Name Taylor Palm

Section Wednesday Lab

Group Members Bill Cornelius
Effects of Varying Added Ingredients, Temperatures, Manipulation, Freshness and Part of Egg Used on
Various Recipes Using Eggs
Purpose of Experiment
The purpose of this experiment was to investigate the effects on the final products of hard
cooked eggs, poached eggs, scrambled eggs, baked and stirred custards, hollandaise sauce, and egg
white foams due to the alteration of factors such as temperature, manipulation, freshness, acidity, added
ingredients and part of egg used (white v. whole egg). These experiments will determine how altering
these factors will change objective measurements such as line spread, percent sag, cook time, drainage,
and syneresis as well as subjective measurements such as flavor, tenderness, appearance, and color of
the products.
Introduction
Whether it came before or after the chicken, there is no denying the versatility and diverse
functional properties of the humble egg. Alone, the egg can be cooked in numerous ways, three of which
are hard cooked, poached and scrambled. As an integral ingredient, eggs have an important role in the
recipes of stirred and baked custard, hollandaise sauce and egg white foams. The success of these
products relies on a multitude of factors including temperature of cooking, added ingredients,
manipulation, the part of the egg used and freshness of the egg. Modification of any of these factors can
result in structural changes and altered flavors, textures, colors and appearances.
Freshness or lack of freshness of eggs is most exposed in the making of a hard cooked egg.
When peeled, the air space and position of the yolk can be seen. A larger air space means more CO2 and
water have been expelled and the inner shell membrane has been pulled in (Simpers, 2015). This
indicates an older egg. If the egg yolk is positioned in the center of the egg, this indicates there is more
thick white and the egg is fresher. The yolk sunken to one side means there is more thin white and the
egg is older. An undesirable property in hard cooked eggs is a green ferrous sulfide ring around the egg
yolk. This can be a result of using an older egg with an increased pH due to loss of CO2, from being
cooked too long or from being cooled too slowly. Finally hard cooked eggs must achieve an appropriate
egg white texture. The final temperature of the egg and the temperature of the water can affect the egg
1

white. Steaming or simmering eggs creates a more tender coagulated egg white than boiling for the same
period of time (McWilliams, 2012a, p. 380).
A poached egg can be affected by egg freshness, additives in poaching water and the mechanics
of placing in the water. A perfect poached egg has a yolk that is not quite set and a compact, congealed
white pulled together due to its ovomucin protein (Simpers, 2015). Acid added to poaching water brings
the pH closer to the isoelectric point, where a protein coagulates. This can make coagulation occur faster
and reduce the spread of egg white. Salt added to the poaching water can dissociate to Na+ and Cl- to
help neutralize charges in the protein, aiding coagulation of the egg. Done correctly, physically swirling
the poaching water into a whirl pool can mechanically bring the white together and reduce its spread.
The yolk of a fresh egg should stay together while poaching. An older eggs vitelline membrane
surrounding the yolk may not be strong enough allowing the yolk to break (McWilliams, 2012a, p. 381).
Scrambled eggs are evaluated based on tenderness and syneresis. Scrambled eggs are often
combined with milk to dilute the proteins and create a more tender scrambled egg. Proper mixing of
milk, yolk and albumin is necessary to create a uniform color. Syneresis is a result of overcooking. As
the eggs cook the bonds between the proteins become stronger and draw together. This will force liquid
out, creating syneresis (McWilliams, 2012a, p. 382).
Stirred and baked custard rely on the thickening properties of eggs (Simpers, 2015.) These
desserts are made with milk and sugar. Stirred custards are stirred during cooking resulting in a sol. If
baked, the custard becomes a gel. The mineral salts in the milk as well as the added salt in the recipe
helps the proteins in the egg coagulate to thicken the custard. Altering various ingredients in the recipe
result in a change of the setting temperature and therefore the time needed to cook the custard. A custard
made with only egg whites will set much quicker. This is due to the fact that there is much less iron to
bind ovotransferrin, the protein which determines setting temperature, because the majority of iron
resides in the yolk. A custard made with all yolks will require a higher temperature to set because the
ovotransferrin will be stabilized by the abundance of iron and resist coagulation (Simpers, 2015).
Increasing the amount of milk or sugar will dilute the amount of protein within the mixture. This will
raise the temperature required to set the custard. Additionally, heating the custard faster means a higher
final temperature should be reached but it will not need to cook for as long. Higher heat can lead to
overcooking which will result in curdling or breaking (McWilliams, 2012a, p. 378).
Eggs used in a hollandaise sauce acts as an emulsifier as well as a thickening agent. Since a
hollandaise sauce is hot sol, it is important to thicken and emulsify without having the egg scramble in
the mixture. An ideal hollandaise will contain coagulated egg proteins that do not form large aggregated
2

