SOGC CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINE

No. 288, March 2013

Cancer Chemotherapy and Pregnancy

This clinical practice guideline has been prepared by the
Chemotherapy During Pregnancy Working Group and
approved by the Executive and Council of the Society of
Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada.
PRINCIPAL AUTHORS
Gideon Koren, MD, Toronto ON
Nathalie Carey, BSc, Toronto ON
Robert Gagnon, MD, Montreal QC
Cynthia Maxwell, MD, Toronto ON
Irena Nulman, MD, Toronto ON
Vyta Senikas, MD, Ottawa ON
Disclosure statements have been received from all authors.

assessment and health technology assessment-related agencies,

clinical practice guideline collections, clinical trial registries, and
from national and international medical specialty societies.
Values: The quality of evidence is rated using the criteria described in
the Report of the Canadian Task Force on Preventive Health Care
(Table 1).
Benefits, harms, and costs: This guideline highlights the need to
prevent pregnancy in women who are being treated for cancer and
informs health care professionals treating pregnant women with
chemotherapy of the potential risks of the therapy or ameliorated
treatment protocols.
J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2013;35(3):263278

Summary Statements and Recommendations

Summary Statements

Abstract

1. As women are postponing child-bearing, more of them are

experiencing cancer in pregnancy. (II-2)

Objective: To promote careful education, administration, monitoring

and restricted distribution when prescribing and dispensing
chemotherapeutic and potentially teratogenic medications, as
well as to develop clinical recommendations for the use of cancer
chemotherapy in pregnant women and women of child-bearing
age.

2. Chemotherapeutic agents used to combat cancer cross the

placenta and may adversely affect embryogenesis by affecting cell
division. (II-1)

Outcomes: To ensure that women of child-bearing age receiving

chemotherapy can be appropriately counselled on the risks of
becoming pregnant during treatment, and to provide guidance
for health care practitioners treating pregnant women with
antineoplastic agents.
Evidence: Published literature was retrieved through searches of
PubMed or Medline, CINAHL, and The Cochrane Library in 2011,
using appropriate controlled vocabulary (e.g., antineoplastic
agents, neoplasms, pregnancy) and key words (e.g., cancer,
neoplasms, pregnancy, chemotherapy, antineoplastic agents).
Results were restricted to systematic reviews, randomized control
trials/controlled clinical trials, and observational studies. Studies
were restricted to those with available English abstracts or text.
Searches were updated on a regular basis and incorporated in
the guideline to October 2011. Grey (unpublished) literature was
identified through searching the websites of health technology

3. Exposure to such agents after the first trimester of pregnancy

has not been associated with increased risk of malformations but
is associated with increased risk of stillbirth, intrauterine growth
restriction, and fetal toxicities. (II-2)
Recommendations
1. The health care provider should examine the patients risk
of pregnancy and desire to prevent pregnancy during
chemotherapy. (I-A)
2. Decisions about the best course of management in pregnancy,
including timing of delivery, should balance maternal and fetal
risks. Most authorities concur that maternal health and well-being
must prevail. (I-A)
3. Women diagnosed with cancer in pregnancy should be
optimally managed by a multidisciplinary team that includes
oncologists and/or hematologists (depending on the malignancy),
perinatologists, family physicians, psychologists, social workers,
and spiritual advisors, if sought by the family. (I-A)

Key Words: Pregnancy prevention, cancer, neoplasms,

pregnancy, chemotherapy, antineoplastic agents

This document reflects emerging clinical and scientific advances on the date issued and is subject to change. The information
should not be construed as dictating an exclusive course of treatment or procedure to be followed. Local institutions can dictate
amendments to these opinions. They should be well documented if modified at the local level. None of these contents may be
reproduced in any form without prior written permission of the SOGC.

MARCH JOGC MARS 2013 l 263

SOGC CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINE

Table 1. Key to evidence statements and grading of recommendations, using the ranking of the Canadian Task Force
on Preventive Health Care
Quality of evidence assessment*

Classification of recommendations

I:

A. There is good evidence to recommend the clinical preventive action

Evidence obtained from at least one properly randomized

controlled trial

II-1: Evidence from well-designed controlled trials without

randomization

B. There is fair evidence to recommend the clinical preventive action

II-2: Evidence from well-designed cohort (prospective or

retrospective) or casecontrol studies, preferably from
more than one centre or research group

C. The existing evidence is conflicting and does not allow to make a

recommendation for or against use of the clinical preventive action;
however, other factors may influence decision-making

II-3: Evidence obtained from comparisons between times or

places with or without the intervention. Dramatic results in
uncontrolled experiments (such as the results of treatment with
penicillin in the 1940s) could also be included in this category

D. There is fair evidence to recommend against the clinical preventive action

III:

Opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical experience,

descriptive studies, or reports of expert committees

E. There is good evidence to recommend against the clinical preventive

action
L. There is insufficient evidence (in quantity or quality) to make
a recommendation; however, other factors may influence
decision-making

*The quality of evidence reported in these guidelines has been adapted from The Evaluation of Evidence criteria described in the Canadian Task Force on
Preventive Health Care.88
Recommendations included in these guidelines have been adapted from the Classification of Recommendations criteria described in the Canadian Task Force
on Preventive Health Care.88

INTRODUCTION

n Canada, over 9% of the 1.2 million cancers diagnosed

annually in adults are diagnosed in those aged 20 to
44 years, and almost two thirds of these diagnoses are in
women. This is likely because of the tendency for sexspecific cancers, such as breast and cervical cancer, to
occur at younger ages than other cancers. Demonstrably,
breast and cervical cancers are the 2 most common cancers
to occur in young women, with rates of 34% and 10%,
respectively. Thyroid cancer is the third most common at
around 9%.1 A diagnosis of cancer during this stage of life
may postpone or complicate child-bearing.
Almost all chemotherapeutic agents are teratogenic in
animals. For some drugs only experimental data exist.
Women diagnosed with cancer during their childbearing years should therefore be made aware of the
risks associated with the use of cancer chemotherapy in
pregnancy. Information must be provided by the womans
health care providers, including the obstetrician, who can

ABBREVIATIONS
ABD

doxorubicin, bleomycin, dacarbazine

ABVD

doxorubicin, bleomycin, vinblastine, dacarbazine

AVD

doxorubicin, vinblastine, dacarbazine

CNS

central nervous system

FAC

5-fluorouracil, doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide

IUGR

intrauterine growth restriction

MOPP

mechlorethamine, vincristine, procarbazine, prednisone

264 l MARCH JOGC MARS 2013

engage in an active discussion, answer questions, and

provide any additional clarification required.
Research conducted by Santucci et al.2 suggested that
women want their health care providers to initiate discus
sions regarding the potential teratogenic/reproductive risks
of exposure to medications. The following are important
principles of effective teratogenic counselling:
1. Timely provision of information
2. Provision of data on all potential effects on a fetus
3. Provision of clear information
4. Repetition of important information
5. Avoidance of assumptions about womens pregnancy
intentions
6. Explanation of why health care providers are asking
about sexual activity and pregnancy intentions
7. Discussion of consequences for reproductive health.2
These discussions are best conducted by multidisciplinary
teams that include the womans family physician, hematologist
and/or oncologist, and obstetrician-gynaecologist.
Providing women with detailed and updated information
about pregnancy-related risks before they begin
chemotherapy is necessary to reduce the risk of fetal
exposure. Since nearly one half of pregnancies are
unplanned, the use of effective methods of contraception
during chemotherapy should be discussed. To date, no
cases of fetal exposure to lenalidomide have been reported,
highlighting the effectiveness of the RevAid program,3 and
supporting the use of such methods.

