SALE OF GOODS ACT,1930

ThelawrelatingtosaleofgoodsiscontainedintheSale of Goods Act, 1930. It

has to be read as part of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 [Sections 2(5) and (3)].
Contract of Sale of Goods
According to Section 4, a contract of sale of goods is a contract whereby
the seller:
(i) transfers or agrees to transfer the property in goods
(ii) to the buyer,
(iii) for a money consideration called the price.
It shows that the expression "contract of sale" includes both a sale where
the seller transfers the ownership of the goods to the buyer, and an
agreement to sell where the ownership of goods is to be transferred at a
future time or subject to some conditions to be fulfilled later on.
The following are thus the essentials of a contract of sale of goods:
(i) Bilateral contract: It is a bilateral contract because the property in
goods
has to pass from one party to another. A person cannot buy
the goodshimself.
(ii)Transfer of property: The object of a contract of sale must be the
transfer of property (meaning ownership) in goods from one person
to another.
(iii) Goods: The subject matter must be some goods.
(iv) Price or money consideration: The goods must be sold for some
price, where the goods are exchanged for goods it is barter, not sale.
(v) All essential elements of a valid contract must be present in a
contract of sale.
Distinction between Sale and Agreement to Sell
The following points will bring out the distinction between sale and an
agreement to sell:
(a) In a sale, the property in the goods sold passes to the buyer at the time
of contract so that he becomes the owner of the goods. In an
agreement to sell, the ownership does not pass to the buyer at the
time of the contract, but it passes only when it becomes sale on the
expiry of certain time or the fulfilment of some conditions subject to
which the property in the goods is to be transferred.
(b) An agreement to sell is an executory contract, a sale is an executed
contract.
(c)An agreement to sell is a contract pure and simple, but a sale is contract
plus conveyance.

(d)
If there is an agreement to sell and the goods are destroyed
by accident,

the loss falls on the seller. In a sale, the loss falls on the buyer,
even though the goods are with the seller.
(e)Ifthereisanagreementtosellandthesellercommitsabreach,thebuyerhas
onlyapersonalremedyagainsttheseller,namely,aclaimfordamages.Butif
therehasbeenasale,andthesellercommitsabreachbyrefusingto_deliverthe
goods,thebuyerhasnotonlyapersonalremedyagainsthimbutalsotheother
remedieswhichanownerhasinrespectofgoodsthemselvessuchasasuitfor
conversionordetinue,etc.
SaleandBailment
A"bailment"isatransactionunderwhichgoodsaredeliveredbyoneperson
(thebailor)toanother(thebailee)forsomepurpose,uponacontractthattheybe
returnedordisposedofasdirectedafter the purpose is accomplished (Section
148 of the Indian Contact Act, 1872).
The property in the goods is not intended to and does not pass on
deliverythough it may sometimes be the intention of the parties that it should
pass in due course. But where goods are delivered to another on terms
which indicatethatthepropertyistopassatoncethe contract must beoneof

saleandnotbailment.

SaleandContractforWorkandLabour
Thedistinctionbetweena"sale"anda"contractforworkandlabour"becomes
important when question of passing of property arises for
consideration.
However. these two are difficult to distinguish. The test generally applied
is that if a,s a result of the contract, property in an article is transferred to one
who had no property therein previously, for a money consideration, it is.a
sale. where it is otherwise it is a contract for work and labour.
SaleandHirePurchaseAgreement
"Sale", is a contract by which property ingoodspassesfrom the seller fb the
buyer for a price.
A "hire purchase agreemenf' is basically a contract of hire, but in addition, it g!
ves the hirer an option to purchase the goods at the end of the hiring period.
Consequently, until the final payment, the hirer is merely a bailee of goods and
ownership remains vested in the bailor. Under such a contract, the owner of goods
delivers the goods to person who agrees to pay certain stipulated periodical
payments as hire charges. Though the possession is with the hirer, the ownership of
the goods remains with the original owner. The essence of hire purchase agreement
is that there is no agreement to buy, but only an option is given to the hirer to buy by
paying all the instalments or put an end to the hiring and return the goods to the
owner, at any time before the exercise of the option.
Since the hirer does not become owner of the goods until he has exercised
his option to buy, he cannot pass any title even to an innocent and bona fide

purchaser.
The transaction of hire-purchase protects the owner of the goods against the

insolvency of the buyer, for if the buyer becomes insolvent or fails to pay the
instalments, he can take back the goods, as owner. And if the hirer declines to take
delivery of the goods, the remedy of the owner will be in damages for non-hiring
and not for rent for the period agreed.
It is important to note the difference between a hire purchase agreement and
mere payment of the price by instalments, because the latter is a sale, only the
payment of price is to be made by instalments.
The distinction between the two is very important because, in a hire-purchase
agreement the risk of loss or deterioration of the goods hired lies with the owner
and the hirer will be absolved of any responsibility therefore, if he has taken
reasonable care to protect the same as a bailee. But it is otherwise in the case of a
sale where the price is to be paid in instalments.

SubjectmatterofContractofSaleofGoods
Goods
The subject matter of the contract of sale is essentially goods. Acc9rding to
Section 2(7) "goods'" means every kind of movable property' other than actionable
claims and money and includes stock and shares, growing crops, grass and things
attached to or forming part of the land which are agreed to be served before sale or

under the contract of sale.

Actionable claims and money are not goods and cannot be brought and sold
under this Act. Money means current money, i.e., the recognised currency in
circulation in the country, but not old and rare coins which may be treated as goods.
An actionable claim is what a person cannot make a present use of or enjoy, but
what can be recovered by him by means of a suit or an action. Thus, a debt due to
a man from another is an actionable claim and cannot be sold as goods, although it
can be assigned. Under the provisions of the Transfer of Property Act, 1882,
goodwill, trade marks, copyrights, patents are all goods, so is a ship. As regards
water, gas, electricity, it is doubtful whether they are goods (RashBehari v. Emperor,
(1936) 41 C.W.N.225; M.B. Electric Supply Co. Ltd. v. State of Rajasthan, AIR
(1973) RaJ. 132).