pieces. The acid in a hollandaise sauce, traditionally lemon juice, is used to lower the pH of the mixture
in order to bring it closer to the isoelectric point. This can help coagulate the egg proteins at a lower
temperature which can prevent curdling (McWilliams, 2012a, p. 378).
Egg foams are fluffy mixtures made with whipped egg whites. Many factors affect the stability
and volume of an egg foam. Cold egg whites will have greater surface tension and create a foam with
less volume (Lomakina & Mikova, 2006). A foam made with more thin white has more volume and
foams more quickly, while a foam with more thick white will take longer to foam but will be more stable
(Simpers, 2015). Several additives can have a major impact. Adding acid, usually cream of tartar, will
provide more H+ ions to regulate sulfur bonds. This creates a more stable foam but with less volume. It
also hinders foam if added too early. Adding sugar to a foam thickens the egg whites and makes it more
stable. Less drainage will occur when sugar is present. If added too early, the foam will not form as
quickly and the volume will be reduced due to its interference in protein denaturation. Added salt will
interfere with protein bonding, reducing stability and increasing time required to whip the foam. Added
fat will ruin a foam. It will interfere and compete with proteins and result in a foam with very little if any
volume. Time itself affects the stability and volume of a foam. Increased whip time increases stability
and volume to a point. Overbeating will decrease the foams stability and volume creating a dry foam.
The equipment used to beat the foam will also affect volume. An electric mixer can create a lot of
volume, however, the risk of overbeating is increased (McWilliams, 2012a, p. 384).
In order to determine the effects of the altered ingredients and factors, several variations of each
recipe were created and compared using subjective and objective evaluations. The specific recipes made
and discussed in this report were the deteriorated, 95C, 20 minute hard cooked egg, the poached egg
with acid in water, the scrambled eggs made with egg substitute (egg beaters), the baked custard with 2x
sugar, the hollandaise with added acid, and the egg foam made with room temperature egg whites. Of
the hard cooked eggs, none of the variations were particularly successful but the deteriorated, 95C, 20
minute version was the least desirable due to its ferrous sulfide ring, rubbery texture and the position of
the yolk. Of the poached eggs, the version that swirled the water had a perfectly runny yolk with a nicely
coagulated white. The version with the added salt was least desirable not because of the salt but because
it was overcooked leaving the yolk solid and not runny. Of the scrambled eggs, the version cooked in a
double boiler was the most successful due to its soft, creamy texture. The least successful variation was
the variation cooked at 325F as it was dry and crumbly. Of the stirred custards the control cooked to
84C was the most successful as it was creamy and sweet. The yolks only variation was the least
successful due to its pronounced and overwhelming egg flavor. Of the baked custards, the 2x sugar was
3

the most successful with a creamy texture and increased sweetness. The control baked custard was the
least successful as it was completely liquid instead of a thick, creamy custard. Of the hollandaise sauce
variations, the control was the most successful as it had a nice fluffy texture and appropriate levels of
acidic flavors. The least successful was the sauce made with vinegar due to is highly astringent vinegar
flavor that was highly unappealing. Of the egg white foams, the version with the hot sugar syrup was the
most successful as it had nice volume, low drainage and had an appealing glossy shine. The least
successful was the less voluminous foam made with eggs at refrigerator temperature. This was not very
stable resulting in a high amount of drainage.
Eggs are an inexpensive source of high quality protein, but can be off putting in color, flavor or
tenderness if they are not fresh or if they are cooked incorrectly. Determining the best uses and methods
of egg preperation can open up a more diverse repertoire of egg recipes for those who may rely on them
as a staple protein source like vegetarians and those with financial constraints. From a clinical
perspective, it is also important to understand the function of eggs in a variety of dishes in order to tailor
recipes for those with egg allergies or patients on a low protein diet. (Lomakina & Mikova, 2006)
Materials and Methods
For the hard cooked eggs, the deteriorated, 95C, 20 minute version was used. This variation was
made with water and deteriorated eggs. Table 1 indicates the recipe used. The equipment used was a 1-qt
heavy sauce pan, a ring stand with a thermometer, a slotted spoon, and a stove top. A liquid cup
measurer was used for measuring. To make the hard cooked eggs, 2 cups of water was heated in a 1-qt
heavy sauce pan to 95C. Two deteriorated eggs were added to the heated water with a slotted spoon.
The water was maintained at 95C as the eggs cooked for 20 minutes. After 20 minutes elapsed, the eggs
were removed using the slotted spoon. One egg was cooled at room temperature. The second egg was
cooled under a stream of cold running water for 3 minutes. The 1-qt heavy sauce pan was filled with
cold water. After the 3 minutes, the egg that had been under cold running water was placed inside the 1qt heavy sauce pan filled with cold water. The water was changed when it became warm. When the eggs
were cool, they were carefully peeled and cut in half lengthwise. The halves were plated on labeled
plates. The yolk of one half was removed and placed cut side down so the outer curved portion was
facing upward. Both the fast cooled and room temperature cooled hard cooked eggs were observed for
the location of the yolk within the white, the size of the air space and flavor. (McWilliams, 2012b,
p.177)

Hard Cooked Egg Recipe

Ingredient
Quantity Used
Water
2c
Deteriorated Eggs
2 ct.
Table 1. Ingredients and quantities in recipe for deteriorated, 95C, 20 minute hard cooked eggs