Cancer Chemotherapy and Pregnancy

The occurrence of cancer in pregnancy is a rare and

challenging event, complicating up to 0.02% to 0.1% of
pregnancies annually.4,5 Because of the rise in delayed childbearing, the rates of cancer in pregnancy are expected to
rise with the increased incidence of several age-dependent
malignancies.5 The cancers most commonly diagnosed
during pregnancy are breast cancer, cervical cancer,
thyroid cancer, Hodgkins lymphoma, and non-Hodgkins
lymphoma.4
Although surgery is generally considered safe during
pregnancy, there is little information regarding the safety of
cytotoxic agents, which are often required in the optimal
management of cancer.4,6 Anticancer drugs aim, through
different mechanisms, to arrest cell division and cell growth.
By doing so, they pose direct risk to the developing embryo
during the first trimester of pregnancy. Knowledge of
pregnancy outcomes following cancer treatment has been
limited by the low prevalence of cancer during pregnancy, high
rates of pregnancy terminations in women with cancer, and
the decision not to treat during critical fetal periods. The scarce
evidence regarding the fetal safety of maternal chemotherapy
during pregnancy is limited to small retrospective studies and
case reports that are often underpowered, making their results
difficult to interpret and generalize. Additionally, because
cytotoxic agents are usually administered in multiple-drug
regimens, it is difficult to estimate the potential teratogenic
effects of each individual drug.7 In contrast to this paucity of
information, there is a plethora of animal studies showing high
rates of teratogenicity for most cancer chemotherapeutics.
The main problem in interpreting these experimental data is
the substantially higher dose per kg (or m2) used in the animal
experiments, and inability to extrapolate these data to human
experience.
Several issues highlight the problems of drug therapy
facing pregnant women. An estimated 50% of pregnancies
are unplanned, so many women are exposed to teratogens
before they realize they are pregnant.8 Also, women may
decline treatment, even for life-threatening conditions, for
fear of being exposed to medication that could harm their
fetus.9
Following a diagnosis of cancer in pregnancy, the pregnant
woman, her family, and her medical team are required to
make complex treatment decisions, often in the absence
of definitive evidence. Without standardized guidelines
concerning chemotherapy in pregnant women, a woman
may compromise her health or the health of the developing
fetus.
Pregnancy Prevention

The detrimental impact of thalidomide worldwide in the

late 1950s and early 1960s1 provides clear evidence of the
need for careful education, administration, monitoring
and restricted distribution in prescribing and dispensing

chemotherapeutic and potentially teratogenic medications.

The devastating effects of fetal exposure to teratogenic
drugs are not limited to thalidomide: diethylstilbestrol was
withdrawn from the Canadian market, and isotretinoin
capsules are available only through a company-sponsored
pregnancy prevention program.2,4,5,10
Beyond awareness and education, the health care
professional and the patient must examine the patients
risk of pregnancy, including fertility and/or menopausal
status (with consideration of previous chemotherapy and
age), frequency or potential of sexual activity with a male
partner, and desire to prevent pregnancy.
After completing a pregnancy risk assessment, the patient
and health care provider must fully discuss methods of
contraception, giving careful consideration to the efficacy and
availability of contraceptive options, the patients previous
choices and her motivation to adhere to a contraceptive
regimen, the rate of adherence, ease of use, cost, sideeffect profile (considering disease state and chemotherapy
regimen), and access to emergency contraception.
While a contraceptive plan may be in place, health care
providers should check frequently with the patient
to assess adherence and satisfaction with the chosen
methods. Additional considerations may be necessary
for higher risk populations, including teenage patients.
This additional support and optimal prevention of fetal
exposure to teratogens for all women of child-bearing age
can be achieved with the implementation of an effective
controlled distribution program such as RevAid.3
DEFINING TERATOLOGY
Physiological Background

Teratogenesis is defined as the structural or functional

dysgenesis of fetal organs.11 Broadly, exposures that
irreversibly affect the normal growth, structure, or
function of a developing embryo or fetus are defined as
teratogenic.12 Known teratogens include environmental
factors such as radiation, certain viruses such as rubella,
chemicals such as alcohol, and therapeutic drugs such as
thalidomide and isotretinoin.9 Teratogenic effects vary
widely in severity and range, and include death (miscarriage
or stillbirth), malformations, impaired organ functioning,
impaired fertility, and mutagenicity.8
Congenital malformations, defined as defects in organ
structure or function, occur in 1% to 3% of the general
population.9 Of the major defects, about 25% are of
genetic origin and 65% are of unknown etiology.9 Only
2% to 3% of malformations are believed to be associated
with drug treatment.8
The teratogenic potential of any drug depends on a variety
of factors that include the extent of its placental transfer,
MARCH JOGC MARS 2013 l 265

SOGC CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINE

the dose administered, the duration of exposure, the

genetic variability in drug metabolism of the mother and
the fetus, and the timing of exposure.
Teratogens must reach the fetus in sufficient amounts
and during critical time windows to cause adverse fetal
effects.8,9 Most drugs reach the fetus through the maternal
bloodstream, and several factors can affect the fetuss
exposure to the drug Most molecules with molecular
weights smaller than 500Da easily diffuse across the
placenta, whereas large molecules with molecular weights
greater than 1000Da do not easily cross the placental
barrier.8,9 Additionally, factors such as lipid solubility,
polarity, maternal and fetal pH, protein binding, and
maternal drug metabolism profile can affect the amount
of drug reaching the developing fetus.8,9
The timing of the exposure is critical, as the effect produced
by a teratogen depends on the developmental stage.8,9
The all-or-none period
The all-or-none period includes the time from conception
until somite formation (on average 8 to 14 days from
conception). Insult during this phase typically results in
fetal death and miscarriage, or intact survival. Teratogen
exposure at this stage may interrupt processes that
facilitate implantation, leading to miscarriages. However,
if implantation is successful despite teratogen exposure,
the fetus is expected to develop normally. This is due to the
presence of totipotent cells found in the undifferentiated
embryo at this time; these cells enable repair and recovery
of damaged tissue. In general, exposure during this period
does not cause congenital malformations unless the insult
persists beyond this stage.9
Organogenesis
The most sensitive period of drug exposure is during
organogenesis, which occurs roughly 2 to 8 weeks postconception during the embryonic period.9 Especially during
gastrulation, which occurs 3 to 5 weeks post-conception,
tissues are differentiating rapidly, and damage becomes
vast and irreparable. Additionally, each organ system has a
period of maximum vulnerability. For example, the neural
tube, heart, and limbs are affected earlier than the palate
and ears. Following organogenesis, the genitals, eyes, CNS,
and hematopoietic system continue to be sensitive to
teratogenic insult.8,9
The fetal phase
The fetal phase, from the end of the embryonic stage to
term, is characterized by growth and functional maturation
of formed organs and systems. Exposures during this
later stage of pregnancy can result in IUGR and low birth
weight, and may affect the size or function of several
organs.8,9
266 l MARCH JOGC MARS 2013

In summary, the teratogenic potential of a drug is dynamic,

affected by the timing, the dose, and the molecular
properties of the teratogens, and by cumulative exposure.
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

