MYSTICISM

AND

AND

LOGIC

OTHER
ESSAYS

AND

MYSTICISM
LOGIC
AND

ESSAYS

OTHER

BY

BERTRAND

RUSSELL,

SECOND

M.A.,

F.R.S,

IMPRESSION

r1

LONGMANS,
39

GREEN

PATERNOSTER

FOURTH

ROW,

AVENUE

BOMBAY,

"

30TH

CALCUTTA

STREET,
AND

1918
AU

CO.

AND

rights reserved

LONDON
NEW
MADRAS

YORK

PREFACE

following

THE

various

at

the

and

thanks

times,

and

my

for

the

permission

publishers

previous

written

been

have

essays

lished
pubdue

are

to

reprint

to

them.
"

The
Hihhert
in
The

for

Journal

New

"

Worship

Man's

in

included

were

May

Statesman,

"

Co.

Both

The

also

published

written

were

Review

the

in

Quarterly, November,

New

Ethics,

hold

position

the
"

Worship

is

objectivity

in

m.e,

times

good

life which

towards
to

of

less

main,

the

of

and

stress

dogmatic

is

religious

suggested
one

But

the

in

that

which

beliefs,

if

Man's

Free

did

which
of

then

still

essay
be

I
the

attitude

general

those

inward

second

theoretical

that

must

difficulty by

appeared

the

The

than

first

In

with

print),

Longmans,

1903,

'*

identical

evil.

the

for

in

convinced

and

; the

1907.

advocated

quite

not

I feel

now

Itidependent

"

of

out

Messrs.

in 1902

originally in
the

(now
by

Free

The

Mathematics

of

Study

collection

former

Philosophical Essays,
Green

"

and

of

numbers

two

1913.

31,

the

Science

of

**

and

24

Place

in

appeared

in

appeared

The

1914.

"

"

Logic

and

"

July,

Education

Liberal

Mysticism

on

essay

seems

in

adopted

who

have
is

defeat

no

to

be

avoided.
The
was

**

essay
written
The

Work

in

on

in

Mathematics

1901,

and

International
the

Philosophy

and

appeared
Monthly,
of

the
in

under

Mathematics."

an

Metaphysicians
American
the

title
Some

"

zine,
maga**

Recent

points

this

in

These

All

above

follow

in

Oxford
which

Press,

**

collection.
was

early
of
to

in

that

and

1915,

"

Physics

No.

in

appeared
International
M.

Notion

of

F6hx

their

paper
in

Proceedings
and

Knowledge

read

before

their

Proceedings

London,

September,

19 17

for

the

first

of

Scientia,

an

edited

Zanichelli,
"

and

to
was

Knowledge

Description

1910-11.

On

address

*'

1912-13.

by

Messrs.

by

essay

1912,

Aristotelian
for

and

presidential

by

Sense-data

Nicola

November,

July

1914,

monthly

The

"

Society,,
in

Synthesis,

Paris.

the

of

this

Matter

Monist

volume

London,

was

it in

of

Relation

pubhshed

in

the

Scientific

of

lecture

Clarendon

the

include

January,

year's

Alcan,

Society

Acquaintance
a

that

"

Cause

Aristotelian
in

in

Norgate,

and

in

those

Spencer

Philosophical

The

on

Rignano,
and

Bologna,

of

Review

Eugenio

Williams

make

Scientific

On

"

to

published

written

was

partly

but

popular,

by

me

Manchester

essay

work.

to

me

Constituents

"

The

year.

allowed

was

is

pubhshed

was

the

to

tone

Herbert

the

was

Ultimate

The

address

an

"

kindly

has

Its

technical.

more

and

1914,

later

begged

entirely

are

Philosophy

in

Method

of

possible."

as

essays

editor

the

that

somewhat

are

view

footnotes.

romantic

as

the

that

at

"

article

fact

the

by

explained
the

in

indicated

are

in

modification

require

essay

LOGIC

AND

MYSTICISM

vi

Society,

"

was

and

the
the

lished
pubby
also

lished
pub-

CONTENTS

PAGB

CHKT.

^IJ

Mysticism

Logic

and

i
.

11.

Place

The

Science

of

in

Education

Liberal

33

/ffi?
Free

IV.

Man's

The

Stvdy

46

Worship

58

Mathematics

of

V.

fVl.

VIL

VI

IL

(ix.

X.

Mathematics

On

Method

Scientific

The

Ultimate

The

Relation

On

the

Knowledge

Metaphysicians

the

and

in

Constituents

of

by

Philosophy

97

Matter

of

Sense-data

of

Notion

74

to

125

Physics

145

180

Cause

Acquaintance

and

Knowledge

by

".

Description

209
.

MYSTICISM

AND

AND

OTHER

ESSAYS

MYSTICISM

AND

METAPHYSICS,

the

or

world

as

Some

science.
of

alone

for

co-exists

science

the

greatest

the

need

to

harmonise

always

the

piust,

philosophy,
science

or

Before

to

for

attempting

them

examples

achieved.
and

Plato.

of

its

them

the

their

hostility

insight.

the

felt

attempt

life,and

thing

But

have

uncertainty,

greater

other

impulse

strong

philosophers

made

men

through

scientific

mysticism

of

towards

through

mystic

arduous
a

urging

one

been

than

what
make

either

religion.

and

lies

the

Blake

been

what

minds,

some

conflict

the

in

and

was

all

and

greatness

profound

have

two

scientific

by

with

of science

both

union

others

while

who

men

has

urging

example,

the

thought,

achieved

alone,

impulses

reigns quite unchecked,

to

other

have

Hume,

in

the

conceive

to

of

means

impulses,

the

men

these

by

human

mysticism,

towards

LOGIC

attempt

first, by

the

different

very

one

whole

from

developed,
two

LOGIC

in
The

the

the

an

mystical
from
very

two

explicit

two

characterisation

impulses,

philosophers

whose
which

blending
I

mean

are

the

illustrate

will

philosophers

intim_ate

of

ness
great-

they

Heraclitus

Heraclitus,

as

builds

time

flux

From

few

fragments

discover

the

as
"

all

it is not

remain,

his

at

believer

destroys

opinions,but

sayingsthat stronglysuggest

some

was

and

that

arrived

he

how

knows,

one

every

universal
the

LOGIC

AND

MYSTICISM

in

things.
easy

there

to
are

scientific observation

source.

things that

The
"

what

are

says,

"

of truth.

fragment

and

heard, and

most."

prize the

to
empiricist,

of the

be seen,

can

This

observation

whom

is

is the

language

is the sole guarantee

The

sun

this

opinion, in spite of

is another

day,"

every

new

learned," he

its

paradoxical

character, is obviously inspiredby scientific reflection,

and

seemed

doubt

no

observation

west

Fire

all visible

which

''

and

world, which

shall be,

"

half of the
This

going

measures

no

accept, is nevertheless
alludes

"

You

and

step and
are

it

In

bustion
com-

their flame

"

with

no

is now,

ever,

was

measures

first of all,sea

are

not."

famous

ever

statement

do

not

longer one

which

; and

saying to

flowingin
among

step into the

science

can

spirit. Science, too,

step twice into the

cannot

find also another

We

substance, of

out."

scientific in

inspired the

for fresh waters

"

his central

is earth, half whirlwind."

sea

have

but

of Fire are,

theory, though

might

him

for all," he says,

ever-livingFire,

an

transformations

The

Actual

vanish.

same

made

ground
under-

night.

passing phases.

are

is the

has

men

or

kindling,and

the

permanent

one

of
difficulty

its way

suggested to

into the air and

This

ever

work

during

east

things

rise up

gods

can

is the

heat

of

one

sun

the

things change utterly,while

see

we

to

also have

must

doctrine, that

and

to

obviate

him

the

how

understanding
from

to

upon

same

you."

the extant
same

which

Plato
rivers ;
But

we

fragments :

rivers ;

we

arc

AND

MYSTICISM

the

how

intimately the

one

than

more

world, such
"

Time

feelingin

the universe

; and

this

the basis of his science,

life and

the

is

child's."

Time

frivolityof

all

and

things wrong
Much

that

inspiredthe
but

only

"

again

and
*'

"

statement

; and

too,

again :

which

**

God

To

hold

men

ethics

the

Man's

some

the

to

of Heraclitus.

alone

might

have

is his fate

character

said

have

is driven

beast

Every

sible
irrespon-

right."

some

mystic would

mysticism,

scientific determinism

all the

right,but

and

mysticism underlies

of

It is true

good

presents

identityof opposites:

the

one," he says

fair and

thingsare

It is

assert

to

illare

and

child.

Heraclitus

Good

of the world, with

despoticlord

as

leads

science, which

poeticimagination, not

It is

"

of

depth

playingdraughts,the kingly power

child

little

as

is

in the

essence,

strangely poignant sayings concerning

to

about

feelingleads Heraclitus,on

of

kind

is believed

what

mystical,

blended

are

intensityand

is

shows
scientific,

is

Mysticism is, in

certain

regard to

tendencies

two

Heraclitus.

of

system

which

quoted by Plato,

with

which

of this statement,

comparison

The

LOGIC

"

pasture with blows

"

one's heart's

It is hard

to

fightwith

it wishes

to

get, it purchases at the

desire.
cost

ever
What-

of soul

"

again :

and
"

Wisdom

which

all

is

things are

Examples
been

one

might

given are

thing.
steered
be

enough

facts of science,

the
^

All

the

above

It is to know

through

all

but
multiplied,
to

as

quotations

they appeared
from

(2ud ed., 1908), pp. 146-156.

Burnet's

thought by

things."^
those

the character

show

are

the

to

that
of the

have
man

him, fed the

Early Greek

sophy.
Philo-

MYSTICISM

of the world

In such

eminence,
world

and

mystic

the

of

nature

the

depths

dancing swiftly

own
we

of

man

into the

saw

union

the true

see

science

^the

"

highest

think, that it is possibleto achieve

as

lighthe

the reflection of his

by

penetratingfire.
of

in its

in his soul, and

flame

LOGIC

AND

in the

thought.

In Plato, the

twofold

same

impulse exists,though

the

mystic impulse is distinctlythe stronger of the two, and

ultimate
the conflict is sharp.
secures
victorywhenever
His

descriptionof

belief in

"

Imagine

they

have

been

legs and

necks

still and

look

it

render
and
and

behind

of their

that

them

to

and

they

because

which

screens

audience, and

above

in which

their

some

round

passing

roadway
low

conjurorsput

wall
up

built

in front

they exhibit

which

off, above

way

sit

chains

their heads

turn

with
prisoners,

the

light,

obliged to

are

elevated

an

the

to

childhood, with their

bright fire burning

the

real

more

the cavern,

their

straight forwards,

fire and

along it,like

of

underground

an

open

length of

shackled

them,

the

entrance

confined, from
so

and

livingin

men

an

entire

impossiblefor

imagine

between

of

with

extending along the

realitytruer

and

number

chamber,

cavernous

classical statement

senses

is the

cave

knowledge

that of the

than

the

their

wonders.
I have
Also
behind

it,he replied.

figureto yourselfa
this wall, and
of other

and

images

and

all kinds

articles,which
expect, let

some

number

carrying with

of persons
them

overtop
of the

the

together with
wall ;

and,

of men,

statues

animals, wrought in wood

of materials,

walking
and

stone

various

other

as

you

passers-bybe talking,and

silent.
1

Republic, 514,

translated

by

Davies

and

Vaughan.

might
others

AND

MYSTICISM

You

describing a

are

LOGIC

strange

5
and

scene,

strange

prisoners.
They

resemble

us,

Now

consider

what

nature

brought

Let

us

walk

that

suppose
and

with

to stand

open

the

What

if some

make,

one

real, and

sees

point out

to

him

Should

are

regard his
upon

and

old visions

Yes, much

be

as

successful

will discern

water, and

than

truer

to

the

to

were

passingby,

are

they

what

answer

puzzled,and

be

to

forced

objectsnow

truer.

the

habit

perceiveobjectsin
most

all,if lie

to

what
some-

Hence, I suppose,
to

him

expect him

not

you

his notice

compel

he

thingsmore

towards

above

to

days

he is

now

objectsthat

the several

question him,

and

is turned

correctly;

more

in those

that

see

expect him

you

but that

phantoms,

and
reality,

to

nearer

tell him

to

were

foolish

watching

was

should

answer

pain,

with

formerly to

he used

us

incapableof

him

dazzlingsplendour renders

shadows.

let

light; and

the

which

round

his neck

turn

all these actions

through

discerningthose objectsof

released, and

been

up, and

following manner.

has

towards

eyes

he goes

that the

of them

one

of

course

their fetters,and

from

foolishness, in the

that

suppose

if the

happen

release

compelled suddenly
and

would

them

for their

remedy

replied.

will be necessary

that

in

of

the realities ; and

the

findingit

study

less difficult to
itself by

and

men

raise his eyes to encounter

the heaven

first he will

At

distinguishingshadows

reflections

afterwards

world.

upper

lightof

night,than

the

the

the

other

then

he

things in

after this he will

moon

heavenly

sun

him

to enable

and

and

stars,

bodies

and

the sun*s

light

by day.
Doubtless.
Last

of all, I

imagine, he

will be able

to

observe

and

MYSTICISM

contemplate

the

water

or

of the

nature

aUen

on

LOGIC

AND

but

ground,

not

sun,

it

as

appears in

it is in itselfin its own

as

territory.
Of

course.

His next

step will be

is the author

sun

guardian of
the

to

the

Now

this

thingswhich

he and

will be his next

step.

imaginary case,

in all its
the

to

parts

former

our

region which

the

if,by the upward

and

of the upper

world, you

soul into the intellectual

of my

own

are

though, indeed,

But, be that

subject is

to

knowledge,the

visible world

full

authority,truth

this Form

But

will hit the

in

of Good

truly real, which

is

which
In

the

in

an

of

"

privateor

it is in every
^inthe

its master,

in

our

but, when

^and that

in

and

and

with

whosoever

public,must

set

eyes."

throughout

identification

became

world

"

his

as

of

is the limit of

perceived;

lightand

are

I take

bright and beautiful,

reason

before

this passage,

teaching,there

the view

they

they

immediately
dispensing,

wisely,either

of the

tendency

whether

of Good

to

and

of the

mounting

followingeffect.
be

prison

to be told what

only knows

it may,

as

paring
com-

contemplation

region,you

God

by

power

the

giving birth

intellectual world

act

the

must

the

luiderstand

of all that is

the

would

to

help concluding that

cannot

source

to the

and

ascent

barely

can

perceived,we
the

the

reveals,

eye

essential Form

enquiries,and

case

companions

statements,

surmises, since you desire

correct.

the

his

manner

Glancon, you

dear

my

house, and the lightof the fire therein

sun

in

the

and

years,

see.

Obviously,this
apply

and

seasons

all thingsin the visible world, and

of all those

cause

used

of the

conclusion, that the

the

to draw

embodied

most

of the
in the

of

good

Plato's

with

the

philosophical

MYSTICISM

function
allowinga legislative

produced
from
and

may

nature

be,
and

do

the

legitimately
appear
they

should

and

can

towards

when

the truth, and

in view

the truth

are

in Plato

passages

scientific side

the

clearlyaware

of this.

The

theory of

ideas to Parmenides.

After

has

Socrates
but

good,

not

dirt, Parmenides

its greatest
has

the world

It is with

so

our

this

of

much

ideals

by

in advance

an

seems

is the

one

is

hair

and

mud

and
the

despise even

genuine

the

shows

of

idea

an

that

higher realityand

if philosophy is to realise
it is failure in this

in

only

bear

fruit

marriage

ideal which
the

world

respect

philosophy thin,

idealistic

can

that

he

explainingthe

there

to

It is

But

is

trate
illus-

impartialtemper

insightinto

barren.

be achieved

not

this advice

insubstantial.

that

demands

"

him

And
possibilities.

it,they remain
to

things as

has to be combined

made

and
lifeless,

or

of such

mystic'sapparent
good

noteworthy

explainedthat

advises

scientific temper.

that

lives

which

^where

"

man,

young

things," and

meanest

not

as

mind

most

Socrates,

hidden

feehng

our

dictatingwhat

those

among

"

his

of

in which

the

is to be.

There

the

ascertained

ordering our

themselves

as

only

can

determining
of

truth

achieve

has been

manner

of the truth, but not

his

studies

he

considerations

as

our

since

ever

while

is to

he

the truth

appear

suffered

aside

them

Ethical

same.

science,

and

of science, whatever

philosopher,if

the

day.

own

good, Plato

the

to

have

man

lay

must

our

philosophy

opinion,both

stillsuffering.The

hopes
must

between

divorce

which, in my
are

is still largelyoperative in

tradition,and
In thus

LOGIC

AND

marriage

with

divorced

from

with

the world

shrinks

from

shall conform

is

fact,
to

its desires.

Parmenides

himself

is the

source

of

peculiarly

MYSTICISM

interestingstrain
thought

mysticism,which
reasonings of
his

from

day

far

so

appears,

of

indivisible

Hegel

''

it is

immovable

in the

into

passing away

being

and

belief

has

principleof
w^hat

is not

"

And

again :

and

spoken

not

possiblefor

past

^that is

be

what

is

follows

thought

utter

and

that

from

this

The

principle;

can

be."

thought
it is

bility
impossiis

for what

principle,

therefore, by the

spoken of, and

it ; for

be

can

not

canst

^nor

be."

to

which

it to be, and

possiblefor

nothing

fundamental

Thou

be that what

must

of is ; for it is

be

"

"

coming

sentence

impossible

can

It needs

change

can

"

in

mighty

afar, and

driven
The

place in Hegel

thing that

same

of

of

out

of

; since

end

away."

is stated

inquiry

bonds

been

have

them

cast

his

be

not

it is the

disciples.

his modem

and

beginning and without

know

cerned,
con-

dominates

Parmenides,

chains, without

would

is

West

the

as

of

form

says, is uncreated, indestructible,unchanging,

he
Reality,

true

logical

great mystical metaphysicians

all the

that

to

"

"

called

logic. This

on

Plato's

pervades

be

may

originatedwith

have

to

which

in theories

it is embodied

because

the

mysticism which

of

mysticism

the

"

LOGIC

AND

stillis.

Mystical philosophy,in
world, is characterised

by

by

the doctrines

analyticknowledge
the

and

fallible

study

science

relyingwholly

capable

of

experienced at

times

objects,the

common

the

soHdity of

the

an

the

way

of wisdom,

All

with

by

appearance

senses.

inward

trated
illus-

sive
against discur-

is contrasted

of outward

upon

absorption in

in

which

are

considering.

been

the behef

penetrating,coercive,

slow

which

have

parts of tlie

beliefs which

certain

we

in ail

and

is,first,the belief in insightas

There

sudden,

all ages

who

passion must

are

have

strange feelingof unrealityin

loss of contact
the outer

world

with

dailythings,in

is lost,and

the soul

mad

depths, the
hitherto
This
doubt

receptionof

beyond it,but

unveiled, of
certain

what

wisdom

gaiiiedin
have

the

of

moment

in many

with

convictions

the

of them,

with

which

other

all

what

of

definite

arrive

are

experience

nucleus

of

local and

more

find,

we

become

mated
amalgavirtue

of

ignoresuch inessential

may

ourselves

tion
in addi-

; thus

mystics share,
doubt

no

quently
subse-

become

essentiallymystical in

was

confine

accretions,and

inarticulate

become
sense

any

mystics

convictions

subjectivecertainty. We

their

not

mystery

The

doubt.

this moment

character, which

temporary

do

insight. Often, beUefs whic^i

into the central

attracted
to

the

gateway

suddenly

which

the

upon

real connection

no

the

of

sense

earlier than

comes

definite beliefs at

result of reflection

the

the
now

of
possibility

the

revelation

certaintyand
The

familiar

mystic it is merely

for the

hidden

beyond

belief.

living.

and

knowledge, preparingthe way

a higher wisdom.
Many
seems

mystic insightbegins with

The

have

mystic's initiation

of the

own

world.

ampler

an

which

real

negative experience is

this

whom

to

men

to

negative side

of its

out

phantoms

independently

as

concerning common

for the

pass

of fantastic

dance

appeared

is the

loneliness, to bring forth,

in utter

seems,

LOGIC

AND

MYSTICISM

to

beliefs which

the

all

mystics share.
The

first and

illumination
which

of

are

regarded as

blind

conception of
with

Closely
a

revelation

admiration

from
often

it.

with
the

and

this

world

This

amounting

tuition,
in-

insightor

or

guides leadingto

connected

of

moHicnt

ledge
Wciy of know-

reason,

sense,

Reality behind

utterlydifferent
an

called
with

illusion.

and

be

may

of the

outcome

of
possibility

is belief in the

contrasted

as

which

direct

most

analysis,

+I*u

morass

beV'v.1 is the
u" appearance

Reality is regarded
to

worship

it is

felt to

be

always

veiled

by

the

mind,

to

follyand
the

the

with

knowledge

is

knowledge

mysticism is its
admit
oppositionor

to

anywhere.

We

Heraclitus

down
in

is
the

found

; and

as

We

and

are

we

impulse towards

same

is less

prominent, being

ideas ; but it reappears,

doctrine

of the

third mark

primacy

of the

denial

of division ;

future must

and

prominent

in

fundamental
The
to
an

realityof

last of the

consider
illusion

the

far

all

if all is

denies

that

as

appears

doctrines

are

positions
pro-

step into the

of Par-

assertion

from

comes
indivisible,

In Plato, this

impulse

by his theory of
logicpermits,in the

as

his

This
one,

and

is

the

of

real

of

distinction

have

seen

it is

Hegel.

mysticism which

all evil is

mere

and

we

have

appearance,

oppositionsof

not

maintain

are

good,

they belong

past

this doctrine
moderns

among

divisions

the

of the

outcome

an

cruelty, for example,

they

attitude

systems of Spinoza and

is its belief that

things

the way

not

analyticintellect. Mysticism does

such

ill

and

good

mysticalmetaphysicsis the

Time.

produced by

division

of the Good.

Parmenides

in the

belief in

in check

held

illusory. We

be

do
The

unity.

of almost

denial

and

so

beside

contradictory

of

not."

one

what

and

up

same

step and
are

menides, that realityis

the

The

assertion
"

"

saying
the way

says,

same."

the

simultaneous

rivers ;

"

again he

and

one

such
same

sun.

ignorance.

its refusal

"

'

the vision

characteristic of

second

one

haunting

the

glory :

lightof

unity, and
are

poet, the artist,and

that

knows,

he

apparent

is the faint reflection of its

pursue

seek

all other

The

after

receptive

the

through

The

lives in the full

mystic

dimly

which

of Man.

thinly

hand,

for the

ready,

glory ev^n

seekers

beauty that they

others

of sense,

in its

are

close at

everywhere

wickedness

lover

But

and

shows

shine

LOGIC

AND

MYSTICISM

lo

to

that

that
but

it

lower

AND

MYSTICISM
world

of

insight of

the

Hegel, and
the

is such

only evil,

What

of the

This

attitude

is

associated

feehng

suspected that
in

the

dreams,

which

make

feelingof

the
the

up

mankind

Four

whole

body

of

I. Are

two

preferredto

IV.

What

On

all four

mysticism
sufficient
learned

the other

unreal

kind

of

to

from

the

this is

But
be

it cannot

hoped

truth

or

knowing,
?

which

And

be called

may

if so, is either to

division

?
illusory

realitybelongs to good
questions,while
mistaken,

me

is

an

mystical way

attainable

beliefs

of these

seems

be

it may

consideringthe

intuition

restraint,there

to be

in any

truth, mysticism is to
towards

of

pluralityand

III. Is time

is

unity

associated

of

which

arise in

and

of

sense

agreement.

ways

respectivelyreason

and

of the nature

mystic doctrine.
on

good

produces, as feelings

peace

mysticism, namely

there

II. Is all

of

ultimate

the

Indeed

system

one

will reach

questions thus

falsehood

its

of infinite peace.

difficult question,and

that

with

ethically

in the

direct outcome

mystical experience :

belief

indignationor

hostile camps,

the

cases,

of

absence

joy, disbelief

of the division into two

the bad.

do

is, in all

mysticism is

of

protest, acceptance with

truth

with

naturallybe associated

would

as

characteristic

seem

in

example

not

"

Reality is good.

that

be

for

"

verbally in Spinoza

least

by

though nevertheless
good also, is regarded as illusory,
emotional
attitude towards
what is held to be Reality

but

to be liberated

are

we

Sometimes

vision.

the

at

which

from

phantoms

LOGIC

be

other

evil ?

fullydeveloped

yet believe that, by

element
of

and

of wisdom

which
feeling,

life,not'as'a creedTaBout'tBe"^^^

does

be
not

If this is the

manner.

commended

to

as

an

attitude

Tlie ineta-

AND

MYSTICISM

12

informingall

other

of

is best

whatever

antithesis

very

be fostered

in

Man.

in which

Of the

I have

the

I do

wish

scientific attitude
untested

the

is first

speak

of

an

it is

maintain

favour of

not

but under

those

who
and

rationalistic

defence

thought,

difficult,by
increasingly
creeds

to

which

life and

the

world.