For the poached egg experiment, the variation with acid in water was used. The ingredients
included water, eggs, and vinegar. Table 2 lists the ingredients and amounts used in the recipe. The
equipment used was the stove top, a 1-qt heavy sauce pan, a saucer, a slotted spoon, and a stove top. A
liquid cup measurer and a tsp measuring spoon was used for measuring. To make the poached eggs, 2
cups of water and 1 tsp of vinegar were brought to a boil in a 1-qt heavy sauce pan. The egg was broken
into a saucer. The egg was gently slid into the boiling water from the saucer. A high simmer was
maintained for 3 minutes without boiling. After 3 minutes, the egg was immediately removed with a
slotted spoon. The poached egg was then plated and served. Subjective evaluation was conducted for
appearance of yolk, consistency of white, tenderness and flavor. (McWilliams, 2012b, p. 183)
Ingredient
Water
Egg
Vinegar

Poached Eggs Recipe

Quantity Used
2c
1 ct.
1 tsp

Table 2. Ingredients and quantities in recipe for poached eggs made with acid in water.

For the scrambled eggs, the variation with egg substitute (egg beaters) was used. The recipe
called for eggs, milk, salt and margarine. Table 3 lists the ingredients and quantities used. The equipment
used was a small frying pan, a glass bowl, a whisk, a spatula, a stove top, filter paper and a funnel. A
gram scale and graduated cylinder were used for measuring. To make this recipe, the 48 g of egg
substitute and 9 g of margarine were measured on a gram scale. A graduated cylinder was used to
measure 15 ml of milk. The milk, egg substitute, and a dash of salt were added to a glass bowl and
gently beaten with a whisk. The margarine was melted in a small frying pan on medium high heat until
the pan was hot but the fat was not smoking. The egg mixture was added to the frying pan and cooked at
medium high heat. During cooking, the egg mixture was stirred slowly to scrape egg in large pieces
from the bottom and sides of pan. The cooking time was noted. The cooked scrambled eggs were
transferred to a funnel lined with filter paper positioned above a graduated cylinder. The eggs were
drained in the funnel for 10 minutes. After 10 minutes, the eggs were plated and served. The scrambled
eggs were objectively measured for syneresis and cook time and subjectively evaluated for appearance
and tenderness. (McWilliams, 2012b, p.31)
5

Scrambled Egg Recipe

Ingredient
Quantity Used
Egg Substitute
48 g
Milk
15 ml
Salt
Dash (1/16 tsp)
Margarine
9g
Table 3. Ingredients and quantities in recipe for scrambled eggs made with egg substitute

In the baked custard experiment, the variation with double sugar was used. The ingredients used
for the baked custard were milk, egg, sugar and salt. Additionally, water was used for creating a water
bath. Table 4 lists the ingredients and quantities used in the baked custard recipe. The equipment used
was an oven, a glass bowl, a whisk, 3 custard cups, a cake pan, a strainer and a 1-qt heavy sauce pan. A
gram scale and graduated cylinder were used for measuring. The oven was preheated to 177C and water
was boiled in a 1-qt heavy sauce pan. Next, the ingredients were measured. The 355 ml of milk, 72 g of
egg, 76 g of sugar and a dash of salt were combined in a glass bowl and whisked until blended. The
mixture was then strained using a strainer to remove the chalazae. After straining, the mixture was
divided equally into three custard cups. The custard cups were arranged in a cake pan and placed in the
preheated oven. The boiling water from the 1-qt heavy sauce pan was poured into the cake pan to the
level of the custards. The time and temperature of the custard was recorded at the beginning of baking
and again every 10 minutes throughout the baking period. One custard was removed when it reached an
internal temperature of 80C, one was removed at 84C and one at 88C. After baking, the baked custards
were evaluated for percent sag. They were then plated, served and subjectively evaluated for color,
consistency, and flavor. (McWilliams, 2012b, p. 187)

Ingredient
Milk
Egg
Sugar
Salt

Baked Custard Recipe

Quantity Used
355 ml
72 g
76 g
Dash (1/12 tsp)

Table 4. Ingredients and quantities in recipe for baked custard made with double sugar.

In the hollandaise sauce experiment, the variation with added acid was used. The ingredients
used for the hollandaise sauce were margarine, egg yolks, hot water, lemon juice and salt. Table 5 lists
the ingredients and quantities used in the hollandaise sauce recipe. The equipment used was a double
boiler, a stove top, a ring stand with a thermometer, a 1-qt heavy sauce pan, a wooden spoon, a glass
bowl, a whisk, and 3 custard cups. A gram scale and graduated cylinder were used for measuring. In the
6

