to change their
attitudes to properly enforce the law.
Activity4
Most of the incidents of police brutality can be attributed to the polices lack
of proper on-going training. They also have a superficial interpretation of the
law as they should be able to handle a suspect who wants to evade arrest. The
other reason could be lack of expertise to control large crowds of protesters. For
instance, live ammunition is not allowed to be used when dealing with crowds;
instead other means can be used such as tear gas, rubber bullets, water tankers
which can be used to disperse crowds in riots without necessarily causing any
harm to the crowd. Therefore, on-going training may be a possible effective
remedy to this problem.
80
Activity5
This essay has dealt with a sensitive issue of police brutality which is a great threat
to effective policing. Insufficient on-going training of police officials was seen as
one of the major causes of this scourge where people die unnecessary deaths by
people they should be getting protection from. Tougher punishment for these
kind of acts could be a deterrent to this barbaric behaviour displayed by the men
in blue. More needs to be done to curb this problem so that the police efforts will
be directed towards crime prevention instead of becoming perpetrators of crime
themselves.
ENG2601/181
Conclusion to this Module: ENG2601

We hope that this module has increased your understanding of how the English
language works and how historical period, geographical location, social situation and
purpose affect the kind of language used. We hope that it has taught you to read more
closely and become more sensitive to the nuances of usage. Most importantly, we hope
that it has helped you to be discerning in your own use of English, particularly the
academic variety you need to use for your studies.
82
ENG2601/183

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STUDY UNIT 1: English Language systems: persuasion and narration/rhetorical analysis

STUDY UNIT 2: Language and Meaning

STUDY UNIT 3: Register and Genre

STUDY UNIT 4: Text cohesion

STUDY UNIT 5: English language use and variation 58

Welcome to this module, which builds on the first-level module, ENG1502,

A persuasive essay aims at getting An argument aims at getting readers

An argument even though based on

Should high school students be given the freedom to smoke at school?

2. Text from an advocacy group

Using the active

Internal consistency of the

This refers to the

As this triangle shows, texts may appeal to:

Comparison using figures of speech e.g. metaphor, simile.

A form of repetition of a word or phrase to build up emotion.

Using a personal experience or specific details to support your

Make reference to research or facts to support your view-point.

Repeating words, phrases and sentences for emphasis.

Asking questions to which no answer is required, so as to tease

Choose words that appeal to many senses; words with

Use words such as all; only, many to influence readers;

What strategies do writers use to persuade?

Zoos are necessary

The good side of

Life in prison: zoos

All beer ads must

Attacking beer ads:

(b) The thesis statement:

2. The main body of the text

2.1 Use of transitions

2.3 Rhetorical devices

Essay on why homework should be abolished

Many primary schools

Present Tense: give

Firstly, homework takes

Evaluative language: rich

Modality: It is clear that,

Who could be the intended audience of this essay?

Identify the thesis statement.

Different types of processes

State the total number of each type of process at the end.

These connectors link additional facts or points. (e.g. and,

These show that one point is a cause of another (e.g. because,

These connect a cause with a result or effect (e.g. so, therefore,

These show an opposition to the main idea of the sentence

(likewise, similarly, in comparison, in the same way).

(For example, that is, for instance, to illustrate, in fact, in other

(To sum up, in summary, in conclusion, on the whole, in short,

Activity 7: Linking words

Function of the linking word

Past tense verbal groups

ACTIVITY 10 (Refer to page 128129 Carter et al.)

Present (simple) passive:

Present progressive passive:

Present perfect passive:

Present perfect progressive passive:

Past (simple) passive:

Using the active