Goods may be (a) existing, (b) future, or (c) contingent. The existing
goods may I be (i) specific or generic, (ii) ascertained or unascertained.
Existing Goods
Existing goods are goods which are either owned or possessed by the seller at
the time of the contract. Sale of goods possessed but not owned by the seller
would' be by an agent or pledgee.
Existing goods are specific goods which are identified and agreed upon at the
time of the contract of sale. Ascertained goods are either specific goods at the time
of the contract or are ascertained or identified to the contract later on i.e. made
specific.

Generic or unascertained goods are goods which are not specifically identified

but are indicated by description. If a merchant agrees to supply a radioset

from his stock of radio sets, it is a contract of sale of unascertained goods
because it is not known which set will be delivered. As soon as a particular set
is separated or identified for delivery' and the buyer has notice of it, the goods
are ascertained and become specific goods.
Future Goods
Future goods are goods to be manufactured or produced or acquired by the
seller after the making of the contract of sale. A agrees to sell all the mangoes
which will be produced in his garden next season. This is an agreement for the
sale of future goods. [Section 2(6)]
, Contingent Goods
Where there is a contract for the sale of goods, the acquisition of which by the
seller depends upon a contingency which mayor may not happen - such
goods are known as contigent goods. Contigent goods fall in the class of
future goods. A agrees to sell a certain TV set provided he is able to get it from
its present owner. This is an agreement to sell contigent goods. In such a
case, if the contingency- does not happen for no fault of the seller, he will not
be liable for damages.
Actual sale can take place only .of specific goods and property in goods
passes
from the seller to buyer at the time of the contract, provided the goods are in a
deliverable state and the contract isunconditional.
There can be an agreement to sell only in respect of future or contingent
goods.
Effect of Perishingof Goods
In a contract of sale of goods, the goods may perish before sale is complete.
Such a stage may arise in the following cases:
(i) Goods perishing before making a contract
Where in a contract of sale of specific goods, the goods without the knowledge
of the seller have, at the time of making the contract perished or become so
damagedas no longer to their description in the contract, the contract is void.
This is based on the rule that mutual mistake of fact essential to the contract
renders the contract void. (Section 7)
If the seller was aware of the destruction and still entered into the contract, he
is estopped from disputing the contract. Moreover, perishing of goods not only
includes loss by theft but also where the goods have lost their commercial
value.
(ii) Goodsperishing atter agreement to sell
Where there is an agreement to sell specific goods and subsequently, the
goods without any fault of any party perish or are so damaged as no longer to
answer to their description in the agreement before the risk passes to the

buyer, the agreement is thereby avoided. The provision applies only to sale of
specific goods. If the sale is of unascertained goods. the perishing of the whole

quantity of such goods in the possession of the seller will not relieve him of his obligation
to deliver. (Section 8)
Price

No sale can take place without a price. Thus, if there is no valuable

considerationtosupportavoluntarysurrenderofgoodsbytherealownerto
anotherperson,thetransactionisagift,andisnotgovernedbytheSaleof
Goods Act. Therefore, price. which is money consideration for the sale of
goods,constitutestheessenceforacontractofsale.Itmaybemoneyactually
paidorpromisedtob/3paid.Ifaconsiderationotherthanmoneyistobegiven,
itisnotasale.
ModesofFixingPrice(Sections9and10)
Thepricemaybefixed:

(i) atthetimeofcontractbythepartiesthemselves,or
(ii) maybelefttobedeterminedbythecourseofdealingsbetweenthe
parties,or
(iii)maybelefttobefixedinsomewaystipulatedinthecontract,or
(iv)maybelefttobefixedbysomethirdparty.
Wherethecontractstatesthatthepriceistobefixedbyathirdpartyandhe
failstodoso,thecontractisvoid.Butifthebuyerhasalreadytakenthebenefit
of the goods, he must pay a reasonable price for them. If the thirdparty's
failuretofixthepriceisduetothefaultofoneoftheparties,thenthatpartyis
liableforanactionfordamages.
Wherenothingissaidbythepartiesregardingprice,thebuyermustpaya
reasonableprice,andthemarketpricewouldbeareasonableprice.
ConditionsandWarranties(Sections1017)
The. parties are at liberty to enter into a contract with any terms they
please.Asarule,beforeacontractofsaleisconcluded,certainstatementsare
madebythepartiestoeachother.Thestatementmayamounttoastipulation,
formingpartofthecontractoramereexpressionofopinionwhichisnotpart
ofthecontract.Ifitisastatementbythesellerontherelianceofwhichthe
buyer makes the contract, it will amount to a stipulation. If it is a mere
commendationbythesellerofhisgoodsitdoesnotamounttoastipulationand
doesnotgivetherightofaction. .
Thestipulationmayeitherbeaconditionorawarranty.Section12drawsa
cleardistinctionbetweenaconditionandawarranty.Whetherastipulationisa
conditionoronlyawarrantyisamatterofsubstanceratherthantheformofthe
wordsused.Astipulationmaybeaconditionthoughcalledawarrantyandvice
versa.
Conditions

Ifthestipulationformstheverybasisofthecontractorisessentialtothemain
purpose of the contract. it is a condition. The breach of the condition gives the
aggrievedparty a right to treat the contract as repudiated. Thus, if the seller fails to fulfil a
condition, the buyer may treat the contract as repudiated, refuse the goods and. if he
has already paid for them, recover the price. He can also claim damages for the
breach of contract.
Warranties
If the stipulation is collateral to the main purpose of the contract, i.e.. is a
subsidiary promise, it is a warranty. The effect of a breach of a warranty is that the
aggrieved party cannot repudiate the contract but can only claim damages. Thus, if
the seller does not fulfil a warranty. the buyer must accept the goods and claim
damages for breach of warranty.
Section 11 states that the stipulation as to time of payment are not to be deemed
conditions (and hence not to be of the essence of a contract of sale) unless such an
intention appears from the contract. Whether any other stipulation as to time (e.g.,
time of delivery) is the essence of the contract or not depends on the terms of the
contract.