"intuition," has

raised

on

This

section, and

printed
world, published by
in

left ti^em
written.

course

here,

as

of
the
this

also

one

Lowell

Open
is the

then,

and

with

Bergson,
instinct
two

pages

in
in

drawn

as

the

and

to

of

purely

tlieology became

felt in science

all who

or

against artificial forms

associated

they

reason

given the preference,

was

traditional

of

and

to

the influence of Rousseau

rebelled

government

common

oppositionwas

instinct

movement

important

It is

instinct

the

insight,

guarantee of

of the most

means.

the

that

is that

insufficient

oppositionbetween

the romantic

by

its

declare

genuine insight.

it is here

and

"

I know

to

even

"

suggested by

reason,

seems

imperative

becomes

eighteenth century,

and

reverence

mystic'sworld

truth, in spiteof the fact that much

truth

spiritof

deny it,nor

to

unsupported, is an

and

inspirer

cautious

the

INTUITION

reveals

to

the

moves.

AND

insightwhich

is
feelings,

tliat very

and

wish

no

colouringand

as

mystic's swift certainty,may

by

REASON

outcome

by science, which

or unrealityof
reality

nothing.
What

of the

mysticism lives

I.

first

mistaken

Even

truth

nourished

and

and

thoughts

patient investigationof

the

emotion, although this emotion,

of the

that

is

I shall maintain,

physical creed,

the

LOGIC

menace

spiritualoutlook

under
the

in later

the

name

of

positionof

sole

sections, have

been

knowledge of the external

I have
But
Court
Publishing Company.
for which
context
they were
originally
lectures

On

our

arbiter

of instinct and

intuition,
which

insight is

or

subsequent

confirms

is

Reason
rather

than

it is

logicalrealm,

but

the

the

last

stinctive
less in-

no

force

harmonising, controUing

creative

behefs

other

with

analysis,of agreement

confutes

or

beliefs

the

to

consists, in
possible,

it is

confirmation, where

first leads

what

reason

tion
opposi-

mainly illusory.Instinct,

is

reason

13

in fact the

But

metaphysicaltruth.

of

LOGIC

AND

MYSTICISM

in the

Even

one.

insightthat

first

purely

most

is

what

at

amves

new.

Where

regard

instinct and

that

beliefs leads

other

is weak

Where

survival
are

very

careful

less

be

in such

even

given by

reserve

directlypractical,such

as

we

to

come

may

inconsistencywith
It is such

mutual
the

of

which

reason,

compatibility,and

possiblesources

other.

In

of

this there

whole, but only

is in

help to

for instance,

to

Wind

aspect of instinct

error

is

no

as

philosophy deals
sometimes

through

to

their

opposition to
exclusion

cases,

one

of

the

on

instinct

some

their

by

side and

one

ceived
per-

beliefs.

in doubtful

examines,

the

wholly

harmonising

the

behefs

our

reliance upon

in

and

flattery;

are

the

wrong

equally strong

tests

on

through

matters

that necessitate

considerations

mediation

is

to

or

know

other

as

regard

error

rightjudgment

with, very strong instinctive beliefs

mistaken,

to

in others,
hostility

disguises.But

impression may

it in

extraordinary discrimination

felt with

matters

which

friendshipand

often

to

as

this

admit

to

liable

is least

in whom

Those

error.

all admit

though

instinct

practicalmatters

to

often unwilling

are

regards themselves,
others.

Instinct, like

their abandonment.

to

\\ith

held

with
inconhistenc^^

of

degree

no

faculties,is liable

all human
reason

conflict is in

sometimes

and
singlebeliefs,held instinctively,

to

determination

such

do

reason

as

ing
interest-

other

more

MYSTICISM

14

but

commonplace
such

AND
less

not

instinct

one-sidedness, not

It is

trustworthy aspects.
that
itself,

aims

reason

correcting.

at

These

more

"

against

intellect."

into it.

placed and

are

ourselves.

The
rehes

view

nor

may

be said -to

second

on

intellectual

of

within

in it and

therefore

mentions

he

order

to

The

rest

of

through

the

science and
This

common

proving
side than

of those

knowledge

*'

the kind

is

what
In

is

The

oneself

unique

illustration,
at
reality,

one

within, by intuition
our

and

in
personality

own

"

endures

consists

in

of words, the

pretended knowledge

its

(p. 8).

reporting,
knowledge

consequent complete

since

sides

it takes
in

on

the

need

ways,

other.

firstby

purely practicalfacultyto
^

with

there

greater trustworthiness

in two
justification
a

"

is

the

beliefs,stands

the

of

point

derived

demnation
con-

from

sense.

procedure,

instinctive

coincide

imperfect medium

of all the

which

express

places

one

Bergson's philosophy

gained by intuition, and

enter

absolute."^

the

self which

our

"

we

on

inexpressible (p.6).

time

flowing through

at

which

"

by simple analysis. It

not

view

fii'st
kind of

which

all seize from

we

we

intuition,is,he says,

self-knowledge:

least, which

that

relative ; the second, in those

sympathy by

object in

an

first imphes that

depends

possible,to attain
is

as

profoundly

two

second

The

by

"

intuition

point of

neither

at the

of these, which

"

The

symbols by

symbol.

any

stop

the
the

on

the

on

second

it is

where

cases

object :

the

first depends

The

thing.

"

of

he says,

are,

knowing

round

move

we

of

There

be illustrated

may

Bergson's advocacy

different ways
we

less trite maxims

or

applicationto

is

LOGIC

Introduction

to

of

in

conflict of

justification
by

of the

beliefs

on

Bergson attempts
explainingthat
secure

one

this

intellect

biological
success,

Metaphysics, p.

i.

LOGIC

AND

MYSTICISM

15

feats of instinct in
secondlyby mentioning remarkable
animals and by pointingout characteristics of the world

which,

intellect

bafflingto
Of

intuition

though

faculty,developed

intellect that

through

of the

and

may

presumably

of this

with

in

him

thinking that

that

been

have

evolution

took

utility.Intuition

is

at

seen

the

under

useful, for example in regard

its best

hand,

all

for

this

existence

struggle for

friendshipis hkely to
whereas
to

put

very

both

intuition

they

are

capacity, has

point where
the

other

by

with
men

incompetence.
The

fact
been

is,of

developed

and

become

harmful

it is useful

to
on

the

not

All

the

whole

It is greater, as

in adults, in the uneducated

than

;
to

have

that

because
are

when

developed beyond

the

ful
use-

they

like artistic

man,

individual

false

are

course,

that, speaking broadly,they

seems

the

his hfe

of intuition in animals

occasionallybeen

hand,

capacity,

deceived

Intellect,in civilised

civilisation increases.
than

value.

they give truth

give falsehood.

directly

explicableby

savage

intellect have

useful, and

that

civilised societies

his instances

and

it is

for his mistake

pay

most

direct survival

when

the

for mathematical

death

strikingof

most
a

in the

even

practical

than, for example, capacity for

Yet

mathematics.

pure

is less

knowledge

agree

people'scharacters

dispositions.Bergson apparently holds

of

we

faculties,

our

of

where

and

kind

vival
sur-

place as Darwin

stress

other

to

only

merely inferred history

other

developed

lect
if the intel-

man

but
only intellect,

it is not

believed, then

of

the

If, on

untrue.

strugglefor

of the

biological
ancestry

not

it is

first,that

say,

know

we

is misleading,the whole
is

purely practical

strugglefor survival, and

in the

beliefs,we

of true

source

intellect is

that

Bergson's theory

are

interpretsit.

he

as

them,

apprehend

can

the

intuition,on
diminish

as

rule, in children
in the educated.

i6

MYSTICISM

Probably
human

in

it exceeds

dogs

beings.

AND

But

those

of intuition
in the

woods,

hipsand

on

Let
such

anything

who

ought

to

examine

whether

for

men,

claims

unconscious, though
without

envies

if it should

is

it

making

demerit,

notable

of intuition

examples

believe themselves
love

another

such

cases

soul

there

is

Bergson

possess

as

perceive

can

be

while

it is
But

least

at

as

so

that

are

maintains
far

as

the

in the

Yet

own.

they

intuition
and
That

they

personalities
see

deception in
; and

success

the

even

supposed insight
groping

more
more

intellect

resemble

whom

deception, experience

long run

that

uniqueness

fresh moment.

slower

the

most

people think they

rule, that

with

different

intentional

as

of the

knowledge people

of those

their

irresistibly

more

is the

between

into

in the past, while

each

quite

are

its truth.

self-knowledge,one

wall

no

and
illusory,

of the intellect

to

they

to

the

only

is constantlypractisedwith

things in

and

in their nature

doubt

transparent, and

gradually proves,
was

to

the

become

into

where

best

The

comes
intellect,its greater subjectivecertainty be-

as

to

it.

that intuition has

examination,

on

from

seems

any

intellect

lacking to

deceptive. Apart

in

possesses

friends

is true

impossibleto

appear,

have

of which

It
difficulty.

any

present, it is almost

are

living

acquaintance with

their best

even

convincingnesswhich

and

for

our

example,

vanities,and

meannesses,

fallible

woad

wild

yet self-knowledge is proverbiallyrare

difficult. Most

mendation
recom-

running

intuition

instance of it,according to him, is

them

facts

haws.

as
Bergson
infallibility

ourselves

in

found

to

return

with

be

to

in these

see

themselves

dyeing

next

us

LOGIC

can

what

methods

reliable.

only
has

deal

been

has the power

with

enced
experiof apprehending

novelty that always belong

there

is

something unique

and

this cannot

that

fullyexpressed by

be

is

nor

intuition, but

but

when

the

intellect is much
intuition
doubt

has

and

them,

intuition is

as

to be

seems

know

demands

philosophy,is

of

animals,

to

It is

civilised

men.

that

rapid,rough

place her inside

; but
analytically

to

apparent

is left

aspect and

helpless

ment
developin

the

application. It

bring out

our

not

hardly

In

intuition
swiftness

such

matters

\vdll act
and

favourable

sometimes

But

of

show

are

philosophy

not

for

which
activity,

intuition

animal
its

at

love,

and
self-preservation

(though

or

ground

generationsof

that

most

of instinct

methods

remote

as

practical
to

even

is

supposed, therefore,

be

to

precision which

critical intellect.

or

is the older kinds

ancestors,

which

way

of great

savages,

ready

and

world, which

of the

matter

to

or

in

of action.

mode

kinship with

semi-human

the

moulded

have

changed

intuition will find in this field

best.

ducklings

question,but totallyincompetent

in

understanding

theoretical

importance

and

than

them

of

the hen

and
illusory,

manner,

water, the whole

to the

non-habitual

some

the aim

their

brood

them

surroundings are

the

as

The

remarkable

surroundings which

of the animal

soon

which

data

suppliesnew

Intuition,in fact,is an

customary

habits

with

to

and

instinct,and, like all instinct, is admirable

of
those

merely

seen

the shore.

on

intuition

ducklingstake

the

when

hen

The

quaintance
ac-

specialfaculty

any

capable of dealingwith

be.

not

direct

But

It is neither intellect

in any

new

are

more

would

see,

can

sensation, that

data

give

can

given fullyin sensation,

I

as

lectual
of intel-

means

new.

apprehension.

for its

of intuition

no

far

require,so

not

; it is also true

acquaintance

and

unique

is

of what

of this kind
does

direct

Only

concepts.

knowledge

17

true
is certainly

moment,

at every

new

LOGIC

AND

MYSTICISM

always) with

astonishing to

the

is not

the

one

of

MYSTICISM

i8

pursuitswhich
a

illustrate

LOGIC

with
affinity

our

the

past

it is

highlyrefined, highly civilised pursuit,demanding,

its success,
and

we

since the

thought

It is not

fears.

hope

In

intellect

On

the contrary,

habit

the

almost

more

of

strange,
than

where
any-

superior to intuition,

convictions

least deserving

are

scientific restraint

the

advocating

self-assertion

of

reliance

confident

balance,

and

as

upon

only urging,in the sphere of knowledge,

interested
largeness of contemplation,that impersonal dis-

that

are

and

that

which

have

conflict with the

may

in essence,

not

beliefs, but

appliedin

of

the

illumination

is the

things,giving

monism

with

in

to

of

followers, has
universe
to be its

been
is

one

our

by

all the great

of many

which
spirit
of

this

AND

mystics,is,
inspiresthose

spiritas

very

PLURALITY

convincing aspects

of

the

apparent revelation of the

rise to

and

it

conclusion, however

thought.

philosophy.

Parmenides,

the

practical preoccupation

inculcated

outcome

UNITY

most

from

beliefs
explicit

the

the realm

II.

One

Thus

contrary

rather

freedom
been

the world.

religionsof

the

all mundane

acceptance.

intuition,we

all

from

best.

proves

quick unanalysed

against the

life of instinct,

the

apprehension, are

it is here,

remote,

for

philosophy,therefore, that

at its

for their

demanded

of uncritical

from

objects of philosophy,and

true

else, that
that

in

intuition

to see

unusual, and

and

liberation

times, a certain aloofness

at

even,

can

certain

hopes and

seem

AND

in

pantheism
An

elaborate

culminating

in

parts, if considered

Whole,
as

of

oneness

religionand

to

logic,beginning

Hegel

gradually developed, to
indivisible

mystic

and

prove

and

substantial

that
and

his
that
what
self-

AND

MYSTICISM
are
existing,

illusion.

mere

of appearance,

philosophy by Parmenides,

not,

mysticalor religious
reasons,

but

argument

the basis of

subsequent metaphysical systems

criticisms,since they

which

attempt

which

the

are

analysis of

an

logicis

do

mystics
to

such

intensityof
is in the

who

grounds
But

emotional

habit

in favour

since

the

to any

of

ground

mysticism,and

must

reach

of

giving any

life. If

they

they would

are

is

most

going
thorough-

more

in the

rare

conviction

that
his
the

been

man

logical

for

he finds in himself.

which

will be

very

pitable
hos-

paradoxes

he

feels his

with

logic

insight. The

philosophersincapable

most

anxious

Wlien

reallythe paradoxes

logicare

of the

probably have

search

suggests itself. The

goal

such

West.

subsides,

reasoning will

rendered

account

had

of

insight. But

of their

if it is to be in accordance

resultinglogichas

moods,

dominant, the need

already exists, he

apparently proved by
of

is

to

appears

mysticism,and

of the belief which

belief

what

from

mood

dehverance

fullydeveloped mysticism
the

from

employ logic,but appeal directly

not

the immediate

of mind

state

accordinglythe

felt,and

not

difficult,but shall

arisen.

of most

source

repeat these

here

and

the

be

to

irresistible force in certain

metaphysics. Wliile
of

of

outcome

criticisms,which

technical

lengthy

are

arises with

senses

most

mysticism seems

realityquite different

the

are

I shall not

mysticallogichas

Belief in
the

to

open

explained elsewhere.

instead

of

in defence

logic used

faulty as logic,and
have

logical

idea.

this fundamental
The

least, for

at

of not-being,and
impossibility

the

to

as

into Western

nominally
on

Reality

realityone,

introduced

unchanging, was

indivisible,and

19

conception of

The

world

the

than

quite other

LOGIC

of science

world
to

give such

discovered

the

an

errors

and

daily

account,
of their

MYSTICISM

20

but

logic;
the

of them

most

of science

world

unrealityin

daily life than

and

to understand

less anxious

were

interests

the

LOGIC

AND

convict

to

it of

**

of

"

real

super-sensible

world.
It is in this way
the great

philosopherswho
for

took

usually

certain

from

which

them,

to

dryness, and

they
and

Mr.

world

of science

with all the

established
The

inherent

itself

retain the

to

naturally
knows

Everyone

refute him
the

the

as

book

illusion is

that

is not

to

just as

our

logicis to

not

be hostile,but

must

arises

tend

not

read

with

common

be

to

world

best

him

conviction

lead

quite

that

interested
dis-

hatred
Such

an

results.

simply in

understand

to

it

sion.
it is illu-

applied.
the

to

that

prove

certain

author

an

desire

is not

to

impulse

dominant,

contradict

it is to be

unlikely to

find the

best

seem

The

with

inspiredby

the way

of Nature

sophers
philo-

their doctrines

is

least to
to

thus

which

does

at

seems

is

that

so

which

mood

fades, but

what

the

to

is natural, the defects

mystic

mood

candid, and

dailyworld

attitude

with

anything malicious.

logic which
or

read

that

only

word

of belief.

or
vanishing insight,

The

to

the

as

insight,and

of the

in

felt while

logic,not

reasserts

regard

scientific facts which

worthy

most

useful

It is

complacency

and

common

and

are

in

sense.

logicof mysticism shows,

which

was

common

for the

"

originclung

of
accepted the inconsistency

have

to

and

illumination

their

^to borrow

"

the

ciples
their dis-

by

of the sudden

maUcious

"

account

can

"

Santayana

beUeved

were

remained

they

presented

w^ere

Nevertheless

sprang.

they

from

we

logicaldoctrines

their

since

supposed insight of

the

of

those

pursued by

mystics. But

quiteindependent

be

to

been

were

granted

mystic emotion,
with

logichas

that

order

; and

to

it is all

understanding.

If

it must
intelligible,

inspiredby

genuine accept-

such

ance

is not

as

time

unreality of

21

found

be

usually to

is

doctrine

cardinal

nominally based,

metaphysical systems,

often

by Parmenides,

logicalarguments,

derived,

at

upon

insight. As
"

future

and

Past
Bum

both

up
thou

Wilt

Sufi

Persian

poet says

with

belief that

nmtable

is a very

common

notion

the conservation
It is dif"cult

this view.
is unreal

The
and

of energy

that

the

is

sense

an

Past
the

easier to

"

unimportant
and

future

of

relation

image
eternal

is rather
to

our

of the

things
time

is essential to

time

as

as

and

must

present, and

time

as

the

Whinfield's

of

feel than

contention
is

sense

state

there

as

acknowledged

The

stream

from

devouring tyrant
of the

real

of
view

as

importance

truth.

of all that

Masnavi

reality.

theoretical,rather
to

is

slavery to

from

I think, is obtained

outside, than

be

to

emancipation

in relation

time

^in which

"

be

the

time

illusorymust,

of

into

in

error

that

Nevertheless

to

practicalthan

translation

the

and

philosophicthought.

world,

now,

even

characteristic
superficial

desires than

im-

be

scientificdoctrines

truth

fallacious.

certain

entering

world

world

"*

mass.

for the

arguments

think, be regarded
some

and

reed

must

fhids,

such

disentanglethe

to

as

rise to the metaphysical

it gave

satisfaction in
wholly illegitimate
as

sight.

our

long

and

substance,

of

mystic

of

segments

one

originally

systems, from

ultimately real

is

what

already

as

moment

How

these

of many

but

new

from

fire !

partitionedby

The

the

veil God

what

are

of them

be

in

is born

certainty which

the

of

in the founders

rate

any

physicians.
meta-

among

TIME

III.

The

LOGIC

AND

MYSTICISM

in

truer

by picturing
time
which
is.

from

an

regards
Both

(TrUbner, 1887), p.

34.

in

MYSTICISM

2a

AND

even
thought and in feeling,
the unimportance of time

That

this is the

ourselves

why

different

future

fixed.
we

the

see

future,have
is

when

between

but

But

been

it has

is

the

not

our

future

justwhat

become

now

we

very

of action, appears

sphere
Whoever
above

wishes
the

future, and

comprehensive
The
not

may

kind

to

into

with

still
what

the

the lowest

the fundamental

difference between
of its

be

intrinsic

an

to

us

to

partialit
im-

And

sphere,

which, in the
unselfishness.
rise in

towards

thought
learn

in

of time

stream

to

past and

as

it seems

time

to me,

one

ought

theoretic

our

by

the

thought,
philosophical
philosophywhich has become

idea of evolution, and

is

which

empUfied by Nietzsche, pragmatism, and Bergson.

philosophy, on the basis of the development which
led from

quality

intellectual

truly,to

whole

which,

in

be illustrated

associated

the

past

it to

see

not

alterably
un-

vision.

of way

enter

was

exist.

to

attitude

of

the

survey

it

practicaldesires, must

of

difference

to

be

shall

justiceand

the world

see

tyranny
the

overcome

to

day

in relation

ceases

as

is to

it to be, and

virtue of disinterestedness

same

wishes

our

felt difference of

contemplationis,in

The

past is

the

when

we

so

are

future.

some

see

difference

impartial contemplation, it
that

will

future, therefore, is

only

past

the

it must,

past. The

past and

of

the

while

just what

be

by asking

once

past, the future

power,

every

must

difference,but

at

seen

wholly practical:

past trulynow,

future

now

be

may

subject to

extent

gate of wisdom.

feelingstowards

our

affect the

some

if

is the

be real,to realise

feelingstowards

our

from

time

though

for this difference

reason
can

case

LOGIC

forms

of life up to man,

law of the universe, and

earlier and

contemplative

outlook.

sees

its

very

past and

This
has

progress

thus admits

later into the

With

in

ex-

the

citadel
future

MYSTICISM

historyof

the world,

success,

much

that

of

universe

LOGIC

combined

is

required for

before

it

can

science,the

mundane

less

to

its

the

to be.

different

fixed

The

speciesof

immutable

doctrine

of natural

in the Aristotelian tradition,and

swept away

for

ever

difference between
human

and

man

conceit

of the

had
was

suddenly

was

The

biologicalworld.

the lower

it

that

protectedby

dogma,

enormous,

appears

and

definite, which

and

orthodox

out

animals

kinds, which

enshrined

necessityfor

that

difference

classification easy

its supposed

world

the

rendered

our

thing
some-

for
discipline

severer

Origin oj Speciespersuaded

is not

appears

appeals to

aloof, appeahng

more

requiringa

difference between

plants

its

spiteof

practice.

Darwin's
the

and

hopes, and

successful

In

into the

youth

scientific philosophy,I think, is

arduous

more

self-assertion

of

ardour

the

of manhood.

true

of

must
resignation,

Western

hurrying

from

emerge

wisdom

mature

its

quick

understanding

true

to

forgotten. Something

been

has

with

wish

that, in the intoxication of

Hellenism, something, too, of Oriental

be

23

it is,I do not

conjecturalas

I think

quarrel. But
the

AND

animals, which
to be

shown

was

to
a

gradual achievement,
could

with

not

the

involvingintermediate being who

out
certaintybe placed either within or with-

human

family.

already been

shown

derived

from

nebula.

Thus

by Laplace

But
its

they began

if human

kinshipwith

and
itself,

or

all

that

or

conceit

sharp

very

where

became

outlines

soon
"

wavering
blurred.

were

could'

none

ended.

staggered for

was

is the

they

probably

less undifierentiated

their boundaries, and

the ape, it
way

planets had

the
be

to

the old fixed landmarks

Things and specieslost

say where

and

sun

primitive more

indistinct,and

and

The

found

moment

way
"

philosophy

to

by

reassert

of evolution.

MYSTICISM

24

process

to

the

which

led h-om

philosophersto

whether

the amoeba

known.

Hence

shown

in the

the

be

as

revealinga

universe

it

though

be

LOGIC

amoeba

obviouslya

which
the

itself in the actual.

ideal to which

comed
wel-

was

good

towards

those

\4ew,

whom
be

idea

an

such

may

we

accepted

votaries

whole-hearted

more

past

But

not

had

science

unfolding of

or

Hegelian evolutionists,could
the

though

"

opinion is not

development

evolution

^an

"

of

might satisfy
Spencer and

adequate by

this

probable historyof
law

appeared

progress

with

agree

Man

to

cycle of changes

to

the

the

would

slowly embodying
call

AND

of

as

change.

dead

and

continuouslyapproaches is,
static to be inspiring.Not

but
only the aspiration,

the

ideal too, must

develop with

of evolution

An

to these

fixed

minds,

impulse

the

process.

too

the

goal, but

the

the world

course

continual

which

fashioningof

is life and

which

Life, in this philosophy,is

which

all divisions

The

there

beliefs of

carry

false, and
new

must

situation.

the

count

may

stream

be
All

but

replaced by

they

stream

flows

though

in

lived, it
without
that

cannot

be

fictions,and

our

conceived

future, though

than

the

the child which

to open

all

explicitstatement,

the

better

spiteof

its mouth

past

expects
and

the

we

the

or
a

shut

in

thought.
foresee

cannot

present

sweet

is

assurance

because

its eyes.

the

the

of conveniejit

fictions,imaginary congeahngs of the

on

will be

beliefs to meet

thinking consists

our

Separate
transition.

to-morrow
new

in

to-day, if they

true

as

to

convenient

mere

imbroken

smooth

by

stream,

unreal.

are

no

givesunity

continuous

endings,

only

to-day

along

us

is

be

must

fresh needs

alone

artificial and

are

things, beginnings and

fictions

there

and

change

reality

it

can

Somehow,

slipped in
it, will be

reader

it has

be

is like

been

told

Logic,mathematics.