1-qt heavy sauce pan, water was heated; 60 ml was removed to be used as hot water for the recipe. The
rest of the ingredients were then measured. The double boiler was set up on a stove top with enough
water in the bottom portion to create steam without touching the top portion of the double boiler. The
112 g of margarine was melted in the top part of the double boiler. Once melted, the double boiler with
the margarine was removed from the heat. The thermometer attached to the ring stand was inserted into
the margarine. The margarine was left to cool until it reached 65C. While the margarine cooled, 68 g of
yolks were placed in a glass bowl and beat with a whisk. Once the margarine had cooled to the proper
temperature, the whisked egg yolks were stirred into the margarine thoroughly. The 60 ml of hot water,
60 ml of lemon juice and 1 g of salt were then stirred into the margarine and egg yolk mixture. The
double boiler was then returned to the stove top and slowly heated until the water in the bottom was
simmering. The pH of the egg yolk and margarine mixture was noted. The sauce was stirred
continuously while it was heated. Approximately of the sauce was removed and placed in its own
custard cup at each of the following temperatures: 68C, 72C, and 76C. By 76C, the sauce had curdled
and no further heating was required. Each sample removed at the three different temperatures were
assessed via a line spread. They were then plated and subjectively measured for appearance, flavor and
color (McWilliams, 2012b, p. 199).
Hollandaise Sauce Recipe
Ingredient
Quantity Used
Margarine
112 g
Egg Yolk
68 g
Hot water
60 ml
Lemon Juice
60 ml
Salt
1g
Table 5. Ingredients and quantities in recipe for hollandaise sauce made with added acid.

In the egg white foams experiment, the variation with egg whites at room temperature was used.
The only ingredient used was 33 g of room temperature egg whites. Table 6 lists the ingredient and
quantities used in the egg white foam recipe. The equipment used was a glass bowl, filter paper and a
funnel, a rubber spatula, a 100 ml graduated cylinder, a metal skewer, ruler, and an electric mixer. A
gram scale was used for measuring. The 33 g of egg whites were measured on a gram scale, placed into
a small glass bowl and allowed time to come up to room temperature. A funnel lined with filter paper set
up to drain into a 100 ml graduated cylinder was then prepared. The room temperature egg whites were
then beat using the electric mixer. The egg whites were beaten until the peaks just bent over when the
foam was pulled up with a rubber spatula. The time to beat the foam was noted. With the rubber spatula,
the foam was quickly and gently transferred to the funnel. A metal skewer was inserted vertically into
7

the foam so that the tip of the skewer was even with the upper end of the stem of the funnel. The place
on the skewer was noted to measure the upper most part of the foam with a ruler. The foam height was
also measured via the metal skewer and ruler along the funnel edge and averaged with the first
measurement. The drainage into the 100 ml graduated cylinder was recorded. The egg white foam was
then put out on display for subjective evaluation of its texture (McWilliams, 2012b, p. 203)
Egg White Foam Recipe
Ingredient
Quantity Used
Egg Whites
33 g
Table 6. Ingredients and quantities in recipe for egg white foam made with room temperature egg whites.

Results
The hard cooked egg variation made with deteriorated eggs cooked at 95C for 20 minutes
resulted in a subpar product. In the fast cool egg, the yolk was not centered within the egg. It was
crumbly, light yellow inside and had a light green ferrous ring. The white was firm and bright, but thin
on the one side where the yolk had sunk. In the room temperature cool version, the yolk had a darker
green ferrous ring. It was very crumbly and even less centered as it was more sunken to the side of the
egg white. The white was less bright and more rubbery. It had a yellower color and a very thin spot
where the uncentered yolk had sunk. It also had an imprint of the large air cell. Table 7 details the
objective and subjective evaluations of all variations of hard cooked eggs made.
Hard Cooked Egg
Variations
1. Fresh, 95C, 30 minute

Fast Cool
Yolk
Crumbly with some green;
yolk not centered
Green outside, positioned in
the center

White
Bright white, little
rubbery
White and firm

3. Deteriorated, 95C, 20
minute

Crumbly, light yellow, light

green color outside; sunk to
one side of the white

Nice white except

thin on one side,
firm

4. Fresh, boiling, 13
minute

Yellow, undercooked,
centered in egg

White and bright

2. Fresh, 95C, 20 minute

Room Temperature Cool

Yolk
White
Less green
Thin spot, less
bright
Light green
Firmer, white
outside, soft
looking
Darker green
Less bright, more
ring, very
rubbery, a bit
crumbly, even
yellow, very
more sunken to
think spot where
the side of the
yolk dropped,
egg white
evident air cell
Bit of green ring,
White is slightly
fully cooked, in
less bright but still
the middle of egg
normal looking

The poached egg variation made with a fresh egg and acid added to the water resulted in a tender
poached egg with a perfectly runny yolk. The white was solid but with some pieces around. The flavor
was of fresh eggs with a

Table 7. Subjective evaluation of hard cooked egg variations

hint of vinegar. Table 8 details the subjective measures of each variation of poached egg made.
8

Poached Egg Variations

A. Fresh
C. Fresh with salt in
water
E. Fresh with acid in
water
I. Fresh; swirling water

Appearance of
Yolk
Perfectly runny

Consistency of White
Very white, little broken up

Over cooked

Broken apart, not together

Tenderness

Perfectly
White, solid but some pieces around
runny
it
Perfectly runny
Very nicely together, no pieces
Table 8. Subjective evaluation of poached egg variations

Very tender,
chewy
Not tender
enough
Perfectly
tender
Tender

Flavor
Nice egg flavor
Egg
Slight vinegar, tastes
like a fresh egg
Egg

The scrambled egg variation made with egg beaters as a substitute egg were bright yellow and
wet. They were tender and soft. Objectively, they cooked in 1 minute and 27 seconds. They gave off 5
ml of liquid from syneresis. Table 9 details the subjective and objective measures of each variation of
scrambled egg made.
Scrambled Egg Variations