When condition sinksto the level of warranty

In some cases a condition sinks or descends. to the level of a warranty. The first
two cases depend upon the will of the buyer. but the third is compulsory and acts as
estoppel against him.
(a) A condition will become a warranty where the buyer waives the condition, or
(b) A cond ition will sink to the level of a warranty where the buyer treats the
breach of condition as a breach of warranty; or
(c) Where the contract is indivisible and the buyer has accepted the goods or
part thereof. the breach of condition can only be treated as breach of
warranty: The buyer can only claim damages and cannot reject the goods or
treat the contract as repudiated.
Sometimes the seller may be excused by law from fulfilling any condition or
warranty and the buyer will not then have a remedy in damages.
Implied Warranties/Conditions
Even where no definite representations have been made, the law implies certain
representations as having been made which may be warranties or conditions. An
express warranty or condition does not negative an implied warranty or condition
unless inconsistent therewith.
There are two implied warranties:
Implied Warranties [Section 14(b), 14(c) and 16(3)]
(a) Implied warranty of quiet possession: If the circl!mstances of the contract are
such as there is an implied warranty that the buyer shall have and enjoy quiet

possession of the goods.

(b) Implied warranty against encumbrances: There is a further warranty

that the goods are not subject to any right in favour of a third-party, or the
buyer's possession shall not be disturbed by reason of the existence of
encumbrances.
This means that if the buyer is required to, and does discharge the
amount of the encumbrance, there is breach of warranty, and he is entitled to
claim damages from the seller.
Implied Conditions [Sections 14(a), 15(1), (2), 16(1) and Proviso 16(2), and
Proviso16(3)and12(b)and12(c)].
Different implied conditions apply under different types of contracts of
sale of goods, such as sale by description, or sale by sample, or sale by
description as well as sample. The condition, as to title to goodsapplies to all
types of contracts, subject to that there is apparently no other intention.
Implied Conditions as to title
There is an implied condition that the seller, in an actual sale, has the
right to sell the goods, and, in an agreement to sell, he will have to it when
property is to pass. As a result, if the title of the seller turns out to be
defective, the buyer is entitled to reject the goods and can recover the full
price paid by him.
In Rowland v. Divali (1923)2K.B.SOD,'A'hadboughta second hand
motor car from 'B'andpaid for it. After he had used it for six months, he was
deprived of it because the seller had no title to it. It was held that 'A' could
recover the full price from 'B'even though he had used the car for six months,
as the consideration had totally failed.
Implied conditions under a sale by description
In a sale by description there are the following implied conditions:
(a) Goods must correspond with description: Under Section 15, when
there is a sale of goodsby description, there is an implied condition
that the goods shall correspond with description.
In a sale by description, the buyer relies for his information on the
description of the goods giVen by the seller, e.g. in the contract or in the
preliminary negotiations.
Where 'A' buys goods which he has not seen, it must be sale by description,
e.g., where he buys a 'new Fiat car' from 'B' and the car is not new, he can
reject the car.
Even if the buyer has seen the goods, the goodsmust be in accordance with
the description (Beale v. Taylor (1967) All E.R. 253).
(b) Goods must also be of merchantable quality: If they are bought by
description from dealer of goodsof that description. [Section 16(2)].
Merchantable quality means that the goods must be such as would be
acceptable to a reasonable person, having regard to prevailing conditions.
They are not merchantable if they have defects which make them unfit for

ordinary use, or are such that a reasonable person knowing of their condition
would not buy them. 'P'boughtblack yarn from' '0' and, when delivered, found
it damaged by the white ants. The condition of merchantability was broken.
But, if the buyer has examined the goods, there is no implied condition as
regards defects which such examination ought to have revealed. If, however,
examination by the buyer does not reveal the defect, and he approves and
accepts the goods, but when put to work, the goods are found to be defective,
there is a breach of condition of merchantable quality.
Thebuyerisgivenarighttoexaminethegoodsbeforeacceptingthem.Buta
mereopportunitywithoutanactualexamination,however,cursory,wouldnotsuffice
todeprivehimofthisright.
(c)Conditionastowholesomeness:Theprovisions,(i.e.,eatables)suppliedmust
notonlyanswerthedescription,buttheymustalsobemerchantableandwholesome
orsound.'F'boughtmilkfrom'A'andthemilkcontainedtyphoid.germs.'F'swife
becameinfectedanddied.'A'wasliablefordamages.Again,'C'boughtabunat'M's
bakery,andbrokeoneofhisteethbybitingonastonepresentinthebun.'M'was
heldliable.
(d)Conditionas tofitnessforaparticularpurpose:Ordinarily,inacontractof
sale,thereisnoimpliedwarrantyorconditionastothequalityoffitnessforany
particularpurposeofgoodssupplied.
Butthereisanimpliedconditionthatthegoodsarereasonablyfitforthepurpose
forwhichtheyarerequiredif:
(i)thebuyerexpresslyori,mpliedlymakesknowntheintendedpurpose,soas
toshowthathereliesontheseller'sskillandjudgement,and
(ii)thegoodsareofadescriptionwhichitisinthecourseoftheseller'sbusiness
tosupply(whetherhebethemanufacturerornot).Thereisnosuchcondition
ifthegoodsareboughtunderapatentortradename.
InPriestv.Last(1903)2K.B.148,ahotwaterbottlewasboughtbytheplaintiff,
adraper,whocouldnotbeexpectedtohavespecialskillknowledgewithregardto
hotwaterbottles,fromachemist,whosoldsucharticles.Whilebeingusedbythe
plaintiff'swife,thebottleburstedandinjuredher.Held,thesellerwasresponsiblefor
damages.
InGrantv.AustralianKnittingMills(1936)70MLJ513,'G'purchasedwoollen
underpantsfrom'M'aretailerwhosebusinesswastosellgCJodsofthatdescription.
Afterwearingtheunderpants,Gdevelopedsomeskindiseases.Held,thegoodswere
notfitfortheironlyuseand'G'wasentitledtoavoidthecontractandclaimdamages.
Impliedconditionsunderasalebysample(Section15)
Inasalebysample:
(a)thereisanimpliedconditionthatthebulkshallcorrespondwiththesample
inquality;
(b)thereisanotherimpliedconditionthatthebuyershallhaveareasonable
opportunityofcomparingthebulkwiththesample;