MYSTICISM

physics disappear in
"

too

"

static

towards

makes

advance, and
it from

it

what

I do not
of this

is real is

; what

to enter

and

practical,and
it

special,that
of the

with

be

hardly

can

questions that,

to

are

we

examination

it deals
as

the

that

exclusively

so

which

regarded

are

so

touching

any

mind, constitute

my

as

it reaches

maintain

to

inspireit

problems

the

movement

when

technical

only

which

interests

are

distance.

upon

I wish

philosophy.

motives

be at

to

they

recedes

rainbow,

place different

every

propose

impulse and

no

like the

appeared

25

philosophy, because

this

goal which,

LOGIC

AND

genuine

philosophy.
The

question of
Life.

human

It is

than

in

that

the

and

interest

predominant

same
a

can

in

for its own

knowledge

that

attain

interested

sake.

said

be

may

is very

philosophersshould

knowledge

that

human

destiny

It is

impossibleto

is that

any

say

the

the progress

propositionabout

ascertained, if

all, by the

at

Philosophyis not

which

of the other
have

we

sciences

provnice

the other

sciences

is the
know

may

methods

to the

kind

if it is to be

of its own,

and

neither

prove

can

be

larged
en-

belongs by
is to

of that

same

about

is evident

what

future

of

kind

limits.

narrow

hmits

But

the

of science.

particularscience, and

short cut

the

intellectual

man

to

are

certain

of science.

some

it must

if

much

subject-matterto

those

^which

"

to

that

foremost

genuine

future

sought

how

philosophy is

disinterested

^ispossiblewithin

"

with

be

must

if

first and

acquirethe

which
characterises
curiosity
Knowledge concerning the

other

But

truth, it is necessary

be admitted

philosophies,
knowledge which philosophy

of

rare.

happiness

and

It must

of many

desire for the kind

give

morality

the

destinyof

at least of the

destiny,or

more

is in

evolutionism

of

its
be

science.

of results

as

genuine study,
aim
nor

at

results

disprove.

MYSTICISM

26

Evolutionism,
progress,which
allows

the

AND

in
is

basing itself

of

its tyrant rather

from

change

notion

LOGIC

time,

the
it

as

to

seems

its servant, and

than

of contemplationwhich
impartiality
that is best in philosophic
thought
as

we

have

saw,

the

realityof time.
only to preserve the

better,

the

to

worse

to become

me,

that

therebyloses
is the

of

notion

the

upon

of all

source

physicians,
feeling. Meta-

and

frequentlydenied altogether

I do

wish

not

mental

outlook

this ;

do

to

which

I wish

inspiredthe

denial, the attitude which, in thought, regards the past

having the
importance as

as

"

the mind

as

of reason,
that of

realityas

same

the

future.

conceives

it will be

the

"In

present and
far," says

so

equally affected

GOOD

Mysticismmaintains
maintains

but
but

holds

the

"

that

"

hold

the

"

the word

good

that

perfectionI
we

"

mean

Good

and

Both
illare

fair and
and

things wrong

positionis to be found
perfection when he
the

find the definition

views

good

times
somemore

to

are

right,

and

right."

Spinoza,but

in

means
"

human.

"

evolution.

some

thing," he

same

I find

that

one," he says,

"

merely

ceiving
con-

regardsgood, but

as

all thingsare

is not

"

and
illusory,

Reality is good.

some

similar twofold
uses

all

God

To

view

is

EVIL

AND

that all evil is

same

in Heraclitus

again,
men

the idea

future, past, or present thing." It is this

IV.

be found

Spinoza,^

whether

on

same

the dictate

thing according to

accordingto the dictate of reason

lackingin the philosophywhich is based

often

the

to

speak

A
he
of

By realityand
says ;

By good I

shall

but

where
elsethat

mean

Thus
to be useful to us."^
certainlyknow
nature, but goodbelongs to Realityin its own
perfection

which

"

we

Ethics, Bk. IV. Prop. LXII.

lb., Pt. IV. Df. 1.

"

Ethics, Pt. II, Df.

VI.

is relative to ourselves

ness

in

is necessary
of

in order

mysticisVn:
evil, which

and
what

is not

opposed by

It is difficult to

positionwithout
that
have

we

that

active

have

and

which

of two

of

time.

So

long as

to

say

both

that

illusions. But

vision, we

"

The

the

shall say

action, and
world

as

to

choice, and

to

to

at least of better

evil, or

mysticism regards as

what

essentially

it is

our

dualism

which

and

good
we

the

if

world

whole

be content

may

evil of action

the

do

must

requires.

action

we

have

mystic

the
of

worthy

arc

love

and

see

earth,

Apparell'd
we

feeling. In

of

it is necessary

we
merelyimpartial,

if,as

find

worship, if we

exercise

merely

contemplativehfe, where
and
for, it is possibleto be impartial,

remain

we

In

ethical

the

overcome

which

towards

kind

jective,
sub-

are

distinction, like everything pertaining

this

called

not

and

evil

is evil is

illusion,if only because

with

concerned

to

good

of this

account

what

to

of evil.

and

possibleacts,

action, belongs

world

action is

have

we

of

But

worse.

kind

another

have

into

is also

there

that

merely

feeling,and

we

that

to

is

good

of

distinction

to

the

is

good

belongs to Reality

which

correlative

any

life,where

preferthis

good,

but

of

appearance

recognisingthat good

kind

one

of

tenable
give a logically

what

towards

our

of

kind

mundane

world

outlook

ethical

the

conflictingparts

higher,mystical kind
and

the

disappears

distinction, I think,

such

lower

divides

be

to

seem

is

27

needs, and

our

understand

to

there

and
Some

impartialsurvey.

an

LOGIC

AND

MYSTICISM

that
that

it is in

and

the

and

justified.

and

there
this

is

light,"
a

higher good

higher good belongs

reality. In

apparent

sight.

common

every

in celestial

this way

vacillation

of

than
to

the twofold

mysticism are

that

the

of

whole

attitude

explained

AND

MYSTICISM

a8

The
that

this universal

of
possibility

exists is of supreme

happiness

of

from

built

we

But

if

beliefs,it is necessary
emotion

that

the

the

general.

in

higher good

that

reflections of

our

of

the

And

therefore

of
possibility

But

non-human,

and

finds

emotions

own

of

they

Self, will

leads

whole

is

is bound

the
of

of action.

would

not

agree

all

from

with

feeling

that

that

say

or

the

general or

late and

of the

only

not

mystical belief

In this way

tyrant in this

restless

the

evil, like time,

in the

fundamental

in

distinction

the

thought

and

from

evil altogether

and

good
the

into

Good

dualism

out,

of

notion

are,

world

members
highly specialised

it
of

of the

hierarchy.

Although,
to

shut

also from

introduces

selectiveness

thought, but

the

are

in themselves.

ethical

evil, like time, becomes

seem,

the

even

things,not part

mystic to

discards

everything.

of

and

intellectual

the

is thus

which

philosophy,

as

with

its view, but

and

of

nature

evolution, through the

up

of survey

goodness
good

of

the better, and

from

reveal

good.

philosophy

kind

the

the

any

judge things good

not

love which

and

the

are

of universal

worse

mystic

not

everywhere,

easilycombined

progress,

false

nature

bad, and

bad, although it is very

The

it does

other

on

things as

prc-occupationwith

world

be

the

impartialcontemplation,freed

an

may

human

about

or

Good

mysticism

substance

the

into

led

exactly what

achieved.

anything about
universe

which

be

to

to

value

nobler, happier, freer life than

otherwise

be

can

realise

to

It reveals

of
possibility

du

"

reveals.

not

are

and

for the conduct

creeds

any

all

joy in

and

inestimable

gives

hfe, and

it.

love

importance

mystic emotion, apart

upon

LOGIC

as

we

with

saw,

the

mysticism
^/iew that

fundamental, it must
intellectually

can

good

be
and

interpretedso
evil

be admitted

are

not

that here

MYSTICISM
we

are

longer in

no

AND
verbal

from
and

that

advance.

with

agreemenl

of the

elimination

the

of the

most

ethical

of

past.

siderations
con-

philosophy is both scientifically

necessary

^tlioughthis

"

ag

religiousteachers

great philosophersand

believe, however,

LOGIC

seem

may

Both

paradox

contentions

these

"

an

ethical

be

briefly

must

defended.
The
the

of

hope

desirable
I

as

can

is

one

of the

difference

province of philosophy. Love

are

ethical

analogous
and

attitudes

constitute

exist in these

mental

of form

therefore

structure, and

specialscience
the

ethical

of

must

background

in the

chemist

all the

is not

now

to

expected

that

in

expected

detail

Thus

kind

some

study,

but

in the

of

none

special

his
prove

first sightdisappointing,
we

at

seems

ourselves

of

the

to

sophers
inspiredphilo-

whole

be

difference

sought.

are

If this view

often

inspirethe
or

philosophy.

in the

results which

necessary

to

remain

obtrude

remind

than
have

may

philosophy,

belongs rather

which

interest

for

hate is not

interests

must

ethical

psychology

objects which

problem

love and

closely

are

general form

towards

is a

phenomena

within

come

The

objects.

attitudes

worlds

hate, for example,

and

but the difference between

or

to

philosophythey

to

towards

of those

structure

istics
particularcharacter-

difference

the

world

good

far

so

anything

do

can

"

that

or

which,

between

in the

particularthings that

opposites,but

has this

one

philosophy

abstract
sufficiently

^isnot

satisfy.The difference

to

it is not

scientific

the world
"

desires

human

more

our

demonstrating that

see,

bad

to

ethical characteristic

whatever
and

of satisfaction

hope

similar

other

sciences.

required

ions
the

or

change

to

atoms

utilityof

prove
;

the
the

has

The
the

been

may
found

physicistor
ethical

biologistis
plants or

portance
imnot

animals

MYSTICISM

30

which

he dissects.

In

beheved

men

in

bearing
when

example,
it

astrology:

of the

movements

LOGIC

pre-scientific
ages

for

Astronomy,

case.

AND

planets had
the

upon

most

decayed

interest to be

and

portant
im-

beings.

sumably,
Pre-

disinterested

the

who

had

that

astronomy

of

worthy

found

in Plato's Timaeus

for

notions

it is

part of its purpose

the

that

earth

that the earth

with

bad.

it is natural

bad, and

bad,

and
in

attributes

so

that human

to suppose

that

ethicallyneutral
ethical

has

last

grown

been

deny

physicist,
to

good

are

is

even

or

more
:

is either

good

between

good

nature

only during the

neutralityhas

to

physicalsciences

the difference

psychology

wish

concerned

all-importantin practice,must
It is

show

modern

they

in the

to

as

scientific attitude

to consider

theory also.

loo,

no

merely

whether

difficult than

more

too

The

concerned,
is

he

to consider

psychology,the

and

of admiration.

contrary, though he has

facts,not

In

recent

worthy

had

is full of ethical

example,

is admirable, is not

its ethical

find out

or

is

the

on
physicist,

essential

an

astrology

study. Physics,as

it appears
:

the

that

direct and

lives of human

this belief

because

thought

was

the

not

was

studied

was

the

study of astronomy began, many

absorbinglyinterestingdecided
little human

this

be

important

century that
up

essential

and

an

here

scientific

to

success.

In
seldom

and

sought

remembered

hardly

their wdshes.

acliieved.

ever

their wishes, and

in relation to

neutralityhas

ethical

philosophy, hitherto,

afford
a

key

to the

Driven

philosoph}^is not
belief must

be

from
of

understanding of

refuge in philosophy.
to

But

remain

driven

even
a

forth.

set

It is

the

particular
evil must

good and

the world

from
of

have

judged philosophies

have

sciences,the belief that the notions

Men

been

has

this last

sought

refuge,if

pleasingdreams,
a

commonplace

this
that

happiness is
In

good.

thought,

evil and

and

achieve

to

it would

and

directly
;

the

achieved

best

not

seek

only

those

of their

distortingmedium

We
that

thus

are

philosophy which

the world

its

to

does

likelyto achieve truth, but

higher ethical standpoint than
and

embodiment

present ideals.

there

of

is

limits of human
the

of

element

an

and

of the

view

serious

world

its

He

loveth

that

danger lest,through
submission
the

thought
have

which

of

which

it lies in
in

belief in

our

an

external

inward
reverence

good
good

which

which

towards

it

of the

lacking in

"

and

and

"

in action

The

it

desires,can

which

our

tially
essen-

science teaches
which

submission.
is the

good
own

our

Insistence

good

cannot

is

form

secure

seriouslyimpair

power,

and

constitutes

in

its victories

world.

realisation of the
while

is

^the good in

the

towards

is

there

life,life itself

love of

to remember

us

lies within
fact

destiny,

successes

of that

to create

power

self-assertion,which,

external

confident

concerns

attitude

our

lose it

is the outcome
it

an

of progress.
possibilities

that which
as
spirit
ethical neutrahtyby

achieved

good

lives and
on

the

; and

been

The

in

same

material

quick

religioninculcates

which

in every

realisation

it

givesit its highestworth.

of what

lose much

should

too

of

in

of human

is somewhat

life shall

his

find

to

rehgion,and

and

its insolent belief in the boundless

"

only

tionism
which, like evolu-

one

In

which

world, with

modern

upon

is also the outcome

submission,

power,

evil is not

and

seeking

universe

impose

to

systems, is perpetually

traditional

most

appraising the
deeply

seek

not

more

through

world

seeming paradox,

our

conceptionsof good

own

likely

more

desires.

own

back

brought

of the

forgetgood

are

the

it

seek

is true

who

view

who

who

same

the facts

know

to

the

rate, those

any

31

those

by

that

seem

at

than

good

LOGIC

AND

MYSTICISM

the
the

destroythat
both

what

is

MYSTICISM

32

valuable

in

LOGIC

AND

humility

is fruitful

what

and

in

scientific

the

temper.
Human

beings

human

nature

that

in

comes

all

the

possible

achieve.

to

is either

the

it

transcendence,
scope

in

spite
a

its

of

its

interest

scientific

the

flatter

tyrannous

demands.

more

thought
like

and,

it

only

than

any

of

and

its

fallacious

capable
imposition

hopes,
of
of

our

its

human

self-

increase

slavery

more

of

to

truly

meal,
pieceoutward

indifferent

more

the

to

predominant

glitter

accepting

nascent

to

destiny.

but

sophy
philo-

facts, fails

humble,
less

by

Evolutionism,^

because

more

in

reward

and

offering

shown

pre-scientific

scientific

concerns

be

in

approach

comprehension.

will

has

conceptions

yet

rich

particular

to

everything

Scientific

every

preoccupations,

arduous,

fate, and

as

philosophy

philosophy

to

of

mundane

our

more

mirage

though

and

the

it is

that

experience
not

and

constant

mind,

understood.

brings with

appeals

ethical

in

scientific

be

to

form

breadth

and

truly

time,

is

higher

but

hostility are

imagination,

or

of

hostile

represents,

condition,
belief

and

world

thus

or

human

world

outer

primitive

the

philosophy

closest

the

must

other

any

the

interest

attention,

scientific

than

with

To

friendly

friendliness

which

to

relation

the

only

our

But

therefore,

us,

intimate

most

that

gives

and

of

objecti\dty

to

if

subjective,

thought.

our

transcend

wholly

course,

direction

the

nearer

pursuit,

be

something

determines

remain

of

cannot,

world
and

without

temporary

11

THE

PLACE

SCIENCE

OF

LIBERAL

OCIENCE,
^

the

represented

by

such

of

this

in

Science,

wireless

come

forces

the

the

practically

urged

and

to

mind

It

is

with

is

quite
these

value
outlook

on

of
the

as

other
a

world,

that

be

I shall

of

mind
be

in

doubtedly
un-

often

so

reasons,

overlooked.
with

especially

habit

is

other

to

apt

are

reasons,

scientific

that

the

encouraging

been

has

the

over

for

reason

have

science

from

reason

important,

ledge
know-

interest

command

derived

by

displaying

incident,

which

easily appreciated

so

replaced

constructed

results

this

but

research,

up-to-date

are

casual

sufficient

amply

they

It

speak.

to

up-to-date,

as

is

wish

detached

increased

which

nature

aeroplanes,

alchemy.

patiently

useful

The

street.

an

scientific

until

almost

which,

of

the

of

modern

of

more

systems

out

of

my

and

and

that

consists

aspect,

newer

of

in

man

science

of

interesting only

something

of

sensational

of

telegraphy

is

newspapers,

selection

marvels

the

of

reader

varying

aspect

this

fragments,

nothing

ordinary

as

radio-activity and
is not

EDUCATION

to

triumphs,

IN

the

forming

concerned

trinsic
inour

in

what

to

illus-

follows.
The

tra^
Almost

instance
the

of

wireless

difference

all the

serious

between

telegraphy
the

intellectual

two

labour

will

serve

points

of

required

view.
for

the

MYSTICISM

34

of
possibility

this

invention

Faraday,Maxwell,
experiment
modem
the

and

"

is

due

Hertz.

In

theory

these

three

is

details which
their

discoveries

could

give

to be

for

broad

The

less
end-

phenomena,

and

which

adjusted in

cannot

interest

to utilise

of

telegraphy

ingenuity,but

universalitywhich

that

and

but

mechanical

order

considerable

sweep

lectual
intel-

unifying an

practicalsystem

intrinsic

them

demonstrated

spirit.The

generous

doubt, very

no

that

not

every

remained

demanded,
had

to

the

up

profound

of

one

variety of apparently detached

mental
displayinga cumulative
power
dehght

built

men

electromagneticwaves.

discovered

they

men-

alternatinglayersof

interest,bringingtogether and

afford

three

to

electromagnetism,and

identityof light with

system which

LOGIC

and

of

theory

AND

as

object of

an

interested
dis-

contemplation.
From
that

the

in the
to

seems

education

is

superiorto

utihty. Those
they
to

associate

admit,

not

on
inferiority

services which
less real.
of

And

men

of science

with

men

long

as

to

to

in the

be sacrificed to

classics,are

a
sincerely,

humanity,

verify itself :
tend

to

be

little attempt is made

and

by which

nourished.

the

respect culture, when

who

this attitude

leisurely,
systematicsurvey
is formed

to

side, compensated doubtless

aspects of science

merely useful, and

of mind

ought

learned

science renders
so

Even

apt to rest their claims

merely pohtely, but

their

Hterary

science.

on

are

culture

that

science, it tends

vahiable

based

of science

contention

word, it

indisputablethat

one

giving

constitutes

which

of this much-misused

sense

generally held

advocates

warmest

the

be

good

of

trainingthe mind,

of

well-informed, impersonaloutlook

culture

on

view

point of

but

certain

by
none

exists among
the

the
the
men

intrinsically

sacrificed

to

to preserve

the

apt

finer

the
that

quality

SCIENCE

But

science is

spiritin which

possibilities
were

reahsed

great

as

of Greek
wish

and

Latin

whatever

of literature,and

that

as

its benefits, and

myself enjoyed

not

Greek

Latin

and

translations.

But

fullydeserve

all the

them,

and

admiration

with

writings. It

their

them, but by drawing attention

in science,that
One

the

and
the

education

can

the

present and

in which

is

future

the

past does

are

not

there

is

apt

vulgar, which

taste

were

and
own

is

reclaimed

earth-soiled

day.

The

of

from
as

which

the

to

the

and

new

the

to

civilisation may

of Greek
is

qualities

attention, and

direct

shocking

quiveringfrom
gardens

of criticism towards

to
qualities

what

emphasis

growing

something crude, insolent,

be

to

little

the trim

In

bhnd.

purely

absolutelyended

engendered. The

which, therefore, the student

easily become

is

habit

present excels

the

of

study

renewed,

be

never

in

exclusive

of what

study

by attacking

inherent
too

loss to be

argument.

my

seem

namely,

"

the

By

past.

does

is not

upon

neglected excellences

to

to conduct

defect, however,

classical
on

I wish

of

the Greeks

serious

great and

very

I have

is bestowed

that

no

wholly from

firmlypersuaded that

am

it is

that

unacquainted

I have

knowledge

my

is derived- almost

authors

at

particularly

more

classical education.

disparagea

to

be

would

saying this

In

literature.

which

of mind

capacityof producing those habits

constitute the highest mental
excellence
least

it,I believe

teach

that its

the

If its full

taught.

who

those

by

feriority
in-

of science,

but
the fault of science itself,

is, I believe, not

fault of the

such

value

is supposed in the educational

as

this

35

be, in present fact, any

if there

even

CULTURE

AND

even

of sensitive

man

rough contact,

he

retires to

polishedpast, forgettingthat they

the

those

habit of

wilderness
from

whom

being unable

by
he
to

as

rough

shrinks

in his

men

recognisemerit

MYSTICISM

36
until

it is dead

bookish

be able

to the

essential

the

is too

life,and

seldom

AND

culture

"

based

My

eyes

in the
the

And

now

champions

battle, instead

purely

past will

things,or

the

of old

men

their

age away
think
I shall

to

the future.

has

rolled.

not

see

posterity."

poet

but

is
impartiality

such

future

of

past and

of

combining

fighta never-ending

seek

to

rare

West, where

of the

pugnacious atmosphere

more

of
the

contemporary

not

saw

Chinese

the

result

wholly on

splendour in

"

says

of

splendour

I weep
to
The
heroes
of

So

the

piercethrough everyday surroundings

to

of stillgreater

hope

be

to

apt

LOGIC

out

merits

the

of

both.
This
the

consideration, which

exclusive

form

study
which

of culture

academic,

attempting
define the

to

mean

in which

In the

broader

we

broader

one

sense

what

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it from

use

sense,

the other

use

the word.

through personalexperience
through

the education

vitallyimportant

as

consideration

would

question with

which

In the

the word

use

and

"

narrower

instruction, the

of hfe.

sense,

well
"

to

tion."
educa-

in

sense

perfectly
than

only

not
we

learn

of character

aspect of education,

nothing, since

topicsquite foreignto

introduce
are

all that

the formation
Of this

before

narrower

will include

it is, I will say

we

But

others, both

education

tion
ques-

it will be

through instruction, but

learn

distinguishthe

two

to

mean

fundamental

the

to

are

every

static,traditional,and

question

we

this purpose

the
legitimate,
the

this

in which

against

of education

end

true

answer

sense

For
which

is the
to

become

has

only against

not

classics,but

the

inevitablyto

leads

What

of

militates

its
the

concerned.
education

imparting

of

may

definite

be

confined

information

to
on

SCIENCE

various

AND

subjects,because

itself,is useful

in

per

But

to consider

arithmetic

education

defined

habits and

It remains
what

attempt
whole
small

to decide

be

first

"

with

take

can

the

of all desire.
a

hive

and

desires,which

whatever

honey

surrounding

the

the

queen-impulse dies,

though

retarded

little by

the

is like

languish and
expected

ness.
sweet-

in civilised
a

store

world

busy
up

man

of

swarm

in its service

affords.

But

if

habit, spreads slowly through

subsidiaryimpulses, and

becomes

inexplicablycolourless.
so

by

death-deahng influence,

all the

full of zest, and

workers

protected by

derivative

active life and

gatheringhoney

of their

attendant

there
ever
what-

or

of them

primary impulse

each

it is surrounded

the

empty

"

region controlled

of workers

is gone

queen

instincts

these

our

Each

impulses.

and

virtue

or

outside

fears

the cells remain

So

"

reason

not

"

important ;

or

to

desire.

we

number

with

"

questionwe

which

instincts

desirable

us

result of

to contribute

certain

connected

way

be

the world.

the

as

this

outlook

primary
to

for

science has

what

called, that

movers

the

die, and

I wish

habits, and

mental

answered

life is built about

hopes and

when

not

it, may

mean

lifeand

on

hoped

of the habits and

queen-bee, aided by
but

have

number-^-of

it may

these

of

of instruction,of certain

means

be

can

we

jOnlywhat is in some
land impulsesappears
is no
faculty,whether
our

in which

ourselves, what

When

the formation

very

in which

sense

of outlook,

sort

Our

"

wholly

it is, does

as

sense

certain outlook

ask

to

instruction ?
can

in the

the formation,by

as

mental

education

^is almost

"

for

it.