Syneresis (ml)

a. 200F

Cooking
Time
1 min

1.5

Pale, yellow

Tender

b. 325F
c. Fast stir
d. Double boiler

4 min
2 min
4 min

7
1
2.5

Yellow, crumbly
Very dry
Darker yellow

Dry, not tender

Not tender
Very tender

2 min

Rubbery

5 min
1 min, 27
seconds
>1 min

9
5

Distinction between yellow of

yolk and white
Very white, fluffy, soft looking
Bright yellow, wet

Crumbly

Tender

e. No milk
f. 2x milk
h. Substitute Type: Egg
Beaters
i. Omega-3

Appearance

Table 10 details the results of the various types of stirred custards made.

Table 9. Subjective and objective evaluation of scrambled egg variations

Tenderness

Tender
Very tender, soft

Stirred Custard

Cook Time

Color and Consistency

4 min 30 sec

White, watery

5 min 30 sec

Flavor

Line-spread

1. Control
80C
84C

88 C

Curd, 90 C

N/A

White, thicker

Not overly eggy, sweet

custard
XXX

6 min 25 sec

White, thickest

XXX

N/A

6 min 30sec

White, broken chunks

XXX

10.5

N/A

2. Boiling Water
80C

N/A

84C

N/A

Not too eggy, nice

sweet flavor
XXX

N/A

N/A

Pale yellow, thin and

creamy
Pale yellow, less thin,
creamy
Pale yellow, thicker

XXX

N/A

Directly after reaching

final temperature

Pale yellow, broken

curds

XXX

N/A

80C

16 min

Darker yellow, creamy

Very eggy flavor

N/A

84 C

28 min

Darker yellow, thicker

XXX

N/A

88 C

32 min

XXX

N/A

Curd, 88C

34 min

Darker yellow, even

thicker
Darker yellow, very
broken

XXX

Cooked milk, less

pronounced egg flavor
XXX

N/A

88C

Curd, 88 C

N/A

3. Yolks Only

4. Whites Only
80C

23 min

84C

30 min

Much whiter color,

spongy, runny
White, slightly thicker

88 C

N/A

White, thick

XXX

N/A

Curd, N/A

N/A

N/A

XXX

N/A

N/A

Table 10. Subjective and objective evaluation of stirred custard variations

The baked custard made with 2x sugar resulted in an egg flavored, extremely sweet product. The
baked custard removed from the oven at 80C had 26.1% sag with a creamy, smooth surface. Its color
and consistency was light, soft and creamy. The baked custard removed from the oven at 84C had
24.1% sag with a less smooth surface with some depressions. Its color and consistency was thicker with
some browning. The baked custard removed from the oven at 88C had 32.4% sag with a surface
covered with many depressions and craters. Its color and consistency was browner and very firm. Table
11 details the subjective and objective evaluations of each variation of baked custard made.

Baked Custard

% Sag

Surface

10

Color and Consistency

Flavor

Variations
1. Control, 177C
80C

Unavailable due
to constancy
Unavailable due
to constancy
Unavailable due
to constancy

Liquid

Pale yellow/white, wet

Sweet

Liquid

Pale yellow/white, wet

XXX

Liquid

Pale yellow/white, wet

XXX

3. No Sugar
80C

12.5

Liquid, slightly broken

White, fluid

84C
88C

30
37.5

Firmer, some craters

Most firmer, more
craters/depression

Thicker, with more shape to it

Thickest, hold shape well

More eggy, not

sweet enough
XXX
XXX

3. 2x Sugar
80C

26.1

Creamy, smooth

Light, soft, creamy

84C

24.1

Some browning, thicker

88C

32.4

Less smooth with

some depressions
Many depressions
and craters

Eggy and
extremely sweet
XXX

Very firm, more brown

XXX

4. 2x Egg
80C

13

84C
88C

8.5
0

84C
88C

Smooth, few
Creamy, light
depressions/craters
More depressions
Browner, thicker
Lots of depressions
Less creamy, more brown
Table 11. Subjective evaluation of baked custard variations

Very pronounced
egg flavor
XXX
XXX

The hollandaise sauce with added acid resulted in a very acidic, lemon flavored sauce. It was a
pale yellow with a pH of 3. The version cooked to 68C was thinner and slightly broken. The version
cooked to 72C was thick and broken with a .3 cm line spread. The version cooked to 76C was
extremely broken with a 1.2 cm line spread. Table 12 details the subjective and objective evaluations of
each variation of hollandaise sauce made.