(c)itisfurtheranimpliedconditionofmerchantability,asregardslatentorhidden
defectsinthegoodswhichwouldnotbeapparentonreasonableexamination
of the sample. "Worsted coating" quality equal to sample was sold to
tailors, the cloth was found to have a defect in the fixture rendering 'the
same unfit for stitching into coats. The seller was held liable even
though the same defect existed in the sample, which was examined.
Implied conditions in sale by sample as well as by description
In a sale by sample as well as by description, the goods supplied must
correspond both with the samples as well as with the description. Thus, in
Nichol v. Godis (1854) 158 E.R. 426, there was a sale of "foreign refined
rape-oil having warranty only equal to sample". The oil tendered was the
same as the sample, but it was not "foreign refined rape-oil" having a
mixture.of it and other oil. It was held that the seller was liable, and the buyer
could refuse to accept.
Implied Warranties
Implied warranties are those which the law presumes to have been
incorporated in the contract of sale inspite of the fact that the parties have not
expressly included them in a contract of sale. Subject to the contract to the
contrary, the fol!owing are the implied warranties in the contract of sale:
(i) Warranty as to quite possession: Section 14(b) provides that there is
an implied' warranty that the buyer shall have and enjoy quiet
possession of goods'. If the buyer's possession is disturbed by anyone
having superior title than that of the seller, the buyer is entitled to hold
the seller liable for breach of warranty.
(ii) Warranty as to freedom from encumbrances: Section 14(c) states that in
a
contract for sale, there is an Tmplied warranty that the goods shall be
so free from any charge or encumbrances in favot,Jr of any third party
not declared or ~nown to the buyer before or at the time when the
contract is made'. But. if the buyer is aware of any encumbrance on
the goods at the time of entering into the contract, he will not be
entitled to any compensation from the seller for discharging the
encumbrance.
(iii) Warranty to disclose dangerous nature of goods: If the goods are
inherently dangerous or likely to be dangerous and the buyer is
ignorant of the danger, the seller must warn the buyer of the probable
danger:
(iv) Warranties implied by the custom or usage of trade: Section 16(3)
provides that an implied warranty or conditions as to quality or fitness
for a particular purpose may be annexed by the usage of trade.
Doctrine of Caveat Emptor
The term caveat emptor is a Latin word which means "let the buyer
beware". This principle states that it is for the buyer to satisfy himself that the

goods which he is purchasing are of the quality which he requires. If he buys

goods for a particular purpose, he must satisfy himself that they are fit for that
purpose. Section 6 provides that "subject to the provisions of this Act and of
any other law for the time being in force, there is no implied warranty or
condition as to the quality or fitness for any particular purpose of goods
supplied under a contract of sale". In simple words, it is not the seller's duty to
give to the buyer the goods which are fit for a suitable purposeof the buyer. If
he makes a wrong selection, he cannot blame the seller if the goods turn out
to be defective or do not serve his purpose. The principle was applied in the
case of Ward v. Hobbs. (1878) 4 A.C. 13, where certain pigs were sold by
auction and no warranty was given by seller in respect of any fault or error of
description. The buyer paid the price for healthy pigs. But they were ill and all
but one died of typhoid fever. They also infected some of the buyer's own
pigs. It was held that there was no implied condition or warranty that the pigs
were of good health. It was the buyer's duty to satisfy himself regarding the
health of the pigs.
Exceptions to the doctrine of Caveat Emptor:
(1)

Where the seller makes a false representation and the buyer

relies
on it.
(2)

When the seller actively conceals a defect in the goods which is not
visible on a reasonable examination of the same.

(3)

When the buyer, relying upon the skill and judgement of the seller, has
expressly or impliedly communicated to him the purpose for which the
goods are required.

(4)
Where goods are bought by description from a seller who deals in
goods
of that description.
Passing of Property or Transfer of Ownership (Sections 18-20)
The sole purpose of a sale is the transfer of owneJ:ship of goods from the
seller to the buyer. It is important to know the precise moment of time at which
the property in the goods passes from the seller to the buyer for the following
reasons:
(a) The general rule is that risk follows the ownership, whether the delivery
has been made or not. If the goods are lost or damaged by accident or
otherwise, then, subject to certain exceptions, the loss falls on the
owner of the goods at the time they are lost or damaged.
(b) When there is a danger of the goods being damaged by the action of
third parties it is generally the owner who can take action.