The consequences of thalidomide use in the late 1950s

and early 1960s dramatically changed the public perception
regarding fetal exposures during pregnancy, leading to
fear and resistance against pharmacotherapy, as well as to
extensive research in the field. Before this, it was generally
believed that the placenta served as a barrier to prevent
adverse effects of drugs from reaching the fetus.8
Thalidomide, although originally marketed as a safe and
effective sedative and anti-emetic for the management of
nausea and vomiting in pregnancy, was found to cause
malformations at a frequency of 15% to 100%, particularly
when taken between 27 and 50 days post-conception.13,14
Although the rates of malformation for thalidomide were
high and followed a characteristic pattern (phocomelia and
CNS dysmorphology), its teratogenicity was not suspected
for several years. In Canada, 115 children were born with
malformations after exposure to the drug.15 As a result,
thalidomide was withdrawn from Canadian markets on
March 2, 1962, although some pharmacies continued to
have the drug available as late as May 1962.13,14
AVOIDING TERATOLOGICAL RISKS

Although the teratological risks of thalidomide are clear,

this drug and lenalidomide are currently indicated in
treating multiple myeloma. Their effectiveness in treating
this disorder suggests there is a need for them. However,
their high risk for teratogenicity, combined with the high
occurrence of unplanned pregnancies, demands safety
measures in their distribution to ensure they are not used
during pregnancy.
These requirements led to the establishment of the
RevAid program,3 which carefully and effectively controls
the distribution of thalidomide and lenalidomide. Only
prescribers registered with the RevAid program are able
to prescribe lenalidomide and thalidomide to patients.
Physicians registered with RevAid are informed of the
risks of these medications, and especially the risks they
pose during pregnancy. In registering, the physicians must
comply with the requirements of the program, which
include an obligation to inform patients considering
treatment with these drugs of all the risks and benefits of
the drugs and requirements of the RevAid program. All
patients and physicians are required to complete a RevAid
Patient-Physician agreement form. In addition, only
RevAid certified pharmacists may dispense thalidomide or
lenalidomide. These specially trained pharmacists must also
agree to comply with the requirements of the program.

Cancer Chemotherapy and Pregnancy

The conditions that must be met for access to thalidomide

or lenalidomide are the most stringent for women of childbearing age. Women must be warned of the potential for
birth defects and that, because of the risk to others, they
must never share their medication or give blood up to
4 weeks after ceasing to take the medication. To ensure
prevention of pregnancy, the RevAid program requires
that women use 2 methods of contraception in parallel,
starting 4 weeks before they begin taking the medication
and continuing until 4 weeks after cessation of therapy.
In addition, they must consent to regular pregnancy
tests before and during treatment. Two pregnancy tests
are given before the first prescriptions; a pregnancy test
is done weekly during the first 4 weeks of therapy; and,
with regular therapy, pregnancy tests are performed every
4 weeks with both regular or no periods, and every 2 weeks
if periods are irregular.
The RevAid program represents a safe, controlled way to
provide these useful drugs to people who are not at risk of
suffering their negative effects. As many chemotherapeutic
agents are potentially teratogenic, and as women of
childbearing age often require prompt pharmacological
intervention, guidelines like those of the RevAid program
are necessary to prevent pregnancy during chemotherapy
treatment.
In Canada, a program similar to RevAid outlines the use
of isotretinoin.10 Women are informed of fetal risks, are
prescribed 2 contraceptive methods in parallel, and sign
a document attesting to compliance. However, unlike the
RevAid program, it does not require registration and has
no mandatory follow-up. The lack of these measures has
resulted in unplanned pregnancies and fetal exposures to
this teratogen, highlighting the importance of thorough
guidelines outlining the distribution of all teratogenic
substances in women of child-bearing age.
Currently, no guidelines exist for the use of chemotherapy
in non-pregnant women of child-bearing age. The
development of a program similar to RevAid to monitor
the distribution of chemotherapeutic agents and follow-up
on all women enrolled in the program are needed to ensure
pregnancy prevention during chemotherapy treatment.
Additional guidelines are necessary to address the use of
chemotherapy when it is indicated during pregnancy. The
importance of these guidelines is 2-fold. First, they would
give health care providers a conclusive resource on which
to base their treatment plans. Second, they would help to
dispel common misconceptions patients have about the
use of chemotherapy during pregnancy; this will encourage
pregnant women to pursue care that ensures the best longterm outcome for themselves and their infants.

CANCER AND PREGNANCY

The diagnosis of cancer during pregnancy poses difficult

dilemmas for the pregnant patient, her family, and the
medical team. Cancer in pregnancy is rare, complicating up
to 0.02% to 0.1% of pregnancies annually.4,5,16
The cancers most commonly diagnosed in pregnancy are
breast cancer, cervical cancer, thyroid cancer, Hodgkins
lymphoma, and non-Hodgkins lymphoma. See Table 2 for
details on particular cancers during pregnancy.
ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS AND PREGNANCY

The main challenge in managing cancer during pregnancy

is treating the patient with the optimal anti-cancer regimen
without harming the developing fetus. Critically, for the
best chance at survival for the mother, chemotherapy
cannot always be postponed until the end of the
pregnancy, and no current regimen has been confirmed
(by studies with sufficient statistical power) safe for use
during gestation.
Because of their relatively low molecular weight, most
cytotoxic agents cross the placenta and reach the fetus.17,18
The pharmacology of various anti-cancer drugs may be
altered by the normal physiological changes that occur
during pregnancy, such as increased plasma volume,
enhanced renal and hepatic elimination, and decreased
albumin concentration. Dosing similar to that of nonpregnant women of the same weight may lead to undertreatment of pregnant women with cancer.18 However, it is
still not clear whether pregnant women should be treated
with different doses of chemotherapy, and no studies
have addressed the effectiveness of treatment regimens in
pregnancy.
Chemotherapy during the first trimester may increase
the risk of spontaneous abortions, fetal death, and
major congenital malformations. The teratogenic effects
depend on the dosage, time of administration, and
cumulative exposure to the chemotherapeutic agent. Fetal
malformations reflect the gestational age at exposure, and
the most vulnerable period is during weeks 2 to 8, when
organogenesis occurs. The eyes, ears, teeth-palate, genitalia,
hematopoietic system, and CNS remain vulnerable to
chemotherapy beyond organogenesis.17
Almost all chemotherapeutic agents are teratogenic in
animals. For many chemotherapeutic agents, the risk of
teratogenesis in humans is unknown. However, the risk of
teratogenesis in humans following cancer treatment appears
to be lower than is commonly estimated from animal data
because of the proportionately larger doses used in animals
First trimester exposure to chemotherapy has been estimated
to have a 10% to 20% risk for major malformations. It
has been suggested that this risk may decline to about 6%
MARCH JOGC MARS 2013 l 267

Unknown

0.01% to 0.3%

0.0015% to 0.012%

Unknown

0.016% to 0.1%

Unknown

Breast

Cervical

Hepatocellular
carcinoma

Hodgkins
Lymphoma

Intracranial
tumours

Frequency in
pregnancy

Bone
malignancies

Cancer

Table 2. Cancers during pregnancy

268 l MARCH JOGC MARS 2013

Headache
Nausea and vomiting
Nonspecific symptoms to focal
neurologic deficits such as
hemiparesis and visual field
defects.
Pregnancy can exacerbate
neurology with the patient
presenting with impending or
actual cerebral herniation.
Common symptoms of
intracranial pressure can
potentially be confused with
routine pregnancy-related
conditions.