Hollandaise Sauce

pH

Appearance

Flavor

11

Color

Line-

Variations
1. Control (lemon juice, citric acid)
68C
4
Light, fluffy

spread
Light lemon,
eggy
XXX
XXX

Pale yellow

XXX

XXX
XXX

2
2

Yellow

XXX

XXX
XXX

N/A
N/A

72C
XXX
76C
XXX
2. Vinegar (acetic acid)
68C
3

Little broken
Very broken

72C
76C
3. Added Acid
68C

XXX
XXX

Broken
Most broken

Strong,
unappealing
vinegar taste
XXX
XXX

XXX

XXX
XXX

Very acidic
and lemony
XXX
XXX

Pale yellow

72C
76C
4. Added yolk
68C
72C
76C

Thinner, slightly
broken
Thick, broken
Extremely broken

XXX
XXX

.3 cm
1.2 cm

5
XXX
XXX

Thin, bright yellow

Thicker
Thick paste, broken

Very eggy
XXX
XXX

Darker yellow
XXX
XXX

XXX
N/A
N/A

Paler yellow, slightly

broken

Table 12. Subjective and objective evaluation of Hollandaise Sauce variations

The egg white foam variation made with room temperature eggs took 1 minute and 34 seconds to
whip up. The volume was 77.5 cm and the drainage was 10 ml. The texture was fluffy with a nice
amount of volume. Table 13 details the subjective and objective evaluations of each variation of egg
white foams made.
Egg White Foams Variations
Time (min)
Volume (mm)
Texture
1a. Rotary
N/A
N/A
Foamy
1c. Conventional Electric
N/A
N/A
Foamy, nice peaks
Mixer
2d. Sugar, beginning
N/A
N/A
Nice and shiny, less volume
2e. Sugar, end
N/A
N/A
More stable, shiny, stiff
2g. Sugar, hot syrup
7
N/A
Shiny, stiff peaks
3b. Acid, tsp cream of tartar
N/A
N/A
Fluffy and foamy
6a. Temperature, room
1:34
77.5
Fluffy, good amount of volume
6b. Temperature, refrigerator
4
4.5
Fluffy, less volume
Table 13. Subjective and objective evaluation of Egg white foam variations

Drainage (ml)
N/A
N/A
14
10
5
21
10
24 ml

Discussion
The specific variations of recipes resulted in some expected and some unexpected changes.
Beginning with the hard cooked eggs, the deteriorated, 95C, 20 minute variation had expected results.
Since the egg was not fresh, the increase in thin white that occurred with aging caused the yolk to no
longer be centered. The aging process also causes a loss of CO2 which increases alkalinity and the
creation of ferrous sulfide ring (McWilliams, 2012a, p. 380). These shortcomings were worse in the
room temperature cooled option due to overcooking from being held at a warmer temperature for longer.
12

This also accounts for the white being more overdone and rubbery when cooled at room temp opposed
to a fast cooling which will quickly stop further cooking. The fresh, 95C, 30 minute hard cooked eggs
yolk was not centered, suggesting the egg used was not actually fresh. A fresh egg would have a
centered egg yolk. The yolk was crumbly with a light ferrous sulfide ring which means it was either over
cooked, not cooled quick enough or it is further evidence that the egg was not actually fresh. The fresh,
95C, 20 minute eggs yolk was positioned in the center indicating that it was in fact a fresh egg. The fast
cool and room temperature cooled variations both had a light ferrous sulfide ring meaning they were
probably over cooked or not cooled fast enough. The final variation was the fresh, boiling, 13 minute
egg. The centered yolk meant the egg was fresh. Despite being boiled instead of simmered, the fast
cooled eggs yolk was undercooked due to the reduced cook time. The room temperature eggs yolk was
fully cooked and had a light ferrous sulfide ring due to carry over cooking as it cooled slowly.
(McWilliams, 2012a, p. 380).
For the poached eggs, the fresh egg with acid in water was pretty successful. The yolk was
perfectly runny and stayed together indicating it was indeed a fresh egg. The white was nicely congealed
but had some feathering occur. Acid aids the coagulation of the whites by bringing the poaching water
closer to the eggs isoelectric point. The acid, therefore, should have helped to avoid the feathering and
spread but it is possible there was not enough acid added. As for the flavor, the vinegar taste was very
slightly detectable in the egg and would have probably been masked had there been some salt added.
The control fresh eggs white turned out similarly to the one with acid added. However, this is expected
since there was nothing in the poaching water stopping the white from feathering a bit. The white was
tender but chewy, indicating that it was cooked a bit too long. The variation with salt in the water should
have had nicely congealed egg whites because the salt dissociates in to Na+ and Cl- which neutralize
protein charges. The fact that the white was broken apart could indicate that the egg was not fresh. An
older egg has more thin albumen which could spread more while poaching creating the feathered edges.
The yolk was also solid and not runny due to being overcooked. Finally, the variation with swirling
water promoted the most congealed egg white. The mechanical swirling creates a whirlpool which helps
keep the white together. This is why no feathering occurred. (McWilliams, 2012a, p. 381).
For the scrambled eggs, those made with the substitute eggs (egg beaters) turned out as expected.
Substitute eggs are made with egg whites and synthesized yolk (McWilliams, 2012a, p. 387). The color
of the product was bright yellow, meaning enough carotenoids were included in the egg beaters to
simulate the color lost from the absence of the yolk. Without the actual yolk, the setting temperature was
lower since the egg beaters are mostly egg white. That explains why the cook time was among the
13