(c) The rights of third parties may depend upon the passing of the
property if the buyer resells the goods to a third-party, the third-party
will only obtain a good title if the property in the goods has passed to
the buyer before or at the time of the resale. Similarly, if the seller, in
breach of his contract with the buyer, attempts to sell the goods to a
third party in the goods, has not passed to the buyer, e.g., where
there is only an agreement to sell.
(d) In case of insolvency of either the seller or the buyer, it is necessary to
know whether the goods can be taken over by the official assignee or
the official receiver. It will depend upon whether the property in the
goods was with the party adjudged insolvent.
Thus in this context, ownership and possession are two distinct concepts
and these two can at times remain separately with two different persons.
Passingof property in specific goods
In a sale of specific or ascertained goods, the property passes to the
buyer as and when the parties intended to pass. The intention must be
gathered from the terms of the contract, the conduct of the parties, and the
circumstances of the case.
Unless a contrary intention appears, the following rules are applicable for
ascertaining the intention of the parties:
(a) Where there is an unconditional contract fC?r the sale of specific
goods in a deliverable state, the property passes to the buyer when
the contract is made. Deliverable state means such a state that the
buyer would be bound to take delivery of the goods. The fact that the
time of delivery or the time of payment is postponed does not prevent
the property from passing at once. (Section 20)
(b) Where there is a contract for the sale of specific goods not in a
deliverable state, i.e., the selle~ has to do something to the goods to
put them in a deliverable state, the property does not pass until tpat
thing _ is done and the buyer has notice of it. (Section 21)
A certain quantity of oil was brought. The oil was to be filled into casks
by the seller and then taken away by the buyer. Some casks were
filled in the presence of buyer but, before the remained could be filled,
a fire broke out and the entire quantity of oil has destroyed, Held, the
buyer must bear
the loss of the oil which was put into the casks (i.e., put in deliverable
state) and. the seller must bear the loss of the remainder (Rugg v.
Minett (1809) 11 East ~10).
(c) Where there is a sale of specific goods. in a deliverable state, but the
seller is bound to weigh, measure, test or do something with

reference to the goods for the purpose of ascertaining the -price, the
property to the goods for the purpose of ascertaining the price, does
not pass until that thing is done and the buyer has notice of it.
(Section 22)
(d)When goods are delivered to the buyer on approval or "on sale.of
return", the property therein passes to the buyer:
(i) when he signified his approval or acceptance to the seller, or does
any other act adopting the transaction;
(ii) if he retains the goods, without giving notice of rejection, beyond the
time fixed for the return of goods, or if no time is fixed, beyond a
reasonable time.
Ownership in unascertained goods
The property in unascertained or future goods does not pass until the
goods are ascertained.
Unascertained goods are goods defined by description only, for example,
100 quintals of wheat, and not goods identified and agreed upon when the
contract is made.
Unless a different intention 'appears, the following rilles are applicable for
ascertaining the intention of the parties in regard to passing of property in'
respect of such goods:
(a) The property in unascertained or future goods sold by description
passes to the buyer when goods of that description and in deliverable
state are unconditionally appropriated to the contract, either by the
seller with the assent of the buyer or by the buyer with the assent of
the seller. Such assent may be express~ or implied and may be given
either before or after the appropriation is made. (Section 23)
(b) If there is a sale of a quantity of goods out of a large quantity, for
example, 50 quintals of rice out of a heap in B's godown, the property
will pass on the appropriation of the specified quantity by one party
with the assent of the other.
(c) Delivery by the seller of the goods to a carrier or other buyer for the
purpose of transmission to the buyer in pursuance of the contact is an
appropriation sufficient to pass the property in the goods.
(d) The property in goods, whether specific or unascertained, does not
passif the seller reserves a right of disposal of the goods. Apart from
an express reservation of the right of disposal, the seller is deemed to
reserve the right of disposal in the following two cases:
(i) where goods are shipped and by the bill of lading of the goods
deliverable to the order or the seller or his agent.
(ii) when the seller sends the bill of exchange for the price of the goods to the
buyer for this acceptance, together with the bill of lading, the property in the
goods does not pass to the buyer unless he accepts the bill qf exchange.

Passing of Risk (Section 26)

The general rule is that goods remain at the seller's risk until the
ownership is transferred to the buyer. After the ownership has passed to the
buyer, the goods are at the buyer's risk whether the delivery has been made
or not. For example, 'A' buys goods of 'B' and property has passed from 'B' to
'A': but the goods remain in 'B's wareho~se and the price is unpaid. Before
delivery, 'B's warehouse is burnt down for no fault of 'B' and the goods are
destroyed. 'A' must pay 'B' the price of the goods, as he was the owner. The
rule is resperit demino- the loss falls on the owner.
But the parties may agree that risk will pass at the time different from the
time when ownership passed. For eg. the seller may agree to be responsible
for the goods even after the ownership is passed to the buyer or vice versa.
In ConsolidatedCoffeeLtd. v. CoffeeBoard, (19803

see

358), one of the

terms adopted by coffee board for auction of coffee was the property in the
coffee',knocked down to a bidder would not pass until the p~yment of price and in
the F1)eantime the . goods would remain with the seller but at the risk of the buyer,
In such cases, risk and property passes on at diffenmt stages.