Painless lymph node

enlargement
Lymph node biopsy

Right upper quadrant pain or

distention and weight loss.

Papanicolaou smear
Abnormal cytology
Colposcopy

Often delayed in pregnancy,

9 to 15 months
Ultrasound
Excisional biopsy
(palpable mass)
Incisional mass (large mass)

Pain
Joint dysfunction
Pathological fractures

Diagnosis

MRI

Physical exam
Blood tests
Bone marrow biopsy
Abdominal ultrasonography
or chest X-ray with abdominal
shielding
MRI

Liver sonography
MRI
Fine liver aspiration

Clinical examination
Biopsy or cone histology
Ultrasound and MRI
Stage I (79%)
Stage II/III (21%)

Clinical examination
Biopsy
Ultrasound or MRI
Stage II/III (65% to 90%)

MRI
Ultrasound
Biopsy

Staging

Nodular sclerosis most common.

Histological subtypes are the
same as in non-pregnant women
< 40 years.

Squamous carcinoma (> 80%)

Adenocarcinoma
Neuroendocrine

Invasive ductal carcinoma

(75% to 90%)
Inflammatory breast cancer
(1.5% to 4%)

Pathology

continued

Very limited data suggest that

pregnancy does not exacerbate
tumour growth or affect the
outcome of the patients.

Survival rates found to be similar

to that of non-pregnant control
matched for age, stage and
treatment protocol.

Small number of published

cases precludes any firm
conclusions.

Higher proportion of early stage

tumours likely due to increased
screening performed routine
antenatal care.
No differences in survival of
matched pregnant and nonpregnant women.

No differences found in survival

between pregnant and nonpregnant women with breast
cancer of same nodal status.
However, pregnant women
have 2.5-fold higher risk for
metastases because of delays in
diagnosis.

Limited data suggest that

pregnancy does not exacerbate
tumour growth or affect the
patient outcome.

Prognosis

SOGC CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINE

Frequency in
pregnancy

0.001%

Unknown

0.014% to 0.28%

0.016%

Cancer

Leukemia

Lung

Malignant
melanoma

Non-Hodgkins
Lymphoma

Table 2. Continued

Painless lymph node

enlargement
Lymph node biopsy

Changes to the shape or

colour of existing moles or
any pigmented lesion, or the
appearance of a new lump
anywhere on the skin.

Symptoms such as bloodstreaked sputum, persistent

cough or change in cough
pattern, wheezing, decreased
appetite with poor weight gain,
along with other loco-regional
symptoms are commonly seen.
Delays in diagnosis may
occur because of low index of
suspicion, tendency to attribute
symptoms such as fatigue and
dyspnea on the pregnant state
and the reluctance to order chest
radiography during pregnancy.

Blood work
Bone marrow biopsy

Diagnosis

Physical exam
Blood tests
Bone marrow biopsy
Abdominal ultrasonography
or chest X-ray with abdominal
shielding
MRI

Assessment of tumour site.

Ultrasound
Fine needle aspiration biopsy.
Lymphatic mapping with blue
dye or radio-labelled tracer
injected at tumour site plus
sentinel lymph node biopsy.
MRI

Anteroposterior and lateral chest

radiographs.
Ultrasound
MRI
Sputum cytology
Fine needle aspiration biopsy
Bronchoscopy with biopsy
Bronchoalveolar lavage

Ultrasounds
MRI

Staging

Degrees of severity from

indolent to very aggressive.
Histological subtypes in
pregnancy appear to be
aggressive with diffuse large
B-cell or peripheral T-cell
lymphomas being the most
common.

Superficial spreading
melanomas most common
(41%).

Non-small cell lung cancers, in

order of most to least frequent:
adenocarcinoma, squamous cell,
large cell, and bronchoalveolar.
Small cell lung cancer.

Acute myeloid leukemia

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia
Chronic myeloid leukemia
Chronic lymphocytic leukemia

Pathology

continued

Survival rates found to be similar

to that of non-pregnant control
matched for age, stage and
treatment protocol.
There may be a trend toward
lower birth weight infants born to
mothers who had non-Hodgkins
lymphoma in pregnancy.

Malignant melanoma is the

most frequent cancer that
metastasizes to the placenta
or fetus, accounting for 31% of
reported cases.
When matched for age,
anatomic site and stage, most
studies have not demonstrated
a difference in survival between
pregnant and non-pregnant
women.

No evidence that pregnancy

alters the prognosis of lung
cancer.
Maternal outcome for both small
cell and non-small cell lung
cancer has been poor and is a
reflection of the advanced stage
at diagnosis.

Spontaneous abortion,
prematurity, IUGR, and death
have been associated with
maternal leukemia.
Survival rates found to be similar
to that of non-pregnant control
matched for age, stage and
treatment protocol.

Prognosis

Cancer Chemotherapy and Pregnancy

MARCH JOGC MARS 2013 l 269

 Survival rates found to be similar

to that of non-pregnant control
matched for age, stage and
treatment protocol.
Differentiated thyroid cancer,
subtypes papillary and
follicular, are most common.
Medullary thyroid cancer
accounts for only 5% to 10% of
all thyroid cancers.
New thyroid nodule or
enlargement of a pre-existing
nodule
Pain in the neck region,
hoarseness
Horners syndrome may be
present
0.0036% to 0.014%
Thyroid

Thyroid function test

Fine needle aspiration biopsy
Ultrasound

Survival rates found to be similar

to that of non-pregnant control
matched for age, stage and
treatment protocol.
Vast majority of adnexal
masses are benign and are
diagnosed at an early stage.
Surface epithelial-stromal
tumour (50.6%)
Germ cell tumours
(dysgerminomas and malignant
teratomas) (39%)
Pelvic ultrasounds.
MRI
Significant numbers of patients
are asymptomatic.
Adnexal masses.
0.002% to 0.008%

Pathology

Ovarian

Table 2. Continued

Diagnosis
Frequency in
pregnancy
Cancer

Staging

Prognosis

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270 l MARCH JOGC MARS 2013

when folate antagonists (which are considered the most

teratogenic anti-cancer drugs) are excluded.17,19
The administration of chemotherapy during the second and
third trimesters has not been associated with major congenital
malformations but may increase the risk for IUGR, low
birth weight, and stillbirth. A review of 376 cases of fetuses
exposed to chemotherapy in utero, most after organogenesis,
demonstrated 5% fetal death rate and 1% neonatal death rate.
Other complications included preterm delivery (5%), IUGR
(7%), and transient myelosuppression (4%).17
A recent American registry of 152 women exposed to
chemotherapy mostly after the first trimester demonstrated
only a single case of intrauterine fetal death and a single case of
neonatal death.20 The malformation rate was 3.8%, with a 7.6%
risk for IUGR. Only 2 of the 159 live born infants suffered
transient myelosuppression. A European study compared the
rates of adverse pregnancy outcomes in patients exposed to
chemotherapy (117 pregnancies) during the second and third
trimesters and in healthy control patients (58 pregnancies).21
Although the incidences of major and minor malformations
had not increased compared with previous reports, the small
size of the control group prevents extensive conclusions.
The rate of low birth weight was higher in the chemotherapy
group (17.9%) than in the control group (8.6%). Most of the
infants with low birth weight were born to mothers treated
for hematological malignancies.21
For cancer diagnosis made late in pregnancy, consideration
can be given to delaying initiation of chemotherapy
balanced against gestational age and possible delivery
before treatment.
The major message is that most fetuses whose exposure is
limited to the second and third trimester of pregnancy are
born healthy.
Specific Cytotoxic Groups