lowest in all of the variations. With that said, they were a bit wet and lost a decent amount of liquid to
syneresis which implies that perhaps they could have cooked a bit longer. The 200F variation acted as a
control. The temperature was adequate for cooking the proteins to a tender consistency. For the 325F
variation, the high temperature caused the proteins to coagulate more quickly. The tighter bonds
squeezed out more water resulting in a dry product. This could possibly be avoided if the cook time was
very quick, however, being cooked for a full 4 minutes would not allow for any tenderness. This is why
the product was crumbly and dry. For the fast stir method, more mechanical manipulation was
incorporated which can accelerate the coagulation. That would account for why these eggs were very
dry. A reduced cook time may have prevented the dryness. For the double boiler method, this method of
cooking provides soft, gentle heat from steam. A lower temperature of cooking was why it took a much
longer time to cook. Since the heat was so low the proteins did not bond too quickly and force out liquid
resulting in the tender product that was made. For the no milk variation, the eggs had nothing to dilute
the proteins. Without dilution, the mixture of eggs quickly became rubbery due to overheating. The
distinction between the colors of the egg is a result of under mixing the eggs prior to cooking. For the 2x
milk variation, the proteins were very diluted which promoted a lot of tenderness. However, the excess
liquid also promoted the high degree of syneresis as the proteins drew together. Finally the omega-3
eggs, appeared crumbly but were surprisingly tender. These eggs are created by feeding the hens that lay
them a diet high in omega-3s (Egg Nutrition Center, 2015). Omega-3 eggs have roughly .3g more of the
polyunsaturated fat than ordinary eggs. (McWilliams, 2012a, p. 368) Realistically, this isnt a very big
difference. There is no noticeable effect that seems to be related to the PUFA content. The crumbly
texture is most likely due to an error in the cooking process or not enough liquid being added causing
the proteins to coagulate more. Since the cook time was so low, this is probably how tenderness was
maintained.
For stirred custards, the ideal product is a pale yellow creamy sol. This should have been
observed in the control. What was actually observed was a white and watery product. This could be due
to not cooking the custard long enough or failure to accurately read the thermometer. Several additional
minutes could have helped coagulate the proteins better. The variation made with boiling water instead
of milk resulted in a nice, creamy product. Hypothetically, without milk, the stirred custard should have
cooked more quickly since adding milk increases the coagulation temperature. The mineral salts from
milk also help to form a gel, however, since this was only brought to a sol, the consistency was not
affected. The stirred custard made with only yolks had a very eggy flavor due to the stronger flavor of
the yolks. It also took a longer time to cook due to the fact that egg yolks take longer to set. The darker
14

color is due to extra carotenes added from the yolk, producing a darker yellow, almost orange color. In
the version made with only egg whites, the cook time should have been much quicker since it takes less
time to coagulate egg whites. However, since it took a longer time to cook these stirred custards, it is
possible they were cooked over a lower heat which extended the cook time. Without the carotene from
the yolks, this custard was very white. It also was overpowered by the milk flavor since egg whites are
more delicate in flavor than yolks. In each of the four variations made, reaching higher temperatures
(80C, 84C, 88C) made the stirred custards thicker as the proteins coagulated more. Eventually, when
the custards reached too high of a temperature, the protein bonds tightened too much, pushing out water,
causing the custards to curdle (McWilliams, 2012a, p. 378).
Next, the baked custard made with 2x sugar was extremely sweet in comparison to the other
variations due to the additional sugar. It was still creamy at 80C, however, as it heated further, it became
the most firm of the baked custard variations made. This would be due to the hygroscopic nature of
sugar (Yeomans, 2015). With double sugar, more of the liquid in the custard is absorbed, which made it
more dense and firm. This custard also took quite a long time to cook due to the sugar increasing the
temperature required for coagulation. It also had a considerable amount of coloration due to nonenzymatic browning caramelization and Maillard reaction, which was encouraged by the additional
sugar. The percent sag observed makes sense as the lowest temperature had more sag than the second
lowest since more coagulation occurred, which made a thicker product. While the baked custard cooked
to the highest temperature should have the least sag, it actually had the most. This is possibly due to
human error in unequally dividing the custard into the cups or misreading the temperature on the
thermometer. The control baked custard should have been creamy and thick, however, it turned out
completely liquid at every temperature. This implies the proteins did not coagulate at all. This could be
due to not enough egg being added which would not provide enough protein needed to coagulate.
Alternatively, this is most likely due to human error in failure to correctly read the thermometer. In the
next variation, no sugar was added. Without the sugar, the custard was not nearly sweet enough. Since
sugar increases the coagulation temperature, these custards would require less time to bake. The custards
also had less browning because there was no sugar which decreased the non-enzymatic browning. The
percent sag noted showed much more sag in the thickest custard at 88C. By appearance, it was clear this
custard was the thickest and should have sagged the least. This was possibly due to an error in math.
Finally, the 2x egg variation resulted in an unsurprisingly strong egg flavor. The percent sag of this
variation turned out as expected with an inverse relation to the temperature. With more protein from
adding more egg, there would be an increased thickening power since more coagulation and bonding
15