Education, in the
.

information, in and

such

instruction, necessary

constitute

se

37

daily life. Elementary

reading, writing, and

this kind.

CULTURE

obviouslyworth

whole

What

doing

tract
was

that

of

life

formerly
it raised

MYSTICISM

3S

questions,has

no

with

outside

an

extinct

which

of those

scope

number

showing

where

found.

Under

"

that

the

kinder

the

to

is

generation;
theory

we

that

of

of

been

the

the

the

endeavour

better

stunted

of education

too
;

to

and

beings.

psychologyor
the

preserve
no

of

young

human
full-grown

beginning to

by

excluding all

as

production of

in education

purpose

has

truth

need, therefore, waste

the

lacking in

to

Calvinistic horror

training

the

be

satisfaction is to be

is natural, and

led

heart

the value

thoughts, and

falselyregarded

in what

mistakes

such

of

obvious

hypocritesinstead

contorted
From

been

virtue has

they

only be to enlarge the

provides,
by increasing

permanent

this
in

is

attendant

impulse

man,"

has

is best

teach

the

most

misconceived

"nature"

nature

varietyof
the

natural

often

which

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purpose

that human

and

when

education, therefore, cannot

the

be

must

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primary impulse

any

uneducated

the

of

"

to the world

restore

can

reflected upon

purpose

create

the

miracle

no

they

The

"

be

disappointed: all meaning

related to our
primary desires,and

at bottom
are

purposeleai:

inquirethe meaning of Hfe,

all is vanity. The search for
can
compel an inner response

that

meaning

always

must

dreary and

grown

decide, perhaps, that

and

now

of disillusion we

sense

LOGIC

AND

present
words

more

is to thwart

on
or

eradicate nature.
But

although

desire, nature

the

savage.

ministry

of

must

supply the

is not, in the civilised man,

fragmentary, and
in

nature

yet violent
Each

thought

set

impulse
and

of
has

initial force of
the

spasmodic,

impulses

that

it is

its constitutional

knowledge

and

reflection,

conflicts of impulsesare foreseen,

possible
and
temporary impulses are controlled by the unifying
In this way
be called wisdom.
impulse which
may

through

which

AND

SCIENCE

the

through knowledge

with

contacts

insistence

of desire and

that is the chief moral

intellectual

make

with

far

manner,

as

through

the

of

forming

the

it is in
of

such

human

as

it

to

gives us

relation

of the

habits

endeavour

in

to

objective

an

and
itself,

merely

not

personal desire.

considered
and

world

The
is

no

whole

of

of

consideration

is

an

is

can

we

whether

respect superiorto its rivals in educational

nonnon-

desires and

our

admitted,

aim, and

its
the

of

nature

return

far science

how
of science, inquiring

such

its outcome

place in society,

societyto

the

the

proportion,that

our

human

process
on

proportion as

it is in itself apart from

as

to

view

true

If this standard

contributes

in

as

outlook

our

this ideal ; in

and

environment,

interests.
to the

more

objective view

an

Education,

mental

our

approximates

human

the

world

world, is to be judged successful

of the

of its scope

ideal,indefinitely
approachable,but not actually

an

to say,

the

softening

is the

end

of education,

of

fullyrealisable.

and

moral

medium
distorting

attainment

complete
doubt

aim

as
possible

as

within

future

enlargement

this

imagine

and

see

us

regions of

of education.

end

Closelyconnected
purely

past and

him

citizen of the

It is this simultaneous

circle of his interests.

in the

but

countries, remote

of

vidual's
indi-

the

world, making

fightingimit,

stretches

vast

increases

varietyof

outside

universe, embracing distant

and

and

wealth
the

isolated

longer an

space,

39

destroys the crudityof instinct,and

education

no

CULTURE

it is in any

practice.

II

Two

opposite and

belong to science
which

is not

as

at

first

merits
sight conflicting

against hterature

inherentlynecessary,

and

but

is

art.

The

one,

certainlytrue

MYSTICISM

40

the

at

AND

present day, is hopefulnessas

achievement, and

Piuman
work

that

be

may
This

student.

in

and

merit, and

irrelevance

of the Renaissance

triumphs

of former

triumphs

in

our

been
of

to

which

no

which

great

core,

and

the

do

men

is perpetually
or

; the

now

fresh
facilitating

actually increase

age,

of

of Greece

men

far from

the

difii-

is artistic achievement

only

seems

depend

to

even

Hence

the

on

the

and

those

artistic

present, from

who

eccentric.

But

simplicityand

springs: theory

in

have

productions

tidiousnes
fas-

undue
which

after
such

there

vandalism

deliberate

in the search

certain
tion
civilisa-

vision which
to

not

upon

peevishness and

except into the

of the
art

comes,

and
literary

certain

the

only
none

so

destroy.

escape

is

our

any

impulse and

ages,

there

attention

past

ages,

of science

art

or

did better than

ignorestradition

achieves

mind

subjective

the first.

the

towards
seems

pressing
de-

mean

begin with

naivete of

nourished

former

"

of the whole

not

it

cumulative, but

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us

the

own

and

the

harder
triumphs by rendering originality

attainment

freshness

its greatest merit

of literature

riveted upon

of

be

it

requires

amplification.Let

fresh

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preferringthe study

some

culty of

outlook

Each

reasons

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useful

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any

otherwise

passionsand

these

In the

the

to

of

scientific truth is concerned.

apparatus where
for

future

aspect of science, to my

perhaps

of human

cheerful

might

effect of another
a

as
particular

the

what

the

to

accomplished by

merit

engenders prevent
also

LOGIC

originality
vandalism

spontaneityout

is stillthe canker

destroysthe advantages
insincerity

of

of

in its

merely

pretended ignorance.

despair thus arising from an education

mental
activityexcept
suggests no pre-emiinent
The

artistic creation

is

wholly

absent

from

an

which
that

of

education

SCIENCE

CULTURE

AND

which

scientific method.

gives the knowledge of

discoveryof scientific method,
is

may

that

say

of

thing

the

from

they

are

its

world, and

activityof

the

upon

their

the

invented

has

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nothing
science
a

science

invents
often
with

the

by

fresh

without

of

man

real

genius

The

notable

his successors,

who

can

vigour,unimpaired by

required for their work,

however

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required by
in

are

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science

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was

inductive
Bacon.

not discovered

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may

in
to

method,
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by Bacon,

and
true

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to

the

are

is

of

so

great

method.
different

problems

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the method

to

of

thought

not

of

not

of

identifythis

associate

inductive

the true

who

man

of the

called

formerly customary
But

of

classes

all, there

them

above

easily definable, which

of

art

previous labour

numbers

and

name

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the method

apply

first inventor

the

but

the

well

as

discoveries

is
brilliant,

appropriate to different

with

needs

genius ;

is the

calibre

methods,

science.

make

to

contribute

capacitycan

mental

over

order

architects.

done

the

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apply

can

labourers

common

be

can

method.

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made

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men

genius

; the edifice of science

moderate

very

perfecting it ;

as

lesser

of

shoulders

achievement.

supreme
In

even

covered
dis-

for progress

the

is required in
ability

doing

with

in which

of supreme

man

master-builders, and

worth

has

have

men

upon

thousand

bricklayers,and

its foremen,

proceeds

success

dependent

one

useful discoveries in science

as

already it

highest value

very

where

transcendent

its masons,

Yet

science

stand

method,

matics,
mathe-

continuallygreater genius, for

successors

predecessors;

In

in art,

of

appearance

in science

the

longer, as

no

except in pure

Galileo.

ever-acceleratingvelocity.
an

The

yesterday ; speaking broadly, we

it dates

transformed

41

method

it with
method

the
was

of science

MYSTICISM

42

AND

is

something which
induction, logicand

mathematics

what

scientific method
of mind

temper
which

grows,

mentioned
The

obvious,

so

Ioutlook

is the

refusal to

arousing

matters
means

make

in

move

perfect curve.

our

appeal

mention

the

of the

the

to

of it

scientific

desires, tastes,

own

understanding of
seem

more

no

it

evidence

available
few

is

illustrations will

considered

because

In

absence

the

himself

that

know

scribable

in

after

know

courage

method,

as

and
and

may

be

in

this

such

knowledge

seems

more

in

we

in
de-

certain

universe,

feehngs

Galileo.

fact

even

the

the first inventors

of
especially

was

simply

now,

by

such

and

painful to

astronomy

insightof

of

fact

as

move,

kind

other

trary,
con-

appeal

circles,or

simplicityof pattern

that

Easy

any

bodies

most

In

to ascertain

in

move

this

that

how

stars

the

to

questionof

us

heavenly

not

This

curve.

hankering

to the

do

they

the

considerations.
to

now

the

or
ellipses,

accurate

we

know

which

in

of evidence

decide

obvious

once

We
unjustifiable.
way

to

that

circle is the

the

aesthetico-moral

to

it is at

case

but

our

the

circles

he allowed

the

thingso simple,

this clear.

must

is a

to remember

Aristotle, I understand,

an

were

in
consistently
passionatepartisanshipis by no

But

inconclusive.

and

that

scientific education..

baldly,this may

where
especially

easy,

uncertain

merits

kernel

regard

thus

trite truism.

two
a

The

affordinga key

as

Stated

world.

than

derision.

excite

land interests
the

belonging to

as

to indicate

scientific method

seemingly trivial,that

so

almost

may

of the

second

try

the

of the scientific outlook

kernel

as

botany and

as

I will

is,but
of which

out

is the

above

much

as

much

as

attempt the difficulttask of stating

I shall not

the

deduction

includes

geology.
the

LOGIC

we

levant.
irre-

are
owe

it

tific
of scien-

SCIENCE
We

AND

take

may

doctrine of

his actual

valuable, but

the

temper
it

knows,

everyone

is

his

conclusions

method

and

that

Darwin

this

only possiblebecause

not

nature,

thing

which

from

great merit

with

behaviour

is not

quite

his conclusions,
falsify
his method.

The

doctrine

new

that
on

was

mind

treat

to

man

as

century and
Under

not

the

towards

as

the

over

however,

has

study
the

by

allusions
But
can

as

to

the

if the
may
of

value

the

his

when

depressing,

they did, and

so

unscientific attitude
his calm

of the

reformers

of

determination
marks

phenomenon

of Darwinism
now

which

scientific

spiritmust

the

become

is

an

portant
im-

eighteenth

can

quote science.

scientific attitude

fairlycommon,
contortion.

spirit
"

the

pervade

There

wholly
the

mean

and

it is stilla

to most

yet almost

as

ions, germ-plasms,and
devil

supposed,

made

he said

an

philosophy. Philosophers and

the scientific

If the

were

artificial intellectual

one

behaviour

Revolution.

man

difficult and

part of

inferred, that

people quitenatural, though

some

was

follow.

impair

not

of them,

natural

as

horrible and

was

imphed

as

influence

the

does

act

to

against all

advance

is to

^that it

"

all such
as

but

he

objectionswhich

people ought
^were

"

Malthus

what

an

consideringman

must

quite what

not

are

consequences

owed

characteristic

consequences

inquiry.

outlook

but

blame,

certain

certain

lies in

are

selection, and

Malthus's

object of praise or

the

as

His

be

to

that

his

of

part of his theory of natural

was

known

now

essential

truly scientific.

doctrine

to him

was

Malthus's

illustration is all the better

It is not

largely erroneous.
As

This

43

illustration

another

as

population.

for the fact that

CULTURE

that

the eyes

touched
un-

study

public imagine

pages

is,

of

that

bristle with
of shell-fish.

quote Scripture,so the philosopher

The

is not
scientific spirit

an

afl[airof

MYSTICISM

44

LOGIC

AND

quotation,of externallyacquiredinformation, any

than

manners

are

scientific attitude
all other

affair of the

an

of mind

involves

suppressionof hopes

hates, and

whole

the

subdued

without

without
preconceptions,
to

it is must

be

negative,to
can

it

see

it is,and

as

by

easilyimagine it to be.
Now
in philosophythis

yet been

achieved.

but
conceive
of it
the

universe
the

us

would

that

the universe

as

be

fears

cosmic

but
justified,

justified.Until
neutral
in

terms,

philosophy ;

have

we

have

we

any

I have
scientific

spoken

so

far

but
spirit,

of the

not

to

than

be
that

give

is like home.

which

may,

have

we

be

no

to think
at

hoped

such

would

give to

arrived

ceived,
con-

reason

tially
essen-

hopes

our

of course,
to suppose

of it in

ethically

scientificattitude

arrived
that

To

at

such

an

will

philosophy

solid results.

value is derived.
one

learnt

to

regarded

is to

is to

yet

as

sonal,
per-

aspect

progressiveor
essentially

have

as

attempts

^has been

"

place

every

until

and

attitude, it is hardly
achieve

we

we

not

some

or

strange, and

importance

which

has

all

bottom,

for example,
deteriorating,
and

of mind

universe

at

seem

what

to

or

Mind,

the

reason,

not

feehng

cosy

conceive

better

no

wish

any

belief that what

almost

sentience

or

frankly,

not
self-absorption,

whole.

pattern after which

for

as

will

^thought or

"

as

the universe

it

see

we

relation, positiveor

attitude

marked

has

human,

and

life,until

to

any

some

certain

"

fears, loves

like it to be,

should

we

know

to

bias, without

without

determined

what

and

material, able

the

to

of

sweeping away

subjectiveemotional

become

except

etiquette-book. The

desires in the interests of the desire

it involves

more

The

largelyof

the

the

it is from

negativeaspect of

positiveaspect

that i+s

instinct of constructiveness, which

chief incentives

to

the

artistic creation,can

is

find

SCIENCE

in

scientific

any

systems

epic

poem.

of

almost

source

well

desire

recurring

human

else.

of

happiness
splendid

this

outlook
be

must

the

therefore
the

troubled

the

to

human

happy

very

and

best
and

sources

passionate

and
that

as

are

planet.

escape
whole

fulfilled

by

the

hfe

to

the

admiration

to

is

happiness
to

of
able
inestim-

of

devoted

open

by

nothing

contributing

consciousness

its

an

the
is

death,

as

The

from

science,
the

which

for

science

added,

race.

life,

and

the

ished
aston-

secrets

even

of

of

man

achievement,

utility

from

these

birth

with

interests,

and

of

is

undiscoverable.

ever

wider

and

cosmic

all

To

life

cycle

impersonal

the

for

circumstances,

private

from

is

larger

unveil

can

than

which

finds

effort,

science

seemed

massive

more

curiosity,

intellectual

that

45

satisfaction

all

have

for

CULTURE

Disinterested

delight
might

AND

science
derived

dwellers

on

Ill

FREE

Faustus

Dr.

TO
"

The

to

Would

it

praise,
He

be

smiled

should
"

in

in

ofi

the

it

cloud

of

the

from

the

born,

with

monsters,
the

and

evil, and

saw

that

that

all is

ocean,

and

into

vast

is

cruel

passing

stniggling
life before

Reprinted

from

the

to

play

in

this

snatch,
Death's

Independent
46

of

tossed,

rain

deluged

at

rapidly

monsters

sea

itself, Man

cost,

was

of

good
Man

And

world,

monstrous

inexorable
Review,

And

away.

worship.

any

huge

trees,

knowledge

mad,

few

brief

decree.

December,

life

of

developed

passing

for

ing
boil-

and

forest

the

the

shape,

first germ

unfolded

thought,
thirst

take

mould,

and

aimlessly

planets cooled,

the

damp

the
of

power
the

all

of

moments

as

whirled

sheets

now

breeding, fighting, devouring,

the

great drama

heaved

hot

And

fructifying warmth

from

tortured

he

to

mountains

crust.

depths

began

planets, the

of

solid

springing

ferns

joy

undeserved

the

nebula

hot

length

masses

barely

the

At

burning

and

black

grew

endless

whom

that

deserve

not

obtain

to

resolved

the

ages

threw

mass

seas

the

them

by beings

and

he

begun

performed.

space.

central

from

worshipped

countless

through

all, did

amusing

had

angels

of

given

not

more

inwardly,

be

For

be

he

the

choirs

for, after

Had

not

to

of the

told

Mephistopheles

study

Creation, saying

wearisome

praise

his

praises

endless

grow

their

in

of the

history

WORSHIP^

MAN'S

i9^'*3-

And

FREE

Man

'

said

There

it,and

iathom

is

the

hidden

struggle,resolvingthat
of chaos

the

instincts which

his

human

efforts.

God

had

from

the

harmony

to

when

followed

he

transmitted

come

ancestry of beasts of prey, he called it Sin, and

asked

forgivehim.

to

But

he

justlyforgiven,until
God's

wrath

thereby
thanks

for the

the

joys

when

he
and

which

be

might

strength that

that

Man

worship, he

crashed

it yet

him

to

God

smiled

sun

he

and

was

God

gave

forgo even,
and

tion
renuncia-

perfectin

sky,

the

through

sim

that

worse,

enabled
And

by
And

appeased.
And

another

sent

Man's

into

been

become

had

Plan

divine

could

he

better.

possible.

were

that

saw

invented
have

to

whether

bad, he made

was

future

the

doubted

he
to

was

seeing the present

again

all returned

nebula.

to
"

Yes,'

"

it

have

he

murmured,

void

of

hopes

meaning,

even

more

is the world

which

Amid

such

causes

which

achie\ang ;
of accidental

heroism,
an

the labours
all the
destined

to

no

purposeless,more

had
that

his

collocations

life

the

and

the

fire,

no

that

all

devotion, all the inspiration,

human

in

death

the

his

feeling,can

grave

noonday brightness of
extinction

end

but

are

; that

of atoms

beyond

of the ages, all the

the

origin,his growth,
his beliefs,

and

is thei^

prevision of

no

ideals

our

Man

That

home.

intensity of thought

individual

presents for

Science

world, if anywhere,

fears, his loves

and

preserve

find

must

of

were

outcome

I will

"

henceforward

they

good play

performed again.'

belief.

product

it

"

Such, in outline, but

no

nothing

from

which

our

And

ence
rever-

is

aside

stood

intended

must

there

but

we

him

God
be

by

God

could

; for we

good

Man

And

47

purpose,

in the visible world

of reverence.'

out

is

purpose

something, and
worthy

VVORS/lIP

MAN'S

vast

genius, are
of

the

solar

MYSTICISM

48
system, and

in ruins

dispute, are
which
the

the

yet

How,

be

things,if

hope

can

these

truths, only

untarnished

omnipotent

but

last

Man

as

In

examine,
To

create.

Man

of

the

Nature,

mark

secular

has

brought
but

power,

evil,with

and

of his

works

the

aspirations

of her

good

so

can

it is that

the

spite of Death,

unthinking
seal of the

and

yet free,during his brief years,

in imagination to
to know, and
criticise,

to

him

is

alone, in the

acquainted, this

freedom

the

to
superiority

his

abysses of space,
child, subject still to her

parental control,
to

firm foundation

world,

blind, in the revolutions

capacityof judging all

Mother.

within

soul's habitation

preserve

giftedwith sight,with knowledge

the

Only

inhuman

strange mystery

hurryings through
at

philosophy

no

the

the

alien and

an

creature

quite beyond

not

on

d6bris of

the

stand.

to

ment
achieve-

safelybuilt.

in such

powerless

forth

beneath

unyielding despair, can

henceforth

of Man's

temple

nearly certain, that

so

scaffoldingof

LOGIC

buried

^allthese

"

rejects them
of

whole

inevitablybe

must

universe

that

AND

with

world

belongs ;

which

is

he

in this lies his

and

resistless forces that

control

his outward

hfe.
The

hke

savage,

impotence before
himself

nothing

ourselves, feels the oppressionof his

the

that

of Nature

powers
he

Pathetic
and

and

torture, of

in the

hope

trembling
has

very

been

degradation and

of

gods,

of

human

thinks, when

will not

be

in

his

without

worship.

long history of cruelty

sacrifice,endured

placating the jealousgods

behever

more

his

worthy

terrible is the

freelygiven, their
and

before

having

Power, he is

than

respects more

wilhng to prostrate himself

inquiring whether
they are

but

what

surely,the

is most

lust for blood

required.

precious

must

The

be

peased,
ap-

religionof

FREE

!iOloch

such

^as

"

the

essence

not,

deserves

be

may

adulation.

no

the

infliction of

But

ideal world

not

to

those

created

be

demands

of

be

to

is the

attitude

out

of the

are

paraded, but

Such

their

othi^rs,not

the

moral

become

will

fact is
Man

God,

unity of

what

the

slavishness

from

in all

non-human

as

Power.

largelybad,

evil,is but

which

to

of ideals.

is well to
far

as

When

that man,

good

helplessatom

is

exalt

the

have

in

his
a

an

must

possiblefrom
with

Thus

be.

it, there

we

of

all-good,the mystic

thoughts

our

have

world

the

manner,

the world

should

judgment

things it

by freeing him
is

hidden

we

to

speciallyreligious,

as

of fact, after all,is not

world
our

For

some

with

fittest.

repugnant

positionwhich

the

regard

what

day,

own

our

so

answer

all-powerfuland

is and

submitting

an

to

reallyharmonious

creates

But

in

hint.

no

necessarilythe

are

adopt

accustomed

in

who,

is

there

taining
strugglefor survival, main-

the

with

content

knowledge

and

goodness

Job

to

answer

divine power

survivors

maintainingthat,

feel

worship.

is worthy of

attitude of those

sense,

than

though they

in God's

of the divine

the

But

Power

the

moralityupon

that

Some,

inculcated

whirlwind

also is the

kind

of another

ideal, will still consciouslyreject

the

them, stillurging that naked

Such

it is

worship, if

felt ; and

savage.

of

bolder, the claim

given to gods

the

by

shipped,
freely wor-

pain.

begins

must

cease,

of ideals

respect, despite its

gradually,as morality grows

the

be

may

dare

that his master

independence

unlimited

an

is in

"

slave, who

thought

yet acknowledged, Power

wanton

base

of the

Since the

receive

49

called
generically

cringing submission

and

the

creeds

WORSHIP

in his heart, allow

even

is not

MAN'S

and, in
of

element
be

purged.

dignity of Man,
the

realised

knowledge

world

which

tyranny

Power

that
of

good

has

of

no

and
sucli

MYSTICISM

50

knowledge, the

choice

worship Force,

we

God

our

The

of

is

be evil, or

our

LOGIC

again presented to us
shall we worship Goodness

or

exist and

the creation

AND

shall he

Shall

Shall

recognisedas

conscience

own

be

and
questionis very momentous,
affects profoundly our
whole
morality. The worship of
Force, to which Carlyleand Nietzsche and the creed of

Mihtarism

have

maintain
itself

our

ideals

own

Moloch.

If

"

false
that

world

we

better

otherwise, and
adhere

must
us

know,

of

bad.
are

life does

of these

none

be, let

lies Man's

only

God

created

by

free

the

from

the

good

free

of fact, with

let

that

of

on

we

good,

our

bodies

the

energy

the

always

before

us.