Alkylating agents
Alkylating agents are commonly used for the treatment of
a variety of cancers. These compounds act directly on cell
DNA to prevent rapidly replicating cells from reproducing.
Their action is not specific to a particular phase of the
cell cycle. Cyclophosphamide, dacarbazine, ifosfamide,
mechlorethamine, and procarbazine are among those
commonly used.22
Cyclophosphamide is commonly used for the treatment
of breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and non-Hodgkins
lymphoma. Avils et al.,23 reported healthy pregnancy
outcomes in 11 patients treated during the first trimester
with cyclophosphamide-containing protocols.23 A further
5 reported exposures in the first trimester resulted in
several congenital malformations including absent big
toes, single coronary artery, imperforate anus, umbilical
hernia, cleft palate, multiple eye defects, and esophageal

Cancer Chemotherapy and Pregnancy

atresia.2428 Included in this, one set of twin infants in

which the male twin, born with congenital anomalies,
later developed thyroid cancer at age 11 and stage III
neuroblastoma at age13.28 His twin sister was unaffected
by the exposure and was developing normally at the time
of the study, suggesting differential pharmacogenetic
effects on the drug metabolism into the active form of
the drug. Cyclophosphamide exposures in the second
and third trimester of pregnancy are more frequent.
One study examined the outcomes of 61 patients treated
for different malignancies during the second and third
trimester and found 59 infants were born with no
malformations.21 One infant whose mother was treated
also with doxorubicin was born with hip subluxation and
another infant who was exposed to the EFC protocol
(epirubicin, cisplatin, fluorouracil) was born with
rectal atresia. Another 110 patients exposed during the
second and third trimesters to an assortment of multidrug protocols, including cyclophosphamide, resulted
in 105 normal births and 5 congenital malformations:
1 intrauterine death with normal autopsy, 1 neonatal death
due to autoimmune disorder, 1 infant with IgA deficiency,
1 with pyloric stenosis, and 1 with holoprosencephaly.20
Intrauterine growth restriction occurred in 7 cases (6%).
An additional 81 women who were treated with the FAC
regimen for breast cancer during the second to third
trimesters demonstrated 3 congenital abnormalities,
including 1 case of Down syndrome, 1 infant with
ureteral reflux, and another with talipes.29,30 Finally,
28 patients treated for breast cancer with different
cyclophosphamide-containing regimens during the
second and third trimesters all had normal deliveries and
outcomes.31 This information suggests that second and
third trimester exposure to cyclophosphamide may not
increase the risk for adverse effects.
Dacarbazine exposures occur most frequently in
pregnancy during administration of ABVD protocols, or
in combination MOPP, ABVD or MOPP/AVD protocols.
In 19 patients treated for lymphoma with ABVD after the
first trimester, 17 healthy infants were born, and 2 with
congenital malformations: 1 infant with plagiocephaly, and
1 infant with fourth and fifth syndactyly.20 In another 12
reports of lymphoma patients treated with ABVD (83.3%),
MOPP/ABVD (8.3%), or MOPP/ABD (8.3%) protocols,
all resulted in normal deliveries and healthy outcomes.32
Through this limited information, it appears that exposure
to dacarbazine during the later stages of pregnancy is not
associated with a specific set of malformations. Use in the
first trimester cannot be recommended.
Two case reports of ifosfamide treatment, combined with
doxorubicin for Ewing sarcoma in pregnancy were located.33,34
One exposure occurred during the second trimester and the
other in the third trimester. Both pregnancies had normal
outcomes. Scarcity of information regarding ifosfamide is a
recommendation for using a better-studied alternative.

MOPP treatment, involving exposure to alkylating agents

mechlorethamine and procarbazine was reported in 14
patients.21,32,34,35 One patient treated during the first trimester
delivered an infant with hydrocephaly that died 4 hours
after birth.35 A second trimester exposure to MOPP/ABV
resulted in bilateral partial syndactyly of second and third
digits in the fetus.21 Twelve exposures to MOPP/ABV
or ABVD described by Avils et al., with an unspecified
amount occurring in the first trimester, all resulted in
normal outcomes.32 These data suggest mechlorethamine
and procarbazine are not associated with an increased risk in
the second and third trimesters.
Platinum compounds
Platinum compounds form DNA adducts that result in
DNA crosslinking. DNA crosslinks inhibit replication,
transcription, and other nuclear functions. The combination
of these events arrests cell proliferation and ultimately
tumour growth. Cisplatin and carboplatin are among the
most commonly used platinum compounds.
Cisplatin exposure in the second and third trimesters has
been frequently described. Four patients who had cervical
cancer during pregnancy and who were treated in the
second trimester with cisplatin all delivered healthy infants
with no congenital malformations.3639 Another 3 patients
treated for small cell lung carcinoma and 2 treated for
ovarian cancer delivered healthy infants after exposures
to cisplatin.4042 Finally, 6 of 7 infants born to 7 patients
exposed to cisplatin in various regimens for different
malignancies were healthy. Only 1 infant was born with a
congenital malformation, hearing loss that was attributed
to genetic factors from the parents.20 Cisplatin use in the
second and third trimesters of pregnancy has not been
found to be associated with any pattern or increased risk
of adverse fetal effects.
Carboplatin exposure occurred during the second and third
trimesters of 5 patients. Four were women with ovarian
cancer, all of whom delivered healthy infants. The 1 case
of CNS malignancy was the only report of an adverse
pregnancy outcome, with a spontaneous abortion of a
fetus with gastroschisis, as reported by Cardonick et al.20
Although evidence is limited, carboplatin exposure in the
second and third trimesters does not appear to increase the
risk for major malformations.
Antimetabolites
Antimetabolites are small compounds used to treat
leukemia, lymphoma, and breast cancer. They act as false
substrates during DNA or RNA synthesis, resulting in
inhibition of cellular metabolism. This process occurs
independently of the phase of the cell cycle. Common
examples of chemotherapeutic agents of this drug class
are methotrexate, 5-fluorouracil, aminopterin, cytarabine,
tioguanine, and mercaptopurine.22
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Methotrexate exposure during the first trimester of