In Multanmal Champalal v. Shah & Co., AIR (1970) Mysore 106, goods
were despatched by the seller from Bombay to Bellary through a public
carrier. According to the terms of the contract, the goods were to remain the
property of the seller till the price was paid though the risk was to pass to the
buyer when they were delivered to public carrier for despatch. When the
goods were subsequently lost before the payment of the price (and the
consequent to the passing of the property to the buyer), the Court held that
the loss was to be borne by the buyer.
It was further held in the same case that the buyer was at fault in
delaying delivery unreasonably and therefore on that ground also he was
liable for the loss, because such loss would not have arisen but for such
delay.
Thus, where delivery has been delayed through the fault of either the
buyer or the seller, the goods are at the risk of the party at fault, as regards
any loss which might not have occurred but for such fault.
Transfer of Title by Person not the Owner (Section 27-30)
The general rule is that only the owner of goods. can sell th~ goods.
Conversely, the sale of an article by a person who is not or who has not the
authority of the owner, gives no title to ttie buyer. The rule is expressed by
the maxim; "Nemo dot quod non habet" Le. no one can pass a better title
than what he himself has. As applied to the sale of goods, the rule means
that a seller of goods cannot give a better title ~o the buyer than he himself
possess. Thus, even bona fide buyer who buys stolen goods from a thief or
from a transfree from such a thief can get no valid title to them, since the
thief has no title, nor could he give one to any transferee.
Example:

1. A, the hirer of goods under a hire purchase agreement, sells them to

B, then B though, a bonafide purchaser, does not acquire the
property in the goods. At most he can acquire such an interest as the
hirer had.
2. A finds a ring of B and sells it to a third person who purchases it for
value and in good faith. The true owner, Le. B can recover from
that person, for A having no title to the ring could pass none the
better.
Exception to the General Rule
The Act while recognizing the general rule that no one can give a better
title than what he himself has, laid down important exceptions to it. Under the
exceptions the. buyer gets a better title of the goods than the seller himself.
These exceptions are given below:
(a) Sale by a mercantile agent: A buyer will get a good title if he buys in
good faith from a mercantile agent who is in posession either of the
goods or' documents of title of goods with the consent of the owner,
and who sells the goods in the ordinary course of his business.
(b)Salebyacoowner:A buyer who bllYs in good faith from one of the
several joint owners who is in sale possession of the goodo with the
permission of his co-owners will get good title to the goods.
(c) Sale by a person in possession under a voidable contract: A buyer buys in
goodfaith from a person in possession of goods under a contract which is
voidable, but has not been. rescinded at the time of the sale.
(d) Sale by seller in possession after sale: Where a seller, after having sold the
goods, continues in possession of goods, or documents of title to the goods
.
and again sells them by himself or through his mercantile agent to a person
who buys in good faith and without notice of the previous sale, such a buyer
gets a good title to the goods.
(e) Sale by buyer in possession: If a person has brought or agreed to buy goods
obtains, with the seller's consent, possession of the goods or of the
documents of title to them, any sale by him or by his mercantile agent to a
buyer who takes in good faith without notice of any lien or other claim of the
original seller against the goods, will give a good title to the buyer. In any of
the above cases, if the transfer is by way of pledge or pawn only, it will be
valid as a pledge or pawn.
(f) Estoppel: If the true owner stands by and allows an innocent buyer to pay
over money to a third-party, who professes to have the right to sell an
article, the true owner will be estopped from denying the third-party's right to
sell.
(g) Sale by an unpaid seller: Where an unpaid seller has exercised his right of
lien or stoppage in transit and is in possession of the goods, he may resell
them and the second buyer will get absolute right to the goods.
(h) Sale by person under other laws: A pawnee, on default of the pawnee to
repay, has a right to sell the goods, pawned and the buyer gets a good title

to the goods. The finder of lost goods can also sell under certain
circumstances. The Official Assignee or Official Receiver, Liquidator,
Officers of Court selling under a decree, Executors, and Administrators, all
these persons are not owners, but they can convey better title than they
have.
12. Performance of the Contract of Sale
It is the duty of the seller and buyer that the contract is performed. The duty of
the sellers is to deliver the goods and that of the buyer to accept the goods and pay
for them in accordance with the contract of sale.
Unless otherwise agreed, payment of the price and the delivery of the goods
and concurrent conditions, i.e., they both take place at the same time as in a cash
sale over a shop counter.,
Delivery (Sections 33-39)
Delivery is the voluntary transfer of possession from one person to another.
Delivery may be actual, constructive or symbolic. Actual or physical delivery takes
place where the goods are handed over by the seller to the buyer or his agent
authorised to take possession of the goods. Constructive delivery takes place when
the person in possession of the goods acknowledges that he holds the goods on
behalf of and at the disposal of the buyer. For example, where the seller, after
having sold the goods,may hold them as bailee for the buyer, there is constructive
delivery. Symbolic delivery is made by indicating or giving a symbol. Here the goods
themselves are not delivered. but the "means of obtaining possession" of goods is
delivered, e.g, by delivering the key of the warehouse where the goods are stored,
bill of lading which will entitle the holder to receive the goods on the arrival of the
ship.
Rules as to delivery
The following rules apply regarding delivery of goods:
(a) Delivery should have the effect of putting the buyer in possession.
(b) The seller must deliver the goods according to the contract.
(c) The seller is to deliver the goods when the buyer applies for delivery; it is the
duty of the buyer to claim delivery.
(d) Where the goods at the time of the sale are in the possession of a third
person, there will be delivery only when that person acknowledges to the
buyer that he holds the goods on his. behalf.
.
(e) The seller should tender delivery so that the buyer ca~ take the goods. It is
no duty of the seller to send or carry the goods to the buyer unless the
contract so provides. But the goods must be in a deliverable state at the
time of delivery or tender of delivery. If by the contract the seller is bound to
send the goods to the buyer, but no time is fixed, the seller is bound to send
them within a reas9nable time.
(f) The place of delivery is usually stated in the contract. Where it is so stated,
the goods must be delivered at the specified place during working hours on

a working day. Where no place is mentioned, the goods are to be delivered

at a place at which they happen to be at the time of the contract. of sale and
if not then in existence they are to be delivered at the price they are
produced.
(g) The seller has to bear the cost of delivery u~less the contract otherwise
provides. While the cost of obtaining delivery is said to be of the buyer, the
cost of the putting the goods into deliverable state must be borne by
theeseller. In other words. in the absence of an agreement to the contrary,
the expenses of and incidental to making delivery of the goods must be
borne by the seller, the expenses of and incidental to receiving delivery must
be borne by the buyer.
(h) If the goods are to be delivered at a place other than where they are, the risk
of deterioration in transit will, unless otherwise agreed, be borne by the
buyer.
(i) Unless otherwise agreed, the buyer is not bound to accept delivery in
instalments.
Acceptance of Goods by the Buyer
Acceptance of the goods by the buyer takes place when the buyer:
(a) intimates to the seller that he has accepted the goods; or
(b) retains the goods, after the lapse of a reasonable time without intimating to
the seller that he has rejected them; or