'j
i
"

of-4

vision of

descend, in action, into the world

vision

ij

in,-!

fellow-

live, from

constantly in

our

submit
but

to

our

learn, then, that

worship

forces ;

which

as

In this

must

we

outside

while

to live

us
us

us

of the

love

proval
ap-

is bad,

to

free,free from

are

the

with

to

us

the insightof
inspires

even,

Let

enables
and

Let

permit

hearts.

our

own

petty planet

of death.

faith which

our

tyranny

the

impotently crawl,
tyranny

do and

we

of matter.

in determination

which

thought, in aspiration,we
men,

be

would

If Power

action, in desire,

In

moments.

perpetually to

nise
recog-

that, in the

admit

things meet

rejectit from

us

respect only the heaven

best

refuse

who

fails to

not

universe.

freedom

true

the

our

respected,

things that

many

perfection which

to

seems

us

realised in the realm

of the unconscious
it

which

it is

respect for truth, for beauty, for the

our

attain, though

Let

those

the ideals to which

that

not

are

preserve

ideal

there

facts

"

be

is to

strength of

sacrifice of

evil, a

to

strength indeed

often

are

hostile universe

against a

recognitionof

facts

is the result of failure to

us,

respect rathei: the

us

that

accustomed

prostrate submission

best to
let

this

to

answer

FREE

When

first the

MAN'S

WORSHIP

oppositionof

51

fact and

ideal grows

fully

of fiery
visible,
a spirit
revolt, of fierce hatred of the gods,
seems

with

Promethean

its evil

be the
But

constancy
in

always

pain

no

that

duty

malice

the

of all who

be

to

kind

will not

still

but

occupied

wisdom
but

of

desires

our

of. our

desires
of

springsthe

beauty

to

thoughts

ask

thus

is

Although

existence

has

shown

whole

thoughts,

our

of

desires,

our

from

world

of

world.

of art

But

to

load

who

those

vision

longer

no

of those

the mutations

last,

wishes

of eager

any

and

contemplation,

unfettered
the

at

the

our

dom
free-

the

beauty by which,

yieldthem

subjectto

personal

of Time.

is evidence
of
necessityof renunciation
of evil, yet Christianity,
in preaching it,

wisdom

philosophyof

exceeding

thingswe

are

yet real goods

desire, some,
;

part of

that

be

creed

Promethean

admitted

as

is bad,

ardently longed

though

untamed

that, of

impossible,

prove

fullypurifiedideal.

false than
of

of the

though they

renounced

false,is far less often

the

be

others, however,

for, do not form

must

that

It must

rebellion.

the

and

to

is

the

the

what

in the

in which
._.Stoic_.freedom

only

comes

it shall

are

of

our

for the wise

of

resignation
;

weighted by

not

Freedom

that

submission

reluctant

the

possibleonly

of life that

goods

; and

it is necessary

of

vision

the

half reconquer

of

compels

springsthere

in the submission

virtue

to

the inevitable.

for it

rebellion

thoughts springsthe

our

before

evil world

an

the

invent, appears

can

bow

refuse

to

thoughts. Froinjthesubmission

philosophy,and

and

keep

which

consists is found

not

we

with

Indignationis a

not

hostile universe, to

bondage,

of self-assertion which

to overcome.

defy

of Power

fierceness of desire from

a

To

view, always activelyhated,

indignation is

thoughts

assertion of freedom.

the

to

necessary

The

behef

sometimes

passion supposes

religion,
by providing a

reason

MYSTICISM

52

proving

tor

that

purifyingour

it

AND
never

is

hopes by

LOGIC

false,has been

the

discoveryof

many

the

of

means

austere

truths.
But

there
real

even

be

to

they

desired.
fretfully

nothing
A\hole

unattainable

the

voice

that the

world

beautiful

may

hopes,
This

to

the

But

things we

the

bear

to

by

of submission

of

our

is not

alone

can

and

beauty

shines

and

glows,

sorrow,

remote

from

the fear of

which
of

to

fashion

Except
is

to

stone

for those
cavern

only justand

of these
our

our

whole

we

build

of wisdom

temple

for

imagination, in

of

from

remote

the

vision

hearts, giving at

needs

and

us,

whatever

to

of

from

the

once

In

of heaven
a

stone
touch-

by
inspiration

an

is not

incapable

temple.
born

without

be traversed

before

that
spirits

of darkness

touch

of fact.

world

things the

of

where
lyrics,

change, remote

of the

about

kingdom

of

magic

in the sacred
rare

the

untroubled

sunset

disenchantments

serving as

there

golden

judge the: world

to

regrets.

realm

reason,

itself in

our

in the

architecture, in the

shape

ruin of

vain

from

fortune
mis-

when

Haunting foreshadowings

in

will

theless
never-

may

ideals.

music,

appear

contemplation

of us,

gate of wisdom.

own

in the

Fate

is not

to Power

temple

the

the

that, however

repiningthe

of the

failures and

with

one

part of courage,

thoughts

our

away

renunciation

worship

is

there

young,

and

crave.

without

passive renunciation

for not

or

yet impossible,is to

for us,

It is the

it is the very

right :

the

learn, each

must

we

made

not

was

turn

degree

For

not

sooner

comes,

good thing desired

duty,

forbid them.
comes,

man

every

Yet, by death, by illness,by poverty,

of

be

element

good

unattainable, ought

are

passionatewill,and

credible.

not

by

To

further

great remmciation.

force of

hem
"r

resignationa

goods, when

later, the

'

is in

are

sin,
that

FREE

MAN'S

be entered.

The

temple can

desire

of untamed

greed

the soul be

freed

the

the

cavern

from

without
learnt

have

rule of Fate

and

is

of

unworthy

bitterness

the
both

worship, it

our

refashion

transform

and

so

to

transmute

it in the

all the

In

shapes of

"

and

trees

of the life of

crucible

mountains

imagination,that
old idol of

world

in the

"

clay.

visual

clouds, in the

omnipotence

events

of Dealli

reflection

thoughts

first made.

In this

which

beauty
mind

it deals, the

its

own

its subtle

asserts

The

forces of Nature.
more

mastery

thwarting
in

very

Of all the arts,

triumphant

most

centre

of his
towers,

of the

inducing the

his camps

all revealed

wliile the

the
to

Tragedy

; for it builds

its

and

from

reluctant

swell the

legionsof Death

its

its

on

rock

victory

pageant of

proudest, the

the very

in the

summit

impregnable

arsenals, his columns

; within

whicli

desire, thf

prouder
is the

with

shinuig citadel

enemy's country,

highest mountain

thoughtless

untrained

to

yieldup its hidden treasures,

compellingthe opposing forces

its triumph.

the

over

evil the material

more

greater is its achievement

are

universe,

find the

way

in

of

last

possibleat

unconscious

and

in the very

even

man,

world

^the insightof creative idealism,can

of

to

becomes

the

the

outward

the non-human

facts of the

multiform

the

to

shining gold replacesthe

of

insight,a

impotent rebelhon,

resign ourselves

to

to

image

of

to the

gladden

to

of

out

again

new

forth

recognisethat

to

can

so

But

leads

radiance

the

eagerness,

of Fate.

empire

whose

by

so

new

the

slain, for only

tenderness, shine

joy, a new
heart.
pilgrim's

new

we

there
be

must

the

is despair,

cavern

gravestones of abandoned

of Renunciation

Gate

daylightof wisdom,

When,

the
die ;

Self must

There

hopes.

53

gate of the

paved with

its floor is

and

WORSHIP

and

watch-

forts,

its walls the free life continues,

and

Pain and

Despair,and

all

MYSTICISM

54

AND

LOGIC

captainsof tyrant Fate, afford the burghers

dauntless
citynew spectaclesof beauty. Happy

the servile
of that

ramparts, thrice happy the dwellers

sacred

those

Honour

all-seeingeminence.
for

countless

through

who,

the

beauty

of

or
qualitywhich, in more
in
always and ever5Avhere

of

ness

vanished

of the

illumined
the dark

; from

that

whose

depth,

for its

the powers

encounter

enunciation, wisdom,

insight,

common

of

for

brief

humanity

amid

individual

soul,

of courage

what

of

it

universe

fears.

of human

raft

narrow

toss

true

can

that

Victory,in

of heroes, the

of the
and

the

of darkness, is the true

overmasteringbeauty

the

to

chill blast breaks

weight
and

some

comradeship,

we

the

upon

hopes

by

as

the

littletrivial

up

human

all the loneUness

gloriouscompany

awful

make

great night without,

whole

powering
over-

an

of

for the

rollingwaves

is concentrated

nothing

strugglewith

in the irrevocable-

surrounding the

see,

against the

command,

into the

we

strugglealone, with

must

the

refuge ;

forces

hostile

into

on

the

our

spectacleof Death,

moments

care

lightof
flickering

the

by

all

desire, all struggUng

temporary

view,
superficial

ocean

in upon

which

to

day by day

life of

hour

of

subdued.
un-

visible

sufferer is bound

In these

sorrow.

strivingfor petty ends,

things that,

cares

of

bonds

lose all eagerness

and

make

vastness, the

strange marriage of pain, the

we

of the

sacredness,

kept

shapes,is present

pain,and
is

have

mystery of existence,in which,

inexhaustible

by

but

life. cXq ^^^

past, there

feehng

awe,

world

preserved

home

less obvious

of intolerable

in the endurance

the

does

Tragedy

warriors

warfare, have

invaders
by sacrilegious

undefiled

But

of

ages

brave

and
heritageof liberty,
priceless

the

us

those

to

that

on

this

baptism
initiation

existence

From
.

soul

with

charity are

the
born

outer
;

and

world,
with

their birth
shrine
seem

of

the

"

MAN^S
Hie

nev^

of the

we

soul
be

to

hurry

^to feel these

and

the

of

To

55

take

into the

irresistibleforces

^Death

"

WORSHIP

begins.

the

past, and

bhnd

the

FREE

change,

the

universe
and

from

know

puppets

irrevocableness

powerlessness

the

things

whose

inmost

of

before

man

vanity to vanity

them

is to

conquer

them.
is the

This

The

power.

of its motionless

beauty

is like the

purity of

enchanted

leaves, though

breath

one

in

glow against the sky

change

what

petty and

transitory,has

beautiful
Its

night.

of

key

beauty,

in

thing
slave

to

they

they

to

devour.

But, great

still.

such

And

longer bow

eternal
man's

fall,still

grasping, what
the

was

things that

of it like stars in the

out

of it, is

worthy

not

has

the

the

conquered Fate

forces

Time

as

is but

of

endurable
un-

it is

anything
are

small

Natiure.

Fate

and

thoughts

The

Death,

and

he

finds in himself,

of

things which

they^are,to

think

of them

splendour, is greater
passionless

thought

before

absorb

eagerness

the

Past does not

The

outwardly,

with

all his

feel their

abandon

soul

greater than

are

because

we

when

them

away,

shine

worship

greatly,to

but

make

and

faded

viewed

comparison

and

silent

and

after life'sfitful fever it

soul which

Man,

is dooilied

because

to

magical
pictures

religion.

life of

The

would

eager

eternal

and

; but

the

was

such

late autumn,

strive ; like Duncan,

or

has

golden glory.

sleeps well

were

Past

the

why

reason

the

it

free

us

inevitable

make

it, and

makes

men

in Oriental

we

no

subjection,

part of ourselves.

To

strugglefor privatehappiness,to expel all

of temporary

things
"

worship.

^this is

emancipation,and

this Uberation

And

of Fate

desire, to bum

for Fate

with

passionfor

this is the free

is effected

itself is subdued

by

by

templation
con-

the

MYSTICISM

56
which

mind

leaves

AND

LOGIC

to be

nothing

purged by the purifying

fire of Time.
^\dth his fellow-men

United
the tie of

him

vision is with

the free

doom,

common

the

by

strongest of all ties

finds that

man

always, shedding

over

new

daily

every

lightof love. The life of Man is a long march

by invisible foes, tortured
through the night,surrounded
by weariness and pain,towards a goal that few can hope
task the

where

reach, and

to

they march,

as

seized

vanish

comrades

our

of

in which

time

brief is the

tarry long. One

may

silent orders

the

by

none

from

omnipotent

happinessor misery is decided. Be

sunshine on their path, to lightentheir
their

of

balm

sympathy,

give them

to

our

Death.

it

Very

in which

help them,

can

we

by one,
sight,

to shed

ours

the pure

the

by

sorrows

joy of

never-

tiringaffection,to strengthen failingcourage, to instil

faith in hours of despair. Let us not weigh in grudging
scales their merits

their need

of the

"

demerits, but let

and

blindnesses, that make

the

reniembei*

that

they

darkness,

actors

in

And

their

when

so,

their evil have

past, be it

ours

they failed,no
a

ready

with

words

in which

day

is over,

the

of

good

high

ours

courage

rolls

to-day

to

doom

on

same

ourselves.

their

and

good

immortalityof
; but

cause

the

wherever

in their hearts,

with

us

they suffered, where

the

was

sympathy,

we

were

with

brave

and

all his

glowed.

falls

evil, reckless

and

matter

sure

the

by

powerless is Man's

slow%

when

feel that, where

encouragement,

Brief and

to

deed

the

tragedy with

same

eternal

only of

their lives ; let

fellow-sufferers in

are

of the divine fire kindled

spark

race

to

misery of

the

become

think

difficulties,
perhaps the

the

sorrows,

us

life ;

on

him

and
pitiless

of

its relentless way

Blind

dark.

destruction, omnipotent
;

for Man,

lose his dearest, to-morrow

condemned

himsc^

vo

pas"

FREE

through

his

little

built

mind

undismayed

life

to

world

trampling

at

for

his
march

wanton

alone,
own

of

of

his

moment^

unconscious

chance,

but

and

to

rules

power.

the

his

slave
have

preserve
his

forces

unyielding
fashioned

ennoble

hands

own

that

knowledge

have

of

irresistible

the

weary

ideals

of

tyranny

defiant

proudly

sustain
that

the

his

that

cherish,

to

that

terrors

empire

the

only

thoughts

coward

shrine

the

57

remains

lofty
the

by

from

it

the

disdaining

WORSHIP

darkness,

falls,

worship

to

free

tolerate,

blow

day

Fate,

of

gate

the

yet

ere

of

the

MAN'S

ward
out-

that

tion,
condemna-

Atlas,

despite

the
the

IV

THE

STUDY

IN regard

to

that

reminded
but

that

the

Still

the

which

regard

themselves,

actually adding

to

it is necessary

their

which

creative

The

decided
remote

"

such
alive

remote

their
in

successive
which

pedants
this

so

the
as

beauty
lives

their

are

it is

of

themselves
:

the

they forget
5S

that

in

the
has

sadly
of

statement

Great

fully

men,

that
to

mechanical

the

of

temple

indeed

mere

mankind

of

all,

at

custom

is

mind,

cross

no

concerns

which

desiring

to

have

permanent

contemplations

devoted,

the

great things.

the

what

upon

the

desired,

embodied.

in

make

be

knowledge

of

preposterous.

impossible

possess

alive

be

need,

joys, persuade

generations

knowledge

is to

youthful
to

of

world's

the

keep

material

appear

the

to

service

train

claim

this

the

to

of

As

to

justified,if

be

to

be

is to

which

prefiguring vision

of

forming

living

are

imagination

fulfilment

studies

share

clear

of

which

to

only remotely,

contemplation

sum

does

life, it is well

avocations

the

possessions,
aims,

contribute

to

way

existence

those

to

what

sary
neces-

time

fi'om

In

human

fact

the

asked
?

of

mere

living in

in

more

of

mechanism

not

of

art

outside

end
as

the

be

ideal

beauty

is

activity it

should
and

pursuits

providing

by

the

to

those

respects

of human

question

is its purpose

contribute

it

form

every
the

What

time,

MATHEMATICS

OF

whose

to

others

impart

may
to

knowledge
the

threshold.

the

out
with-

Dry

privilege of instilling
it is to

serve

but

as

THE

key

STUDY
the doors

to open

their hves

they
would

existence

is

due

the great bulk

elements

tradition

who

of educated

of the

inquireas

tradition

traveUing from

foreignnations,
objected that
vahie

ends

these

study imposed

upon

mathematicians,

the

that

mathematics

the very

unwilling to
known

mind

who

the
this

the

abandon

be such, and

to

the
do

To

those

the

usual

the

victory over
If it be
of doubtful

are

merely elementary
not

become

expert

probably

reasoning faculties.

replyare,

definite

teaching of

inteUigentlearner.

part,

fallacies,
the

urge
of

the

its cultivation, as
and
pitfalls

guidance

important
yet it is none
in every

of

help

merely
in the

life.
practical

achievements

to

the

discovery of

All these

are

contemplationof

Plato,

mathematical

we

know,

truths

rules for

undeniably

of mathematics

of these that entitles mathematics

liberal education.

those

ance
for the avoid-

means

credit

sophisticated
un-

the

And

reasoningfacultyitself is generallyconceived, by
who

be

Yet

for the most

instinctively
rejectedby

of every

great

of machmes,

is true, will

reply, it

make

the

conunerce.

or

by

those

for which

making

^allof which

"

trains

who

men

war

furthered

not

^are

"

in

whether

least

beneath

place to place,and

of its

at

trivialities.

will be that it facilitates the

answer

of

has decreed

of mathematics,

purpose

study

shall know

forgotten,buried
the

to

and

steps.

the

reasons

pedantries and

of

youth, who

this oblivion

men

subject,the

are

arose

rubbish-heap

the

than

from

doors,

its domes
the

count

even

suffered

has

the eager

and

more

sacred

resolutelythat

so

initiated to

back

perhaps

those

temple

place in civilisation. Although

that
the

be

turn

Rome,

and

the

59

though they spend

to

forgotten,and
to

to

Mathematics,

temple

upon

forward

arches, is bidden

Greece

of the

their backs

press

MATHEMATICS

steps leading up

the

on

turn

its very

OF

as

to

place

regarded the
worthy

of the

6o

MYSTICISM

Deity ; and
singleman,

Plato realised,more

merit
"

aside
.

the

to

the world,
think

to

of which

Plato's

know

for

care

judgment
do

question as merely
Mathematics,
but

of

weaker

hero,

Plato, while

those

"

cold

appeal

than

more

the gorgeous

the

only

excellence, is to be found

as

mind

with

most

men,

between

pure
1

reason

the

to

knows

l-his jiassagfe
was

this

and

capable of

no

pointed

and

out

to

oie

stern

The

show.

can

the

of

sense

of the

being

highest

surelyas

as

not
as

again
Real

in

merely
part of

before

the

life is,to

perpetual compromise

;
possible
compromise, no

the

our

trappings of painting

encouragement.^
a

only truth,
part of

be assimilated

long second-best,
ideal

i*ead him

deserves

brought again

ever-renewed
a

maticians
mathe-

any

in mathematics

task, but

daily thought, and

was

austere, like

touchstone

poetry. "' Wliat is best in mathematics

be learnt

earnestly

the

not

greatest art

is the

which

man,

to

and

to

spiritof delight,the exaltation,

true

God

who

possesses

beauty

without

as

use

regard his opinionupon

and

sculpture,without

perfectionsuch

to

but

music, yet sublimelypure, and

or

some

able

nor

these

divine and

are

mathematics

rightlyviewed,

nature,

are

curious aberration.

beauty

supreme

that

what

(Laws, p. 8i8).^ Such

man

of
read

not

yet

such

than

become

cannot

"

mathematics,

no

ridiculous

for

talk in

Many

things without

man

nor
spirit,

nor

and

Those

set

;
necessity

the

more

be

cannot

Cleinias. And

the words.

Athenian.

knowledge

or

and

not, of divine

be

life which

mathematics, he

knowledge, Stranger,which

human

not

is necessary

nothingcan

of
application

necessities of

is in

other

any

in human

are

necessities of which

human

this connection,
an

which

and, if I mistake

perhaps than

There

heaven.

something

LOGIC

elements

those

place in

says,

as

what

AND

but

the

world

of

hmitapractical

by Professor

Crilbert

Murray.

THE

tions, no

STUDY

barrier

human

the

which

the

cosmos,

natural

home,

impulses can

activityembodying

all great work

where

have

the

fect
perfrom

created

dwell

can

of
an

in its

as

nobler

our

exile of the

dreary

in

pitifulfacts

least, of

at

the

Remote

gradually

one,

from

escape

the

thought

pure

where

and

springs.
from

even

generations

ordered

oi

passionateaspirationafter

passions,remote

nature,

MATHEMATICS

creative

the

to

splendid edifices
from

OF

actual

world.

So

little,however,

mathematicians

have

beauty,that hardly anything

conscious
which

were

by

an

unconscious

by

false notions

better

than
taste

of what

reasoning

is

what

which

throughout,and
have

been

work,

is

there

the

and

general

in

endeavours

their

should
to

of this

ideal ?

be

from

consideration

our

achieved.

to

to

architecture.

which

but
the

some

universal

ultimate

but

dress ;
is

most

trappings.
be conducted

much

maxims

is

what

whose

experiencemust,

of

appear

embodies

as

would

than

individual

own

lucidity

and

more

to

is presented
its

on

ease

means

the learner

Here

guide

measure,

our

logic are

teaching of mathematics

the

communicate

high

of

iiTclevant

any

the

where

present whatever

to

general in its purity,without

as

air of

an

spoilt

characteristic

important

Literature

through

moulded

of argimient

particularcircumstances

mathematics

so

are

premises achieve

inevitable.

shines
significance

How

is

this

had

been

found

rules

chain

thought possible,by

natural

to be

the

link

every

in which

account,

only

of structure

those

beautiful

also has

much

rigidlylogical:

mathematics

in

is

at

instincts,
irrepressible

to

fitting.The

was

of mathematics

most

but

has

behefs, has been

avowed

excellence

In the

in their work

Much, owing

purpose.

aimed

as

possible

in

may
purpose

great
result
to

be

MYSTICISM

62
One

of the

chief

ends

rightlytaught,is to
his

confidence

see

served

it

be

might

present themselves

as

which, for

some

have

as

soon

by

whatever

constitutes

the

allowed

obvious, and

should

of theorems

by
that

first to

which

actual

three

belief is

are

at

more

as

it is

generated ;

the

which

learner
of

truth

point.

theorems

in

to

various

lines

geometrical drawing,

the

be
or

taught

the

circles that

which

and

In this way

occur.

so

is concerned

lead

the facts will

be
until

Where

first
the
be

an

taught

should

of

the
also

be drawn

the abstract

as

figurehas
agreeable

It is desirable

may

is

of whatever

logicalconnections

shapes,that

geometry

it is shown

overcome.

; it will then

theorem
a
figureillustrating

all possible
cases
with

gradually

thoroughlyfamiliar

advance

that

is

difficult,they should

are

exercises
become

rational

everything

reasoning may

that

conclusions, which nevertheless

startling
verify; and thus the instinctive distrust
or

should

able
easilyverifi-

in

to

abstract

to

truisms

in which

seen

able
unavoid-

tedious

those

lines meet

of

study

of the

startlingand

once

prefers

in the demonstrations

be instructed

drawing, such

or

the

assume

in

readilyappeal

proofs for obvious

beginning of Euchd,

at

nor

of rules should

reasons

In geometry, instead

of fallacious

true

the teacher

most

means

set

teacher, the way

reason,

the
possible,

as

childish mind.

apparatus

be

neither

degree,in
played. To some
this is no doubt
practicalutility,

be set forth
the

girlis given

as

to

present, in

At

the game

but

purpose

it is easy

; but

or

will of the

unfathomable

definite
;

the

merely

strated,
demon-

This

served.

rules, which

in reason,

been

has

of demonstration.

arithmetic, the boy

such

of what

concerns

false,but

to

the learner's behef

truth

when

by mathematics,

by existinginstruction

in which

ways

what
of

in the

LOGIC

served

awaken

in the value

and
is not

AND

in

relations

of themselves

THE
emerge

STUDY
the

as

OF

residue

MATHEMATICS

of

similarityamid

apparent diversity. In this way

should
and

be

should

form

but

embodiment
should

be

fallacious methods,
be

such

rigidlyexcluded

such

the

methods,

result should

be

illustrations which

Li the

child finds,as
letters is

that
the

proof

would

think

to

that

for.

taught

to

asserted
of any
of

The

be

one

of

whole

understanding and
and

is

general as

such

education

should

the

teacher

divides

of

the

method
:

of their

rules

giftsthat

algebra able

to

how

are

grounds

has
set
; the

been

at

number

which

how

it

is first
are

not

It is in the power
truths

that
of

world

deal

the

things

with

the

mathematical

little,as

explainthe

arithmetic, and

groping efforts

what

abilityto

; and

of the

particular

particularthing,but

whole

the

over

purpose

no

some

truths

discoveringsuch

But

that

for

things.

bestow.

it from

assisted in his

one

that

of

of

use

algebra the mind

in

or

group

possibleresides

strations.
demon-

intelligent

most

reveal

would

of this

mastery of the intellect

actual

with

and

impossible,at first,

general truths,

only

without

the
difficult,

have

to

seems

fact is,that

to hold

definitely

where,

very

the

letter stands

every

consider

fullness ;

The
great difficulty.

number, if only the teacher

stands

early stage proofs

first,but

except mystification.It is almost

not

natural

should
superposition,

algebra,even

mystery, which

of

concrete

the

as

contrasted
explicitly

of

strations
demon-

acceptable by arguments

rule, very

felt

In this

from

are

beginning

be

pedantic

as

rendered

abstract

great

part of the instruction,

to

come

with

given

such

with
by familiarity

of visible fact.

not

the

small

given when,

illustrations,they have

63

chasm

rule, is
which

little is the learner

comprehension ! Usually

adopted

forth, with

pupillearns

no

in arithmetic

is

tinued
con-

adequate explanation
the rules blindly.
to use

MYSTICISM

64
and

when
presently,

the

teacher

AND

he is able to obtain

desires, he

feels that

difficulties of the

subject.