pregnancy has been associated with malformations similar
to the aminopterin syndrome, including cranial dysostosis
with delayed ossification, hypertelorism, wide nasal bridge,
micrognathia, and ear anomalies.43 In a series of 20
exposures during the first trimester, 7 infants developed
this pattern of anomalies.4452 In addition, there were 5 cases
of miscarriage and 1 case of skeletal abnormalities with
ambiguous genitalia. Exposure to methotrexate (together
with cyclophosphamide and 5-fluorouracil) in the second
and third trimesters in 12 patients did not show the same
pattern of malformations: all infants were born healthy.31
Because of the suspected teratogenicity of methotrexate,
it should not be considered a first-line therapy, and should
not be used at any stage of pregnancy.
One study reported on 53 exposures to 5-fluorouracil,
with 5 occurring in the first trimester.17 One of these
patients spontaneously miscarried, and there were 6 cases
of IUGR. The rest of the infants had normal outcomes.
A further 12 patients exposed to 5-fluorouracil, along
with cyclophosphamide and methotrexate, in the second
and third trimesters had normal outcomes.31 Similarly,
18 patients treated with 5-fluorouracil for breast and
colorectal cancers during the second and third trimester
all had normal pregnancy outcomes.20 Hahn et al. reported
3 congenital malformations out of 35 exposures to
5-fluorouracil in an FAC protocol during the second and
third trimesters for the treatment of breast cancer.29 One
infant was born with Down syndrome, 1 with clubfoot,
and 1 with congenital bilateral ureteral reflux. As these
are fairly common congenital abnormalities, the authors
compared these rates with expected population frequencies
and determined that the chemotherapy may not have been
the cause. As an antimetabolite, 5-fluorouracil is not one
of the first-line agents recommended, but it has not been
associated with any increased risk for malformation in the
second and third trimesters.
Capecitabine exposure in 1 patient treated during the
first trimester for colorectal cancer resulted in a normal
pregnancy with a healthy outcome.20 Evidence is insufficient
for conclusions to be made about the safety of capecitabine.
In 9 patients treated with various regimens including
cytosine arabinoside for leukemia, 5 of them during the first
trimester, no congenital malformations were reported.23
Two more patients treated during the second and third
trimesters with this antimetabolite for non-Hodgkins
lymphoma and acute myeloid leukemia also had healthy
pregnancy outcomes.20 Although information is limited,
there is so far no evidence to indicate that administration
of cytosine arabinoside in pregnancy results in fetal
malformations.
One patient treated with gemcitabine for a pancreatic
tumour during the second and third trimesters had a normal
272 l MARCH JOGC MARS 2013

pregnancy and healthy outcome.20 A second patient treated

for non-small cell lung cancer delivered prematurely, at
28 weeks, but with no congenital malformations.53
Anti-tumour antibiotics
Microorganisms produce these cytotoxic agents that
interact directly with DNA resulting in anti-cancer activity.
The manner in which antibiotics interact with DNA differs
considerably between agents.
Bleomycin creates DNA breaks and is commonly used
in the ABVD protocol. Cardonick et al.20 reported on
23 exposures to bleomycin in pregnancy, with varying
malignancies and regimens.20 Twenty of the women were
being treated for lymphoma, while the remaining 3 had
ovarian cancer. Treatment occurred during the second and
third trimesters, and 3 congenital malformations resulted.
One infant was born with plagiocephaly and another with
fourth and fifth finger syndactyly. A third infant was born
with genetic hearing loss, of which his parents were both
genetic carriers.20 Another patient treated with bleomycin
(in combination with etoposide and cisplatin) for teratoma
during the third trimester had a normal delivery and
healthy infant.42 Bleomycin therapy in the second and
third trimesters of pregnancy was not associated with any
grouping of malformations.
Topoisomerase inhibitors
Anthracyclines
Anthracyclines commonly used are doxorubicin, daunoru
bicin, epirubicin, idarubicin, and mitoxantrone.
Van Calsteren et al. reported on a number of pregnant
patients treated with topoisomerase inhibitors.18 A total of 36
patients treated for various malignancies with doxorubicin
during the second and third trimester were evaluated. One
infant, also exposed to cyclophosphamide, was born with
hip subluxation. A second infant exposed to FAC regimen
was born with doubled cartilage rings in both ears. The
rest of the infants (34/36) had normal outcomes. Another
25 patients in this series were exposed to daunorubicincontaining treatments for various malignancies during the
second and third trimesters. Two infants had congenital
malformations: 1 with bilateral partial syndactyly of
second and third digits, and the other with rectal atresia.
The remaining 23 outcomes were normal. Cardonick et al.
detailed the pregnancy outcomes of 118 patients treated
for breast cancer (98) and lymphoma (20) with various
topoisomerase inhibitor-containing regimens, all during
the second and third trimesters.20 A total of 5 abnormal
outcomes were observed: 1 infant with IgA deficiency, 1
neonatal death due to autoimmune disorder, 1 infant with
pyloric stenosis, 1 infant with holoprosencephaly, and 1
intrauterine demise with normal autopsy. In another series
of 11 patients treated with doxorubicin together with

Cancer Chemotherapy and Pregnancy

cyclophosphamide during the second and third trimesters

of pregnancy, all infants had normal outcomes.31
Epirubicin exposure was noted in 5 patients concomitant
with cyclophosphamide during the second and third
trimesters. No congenital malformations were reported.31
In 1 case, a patient treated for acute myeloid leukemia
was exposed to idarubicin together with all-trans retinoic
acid during the first trimester and had a normal pregnancy
outcome. 54 A further 9 cases of patients treated for various
malignancies during the second and third trimesters,
however, resulted in 4 congenital malformations,32,5559
including 1 case of transient dilated cardiomyopathy and 2
cases of permanent dilated cardiomyopathy.5557 As data on
possible effects to the fetal heart are inconclusive, caution
should be exercised with respect to the use of idarubicin
during pregnancy.
One patient treated for teratoma with mitoxantrone
and bleomycin and cisplatin during the third trimester
had a normal delivery, and the infant had no congenital
malformations.42
Plant alkaloids and taxanes
Plant alkaloids and natural products, such as taxanes, may
inhibit mitosis or inhibit enzymes needed for reproduction
of the cell. These agents are specific to the M phase of
the cell. They include paclitaxel, docetaxel, etoposide,
vinblastine, and vincristine.22
In 19 patients, 2 in the first trimester, exposed to
docetaxel for the treatment of breast cancer, 3 congenital
malformations were noted.60 Two infants had cerebral
ventriculomegaly; however, in both cases the diagnosis was
made before administration of chemotherapy. The only
malformation potentially related to cytotoxicity is 1 case of
pyloric stenosis in an infant whose mother was exposed to
doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide, paclitaxel, and docetaxel.
Therefore, the use of docetaxel appears to be safe in the
second and third trimesters.
Exposures to paclitaxel in multi-drug therapies for various
malignancies in 19 patients resulted in 1 congenital
malformation and 1 intrauterine or postnatal demise.20 Pyloric
stenosis was reported in an infant exposed to paclitaxel,
docetaxel, cyclophosphamide, and doxorubicin as discussed
above. In a patient treated with doxorubicin, vincristine,
cyclophosphamide, prednisone, and rituximab for nonHodgkins lymphoma, intrauterine fetal demise occurred at
30 weeks. The autopsy results were normal. Twenty-four
more cases of exposure to paclitaxel for the treatment of
breast cancer in the second and third trimester resulted in
23 healthy outcomes. The 1 congenital malformation was
the case of pyloric stenosis following multi-drug exposure
reported previously. Finally, 1 patient treated with paclitaxel
weekly from 20 weeks gestation delivered a healthy infant