(c)doesanyactonthegoodswhichisinconsistentwiththeownershipof
theseller,e.g.,pledgesorresells.Ifthesellersendsthebuyeralargeror
smallerquantityofgoodsthanordered,thebuyermay:
(a)rejectthewhole;or
(b)acceptthewhole;or
(c)acceptthequantitybeorderedandrejecttherest.
Ifthesellerdelivers,withthegoodsorderedgoodsofawrongdescription,the
buyermayacceptthegoodsorderedandrejecttherest,orrejectthewhole.
Wherethebuyerrightlyrejectsthegoods,heisnotboundtoreturnthe
rejectedgoodstotheseller.Itissufficientifheintimatestosellerthathe
refusestoacceptthem.Inthatcase,thesellerhastoremovethem.
InstalmentDeliveries
When there is a contract for the sale of goods to be delivered in stated
instalmentswhicharetobeseparatelypaidfor,andeitherthebuyerortheseller
commitsabreachofcontract,itdependsonthetermsofthecontractwhetherthe
breachisarepudiationofthewholecontractoraseverablebreachmerelygiving
righttoclaimfordamages.
SuitsforBreachofContract
Werethepropertyinthegoodshaspassedtothebuyer,thesellermaysuehim

fortheprice.
Wherethepriceispayableonacertaindayregardlessofdelivery,theseller
maysuefortheprice,ifitisnotpaidonthatday,althoughthepropertyinthegoods
hasnotpassed.
Wherethebuyerwrongfullyneglectsorrefusestoacceptthegoodsandpayfor
them,thesellermaysuethebuyerfordamagesfornonacceptance.
Wherethesellerwrongfullyneglectsorrefusestodeliverthegoodstothebuyer,
thebuyermaysuehimfordamagesfornondelivery.
Wherethereisabreachofwarrantyorwherethebuyerelectsoriscompelled
totreatthebreachofconditionasabreachofwarranty,thebuyercannotrejectthe
goods. He can set breach of warranty in extinction or dimunition of the price
payablebyhimandiflosssufferedbyhimismorethanthepricehemaysuefor
thedamages.
Ifthebuyerhaspaidthepriceandthegoodsarenotdelivered,thebuyercan
suethesellerfortherecoveryoftheamountpaid.Inappropriatecasesthebuyer
canalsogetanorderfromtheCourtthatthespecificgoodsoughttobedelivered.
AnticipatoryBreach
Whereeitherpartytoacontractofsalerepudiatesthecontractbeforethedateof
delivery,theotherpartymay,eithertreatthecontractasstillsubsistingandwaittill
the date of delivery, or he may treat the contract as rescinded and sue for
damagesforthe breach.
Incasethecontractistreatedasstillsubsistingitwouldbeforthebenefitofboth
thepartiesandthepartywhohadoriginallyrepudiatedwillnotbedeprivedof:
(a)hisrightofperformanceontheduedateinspiteofhispriorrepudiationor
(b) his rights to set up any defence for nonperformance which might have
actuallyarisenafterthedateofthepriorrepudiation.
MeasureofDamages
The Act does not specifically provide for rules as regards the measure of
damagesexceptstatingthatnothingintheActshallaffecttherightofthesellerorthe
buyertorecoverinterestorspecialdamagesinanycasewerebylawtheyareentitled
tothesame.TheinferenceisthattheruleslaiddowninSection73oftheIndian
ContractActwillapply.
Unpaid Seller (Sections4554)
Whoisanunpaidseller?(Section45)
Thesellerofgoodsisdeemedtobeunpaidseller:
(a)Whenthewholeofthepricehasnotbee~paidortendered;or
(b)Whenaconditionalpaymentwasmadebyabillofexchangeorother
negotiableinstrument,andtheinstrumenthasbeendishonoured.

RightsofanUi7paidSeller against theGoods

Anunpaidseller'srightagainstthegoodsare:
(a)Alienorrightofretention
(b)Therightofstoppageintransit.
(c)Therightofresale.
(d)Therighttowithholddelivery.
(a)Lien(Sections4749and54)Anunpaidsellerinpossessionofgoods
sold, may exercise his lien on the goods, i.e., keep the goods in his
possessionandrefusetodeliverthemtothebuyeruntilthefulfilmentor
tenderofthepriceincaseswhere:
(i) the goods have been sold without stipulation as to credit; or
(ii)
the goods have been sold on credit, but the term of credit has
expired; or
(iii)
the buyer becomes insolvent.
Theliendependsonphysicalpossession.Theseller'slienispossessorylien,so
thatitcanbeexercisedonlysolongasthesellerisinpossessionofthegoods.
Itcanonlybeexercisedforthenonpaymentofthepriceandnotforanyother
charges.
Alienislost

(i) When the seller delivers the goods to a carrier or other bailee for
the purpose of transmission to the buyer, without reserving the
right of disposal of the goods;
(ii)Whenthe buyer or his agent lawfully obtains possession of the
goods;
(iii)

By waiver of his lien by the unpaid seller.