But

of

employed

he

the

processes

almost

those

notion

of

calculus

and

the

solution

of

Since

boast.

the

these difficultieshave

intellects have

Zeno

and

answer,

has

province
Night.

and

Dedekind

collection

of

of

had

Georg

assumed

was

things,some
This

things.

thought
the apparently
asked

been

to

over

the

found

has

intellect

by
and

new

Chaos

and

self-evident, until Cantor

opposite,that if,from
taken

were

always

must

age

own

age the finest

answer

Cantor

given

as

the

our

Greek

had

for the

been

estabhshed

things left

number

last

conquered

which

It

old

to

questions that
At

difiiculties
infinite is

; in every

vainlyendeavoured

Eleatic.

the

of

beginnings

of

whole

the

of which

been known

unanswerable

is
infinity

mathematical

the
formerly surrounded
probably the greatest achievement
to

smoothly until

goes

the

which

of

the

mastered

comprehension
probably acquired

has

in which

studies

employed" the infinitesimal

The
higher mathematics.

vast

has

that

answer

of inner

algebra has been learnt, all

reach

has

he

the

nothing.

When
we

LOGIC

be

of finite collections

the number

away,

less than

assumption, as
; and

only

where

the infinite is concerned, has been

the

original
of fact,

matter

rejectionof it,

the

holds

any

shown

to remove

all the difficulties that had

in

this matter,

an

exact

ought
of
the

the

means

which,

render

to

of the

produce

to

educational

studies
and

science

mathematics

given

and

it has

value

infinite.

This

in the

the

who

creation

stupendous

of
fact

higher teaching

subject,and

it has

at

to

last

logicalprecisionmany

lately,were
those

reason

immeasurably

itself added

treatingwith

until

obscurity. By

of

baffled human

possiblethe

revolution

of

hitherto

wrapped
were

educated

in

fallacy
on

the

THE
old

STUDY

lines, the

OF

is considered

work

new

difficult,abstruse, and
that

hardly

is

is

appallingly

it must

mists

dispelling. But

infinite, to

the

be

often

so

the

65

to

and

as

from

emerged

of his intellect
of

obscure

discoverer,

the

himself

doctrine

MATHEMATICS

be

the

fessed
con-

has

case,

which

the

light

inherently,the

all candid

new

inquiring

and

minds, has facilitated the mastery of higher mathematics

for hitherto, it has

which,

first

on

confused

and

So

belief in reason,

in what

this means,

time

now

once

the

failed

mathematical

rigid inquiry would

yet be accepted because

reason

to sweep

penetrate into the

calls

"

concatenation

to
intelligible

alone

should

away

; let those

in all its

established

the

have

dotal
sacer-

profane,

ruled.
who

be

very

All

wish

to

taught

logicalpurity,and
the

by

they

practice." By

of mathematics

arcana

theory

true

less
fear-

centuries, encouraged the

mysteriesnot
where

be

to

whatever

else
timid, compromising spirit,
or

bred

this it is

arguments

producing

rejectionof

mathematician

the

belief in
has been

far from

two

fallacious,must

rejectas
work

past

long

rightlyjudged

things, which

many

to

a
requirements of logic,

the

training,during

bold

to fulfilthe strictest

belief that

assent

acquaintance, were

erroneous.

learn, by

to

necessary

to give
sophistication,

of

process

been

at

in the
of

essence

the

entities concerned.
If
and

we

consideringmathematics

are

not

as

desirable

technical

to

led

assented

those

with
familiai-ity

as

can

self-evident
which
be

and

end

in

to

its easier

what

deduced.

and

more

had

strictness
have

who

itself,

is very
of

which
more

its

attained

portions should

propositionsto

from

principlesfrom
premises

purity

the

preserve

backward

an

trainingfor engineers,it

reasoning. Accordingly
sufficient

as

be

tliey have
fundamental

previouslyappeared

They

should

be

as

taught
"

MYSTICISM

66
what

the

mind

theory

of

which, nevertheless,

false.

this

By

foundations

built,or,

great trunk
this

perhaps

from

which

stage, it is well

given propositionis
be

now

which
of

that

total

true, but

lack

of

of

diverse kinds

are

proved by

mere

curiosities which
But

argument.

in

felt

are

in

in the

method

interconnection, which
the intellectual
nowhere

must
or

to

not be

else.

repelledby

distracted
dwell

upon

the structure

The

the

who
of

to
principles,

of the various

to the

to

main

evitabili
in-

unity

and

drama

; in the

in

of

inmost

is made

system, of
of

essence

play in mathematics
feels this

impulse

meaningless examples

by amusing oddities,but
central

love

The

find free

array

thought

is devoted

definite adva\nce

learner
an

very

for consideration, and

perhaps

impulse,can

are

contribute

unfoldingof

nature.

is

systematic

of

means

space

way

all

there

Propositionsof

much

some

mastery of its

and

whatever

premisses a subject is proposed

subsequent step

text-books

greatest works,

the

as

no

of

itself.

theme.

and
easilyintelligible,

certainty

requires the unity

in

unity

of

out

in the chains

and

mathematical

central

whether

this nature

precisionand

last unfolds

at

most

as

elementary

it grows

also how

answer

majorityof

development

towards

the

the

spring.

asking no longermerely

the

studies

In the great

every

afresh

study

formerly quiteimpossible;

were

mathematical

reasoning is

spreading branches

with

the

of

fittingmetaphor,

more

to

answered

reasoning

is

edifice of

of logic. Questionsof
principles

central

can

the

portionsof mathematics,
the

examination

the whole

take

to

will

principles,an

which

upon

scrutinyshows to be
be led to a sceptical

nearer

they

means

first

into

inquiry

LOGIC

infinity
very aptly illustrates-^that
self-evident to the untrained
propositionsseem

many

At

AND

must

become

subjectswhich

be

encouraged

familiar
are

with

put before

THE

him,

STUDY

to travel

deductions.

easilyover
a

attention

is

is

what

upon

the

divided

have

natural

growth

their

^a

"

is

each

from

viewed

the

as

it

the

best

method

for

with

analysisof

actual

view

to the

the

most

and

patient effort.
seen

of

source

But

to those who

as

the

in

with

like

statelystoreys of

reasoning,\vdth

to

follows
laws

an

the mathematical

much

found,
the

The

is

one

sole
covery
dis-

beauty
the

which

measurably
im-

of the whole

fragmentary and
of deduction

overwhelming

all the

our

inevitablyfrom

existingchains

ascends

be

mathematics.

pure

These
in

been

have

and

palace emerging

traveller

is the

lightonly by

number,

oppressed by

of most

learner

consciously,
employed quite un-

they

the intellectual

been

have

discoverycomes
;

at last

of fundamental

incompletenature

mist

to

all mathematics

collection

revelation

dragged

few

to

embedded

so
are

when

be

to

enhances

this

be

can

are

true

probablyalso

mathematics,

they

everything in

that
small

indeed, in the

principles
employed.

part,

ratiocinative instincts,that

are

is

of deductive

the

logic

almost

great rapidity. The

parts of

examples

understand

product,

introducingthe study

other

constitute

is symbolic

century, and

discoveryof

for
principles,

they

This

as

systematises

discoveryin symbolic logic,and

acquainted

to

is

its inceptionto Aristotle,

owes

present day, still growing with

of

able

developments,

nineteenth

the

mathematics

unifies and

reasoning.

yet, in its wider

method

by preference

logicalwhole,

will be

science which

study which, though

wholly,of

dwell

to

propositionswhich

learner

of deductive

is cultivated,

essential.

been

principles,the

the whole

of mind

tone

taught

important

more

separate studies into which

fundamental

the

67

steps of the

good

weighty and

When

MATHEMATICS

the

In this way

selective

and

OF

from

Italian

the

force of

autumn

hill-side,the

edifice appear

in their

AND

MYSTICISM

68
due

order

with
proportion,

and

LOGIC
a

perfectionin every

new

part.

symbolic logichad acquired its present development,

which
the principles
mathematics
depends
upon
able
and discoveralways supposed to be philosophical,

Until

were

the

only by

uncertain,

employed by philosophers. So long as

hitherto

thought, mathematics

dependent
than

its own.

from

which

deduced

that

the

of

any
the

increased

their

ought

not

laws

and

our

to

ceases

immutable

be

human

of all

essence

and

an

to

held

that

of what

is non-human,

capable

of

dealing with

learners

increase

is very

our

the

of

the

very

of

thought,
By

this

The

heart

and

more

or

less

contemplation
our

created

minds

are

by them,

above

all,the realisation that beauty belongs to the outer

world

as

to

the inner,

are

the chief

means

coming,
possible,be-

and

not

laws

greatlylowered

discovery that

material

the

minds.

our

things actual

the

to

laws

are

limitations.

our

obtained.

world.

inquiryinto something

subjectto

greatly

knowledge of

investigationinto

an

instead,

reason

better

discovery

be

to

kind

mathematics,

dignityof

true

no

very

refused

commonly

underlie

as

has

it is of

such

upon

matics
part of mathe-

be

regulating the operations of

opinionthe
it

to

the abstract

Philosophers have

viewed

much

to be

are

obscurities of

built

satisfaction

powers

belonging to

logic,which

geometry

consequences

capable of enjoying it,for

respect for human

be

as

but

postulates

In this respect, the

air.

intellectual

satisfaction

beauties

to

are
principles

true

as

This

began

castle in the

of the

nature

edifice

the

was

autonomous,

in all the traditional

wrapped

this

quite other methods

and
arithmetic, analysis,

foundations

had

Moreover, since the

was

dubious

be not

to

study which

upon

seemed

metaphysical discussion,
than

unprogressive methods

of

overcoming

THE

STUDY

the terrible

the
reconcile

of these

absolute

merely

^isthe task

"

best

our

thoroughly understand
can

we

the

must

ideals

entire

To
the

But

matics
matheinto the

only the

actual

conform

finds

rather

fullysatisfied

are

It is

that

and

tion
habita-

only when

independence of

this world

belongs to

not

thwarted.

not

are

beauty, to

is human,

which

our

forces.

tragedy.

or

ledging
acknow-

literarypersonification

what

habitation,

hopes

which

of

possibleworld,

every

eternallystanding,where
and

alien

of

the

from

to
necessity,

it builds

here

is

of exile amid

to result from

apt

omnipotence

stillfurther

us

world, but

is too

^which

"

69

the exhibition of its awful

forces

takes

even

which

by

reign of Fate

MATHEMATICS

impotence,of weakness,

ail-but

us,

region of

of

sense

hostile powers,

OF

we

selves,
our-

finds,that

reason

adequately realise the profound importance of its

beauty.
Not

only

is mathematics

thoughts,but in
of

existingthings are

apprehension
if

as

that

of the actual

to the nature

thought

to

know

now

upon
a

deal with
that

point creative
to the world
are

The

the world

lost among

and

in the

respects,as

some

we

at

least,was

hve.

But

never

we

pronounce

the world

of fact, but

of

place

of

it is not

of
application

space, its certaintyand

reason,

at

any

its results

precision

approximationsand working hypotheses.

by mathematicians

objects considered

past, been

mainly

but

such

from

able,
indispens-

the

geometry,

can

The

formerly supposed

was

in which

existence

of fact, and

in time

mathematics

actual

controls

decide, in

world

the space

pure

questionsof
sense,

could

reason

It

the arts.

among

is

character

our

universe

mathematics.

rightly

understand

and

us

the whole

and

we

purely ideal

to
one

pure

sense

independent of

of this
are

we

mathematics

in

another

independent of

of

kind

restrictions

have, in the

suggested by phenomena
the

abstract

imagination

MYSTICISM

TO

should

be

wholly free.

accorded
but

whatever

build up

in the world

creation

or

demonstration

is not,

if

subordinated

merely

for

the

isolated and
is

than

interest of

true

exposition

of

this

where

defect, to be remedied,

is like

conclusion

moral

which

story

to teach

it is meant

be

should

part of the whole

certain

The

consideration

is

study

proofsdepend
define

The

having important properties

;
w^hich the

suade
per-

itself has, of all

in the result
as

to

important theorems,

which

prove

instruction.

theme

merely

a desire for
practical
spirit,
for conquest of new
realms, is responsible
emphasis upon results which prevailsin

undue

mathematical
some

some

rapid progress,
for the

to

perfectionno

means.

whether

the steps of the proof that

generalising
important in and for itself. An argument

to

for aesthetic

to be found

to say

traditional modes

be viewed

only

serves

we

so

becomes

which

of

way

wholly

it must

possible,
by

each

elsewhere,

as

it is hard

to

cause

discovery.

as

be

of facts,

may

fragments

beauty.

most

suggest, concentrated
occur,

beauty

Here,

of the

in the

the

does

of

of the accuracy

possibleways,

thus

of dealing
privilege

desirable, in instruction,not

persuade him

to

love

in the end

and

the student
but

restrict reason's

ideals out

own

It is very

dictate to the world

of consideration.

our

the result is

LOGIC

must
reciprocal
liberty

objects its

worthy

seem

cannot

reason

the facts cannot

with

AND

object to

be

an

argument,

the conclusion

elegance results

a
analysis,

demands

from

in virtue of which

to
:

more

the

the thesis is true.

be

For

it

premisses
call

mathematicians

employing only

we

should

account.

employ

what

Whenever

marks

own

of

by which

the marks

their

figure

function

on.

so

studied, these

investigatedon

defect, in

in

only of

is to propose

way

^in geometry,

"

and
illuminating,
some

upon

better

essential

ciples
prin-

It is a merit

in

THE

STUDY

Euclid that he advances

employing

axiom

the

this

because

MATHEMATICS

OF

of

axiom

far

as

generalityof

been

written

ideal.

proper

past, been

The

than

materialism

offspring.Of

the

future it would

respect

one

kind

that

of

the

varied

it is

rash

very

to

complete

absolute
that

by

truth, but

each

his

of

is

us

external

and

only opinion and

we
discipline,
may

truth

for me,

habit

of mind

for you,

the

denied, and

its

chief ends

vision.

scepticismmathematics

The

all the

effects of mathematics

they

should

may

be

used

not
to

be

answer

stands

upon

regarded as

By

is

of fearless
moral

our
a

perpetual

unshakable

and

doubting cynicism.
practicallife,though

the motive

doubt

this

effort is

of candour,

of

weapons

by patience

of human

is,disappears from

inexpugnable to

no

bias ; that

separate person.

for its edifice of truths

is

there

admittance, but only

of what

reproof;

tainly
cer-

sphere,is

and

acknowledgment
such

in

of the world,

virtue

Of

but

own

supreme

the

in

goal not

of truth to which,

for every

to have

privatejudgment

taste

own

at last obtain

of the

one

teenth,
eigh-

pursuit of

the

conditioned, in his view

kingdom

teenth
seven-

it is said that

often

his
peculiarities,

own

there is no
and

Too

answer.

the

equally

much

say

attainable,mathematics, within
a

hkely

own

in

; in the

abandons

is arduous

road

its

probable. Against

appears

scepticismwhich

ideals because

sphere

own

rationalism, in the

and

result

good

its

philosophy has,

effect which
be

sought.

sensationalism, seemed

and
the

greatest

subject of

the

effect upon

century, idealism

its

outside

notable, but most

most

be

things to

on

the

and

theorems,
resulting
all

diminishes

axiom

new

every

effects of mathematics

has

more

said,

inherently objectionable,but

possiblegeneralityis before
Of the

is often

as

"

is

the

he is able to go without

as

parallelsnot,

because, in mathematics,
the

71

to

which

of

our

the

studies,

solitary

MYSTICISM

72
student

always

must

AND
be liable.

retirement
suffering,

and

the

to

selfish refusal

somewhat
others

upon

Have

of

any

the

us

live

life which,

arise,the

true

alive the sacred

much

this

the

by
then

spectacleof

often

does

for human

more

is

in every

shadows

forth the

tion,
genera-

goal of

sometimes

must

which

occur,

maddened

almost

are

bring

we

yet

keep

must

some

we

questions

these

preserve,

we

to

sorrows

reflect that

may

we

When

as

cold, when

too

seems

answer

from

austere,

doubt, that

must

part.

withdraw

to

and

haunting vision which

striving.But when,

the
so

fire,some

imposed

unaided, while

arduous

is,no

answer

burden

as

appear

justiceplays no

ask,

nature

noble,

however
but

fellow-men

our

own

tion,
contempla-

the

in which

though

in its

plainlygood

cloister of

share

right,we

present evils,to leave

full of evil

only, cannot

to

accidents

by

so

world

delightswhich,

be for the few

always

must

In

into the

of

enjoyment

LOGIC

help,

no

the mathematician
indirectly
happiness than any of his

active contemporaries. The history of

practically
science abundantly proves that a body of abstract propositions
more

remains
life

thousand

two

yet, at any

may

"

in the

habitual

citizen. The
instances

of
capital
round

of

which

has

no

the

experiencegive
mathematics
can

be

not

For

only a

and

will

be

the

in

tion
revolu-

of

means

world

in moments

In

possesses

limits.

deciding

useful.

found

mathematics.

enrichingthe

discoverable

guide in directingour

"

thought

consolation

cause

and

employment

any

to

possible
only by

hitherto

daily

occupationsof every
electricity^to take striking

thoughts

abstract

sections, it

effect upon

be used

moment,

of steam

use

of conic

case

without

years

is rendered

"

results

the

in the

if, as

even

"

what

common

Nor

does

parts of

Utility,therefore,
of

discouragement,

studies.

the health of the moral

life,for ennobling the tone

THE

of

age

an

or

purified

by
is

truth

faith.

mind

the

chief,
love

throughout

of

Every

and

this
the

MATHEMATICS

Of

of

and

in

truth

teaching

those

have

virtues

austerer

find
is not

study
and

should
and

sustaining
be

learning

kept
of

in

ing
wan-

itself,

lofty
always

mathematics.

of

where,
else-

for

end

love

than

encouragement
an

and

the

more

only

strange

informed

not

mathematics,

may

creating
purpose

these

73

virtues

austerer

power

great
of

means

the

thought.

the

the

OF

nation,

exceeding

power,

also

STUDY

but

habit
in

of
view

MATHEMATICS

AND

THE

METAPHYSICIANS

nineteenth

npHE
^

invention

the

derived
of

baptised

writers

called

asked

what

able

to

Geometry,

that
and

and

he

abounds

in

fact

book

being
first

the

mistaken
of

in

thought

quite

should

is the

the

irrelevant
the

book

supposing

laws

was

same

in

fact

thing

too

was

that

he

to

him,

of

thought,

have

been

if his
it
in

was

such

with

mathematics.
74

Algebra,

studies

modest

This

to

dealing

had

formal

way

was

with

actually

work
work

suppose
He

curious

mathematical,

not

book

dark.

the
in

{1854).

is

applied

in

Boole,

in

had

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people

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concerned
as

was

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thought

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on

question

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it

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to

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of Thought

find

we

had

by

written

ever

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that

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they

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Boole

that

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discovery

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Laws

the

the
most

if

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was

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Arithmetic,

of

to

ancestors

our

called

As

might

like

would

they

upon

alluding

But

was,

what

to

century

consisted

on.

mathematics

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the

it

so

as

mathematics,
Pure

subject

from

born

was

mathematics.

pure

say

it

fame

science,

nineteenth

the

this

common,

This

long before

before

they

title to

itself

prided

evolution,

and

steam

mathematics.

pure

\vas

of

legitimate

more

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century,

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his
also
laws

think

was

really

tained
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that

no

before.

logic,

and

one

His
this

effect that, if such

then

such

thing.

that

and

to the

is true of anyproposition
thing,
is true of
another
proposition

such

and

75

entirelyof assertions

consists

mathematics

Pure

METAPHYSICIANS

AND

MATHEMATICS

such

to discuss

It is essential not

the first

whether

the

propositionis reallytrue, and not to mention what

anything is, of which it is supposed to be true.
these pointswould
belong to appliedmathematics.
mathematics,

start, in pure
which

by
true, then

inference

is

so

constitute

logic. We

formal

other

some

amusing, and

ence,
rules of infer-

if one

propositionis

proposition.

rules of

These

of
principles

of the

major part

the

We

certain

infer that

can

we

from

Both

hypothesisthat seems
its consequences,
//our hypothesis
take

then

deduce

any

particular
awy/M^^and not about some oneormore
Thus
things,then our deductions constitute mathematics.
is about

'

mathematics
know

never
we

are

be defined

may
what

we

will

consists in

is,a few
It is

chief

of the

one

probably agree
triumphs

having discovered
words

more

to

common

instance. Geometry

"

this

on

start

been

have

puzzledby

of

are

indefinables

and

applied mathematics,
except such

as

Now

subject may

certain

the

not

there
to

are

be put into

whatever.

form

All pure

amiss.

be

number

of

in pure

certain

supposed

though

in every

^foi

primitive
a

axioms,

"

there

branch

of

mathematics

general logic. I^ogic,broadly

speaking,is distinguishedby
can

none

really

of mathematics

fact is that,

indemonstrables

belong

in

mathematics

mathematics

what

branch

any

^with

of modern

primitive propositionsor

incapable of proof.

the

that it is accurate.

ideas, supposed incapable of definition, and

number

what

whether

nor

we

will, I hope, find comfort

mathematics

this definition,and
As

talkingabout,

are

saying istrue. People who

beginningsof

subjectin which

the

as

the

in which

mathematics

fact that its propositions

they apply
"

to

anything

Arithmetic, Analysis,

MYSTICISM

76
and

Geometry
ideas of

the

AND

^isbuilt up

"

general axioms

of

combinations

by

its

and
logic,

LOGIC

are
propositions

logic,such

the

as

other

rules of inference.

And

or

aspiration. On

contrary,

an

the

this is

difficult part of the domain

more

been

already accomplished

there

is

deduced

longer a

no

few

it is

and

there

is

The

itself to

chief
But

formal

but

cases,

the

whether
have

sat

philosophers

ments.
graceful acknowledg-

with

has

thus

last

at

mathematics,

as

was,

formed

the

theology)of the Middle Ages.

is a
which
got beyond the syllogism,

study (other than

Aristotle
small

very

never

to
superiority

this.

intellects devoted
the nineteenth
the world's

decade

century only an

in the

People have

Ages,
to

in

proportionof

how

to advance

done

period from

discovered

in

subject. Nevertheless,

has been

whole

best

logic,whereas

infinitesimal

more

all the

almost

formal

into this

went

since 1850

subject than

Leibniz.

themselves

thought

our

doctors, it might be found

Middle

the

never

requiredof

proof were

If any

the mediaeval

Throughout

in each

the schoolmen

part of the subject,and

got beyond Aristotle.

the

For

by Aristotle, and

invented

it has

being rapidly

now

logic,which

identical

be

knows,

one

every

left

nothing

now

subject of

shown

deduction.

the

made

dream

remaining

Philosophershave disputed for ages

deduction
was
possible
; mathematicians

down

the

greater and

the

achieved.
such

from

syllogismand

over

in the

tive
primi-

of mathematics,

and
specialdifficulty,

no

of the

Aristotle

to make

to

reasoning

symbohc, as it is in Algebra, so that deductions are

rules.
efiected by mathematical
They have discovered
of
branch
and
rules besides the syllogism,
new
a
many
logic,called
to deal

with
*

This

the

Logic

of Relatives,^ has

been

topicsthat wholly surpassedthe

subject is

due

in the

main

to Mr.

invented
powers

C. S. Peircc.

of

form

logic,though they

old

the

METAPHYSICIANS

AND

MATHEMATICS

77

chief

the

of

contents

mathematics.
It is not

and

but

parts of mathematics,
wish

we

Now,

(Thisis not

thingsdifficult

hard

follows

from

enemy

to

to

another

which

in

difficult

symbolism,

Then

set up

certain rules for

whole

thing

we

and

the

find out

we

what

be demonstrated
Arithmetic

indefinable notions
But

without

doubt

to

in other
But
the

whether
cases

the

proof of

we

evident
obvious
new

which

that

one

when

is not

have

we

people have
found

it is often

prove

evident.

are

more

hard

four,

to

holds

same

be

proved.
to

seem,

occupation.

by

are

tried to prove
many

very

two

the

no

self-

means

from

To

another

reallydiscovering

is evident

what

But

that

And

things are

we

of

requirethree

propositions
may

that

so

can

sufficiently
sceptical

follows
proposition

obvious

symbols,
what

been
and

frivolous

somewhat
that

the

propositions.

have

proved.

self-evident

proposition
;

truths

to

that two

self-evident

might reply

that since

they

be

can

where

uninitiated,

this

it

shown

ourselves

make

hardly

can

we

obvious.

instance, the whole

would

It is so obvious

and

new

In this way

five indemonstrable

and

S5mibolismit

to find this out.

that

been

the

always

premiss and

as

For

has

Algebra

and

seems

operating on

be taken

defined.

or

nothing
mechanical.

becomes

must

some

; and

proposition

is

invent

we

what.

self-evident

Obviousness

Hence

correctness.

because

from

deduced

self-evident

one

not.

or

strangely

seem

beginnings.) What

the

be

can

whether

see

matics,
mathe-

of the advanced

true

beginnings,everythingis

in the

it is very

only of

is, what

know

to

of

symbolism is useful

fact is that

paradoxical.The
it makes

perhaps

explanation may

the

importance

foundations

discussingthe

in

symbolism

of

to realise the

lay mind

for the

easy

by

method

retort is,
interesting

obvious

of them

are

propositions,
false.