with no congenital malformations.61 These data suggest that

paclitaxel may be compatible with therapy in the second and
third trimesters of pregnancy.
Vincristine exposures in 11 patients treated for various cancers
during the second and third trimesters resulted in healthy
outcomes for 10 infants.20 As previously noted, 1 infant
exposed to vincristine, doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide,
prednisone, and rituximab died in utero at 30 weeks, and
the autopsy results were normal. These limited exposures
suggest that vincristine therapy does not increase risk for
malformation during the second and third trimesters.
Of 20 patients treated in the second and third trimesters for
Hodgkins lymphoma and non-Hodgkins lymphoma with
varying vinblastine-containing regimens, 2 had infants with
malformations.20 After in utero exposure to doxorubicin,
bleomycin, dacarbazine, and vinblastine throughout
second and third trimesters for Hodgkins lymphoma,
there was 1 case of plagiocephaly. Another infant exposed
to the same regimen was born with fourth and fifth finger
syndactyly. Although evidence to date suggests there is not
a significant concern with unique vinblastine treatment in
the second and third trimesters, more research is needed.
Etoposide exposure in 6 patients during the second and
third trimesters did not appear to cause any congenital
malformations.20,40,42 One infant was born with genetic
hearing loss ruled unrelated to exposure to etoposide,
cisplatin, and bleomycin. Although there is only limited
experience with etoposide, there were no patterns of
congenital malformations noted with etoposide exposure in
the later stages of pregnancy.
Molecularly targeted agents
Recently, the choice of treatment for the pregnant patient
with cancer has become even more complicated because
of the increasing use of targeted anti-cancer therapies. The
benefit of the targeted agents has been well demonstrated
for various malignancies; however, their safety during
pregnancy has not been established. Currently, significant
experience with exposure during pregnancy is available
only for the tyrosine kinase inhibitor, imatinib and the
monoclonal antibody, rituximab.
The largest report regarding exposure to imatinib during
pregnancy included 180 pregnant women with chronic
myeloid leukemia. Outcome data were available for 125
patients.62 Congenital malformations were identified in
12 infants, 3 of whom had strikingly similar complex
malformations (a combination of omphalocele with severe
renal and skeletal malformations) that are clearly cause for
concern. All congenital malformations were associated with
first trimester exposure to imatinib. It appears that although
most pregnancies exposed to imatinib are likely to have a
successful outcome, this exposure may result in serious fetal
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SOGC CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINE

malformations. These concerns suggest that imatinib should

not be administered during the first trimester.62,63
Rituximab is an anti-CD20 monoclonal B-cell antibody
indicated mainly for diffuse large B cell and follicular
non-Hodgkins lymphomas. Recently it has been also
administered to patients with several autoimmune diseases.
A 2011 report described 231 pregnancies associated
with maternal rituximab exposure.64 Most cases were
confounded by the concomitant use of potentially
teratogenic medications (most commonly methotrexate).
Of the 153 pregnancies with outcome data, 90 resulted in
live births. First trimester miscarriages were reported in 33
(21%) cases, and 28 pregnancies were electively terminated.
Twenty-two infants were born prematurely, and there was
1 neonatal death. Eleven neonates had hematological
abnormalities without corresponding infections. Two
congenital malformations were identified: 1 case of
talipes, and 1 of cardiac malformation (a combination of
ventricular septal defect, persistent foramen ovale, and
persistent ductus arteriosus). The limited experience to
date suggests that the administration of rituximab may be
considered safe during the second and third trimesters.
TREATMENT GUIDELINES

Patients with a slowly growing cancer diagnosed during

the first trimester may be followed at short intervals for
signs of disease progression without treatment until the
second trimester. However, when aggressive, advanced,
or progressive disease is diagnosed in the first trimester, a
delay in therapy may adversely affect maternal survival.3,6367
Therefore, treatment with appropriate, often combination,
chemotherapy should be given promptly. However,
this should be accompanied by detailed counselling to
ensure that the woman and her family understand the
potential teratogenic effects of chemotherapy in the first
trimester. In specific cases, the treatment with singleagent chemotherapy (preferably a vinca alkaloid or an
anthracycline) during the first trimester followed by
conventional multi-agent therapy at the beginning of the
second trimester may be considered. Such therapeutic
approaches appear to be safe; however, data regarding
their efficacy for the maternal cancer is lacking. Most
multi-drug protocols may be administered during the
second and third trimesters without an apparent increase
in the risk for severe malformations. Regimens based on a
combination of cyclophosphamide and an anthracycline
administered to women with breast cancer or lymphoma
have been most commonly used during pregnancy, and
their administration after the end of the first trimester
found to be safe. Weekly fractionated-dose chemotherapy
may be preferred to allow ease of pregnancy monitoring,
and interruption of treatment if necessary.6
274 l MARCH JOGC MARS 2013

Treatment during the second and third trimesters does not

carry a risk for morphological congenital malformation;
however, infants may be born earlier than expected and
small for gestational age, and some of the agents used in
treatment are neurotoxins, which may theoretically affect
brain development. The timing of delivery should be
planned to avoid myelosuppression, but no long-term
developmental sequelae have been reported. If possible,
delivery should be postponed for 2 to 3 weeks following
anti-cancer treatment to allow bone marrow recovery.4,69
Furthermore, neonates, especially preterm infants, have
limited capacity to metabolize and eliminate drugs because
of liver and renal immaturity. The delay of delivery after
chemotherapy will allow fetal drug excretion by the placenta.
POSTPARTUM CARE
Breastfeeding

As a rule, women using cancer chemotherapeutic agents

after delivery should not be breastfeeding as neither shortterm nor long-term safety has been established. Exceptions
include azathioprine, with which repeated measures failed
to show accumulation in milk.
If the lactating mother requires drug therapy, safety of
breastfed infants is a concern because almost all drugs the
mother ingests are excreted into milk. Of many factors that
determine magnitude of drug excretion into milk, plasma
protein binding, ionization characteristics and lipophilicity
of drug are the most important.70
Recently, expression and function of carrier-mediated drug
transport in the mammary gland have been elucidated. For
example, the lactating mammary gland highly expresses
breast cancer resistant protein (BCRP: ABCG2), which
carries its substrates from maternal circulation into milk.
Initially, its role as a toxin transporter was perplexing as it
appeared to actively contaminate mothers milk. However,
it was later shown that breast cancer resistant protein in
the mammary gland is a major vitamin B2 transporter.71
Some organic cation transporters carry both xenobiotics
and nutrients, and mammary gland drug transporters
have a nutrient carrier function that is taken over by
maternal xenobiotics. In addition to the above mentioned
attributes of drugs, such as protein binding and ionization
characteristics, transporter affinity as a substrate is another
important factor for defining milk excretion of drugs.70
Risk assessment of drug therapy, including cancer
chemotherapy, during lactation must consider several factors
that are distinct from those of pregnancy. First, average
levels of drug exposure in the infant are usually an order
of magnitude lower in lactation-mediated exposure than in
transplacental exposure. Second, the mother has an option
to discontinue, or temporarily interrupt, breastfeeding if
the risk is perceived to be high. Third, cancer chemotherapy
schedules may allow breastfeeding women to store their