(b) Stoppage in transit (Sections 50-52) The right of stoppage in transit is a right of
stopping the goods while they are in transit, resuming possession of them and
retaining possessiQn until payment of the price.
The right to stop goods is available to an unpaid seller
(i) when the buyer becomes insolvent; and
(ii) the goods are in transit.
The buyer is insolvent if he has ceased to pay his debts in the ordinary
course of business, or cannot pay his debts as they become due. It is not
necessary that he has actually been declared insolvent by the Court.
The goods are in transit from the time they are delivered to a carrier or other
bailee like a wharfinger or warehousekeeper for the purpose of transmission to the
buyer and until the buyer takes delivery of them.
The transit comes to an end in the following cases:

(i) If the buyer obtains delivery before the arrival of the goods at their
destination;
(ii) If, after the arrival of the goods at their destination, the carrier
acknowledges to the buyer that he holds the goods on his behalf, even
if further destination of the goods is indicated by the buyer.
(iii) If the carrier wrongfully refuses to deliver the goods to the buyer.
If the goods are rejected by the buyer and the carrier or other bailee holds
them, the transit will be deemed to continue even if the seller has

refused to receive them back.

The right to stop in transit may be exercised by the unpaid seller either
by taking actual possession of the goods or by giving notice of the seller's
claim to the carrier or other person having control of the goods. On notice
being given to the carrier hemust redeliver the goods to the seller, who must
pay the e~penses of the redelivery.
The seller's right of lien or stoppage ,in transit is not affected by any sale
on the part of the buyer unless the seller has assented to it. A transfer, however, of
the bill of lading or other document of seller to a bona fide purchaser for value
is valid against the seller's right.
(c) Right of re-sale (Section 54): The unpaid seller may re-sell:
(i) where the goods are perishable;
"

(ii) where the right is expressly reserved in the contract;

(iii) where in exercise of right of lien or stoppage in transit, the seller gives
notice to the buyer of his intention to re-sell, and the buyer, does not
payor tender the price within a reasonable time.
'
If on a re-sale, there is a deficiency between the price due and amount realised, the
re-seller is entitled to recover it from the buyer. If there is a surplus, he can keep it.
He will not have these rights if he has not given any notice and he will have to pay
the buyer any profits.
(d) Rights to withhold delivery: If the property in the goods has passed, the
unpaid seller has right as described above. If, however, the property has not passed,
the unpaid seller has a right of withholding delivery similar to and co-e>..1ensive with
his rights of lien and stoppage in transit.
Rights of an unpaid seller against the buyer (Sections 55 and 56)
An unpaid seller may sue the buyer for the price of the goods in case of breach
of contract where the property in the goods has passed to the buyer or he has
wrongfully refused to pay the price according to the terms of the contract.
The seller may sue the buyer even if the property in the goods has not passed
where the price is payable on a certain day.
Under Section 56, the seller may sue the buyer for damages or breach of

contract where the buyer wrongfully neglects or refuses to accept and pay for the
goods.
Thus an unpaid sellers rights against the buyer personally are:
(a) a suit for the price.
(b) a :suit for damages.
Auction Sales (Section 64)
A sale by auction is a public sale where goods are offered to be taken by
bidders. It is a proceeding at which people are invited to complete for the purchase of
property by successive offer of advancing sums.
Section 64 lays down the rules regulating auction sales. Where goods are put up
for sale in lots, each, lot is prima facie deemed to be the subject of a separate
contract of sale. The sale is complete when the auctioneer announces its completion
by the fall of the hammer or in other customary manner. Until such announcement is
made, any bidder may retract his bid.
A right to bid may be reserved expressly by or on behalf of the seller. Where
such right is expressly so reserved, the seller or any other person on his behalf
may bid at the auction. Where the sale is not notified to be subject to a right to bid
on behalf of the seller, it shall not be lawful for the seller to bid himself or to employ
any person to bid at such sale, or for the auctioneer knowingly to take any bid from
the seller or any such person. Any sale in contravention of this rule may be treated
as fraudulent by the buyer. The sale may be notified to be subject to a reserved
price. Where there is such notification, every bid is a conditional offer subject to its
being up to the reserve price. Where an auctioneer inadvertently knocks down to a
bidder who has bid less than the reserved price, there is no contract of sale. If the
seller makes use of pretended bidding to raise the price, the sale is voidable at the
option of the buyer.

Trading Contracts involving rail or Sea Transit

In the case of a contract for the sale of goods which are to be shipped by sea a
number of conditions are attached by the parties or by custom and practice of
merchants. Some of the important types of such contracts are given below:
(a) F.O.B(Free on Board): Under an F.O.B. contract, it is the duty of the seller to
put the goods on board a ship at his own expenses. The property in goods
passes to the buyer only after the goods have been put on board the ship,
usually named by the buyer. The seller must notify the buyer immediately that
the goods have been delivered on board, so that the buyer may insure them. If

he fails to do so the goods shall be deemed to be at seller's risk during such

sea transit.
(b) F.O.R.(Free on Rail): Similar position prevails in these contracts as in the case
of F.O.B contracts.
(c) C .I.F. or C.F.I. (Cost insurance and freight): A CIF contract is a contract for the
sale of insured goods lost or not lost to be implemented by transfer of proper
documents.
In such types of contracts, the seller not only bears all the expenses of puting the
goods on board the ship as in an F.O.B. contract but also to bear the freight
and insurance charges. He will arrange for an insurance of the goods for the
benefit of the buyer. On the tender of documents, the buyer is required to pay
and then take delivery. He has a right to reject the goods if they are not
according to the contract.
(d) Ex-Ship: Here the seller is bound to arrange the shipment of the goods to the port
of destination, and to such further inland destination as the buyer may stipulate.
The buyer is not bound to pay until the goods are ready for unloading from the ship
and all freight charges paid. The goods travel at the seller's risk but he is not bound
to insure them.