Self-

MYSTICISM

78
evidence
lead

is often

is

nothing

But

like without
of

proved
some

and

what

of

men

of the

our

Universityof

reduced

is

Turin.

there

are

words

no

books, there

are

wish.

would
lei us

Peano.

He

doubt

no

or

has

fewer

concession, and

For

instance, if

for zero,

wish

to

have

been

word

is

symbols
^

me

are

when

pose
sup-

reduced

the greater

will,in time,
which

ordinarymathematical

words

than

readers

most

such

therefore,

as

to

another

for

learn

become
invented

the

whole

three

But

to

have

this article

added
was

Frege,

written.

is

his

after
not

[Note

added

in

if

symbols
another

of these
unknown

were

1917

for next

All future

means

wiitings

symbol

to know

development.

but

all that

third

ideas,

symbolicallyexplained by

are

of

One

three words.

it is necessary

for these

whole

(except Geometry), we

arithmetician.

an

the

indeed

number, and

ideas mean,

these

Professor

by

swept away

wish

we

of
dictionary

required in

ought

in

reasoning,among

symbolicform.,in

mathematics

pure

start with

after. What
you

proved

ever,
consider,or hence itfollows. All these, how-

usuallycalled
stands

be

possibleto

Arithmetic, Algebra, the Calculus, and

must

you

to the result

as

his followers

In the

all.

at

of the merits

can

littlephrases occur,
Still,

assume,
are

doubt

if

long as

as

to

Italian, Professor Peano,

an

strict

whole) to

ing
add-

it is false.

cases

(and he

the

it
One

is obvious

day,

own

part of mathematics
have

the least.

of the art of formal

master

great

by

infinite,and
to

ones

more

known

now

in others, it becomes

not

has

always

are

add

may

that in these other

the

numbers

to

instance,

is increased

it instilsa certain

when

but

cases,

The

number

disturbingit in

proof is that

whole

is sure

For

guide.

our

propositionsare

Most

is infinite you

as

that

these

usually false.

number

it

part, or that

to it.

one

be

plainer than

than

terms

take

we

LOGIC

which
will-o'-the-wisp,

mere

astray if

us

AND

to

MATHEMATICS
Even

three.

these

of

taken

up.

It must

has
at

mathematics

school

this may

done

invented

is

Two

He

Peano

of

carried

has

to

from

create

and

end

"

arise," he says,

each
us

other

somewhat

solution
cannot

"

In the

he

deal

pioneer

But

whole

been

solution

a
"

their

there
and

over

he

treated

by

all

Characteristic,"
of all

problems,
to

were

need

more

no

guilty

putation
of dis-

between

take

two

their pens

desks, and

to

in
to

say

witness, if they Uked), Let

'

as

optimism
;

for the

patronising

If controversies
be

it.

to create

subject which

Universal

suffice to
to

friend

This

science

the

believe

not

the

have

has

still

now
are

disputes
an

enormous

formerlycontroversial,Leibniz's
fact.

of the

philosophers than

sit down

doubtful,

decide.

for

it would

excessive
is

"

would

two

(with a

calculate.'

how

good

foresaw

could

but

this

there

For
to

he

disputes.

between

their hands,

very

which

endeavoured

his schemes

hoped

all

to

accountants.

succeeding by respect

From

called it, he

an

pounded.
com-

are

by

method

exists, in spiteof the

now

superiorpersons.
he

notions

shown

carried

Leibniz

fallacies ;

contempt with which

as

There

all the

it,the honour

perfected,and

definite,formal

desired

the

matician
mathe-

much.

has
disciples,

authority of Aristotle, whom

of

is not

never

is assisted

being

ago,

years

prevented

was

what

of which

although

capable

hundred

which

has

him.

belong to

must

with

who

Italian
and

he has

than

that

out

Peano,

Peano

(includingGeometry)

of young

be

further

Professor

notions

dozen

Professor

has

class

begin

to

79

of
explained by means
; *but this requiresthe

admitted

be

know

to

most

in all pure

able

be

can

Relations, which

Logic

are

three

of relation and

notions

the

METAPHYSICIANS

AND

dream

appeared

problems
which

be

whose

calculation

field of what
has

to

become

philosophy of mathematics,

was

sober
which

8o

MYSTICISM

used

to be

least

at

philosophy,order

and

of course,

mathematicians,

whicli

of
treatingthe principles

masterly

mathematics
Hence
I

used

of
continuity,

[;'longer in any

placedamong
of infinity,
natures

wish

to

read

the

works

they

will there

In
than

the

know

find exact

fame

lack
posterity's
who

be

may

of

of

f' to

the

reallyat

notable

these

own,

basis of

who
between

arguments

probably

himself

Professor

1897.

After

mathematical

being

He

an

refuted

arrow

and

of Mathematics

dreamed

Zeno.
in the

in the
invented

profound,
in

can

flight

by Aristotle, and
that

renaissance, by
never

sophy
philo-

Achilles

reinstated, and

were

This

of the

that
impossible^
that

examples

Parmenides

subsequent philosopher from

every

Cantor

Zeno.

to Socrates.

instructor

the tortoise,and

rest.

only

capricious

more

founder

in Plato's

rnotign is

overtake

never

is

arguments, all immeasurably subtle and

that

Those

of
expositions

is the Eleatic

judgment

infmity,appears

prove

by

Georg

or

One of the most

regarded as

privilegedpositionof
four

no

thingsneed

indubitable

and

capriciousworld, nothing

posthumous

man,

Peano

as

now

mysteries.

quondam

this

men

are

"

discussion.

or

of these

nature

of such

motion

and

to doubt

degree open

who

all these

time

space,

certaintyof
philosophy.

to be

"

of

is

the

of
and

exact

an

mathematical

topicswhich

of the

But

the power

in

of which
to

sophers,
Philo-

this fact, and

now

mathematics

also

fusion
con-

the old way.

Italy,have

means

extends

many

formerly reigned.

great mysteries for example, the

the

of

by

manner,

part of

replaced the

subjectsin

least in

other

any

yet discovered

not

such

on

at

as

certaintyhave

have

write

to

LOGIC

full of doubt

as

hesitation

and

continue

AND

day

made

German

of any

to

our

the
fessor,
pro-

connection

Weierstrass,^ by strictly
University of

BerUn.

He

died

in

MATHEMATICS

banishingfrom
has

and

that

Zeno's

the

only

that

in

lay

error

therefore

change,

one

time

which

by

any

is

there

German

the

ingenious Greek.
his views

with

eliminates

truth

invest

to

platitudes;

lover

of

rate

no

such

at

other.

is

This

is

has

respect,

famiharity

vulgar prejudicesof

bold

the

common

respectable

to
delightful

defiance, it is
the

appease

than

able, by

been

with

quence
conse-

constructive

more

of

state

in this

mathematics, where

Zeno's

infer)

state

a
same

follows ; and

paradoxes

to

as

rest.

at

did

the

if the result is less

and

calculated

more

is in

any

the

than

reason

thing

Weierstrass

Zeno's

air of

unchanging world,

an

flight is truly

world

in

infinitesimals,

of

use

inferring(if he

mathematician

embodying

8i

in

means

no

the

sense,

its

the
as

the

live in

we

arrow

that, because

at

mathematics

last shown

at

METAPHYSICIANS

AND

at

the
any

of academic

mass

mankind.
Zeno

was

problems,
abstract

concerned,
each

than

as

infinitesimal,the

These

Zeno.

of each

three

but

more

infinite,and

him

to

generation in

our

to

was

"

have

not

men

attacked

with

the

boast

The

mathematics,

are

I know

This

of

no

age

the
state

done

was

problems, but
our

time,

own

Cantor

problems,but

have

solutions,for those
so

clear

as

to

difficulty.This

or

probably the greatest

; and
G

the three

them.

longer the slightestdoubt

is

To

Weierstrass,Dedekind, and

"

merely advanced

completelysolved

of

accomplishperhaps

achieved, broadly speaking,nothing. In

however, three

metical
arith-

day, the finest intellects

own

turn

purely

continuity.

task.
part of the philosopher's
From

each

problems

the

are

the difficulties
mvolved,
clearly

by

fact, with

presented by motion,
motion, and capable of

treatment.

the hardest

of

matter

of which

our

leave

quainted
acno

ment
achieve-

age

has

to

(exceptperhaps the golden

MYSTICISM

82

age of

Greece) which

has

of the transcendent

Dedekind,

and

mathematics.

It
circle

regarded a
with

discourse

The

could

had

needed

less

this

topic,though

to

discover

of infinitesimals,added
But

which

zero,

not

deadlock.

But

infinitesimal
could

be

longer any

and

could

yet

needed

accomplished
need

to

Leibniz

not

at

without

suppose

instead

small, they talk

advance.

any

continuitywas

that

about

of
the

out

there

discovered
that

all,and
Thus

there

was
are

talking about

up

fraction

any

finite. Thus

it.

make

to

seen

point

Nowadays, therefore, mathematicians

than

to

sufiiciently
largenumber

last Weierstrass

not

was

m.ost

continued

"

making

together,were

nobody

at

for the

it.

little ; but nobody

infinitely
little might be.
It was
infinitely

because

plainlynot quitezero,
finite whole.

with

the

the

what

cerning
con-

^the behaviour

who

courts

without

used

reply that

familiar

required continuity,and
require

mathematics.
Leibniz

"

thoroughly
with

vented
in-

of Prussia

instruction

It

become

to

she would

"

sides.

Leibniz

Great, how

mathematicians

polygon

equal

Charlotte

in

part

Greeks, who

the

higher

how

no

acquaintance

Calculus

was

Cantor.

great

small

all
the

her

made

philosophersand

supposed

of

and
little,
infinitely

of courtiers

discuss

begim by

was

importance, until, when

Queen Sophia

subjectshe

piirt had

by

of very

his Frederick

to

the

But

introduced

notion

fundamental

that

two

from
differing
infinitesimally

in

Carlyletells,in

on

other

Weier-

by

Infinitesimal Calculus, it seemed

the

to

the

solved

was

offer

Of the three

men.

played formerly

was

as

graduallygrew
the

of

large number

very

its great

accompHshcd by
definitively

infinitesimal

The

convmcing proof to

infinitesimal

solution

the

LOGIC

more

genius of

of the

problems, that
strass

AND

was

that

the

everything

there
such

was
a

no

thing.

dignified

more

the

infinitely
great
"

infinitely
a

subject

MATHEMATICS

which,

AND

however

appropriate to

to

even

the monarchs

to whom

For

accustomed.
moment.

next

would have
with

always
be

_tq

other

finite interval

but there
two.

between
would

one

be

there must

be nearest

therefore

next

culty ; but,

to

as

it. This

of matter
and

so

of

sort

same

be cut
on,

might

small

they

and

smaller

still. But

however

small

they

bring

only these
Here
this

us

not

to

of moments

and

be

to

difii-

straight.
If any

smaller, and

please. However
cut

up

and

reach

never

there

not

finitesim
in-

points,

are

infinite shows
are

the

of divisions

by successive

points

made-

finite size.

so?ne

finite number

the

piece

part be halved,

have

We

no

why

all

and

we

always

be reached

possible,and

as

still be

again, the philosophy of

is

any

moments,

each

Nevertheless

points.

to

are

and

two

smaller

be.

may

in this way,
will

then

can

will

they

are

secutive,
quite con-

in space.

small

as

be, they

if there

finite number

makes

thing happens

the bits will become

may

are

between

thought

in, and

in two,

two

there

are

were

be

take

fact,it is here that the philosophy

of

be made
theoretically

can

the

Thus

moments

first of the

of the infinite comes

The

and

them,

moments

if there

the

matter

the

infinite number

an

; because

two

any

thing as

moment

between

two

of odd

gradually

such

no
one

always other

are

discoursed.

become

in the interval.

moments

Hence

is

fortunately,
un-

infinitely

infinitesimal,
since, if we

to be

the

has all sorts

to

there

seems,

Leibniz

interval between

infinitesimals,
no

no

has

one

example,

The

next

moments

which

to

consequences,

less than

of the infinitesimal

banishment

83

monarchs,

interest them

littleinterested
The

METAPHYSICIANS

divisions.
us

how

infinitesimal

lengths.
As

regardsmotion

results.

it

must

People used
-be in

state

and
to

of

change, we
think

get similarlycurious

that when

change,

and

that

thing changes,
when

thing

MYSTICISM

84

it is in

moves,

be

When

mistake.

of motion.

state

is that

it is in

another.

We

must

not

at

the

next

place
instant.

body

this view

Zeno

of the kind

our

day

own

Eleatic's

repeat the

to

destructive

it became

Zeno's

comfortable
it is

where

We

belief that
as

body

through

that

quagmire

the

subject can

they

reahse

is involved

of

in

down
roused

last
is

in this

the

one

times
some-

places
waded

have

simple

from

in

merely

placeand

who

those

the

just as truly

consists

liberation

to

indulge the

this

philosophicspeculationon

what

and

tomed
accus-

at intermediate

are

Only

times.

simple

opposition to
at

now

sometimes

are

in another, and
intermediate

in

Motion

rest.

every

in detail in accordance

in motion

body

at

may

To

only recently that

was

platitude,and

the fact that bodies

at

It

ardour.

philosopher's
paradox.

that

phrases which

possibleto explain motion

with

the instant.

so

is

body

continued

have

they
same

next

no

philosophersare

to which

give weight, and

to

is

when

retort

at

ing
neighbour-

the fatal retort

made

it is ; but

brief

that

us

be said

can

there

positionwithin

long ago
is where

not

tell

to

in another

and

instant, since

body always
was

known

now

be in
say that it ^\^ill

its

changes

is

all that

time

one

Philosophersoften

in motion, it

This

moves,

place at

one

LOGIC

AND

antique

judices
pre-

straightforward

and

commonplace.
The

is

seen,

and

philosophy

mainly negative. People

they

now

have

found

formerly supposed

was

mathematical
But

out

as

it

example,

infinite
was

the

mfinityseemed

to

their mistake.

just

believe
The

infinite numbers,

that

generally,were

obvious
number

used

have

we

in it,

sophy
philo-

the other hand, is wholly positive.

of the infinite,on
It

infinitesimal,as

of the

that

there

of numbers

unavoidable,

and

"

and

the

self-contradictory.
were

infinities
"

^for

^the contradictions

of

philosophyseemed

to

MATHEMATICS
have

wandered

to Kant's

"

into

of

Hegel's dialectic

philosophyis upset by
are

for all
done

is most

since the

had

meaning

any

speaking, Dedekind
is more

what
that

number

or

fii'stand

Here

definition of

been

and

all.

able

Twenty
asked

Cantor

they

the

this

of the contradiction

found

he

in the

of

things.

in

proofsfavourable

to

that
principle

had

no

that

common

sense

of

and

rejected,all

well.

The

maxim

in

infinite

This

was

remained

He

way.

both

but

true,

the other

allowed

that, when

question is,that

took
sides

strable,
demon-

certain

destructive,

all mathematics.

almost

to

notion.

this

which

the

supposed proofs. He

evil consequences.
had

rouglily

an

involved
infinity

on
infinity,

specious maxim,
went

to

the

sight obviously

its consequences,

of

in

proper

he

definition

usuallyregarded as

examined
strictly

first

he
infinity,

They found,

it.

answered

only

be

would

that all proofsadverse

at
principle,

any

question,and,

greatest step. It then

proceeded

had

If

ago,

years

in
pairs of contradictorypropositions,

and

give

to

supposed contradictions

the

Cantor

?
infinity

is

infinite collection

an

infinity

gliblyabout

perfectlyprecisedefinition

perhaps

examine

at

remarkable,

is to say,

In the

thought, nobody

Greek

been

this has

which

by

talked

for

able
respect-

rigmarole,but
unintelligible

some

have

certainlynot

that

asked

and

sophers
philo-

instructive.

asking. What

of

philosopherhad been
might have produced
would

method

people had

beginnings of

thought

ever

The

few

very

of the infinite have

interestingand

first place,though
ever

all current

Almost

(ofwhich

in the notion

disposed of.

indirectly,

less

or

more

method.

the fact

led
difficulty

yet aware) that all the ancient

as

contradictions

been

hence,

85

This

cul-de-sac."

antinomies, and

to much

once

METAPHYSICIANS

AND

hand, involved
It thus

appeared

itself to be taken
once

if one

The

this maxim

in

by

was

collection is part

MYSTICISM

86

of another, the
the

numbers.

For

it is

of the

the

number

in the

as

even

since every

by puttingodd
and

i"

2,

2, 4,

There
below

in the

as

each

be

to

This

of

number

follow.

The

elementary
in

we

many

fact is that
way

of

collection.

is

there

cannot

what

mathematicians

call the

terms

; that is to say, it arranges

row

below

one

for

formerly

was

into

is infinite.
it is

how

to
possibles

It is impossible

be counted.

counting
in any

in the

shows, in the above

one

there

finding out
And

row,

one

transformed

now

wonder

count,

seen

"

numbers

many

of finite numbers

may

be

may

infinitum.

up aU the numbers,

to count

however

ad

and
infinity,

which

altogether,

property, which

may

just

are

infinitum.

contradiction, is

uninitiated

the

deal with

10,

there

This

below

row

away

infinite number

together in

above, because

that the number

But

are

6, 8,

definition

harmless
case,

3, 4, 5, ad

row

above.

one

thought

in

is

diminishing

numbers

doubled.

obviously just as

are

take

can

an

are

numbers

alone

no

the

givesus

example,

there

even

this is

collections which

If you

are

For

be

can

and

numbers

even

there

as

peans.
Euro-

than

collection,without

collection.

number

among

collection of terms

it has.

then

numbers

of finite

some

maxim

parts other

as
a

of terms,

of terms
many

of

terms

of the

as

terms

many

only

Enghshmen

infinity. A

it contains

justas

some

of

is true

are

than

terms

to infinite numbers,

come

breakdown

precise definition
have

fewer

are

we

This

infinite when

part has fewer

part. This maxim

there

when

longertrue.

LOGIC

example, Enghshmen

Europeans, and
But

is

which

one

of which

one

AND

because,
to

more

vulgar and

very

many

there

terms

counting gives us

case,

ordinal
our

one,

always

are

is

how

by

number

terms

in

an

of
order

our
or

MATHEMATICS

its result tells

series,and
this

from
to

METAPHYSICIANS

AND

words, it is impossible

In other

arrangement.

things withouc

count

type of series results

what

us

first and

counting some

afterwards, so that counting always has

Now

when

there

in any

them

count

can

only

are

infinite number,

an

give
which

we

which

be called

terms

the way

in which

cardinal.
in order

terms

different method, which

collections

have

the

which

is the

which

counting does,

has

in such

and

show

has

how

had

one

census,

wife and

was
I^)olygamy

without

were

[Note

greater
uumbevb

more

fewer

or

but

in which
woman

every
not

than
one

added
some

there

uiu^t

in

19

17.]

be

the

greater.

of terms
enables
be

country in

that every
then

exactly as

some

proved

infinite
that

of any

man

(provided

should

country, neither

be

collection

impossible to

we
institution)

Although

cannot

in

illustration will

was

husband,

were

if not,

or,

some

known

was

in that

others, it

existed

national

women

An

two

collection that may

terms.

it

by
by

but

this method

another, it

or

obtained

the number

as

If there

reason

ordinal, but

not

of terms

other

some

counting, that

there

as

whether

is

tell us, in the way

not

collection,then

many

arranged.

are

of terms,

number

this is done.

which, for
a

define

such

mentioned

take

we

discover

to

us

if

but

how

sense,

of terms

not

are

number

what

general

are

number
It does

greater.^

begin with, whether

tellsus, to

same

ordinal

counting them,

and

in

the

the terms

They

will

Thus

number

the

are

way

to

only upon

not

(where

there

the

in

what,

infinite numbers

is called

puttingour

from

also

fundamental

what

operation.

we

counting

to

according

counting,depends

infinite)
upon
are

like ; but when

results

results

of terms,

finite number
we

othei-s

with order.

to do

corresponds

the

have, but

we

The

what

out

carry

number,
may

order

quite different

us

87

many
more

numbers
two

know,
men
nor

are

intinite

88

MYSTICISM

less.

Tliis method

some

relation

in

found

we

vice

number

same

that

Every

number

even

halved.

And

to

on

used

of which

collection

only
have

must

it must

equal.

be

not

On

the

infinite numbers

arranging

series than

there

more

points in

there

are
as

number

of fractions

there

whole
as

many

are

numbers

or

points in

There

be

the

more

are

than

as

there

whole

every

an

than
many

infinite

numbers.

there' are

irrational numbers,

line

millionth

of infinite space.

sort

probably

exactly
prob^Lbly

are

are

types of

in time

irrational numbers
There

ways

exactly as

are

any

pointson

which

are

moments

greatest of all infinite numbers,

that there cannot

by

whole

space

things altogether,of

are

two

fractions.

exactly as many
inch long as in the

there

different

in

There

between

and

as

are

numbers, although there

more

our

more
infinitely

are

There

ones.

more

finite numbers.

fractions

But

and

then

all infinite numbers

that

contrary, there

space

are

defined.

are

finite numbers.

are

whole

terms

many

be

can

process,

the

general method

finite

there

in

finite numbers

the

collection

or

of

as

finite numbers

supposed

than

terms

all the

of infinite collections

But

of

is the

gives just
number

any

many
of

every

is doubled

that
find

term

just as

This

there

as

process

one

justas

once,

in which

way

numbers

each

can

and

number,

finite numbers.

are

has

the

be doubled, and

the

we

another

collections have

two

even

can

If every

and

once,

numbers

number

things

the

things in

was

many

in this way

finite numbers.

hooked

This

corresponding to

collections each
are

as

the

be halved, and

can

number

one

of terms.
are

of the

one

then

versa,

there

numbers.

are

with

each

is

If there

applied generally.

which, like marriage, connects

collection,and
the

be

can

collection

one

LOGIC

AND

of

There

wliich is the number

and

greater number

kind.
than

an

is

of

It is obvious

this,because,

MATHEMATICS

Cantor

has

if this

proof

in

reappear

point,the
which

We

can

explain in

to

understand

now

Zeno

why

overtake

the tortoise and

he

overtake

it.

disagreedwith

We

Zeno

shall

had

all accepted premises from

The

is this

argument

along

road

the

at

fair)being allowed
fast
fast.

tortoise, or

the

as

he will

Then

tJie

going

placesas

many
at

is

race

if Achilles

But

does, because

catch

to

the tortoise would

placeswhere
must

we

whole
'

that
is
in

Zeno

suppose,

has

Cantor
is

and

depends

upon
Vol.

Principia Mathemaiica,

added
^

in

191

This

what

D.

Vol. XXII,
Zeno

not

be

actually had

not

e.g. C.

is

place

one

moment.

tortoise, the

be

'"

would

have

this

only
Here,

been.

the

that

if Achilles

part.^Thus
on

where
some-

just as

to

the maxim

to

fallacy

at every

were

His

point.
of

proof

the

puzzle
is explained
the theory of types, which
Univ.
I (Camb.
Press, igio). [Note
solution

The

is valid.