could form. With proportionally less milk and sugar, the setting temperature may have decreased a bit
since these increase it. This could be cancelled out, though, by the fact that there is more protein from
the extra egg to coagulate. There was also significant browning in this variation because of increased
non-enzymatic browning. Specifically, the Maillard reaction increased with the extra protein
(McWilliams, 2012a, p. 378).
The next experiment was a hollandaise sauce with an egg yolk used as a thickener. In the
variation with added acid, every temperature resulted in a broken sauce. Since the added acid brought
the pH closer to the isoelectric point, the temperature required for protein denaturation and coagulation
was lower (Simpers, 2015). The broken sauce, thus indicates that the sauce was over cooked as it would
have needed less cook time to bring it to proper temperature. The added acid also had a major effect on
flavor. The sauce was far too lemony and acidic. This sauce performed as expected on the line spread.
As the sauce broke into distinct portions of coagulated protein and margarine, the thin margarine
allowed it to spread more as it continued to curdle more. The next variation, the control, turned out
exactly as expected. The egg thickened the sauce appropriately without creating aggregated pieces of
egg protein when cooked to 68C. Beyond that temperature, it did begin to break simply because the
higher temperature did coagulate the proteins too much. The next variation used vinegar instead of
lemon juice as the acid. It performed very similarly to the added acid as they both had a pH of 3. The
major difference though was the flavor. The vinegar gave the hollandaise a strong, astringent vinegar
taste that was very off putting. Finally, the variation with the added yolk ended up with a very eggy
flavor. Its darker yellow color was the result of the added carotene from the egg yolk. The addition of the
egg yolk brought the pH up to 5, which was the highest of each variation. This kept the sauce acidic
enough to lower the temperature needed to coagulate the egg protein, but not too low that is caused
overcooking. The real drawback of this variation was the over thickening that occurred with the extra
yolk. While the sauce took longer to break, it ended up with a pasty texture from too many coagulated
egg proteins (McWilliams, 2012a, p. 378).
The final experiment looked at egg white foams. The variation made with room temperature egg
whites was fluffy and voluminous especially in comparison to the version made at refrigerator
temperature. Albumin at refrigerator temperatures has more surface tension (Lomakina & Mikova,
2006). The refrigerator whites had less volume because higher surface tension has less stability. That
also explains why the refrigerator whites had significantly more drainage compared to the room
temperature whites. The variation made with acid lowers the pH of the whites, increasing the time
needed to beat it. A longer whipping time that also delays the time taken to over beat allows for a more
16

stable foam. However, this variation did have a lot of drainage (21 ml), which may mean the foam was
not beat long enough to achieve the desired stability or it was left much longer to drain. While it was not
measured, the foam should have had slightly less volume due to the effects of the acid. For the variations
made with either the rotary or the conventional electric mix, the foams created did not appear to differ
much in their stability or fluffiness. In theory, the electric mixer should have produced a more
voluminous foam simply due to its whisk and speed it reaches. However, since they were essentially the
same, the lack of discrepancy insinuates a human error under or overbeating. The three variations
involving sugar added are all noticeably shinier due to the addition of the sugar crystals. The variations
with sugar added at the end and the hot syrup were more voluminous and stable than the variation with
added sugar in the beginning. While sugar enhances the stability when added in the end of beating, if
added in the beginning it will delay the foaming as it restricts protein unfolding and bonding. That is
why the variation with sugar added in the beginning had the most drainage of the three. The variation
with the sugar added in the end is a clear example of how sugar enhances stability. By thickening the
mixture and delaying the foams formation, the whites were able to be beaten longer making it more
stable. This was seen as it has less drainage than the whites with sugar added in the beginning. The egg
white foam with the hot sugar syrup is the most shiny and stable. With the least amount of drainage, the
dissolved hot sugar, was able to bind with water to hold it in the bubble walls longer. The water
evaporation was thus hindered until the coagulation of ovalbumin was complete. (Simpers, 2015)
The results of these experiments proved how integral eggs are in different recipes as well as the
versatility in cooking an egg by itself. Alterations of added ingredients, cook times, final temperatures,
part of the egg used, manipulation and freshness can have noticeable impacts on flavor, appearance, and
texture. In order to cater to those with egg allergies, those on low protein diets or those simply looking
for a palatable, inexpensive source of protein, these factors must be considered in order to create
delicious, successful recipes.
References
Egg Nutrition Center. (2015) Cracking the Egg Code. Available at:
http://www.eggnutritioncenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/ENC-Egg-Label-Infographic.pdf
Lomakina, K. & Mikova, K. (2006). A study of the factors affecting th foaming properties of egg whitea review.
McWilliams, M. (2012) Foods Experimental Perspective (7th ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
McWilliams, M. (2012) Foods Experimental Perspective: Laboratory Manual (8th ed.) Upper Saddle
17

River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Simpers, R. (2015) Eggs. Lecture Notes Online Website:
https://sakai.rutgers.edu/access/content/group/be37b242-f568-4cd7-b11d69e20ce412ae/Eggs.pptx
Yeomans, B. (2015) Sugar Lab Discussion. Lecture presented in Rutgers University, New Brunswick.

18