Cancer Chemotherapy and Pregnancy

own milk for near-future use. In addition, women with

cancer who are being treated with chemotherapy may
perceive the importance of breastfeeding and the risks
associated with it differently from women who are taking
non-cancer related medications.
Published clinical studies on excretion of cancer
chemotherapy agents into milk, and resultant infant plasma
levels, are very limited. Breastfeeding-related information
is available for the following chemotherapeutic agents
in cancer treatment, but levels of evidence are not high
enough to make firm recommendations.
Cisplatin
There are 3 published case reports on use of cisplatin in
lactating women with cancer.7274 At various post-dose time
points, plasma cisplatin concentrations were measured as
platinum. The maternal plasma levels ranged from 0.8mg/
mL to about 3mg/mL when measured and expressed as
plasma platinum levels, but the maternal plasma ratio varied
widely from nearly zero (milk levels were below the detection
limit of platinum) to 1.1. Cisplatin pharmacokinetic studies in
non-lactating patients indicate that average plasma platinum
concentrations after 100mg/m2 dosing (a high therapeutic
dose) are about 3.91 1.41mg/mL.75 Assuming maternal
plasma ratio to be the reported highest (1.1), the infant
would receive 4.3mg/kg/day of platinum. Taken together,
evidence of cisplatin safety/toxicity in breastfeeding is
weak. Because of the relatively long half-life of cisplatin,
most experts recommend discontinuation of breastfeeding,
but emerging data on benefits of breastfeeding and lack
of clear toxicity data may require revisiting the current
recommendation.
Cyclophosphamide
Three case reports of use of cyclophosphamide during
breastfeeding exist; however, there are no quantitative
data on cyclophosphamide levels in milk.7678 In one case,
a woman with leukemia received weekly intravenous
doses of cyclophosphamide 800 mg and vincristine 2
mg over a 6-week period, in addition to prednisolone
(30mg/day). Her 4-month-old infant was breastfed
during this treatment cycle and found to be neutropenic
at the end of the treatment, but returned to normal after
breastfeeding was discontinued.76 Another patient with
Burkitt lymphoma received daily cyclophosphamide
6mg/kg intravenously. At 23 days of life, her infant
developed neutropenia and thrombocytopenia over a
3-day period. The limited information from these reports
suggests that cyclophosphamide is not compatible with
breastfeeding.77
Doxorubicin
In milk samples of a woman receiving doxorubicin
70 mg/m2 (an intravenous dose of 90mg), the drug and its
active metabolite, doxorubicinol, were detected. The peak

milk concentrations of doxorubicin and doxorubicinol

were 128mg/L (0.24mM) and 111 mg/L (0.20mM),
respectively, 24 hours after the dose.72 Anthracyclines may
not be absorbed orally, and the dose to the infant, based
on the peak levels, may be in the low range of 2% of the
weight-adjusted dose. However, safety data are too scant to
make a firm recommendation at this point.
A 28-year-old woman with acute promyelocytic
leukemia received chemotherapy during pregnancy and
breastfeeding.79 After first consolidation therapy, she
delivered healthy baby at 34 weeks gestation. After delivery
she received second consolidation therapy. Then she
was treated with intravenous etoposide (80mg/m2/day:
days 1 to 5) and other drugs including mitoxantrone
(6mg/m2/day: days 1 to 3) and cytarabine (170mg/m2/day:
days 1 to 5) as third consolidation therapy. The post-infusion
peak milk concentrations of etoposide ranged from
580mg/L to 800mg/L, which quickly declined and became
undetectable in 24 hours. Breastfeeding was resumed 3
weeks after the end of the therapy without incident.
In the same woman described above, mitoxantrone milk
concentration reached 120mg/mL immediately after the
third dose. Mitoxantrone milk concentrations decreased to
about 20 mg/mL by 7 days after the last (third) dose, and
remained at that level 4 weeks after the last dose.79
After maternal oral doses of imatinib (400mg/day),
milk concentrations are approximately in the range of
0.5mg/mL to 3.2mg/mL. Its active metabolite is also in a
similar range of concentrations (1mg/mL to 2.5mg/mL).
One infant was breastfed during the maternal imatinib
treatment without incident.8083
Methotrexate
A 25-year-old woman with choriocarcinoma received
methotrexate 22.5mg orally (15mg/m2/day). Peak
methotrexate concentrations in milk samples were
2.6ng/mL on 2 different dosing occasions.84 In the case
of a woman who received a single dose of 65mg of
methotrexate intramuscularly (50mg/m2) for ectopic
pregnancy, 6 milk samples taken over the following
24-hour period did not show detectable levels of the drug.85
Studies on excretion of cancer chemotherapeutic agents
into human milk are scarce, but accumulating evidence
is overwhelmingly supportive of the tangible benefit of
human milk for many aspects of infant development.
Given the nature of the maternal diseases in question,
risk-benefit assessment of breastfeeding during maternal
chemotherapy needs to be carefully individualized.
Follow-Up

While treating pregnant women during the second and third

trimesters, it is important to bear in mind that the CNS
is still developing and that treatment can have long-term
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SOGC CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINE

side effects on the childs development. Long-term followup data on children born to mothers treated for leukemia
during pregnancy have been published.32 The childrens
psychological, physical, and neurological development were
reported as normal. The grandchildren of exposed pregnant
women were also followed up in the same study. Even
those children had normal neurological and psychological
development. No congenital malformations were reported.
One review included 111 children born to women treated
during pregnancy, who were followed for up to 19 years. All
the children had normal neurological development.86
Another concern is the possibility of secondary malignancies
in exposed children. Avils and Neri followed 84 children to
a median age of 18 years: no secondary malignancies and no
fertility issues were reported.32 Yet, in a case of twin exposure
to cyclophosphamide, 1 infant developed 2 different cancers
(neuroblastoma and thyroid) over his lifetime.28
To date, there is no other large-scale follow-up. A recent
registry reported on well-being of infants born to treated
mothers, but the follow-up period is only a few years.20
Ongoing observation is underway to provide a full and
detailed report in the coming years.
At birth, the placenta should be examined for invasion
of malignant cells. Any infant with placental involvement
should be considered high risk and subsequently monitored.
Cardonick et al. recommend follow-up every 6 months for
at least 2 years, with a focus on the primary malignancy.
A physical examination, blood chemistry, and chest X-ray
may also be of value.20
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

When considering the treatment of cancer during

pregnancy with chemotherapeutic agents, it is important
to balance maternal and fetal interests Decisions about
the management of cancer in pregnancy should be made
individually for each patient after careful consideration of
cancer type, cancer stage, gestational age, maternal and
fetal risks, and possible treatment alternatives.
Termination of pregnancy may be indicated but will not
be acceptable in all cases for social and sometimes religious
reasons. Furthermore, most evidence does not suggest
increased maternal survival following therapeutic abortion.87
If the patient desires the pregnancy, and termination is
not an option, the decision to start chemotherapy during
pregnancy should be weighed against the potential impact
on maternal survival.17 Physicians should discuss the
situation with the pregnant patient and her family, providing
all the information available regarding the malignancy,
possible treatment alternatives, and both maternal and
fetal risks.17 A multidisciplinary team, which includes
276 l MARCH JOGC MARS 2013

the family physician, hematologist and/or oncologist,

obstetrician, social worker, psychologist, and in some cases
religious advisors, should be assembled whenever possible
to optimize the physical and mental well-being of the
woman, her baby, and her family.
Summary Statements and
Recommendations
Summary Statements

1. As women are postponing child-bearing, more of

them are experiencing cancer in pregnancy. (II-2)
2. Chemotherapeutic agents used to combat cancer
cross the placenta and may adversely affect
embryogenesis by affecting cell division. (II-1)
3. Exposure to such agents after the first trimester of
pregnancy has not been associated with increased
risk of malformations but is associated with
increased risk of stillbirth, intrauterine growth
restriction, and fetal toxicities. (II-2)
Recommendations

1. The health care provider should examine the

patients risk of pregnancy and desire to prevent
pregnancy during chemotherapy. (I-A)
2. Decisions about the best course of management
in pregnancy, including timing of delivery, should
balance maternal and fetal risks. Most authorities
concur that maternal health and well-being must
prevail. (I-A)
3. Women diagnosed with cancer in pregnancy should
be optimally managed by a multidisciplinary team
that includes oncologists and/or hematologists
(depending on the malignancy), perinatologists,
family physicians, psychologists, social workers, and
spiritual advisors, if sought by the family. (I-A)
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