7.]

must

Zeno

of

greatest number

no

complicated

guilty

not

was

there

that the

terms

more

appealed

For

place while

the

Achilles would

part of the placeswhere

as

is in

been

have

times

other

any

with

up

as

goes

each

at

go twice

same

tortoise

in another

were

(as is only

Achilles

in the

the

Thus

and

followed.

hundred

and

twice

ever

they

the tortoise start

Achilles

or

is somewhere

on.

because

so,

the tortoise.

reach

Achilles

moment,

one

Let

times

ten

neither is

; and

people who

time, the tortoise

never

the tortoise

moment

do

of fact

matter

his conclusion

handicap.

as

Achilles and

same

fallacy,

that Achilles

that all the

which

Let

why

see

one

work.^

believed

right to

no

in this

subtle

very

future

some

cannot
can

infinity

of

But

form.

guiltyof

has been

master

hope

sublimated

and

greatest number,

no

contradictions

the

vahd,

were

is

there

proof that

89

taken, there is nothing left to add.

if everything has been

would

METAPHYSICIANS

AND

the

Broad,

argument
"Note

pp. 318-19.
has been done since

regarded

as

It

in mind.
which
on

Much

is

and

valuable

this article

was

On

him.

influenced

Achilles

argument

new

the
work

written

on

for his

this

Tortoise,"

of

account

historicallycorrect

clusion,
con-

point,

Mind,

see

N.S.,

interpretationof
[Note added in 1 9 1 7.]
the

MYSTICISM

90
overtake

to

tortoise, he

the

placesthan

the tortoise ; but

period, be

in

Hence

exactly

infer that he

we

argument

is

the

has

whole

the

But

well.

who

many

can

never

the

the

that

the

clusion
con-

rejected,and

axiom

the

As

then

be said for

to

thousand

two

This

axiom

the

word

good

past

in any

tortoise.

the

part.

be

must

all allowed

have

allow

we

more

the tortoise.

catch

no

in

that he must,

places as

than

is

been

have

saw

if

axiom

there

philosophersof

more,

we

as

terms

is absurd, the
all goes

would

correct,
strictly
more

LOGIC

AND

and

years
denied

and

the

conclusion.

retention

The

of this axiom

while its
of these

One

oddities, it must

if you

give

Tristram

him

first two

he could

deal with

be farther
I maintain

wearied
as

event

have

day

farther

it

will be described

choose

as

so

will be

Thus

any

day

or

will remain

far

on

later, and

may

and
that

perfectlytrue

of his

Achilles.
in

years

faster than

by, he would
history. Now
and

for ever,

consider

had

not

continued

so

on.

he cannot
in

therefore

the

no

the hundredth

year, the thousandth

be mentioned

permanently

Shandy,

part of his biography would

no

described

that

odd.

lamented

life,and

if his life had

even

For

year,

as

two

went

years

in the hundredth

thousandth

day

but

began,

as

lived

had

very

accumulate

the end

unwritten.

that

sooner

from

of his task, then,

fullyas

of his

would

it,so that,

that, if he

remained

in the
may

and

employed

days

this rate, material

at

far

just as

know,

we

Some

that the tortoise,

Achilles,and shows

as

are

of Tristram

paradox

dictions,
contra-

oddities.

to

confessed,

time, will go

Shandy,

chroniclingthe
that,

I call the

of the

converse

be

absolute

to

rejectionleads only

of them, which

is the

leads

Whatever

day

hope

reach

to

we

it,

corresponding year.
will be written

up

part of the biography

unwritten.

This

propositiondepends

paradoxical

upon

the

fact

that the number

number

this is the

which

there

so

Cantor's

then

become

who

used

find it

to

contradictions

it is

thought impossiblebecause

has shown

has

that there

defined.

But

reigns

more

of mathematics,

most

Geometry,

propertiescan

symbolic logic by

any

capable
be

while

means

of

order

more

the

from

different

tion
investigaquantity,

to

reference

and

largepart

very

that this

of formal

deduced

was

mathematics.

reference

any

into

altogether,except

found

without

are

order.

days, it

investigationof

part, without

All types of series

their

banished

it has been

and

of

order,

suppose) that

of

their relations is now

be conducted

and, for the

notion

The

supreme.

kinds of series and

can

of

In former

still apt to

fundamental

little corner

of

that

upon

times, brought order

nowadays, quantity is

Irom.one

of it here.

particulartype

greater prominence.

the

continuity.

contradictions

no

account

has, in modern

was

would

subjectis so technical

this

supposed (and philosophersare

quantity

they

perfectlyprecise

are

continuity depends

continuity is merely

greater and

oddities

antipodes,

of

problems

given

impossibleto give any

Mathematics

and

has
problems concerninginfinity

he
infinity,

of

ciples
prin-

their heads.

on

solve also the

to

infinite.

new

The

the

people at

to stand

of the

so

notion

the false.

be

definition,and
in the notion

avoid

true

acquire

odder

of

the

the

no

Cantor

this, as

The

than

in the

grasp
to

and

to the true

as

solution

enabled

to

one

doctrine, and

inconvenient

so

The

But

the

greater than

no

and
paradoxical,
have supposed
philosophers

many

inherent

were

better instincts

since

is

sight appear

little practiceenables

that

in all time

first

at

why

reason

of

Of

days

subjectof infinityit is impossibleto

the

on

conclusions

But

of

91

of years.

Thus

that

METAPHYSICIANS

AND

MATHEMATICS

to

number.

definition, and
the

Algebra

principlesof
of

Relatives.

MYSTICISM

92
The

notion

of

AND

limit,which

is fundamental

part of higher mathematics,

of

quantity,as

approximate

term

nearly as

as

to be

used

which

to

LOGIC

defined

the terms

please.

we

in the

limits may

approximate

it at

all.

is due

revolutionised
to limits.

mathematics.

limit

the

finite

integersare

study

of different

which

the

study

specialand

at

explain to

of

the

an

infinite distance

of ordinal

but

Geometry,

like

formerly supposed

that

be

known
as

general study
Geometry

those

held

who

belonging

of deductive

States.

equallygood

answer

are

question which

certaintyin

the

only

reallybe
it

But

of non-Euclidean

lightupon
the

upon

the

tion
popula-

collection

is a whole

correspondingcollection
is Euclid's

questionas

is indifferent
it is

of the

can

to

; other

Whether

lead to other results.

a

was

accordinglyit
exists

more

throws

on

true, is

mathematician

with

no

set of axioms

sets of axioms

Euclid's axioms

it is

One

It

study

should

increase

Geometry

sciences based

of sets of axioms.

the pure

the

what

in

subsumed,

applied mathematics.

to

Arithmetic

than

of the United

The

impossibleto

of order.

was

that

graduallyappeared, by the
systems, that Geometry throws
of space

all

able
unavoid-

the

it

live, and

we

has

nature

it.

from

been

that Geometry
empirically,

regarded

of the infinite

But

subject render

in which

space

urged, by

was

relevant

now

(mentioned above) is

Arithmetic, has
the

of the

has

professedmathematicians.

times, under

nature

ment
improve-

general subject of

numbers

of this

it

integers,though

interestingbranch.

very

any

finite

the

which

one

is

order

types of series is

technicalities

recent

Only

This

Thus, for instance, the smallest

integersis

it is

Cantor, and

to

series

some

series which

the

also

means

nowadays

and
quite differently,
to

by

But

limit is defined
not

of

greater

which

and, what

the

is more,

theoreticallyimpossibleto
affirnjative.

It

might

pos-

by

shown,

sibly be

axioms

Euchd's

very

(owing

us

they

are

man

of science to decide,

takes

their

than

more

becomes
In

actual

axioms

that

dimension.

one

in other

Geometry, as
his

and
merit

discipleshave

Geometry depended

formal
If

logicfrom

figureis used,

follow, which

accepted

because

which

would

brought
One

to

assuming

reasoning can
a

as

proofsin

and

in this way

have

otherwise

obviouslyto
from

of fact, are

the

only

all the axioms

of

all sorts
remained

of

begin with.

to

By banishing

discover

possibleto

is

this

figures

no

prove

matter

obvious.

are

are

by

the

that

possibilities,

undetected,

are

light.
been

required, and
to

things seem

great advance,
has

held

was

strict niles

the

of

all sorts

they

it becomes
figure,
needed

there

laid down

which,

greatest

very

alike that the

set of axioms

and

Geometry

figure; nowadays,

the

formal

no

explicitaxioms,

are

of the

work

reasoning proceeds by

The

all.

at

series

parts of matheaiatics, Peano

done

on

to

of order.

In the best books

to be false.

known

give rise

study

mathematicians

philosophersand

Geometry,

defines

regards principles. Formerly, it

as

geometer

it is thus that

And

in the

department

The

are

interesting,and

seem

must

to the

axioms

what

world.

What

consequences.

could

leaves

the geometer

best he may,

as

that

observation)that

of

errors

is that the axioms

in this sense,
of

measurements

no

in the

of

set

any

deduces

true

but

Thus

exactly true.

nearly

measurements,

the

to

assure

93

careful

false ;

are

ever

most

METAPHYSICIANS

AND

MATHEMATICS

starting,as

not

of space.

the whole

Peano, partly
unaccustomed

wilful

pedantry.

point of view

the

of correctness,

by introducing points as

made

those

from

to

another
to

In this way,

method

is due

Italian named

it, it has
we

are

formerly done, by

was

This

they

an

Fano.

air of

begin with

partly

the

To

somewhat

following

MYSTICISM

94
axioms

(i) There

(2)There
is at

point. (3)If

one

point besides

other

one

(4),namely,
least

least

the

remarks, is
The

was

the

word

space,

for which

one

rigid methods

thought, until

remarked

It is

involved

are

errors

Euclid

which

points in

known

now

is to say, not
tnie, which
certain

that

axioms

which

his
he

for the

is free from

proof

assumed

intersect.

that

to

they

always

given base,

do so, and

intersect.

belongs to

one

entirelyto

prove

It is

of these
his

As he is certainly
not

winded, he has
Under

these

no

the

some

kinds

or

the

from

circumstances,

it is

quired
re-

are

in the

they

us

do

Thus

Euclid

first
is

are

assures

our

very

an

the

number

whether

easy author, and

but

it is

equilateral

an

of spaces

not.

are

circles which

two

quite doubtful

longer any

only

but

vastly greater

explicitaxiom

kinds

portion.
pro-

Countless

follow

not

uses

no

in

his axioms

he constructs

point in
an

of

propositions. Even

he

But
in

theory

unconsciously employs,

first proposition
of all,where

triangleon

blemishes

trivial matter,

of his

Savile

Henry

blemish.

whether

propositionsdo
Euclid

It

correctness.

eight propositions.That

is it doubtful

emmciates.

geometers

almost

are

all.

at

use

two

the

these

comparatively

which

of axioms,

that

in his first

only
is

only

were

we

humorously

Sir

as

till

points as

no

pinnacleof

is at

go on,

modern

by

and
parallels

of

theory

has

times, that,

recent

162 1, there

in

Euclid, the

his

we

Peano

Geometry

from

so

many

as

employed

Euclid

deposed

have

obtaining as

b, there is

and

(5)There

And

of

bring in

we

begin again with

b.

and

points.

point,there

Then

a.

the line ab.

on

means

But

require.

be

points,and

point besides

point not

one

have

we

other

one

called

straightline joininga

the

on

LOGIC

class of entities

straightline joiningtwo

the

at

is

is at least

least

AND

not

space
fails

proposition.

terriblylong-

historical interest.

nothing

less than

that he should

scandal

should

book

METAPHYSICIANS

AND

MATHEMATICS

10

combine

be

unworthy

the

either
is

two

taught to boys in England.^

stillbe

have

of such

correctness
or
intelligibility

impossible,but

lack

to

Euclid

place as

95

has

is to

both

occupied

in

methods

in

education.
The

remarkable

most

mathematics

is the

rigidformalism.

Mathematicians,

and

had

been

not

an

century

aversion

to

fruitful

so

neither

had

their foundations.

the

found

for

mathematicians

were
"

that

showed
in

are

ever

If he had
a

results

new

modern

examine

to

have

taken

abilityto

invent

should

which

have

discussion.

only

awakened

from

Weierstrass

of their

cherished

most

Thus

tlieir
his

and

been

now

adequate

with

"

matic
dog-

followers

propositions

heard

of

lived

now,

uncertainty of philosophy,asks

the

reaction

he himself

have
investigations

shocks

to

mathematical

form.alism

which

its motive, to be

Since

the

But

change

maticians
mathe-

that

inclination

nor

might

is no

above

I fear

outrageous

mere

was

many

written, he
of

the

great improvement.

books

produced

those

has
now

[Note

who

which

Such

overthrown.

to

of such

heard

have

of the theorems

faith have

appears,

againstTaylor'stheorem

reaction, for this is precisely

one

Infinitesimal

general false. Macaulay, contrastingthe certainty

of mathematics
who

the

any

when

many

seventeenth

and

of mathematics

necessary

slumbers

time

of the

little mathematical

too

branches

new

in

as

the time

previouslysince

Philosophers,w^ho

up the task, had

for

care

slipshodreasoning,such

great inventions

The

^were

"

times

modern

them

among

of

the influence of

under

^AnalyticalGeometry

"

Calculus

in

known

Greeks.

of the

shown

modern

symbolic logicand

of

impoiiance

Weierstrass, have
accuracy,

of

result

rude

that love of

ignorant of

are

pedantry.
ceased

added

be

to

used

are

in

used
so

bad

1917.]

as

that

book.
textthe

MYSTICISM

96
The

is

Euclid's

all

the

knowledge

so

that,
successfully

when

Euclid, and

reasoning,
The

not

Kant's

of

Kant

explained

in

Aristotelian

spirit to

inspire;
that

the

but

their

the

of the

doctrines

which

schoolmen

were

logic was

very

formal

philosophicallogic based
corresponding
give

the

logic,to
then

to

found

logic,which

hope

to

that

the

principlesof
hopes

immediate

mathematics.

Great

and

The

on

thought
results

such

level with

greatest

Peloponnesian

as

pure

generation,
respect,

War.

age

of

[Note

as

the
Gicece

added

to

was

philosophical

new

exactitude
If this

is every

there

great

an

reason

epoch

been

in

in the

triumplis inspiregreat
within

achieve,

place

greatest age

in

of relations, and

of the

as

to

mathematical

past has

may
will

required is

now

foundation.

will be

future

fact

syllogism showed

some

its mathematical

near

by the

the

importance

borrow

to

nearer

that

is

basis

is

mathematics

modern

the

secure

come

defective, and

the

philosophy

pure

hope

may

doned
aban-

present form.

schoolmen

successfullyaccomplished,

be

can

this

upon

certainty of

and

in its

What

full the

the

to

of geometrical

mathematics,

greatest possible development

allow

mere

be

to

hampered

upon

narrowness.

be

nature

has

pure

mathematics

doctrines

theory

prioriintuitions,by which

of
possibility

the

wholly inapplicableto
The

also

to

of the

theory

that

it accounted

fact is shown

result

to

Euclid's

from

figures,invented

the

doctrine

whole

rightlyperceiving

for this fact ; and

account

to

including

fatal blow

be deduced

not

of the

help

of

in

logic,is

philosophy. Kant,

without

defect

mathematics,

formal

propositions could

axioms

LOGIC

pure

but

nothing

Kantian

the

that

proof

Geometry,

AND

brought
iQiy.]

our

our

time, in this

of Greece.^
to

an

eucl

by

the

VI

METHOD

SCIENTIFIC

ON

IN

PHILOSOPHY

WHEN
led

questions,

find

we

divided

into

to

divergent

very

the

on

are,

two

Plato,

hand,
other

the

on

Spinoza,

whose

ethical, while

Leibniz,
of

representatives

motives

to-day,

in

Spencer,

it

religious
be

may
In

wing.
find

we

data,

formulation

of

method.

in

much
what

his

of

his

make

conception

believed,

science

indissoluble
is my
H

was

his

But

behef

honour

whose

the
and

taken

as

Aristotle,

both

of

groups

of

writing,
him
in

his

and

value

the

which,

and

religious

strong

morals

are

ethical

whole
to

his

be

he

drew

conception
is

sense

obvious

preoccupations

conception

as

that

and

problems,

scientific

among

science

from

assembled

are

we

classed

be

mainly

his

It

scientific

naturally

would
:

and

typical of

as

Hume

science.

from

mainly

and

Kant

religion and

from
derived

are

leading

of motives

groups

taken

be

may

and

philosophers

that

those

the

and

be

can

strongly present.

Herbert

are

hand,

Locke,

Berkeley,

Descartes,

derived

interests

philosophers

two

those

Hegel

and

they

antagonistic,

These

systems.

one

ethics, and,

often

groups,

have

philosophical

of

speaking,

broadly

that,

which

motives

the

investigation

the

to

men

ascertain

to

try

we

of

evolution

generation
united

in

"

has

fruitful

marriage.
that

the

ethical
97

and

religious

motives

MYSTICISM

98
in

spiteof

they

the

to

LOGIC

splendidlyimaginative systems
been

given rise,have
of

the whole

on

philosophy,and

which

to

hindrance

be

ought

now

to

consciouslythrust aside by those who wish

truth.
Science, originally,
was
philosophical

to

discover

in

\
I

have

the

AND

progress

similar

motives, and

advances.
from

It is, I

ethics

and

thereby

was

maintain, from

religion,that

entangled

hindered

its

in

science, rather than

philosophy should

draw

; its inspiration.
But

there
seek

may

base

to

the most

different ways

two

are

itself upon

general results

and
greater generality

study

the

methods
with

methods,

the

to these

seek

emphasise

momentarily supposed
results, but
the

its

be

can

transferred

specialsciences

of the

results

It is not
with

the

to

own

science

the

achieved.

been

to have

these

apply

to

philosophyinspiredby

methods, that

sphere

it may

Or

results.
seek

give even

to

adaptations, to

necessary
Much

It may

science,and

unity

philosophy

astray through preoccupation with

gone

from

science.

of science, and

peculiarprovince.
has

of

in which

profit

sphere

of

philosophy. What I wish to bring to your notice is the

and
possibility
importance of applying to philosophical
problems certain
been found
The

broad

scientificmethod

between

and

ethical ideas may

and
are

notion

the

einl.

for either

optimism

seem

the

of
the

philosopheris expected to
of the universe

of

works

the

of the universe, and

to

as

"

to

be,

as

by

which

philosophers,namely
notion

whole, and
Both

I believe
its

notions

two

tell us

pessimism.

mistaken.

me

universe

or

by religious

philosophy dominated

the nature

"

have

philosophy guided by

be illustrated

prevalent in

very

which

method

in the study of scientific questions.

successful

opposition

of
principles

of

good

something
to

about

givegrounds

these
the

and

tions
expecta-

conception

etymology indicates,

METHOD

SCIENTIFIC
relic of

mere

question of optimism

the

philosopherwill regard

In the
"

diurnal

"

revolution

the

was

parts of

centre.

Round

for

that

hope

desires

the

pocentrism was
of

basis

In

When

familiar,and had associated

and

"

survived

is still now

by

itself so

it survived

aspirations,that

Whole,

whose
the

*'

even

Kant's

the

unconscious

some

anthro-

geocentrism
the astronomical

away

grown

with
intimately

with

the

ethically

an

system of thought, it had

of this

desire

guided by

up,

Man

believe

this way,

Copernicus swept

earth

the

of the

metaphysicsgrew

the

them

theoretical

be

might

the

scientific fact,
to

things,the

of

apparently warranted

astronomy.

force

wish

the

bound

this apparent

wishes.

of

except,

grounds

system, of which

of nature

our

inspiredsystem

which

one

it is insoluble.

bodies

heavenly

rallied

course

with

sympathy

I believe

his scope,

comprehensive understanding

be

scientific

on

one

in the scheme

important

to

maintaining that

of the

all

human

many

outside

as

defensible

was

together as

and

Copernicus,the conception of

before

days

universe

of

the extent

pessimism

and

99

pre-Copernicanastronomy

the

to
possibly,

PHILOSOPHY

IN

so

men's

scarcely diminished

Copernican revolution,"
premiss

of most

physical
meta-

systems.
The

postulateof
one

of the

oneness

unnoticed
a

parts''^ such
"

as

to

revolution," and

effect

that

the

apprehended by

although it intended

"

of

system

Yet

oneness

is seen

by

The
the

Bosanquet, Logic, ii,p.

merely

pass almost

I believe
the

not

reciprocally

would

apparent

emphasise

undiscussed

Reality is

statement

singlemind.
to

almost

an

thoroughly

of what

oneness

is

truism.

mere

failure

is merely the

is

metaphysics.

most

self-consistent, but

and

determinate

or

world

that
"

it

bodies
em-

Copernican
of the world

singlespectator

Critical Philosophy,

subjectiveelement
211.

MYSTICISM

loo

in many

in

world

attention
its

the

was
subjectivity

soon

categoriesas

paralysed by its own

despair the attempt
falsification. In

founded, but

unknowable,

as

work

undo

the

not, I think, in any

supposing that
rise could

it

was

ground

nescience

the
be

of the

mind, it

to

cognised
re-

was

abandoned

work

of

absolute
for

in

subjective

doubt, its despair

no

centrated
con-

forgotten. Having

the

to

so

subjectiverepresentation

recognition,and

part,

Still less

sense.

itself

upon

the

given

LOGIC

apparent characteristics of the world, yet, by

regarding the
that

AND

well

was

ultimate

or

or
rejoicing,

which

it

ought

legitimately
exchanged

have

to

for

for

physical
meta-

dogmatism.

As

;:--

regards our

of the
has

been

turn

of

unity

backs

of

the

fact

be

inhabit

persons

to

who

exist.

know

We

ours

conceive
^

Some

substance'

now

affirmed may

descriptiveof

connections
verifiable

We

and

spaces,

so

no

may

inert towards

interfere.

universes

the

as

so

means

Even

of

dreams

of

unhke

so

another,

one

there

disparatefrom

them

be

now

tion
connec-

no

assume

may

They

now.

and

have

shall have

other.

even

jostleor
whole

'

oneness

thingsthat

of

incommensurable,
never

us

flux.
parts of the experiential

times

do

Let

think,

inquirewhether,

and

'

specificand

each

different

actuallybe
we

the

with

as

unintelligible
ways

or

oneness,

like

name

easilyconceive

can

different

as

among

whatever

and

the world's

**

James. ^

ineffable

certain

that

found

by William

the
being a principle,

merely

to

world, the right method,

upon

accounting for

not

We

of the

indicated

our

instead

are

present question,namely, the question

ours

may
that

perceivingthat they

their

however
diversity,

Problems

of Philosophy, p.

124.

; and

by

that

fact the
'

as

universe

discourse

form

lot of them

whole

of connexion

form

in

writers to the fact that any

chaos

become

may

of

kind

further

no

importanceattached by certain

The
.

logic

universe

example shows,

this

as

To

loi

is known

what

discourse.'

of

argues,

PHILOSOPHY

IN

METHOD

SCIENTIFIC

monistic
universe

incomprehensible."
We are thus left with two kinds of unityin the experienced
world ; the one
call the epistemological
what
we
may
unity,due merely to the fact that my experiencedworld
is what
total of
one
experienceselects from the sum
existence ; the other that tentative and
partialunity
is to

by merely being named,

exhibited

in the

portionsof
Now

which

unity

would

be

experience

have

by

the
is

us

of

importance can

be

to

draw

fact

from

the

be

kind

of

would
less
for

unity,namely,

speak

as

physical world
however,
fail to
of

space,
these

particlewhich
regarded
a

is

easy

the

the

see

is

let

reign of

how

general law

any

function

of the

which

particleis subject. Taking

People
In

world

Taking

to

consider

law.

laws.

such

points :

us

fact that the

points,i.e. expressingthe
these

trifle

fallacyis a

remarkable

secolfd

the

scientific laws,

from

explain it

to

laws.

there

everything

therefore

derived

were

to

experienceis

we

subject to invariable

traverses
as

it

clearlyfallacious

of
generalisation

is called

obey general

points in

such

it is

that

perienced
ex-

obviouslynothing

whatever

that

order

though

it is not

to

be

In

what

moment

often

that

equally fallacious,though

elementary.
a

deducible

experienced. The

be

which

from

we

being

of

of

kinds

things which

the

property

conclusion

experienced the
must

That

common

truism

mastered.

either of these

upon

fallacious.

in those

scientific laws

science has hitherto

based
generalisation

of

prevalence

the world

me

fact,
could

arbitraryset
time

sponding
corre-

motion

of

this function
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MYSTICISM

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SCIENTIFIC

METHOD

PHILOSOPHY

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103

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Science

viii.

MYSTICISM

I04
This
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SCIENTIFIC
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MYSTICISM

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LOGIC

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MYSTICISM

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Ethics

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METHOD

SCIENTIFIC
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MYSTICISM

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possible. But

be

two

equally

characteristics

two

that

true

other

it may

than

of

sophical
philo-

philosophy is

this statement

misleading,since

are

be

constituted.

were

these

up

possibleis something

in fact the

of

convolutions

the

history,or

of

propositionsby saying
science

to

senses.

philosophicalbooks

assertions

such

the
may

happen

the eyes of shell-fish.

facts of this kind

make

upon

disproved by empiricalevidence.
in

course

be

must

things that

second

nor

find

we

with

concerned

namely, that they

propositions,
be
must
proposition
priori. A philosophical
be neither

concerned

only

be discovered

only
us

whole

possibleworld, independently of

of any

can

things as

of the

nature

true

are

not

is

there

of

things,but they

all

of
properties

such

that

shall see,

things distributively
; and

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maintaining

are
thingscollectively,

of

the

to

or

that

philosophicalpropositions,instead
with

separate

logicalatomism

while

things. We

of those

each

to

philosophy

called

pluralism,because,

composed

the assertion

propertiesbelonging

are

absolute
are

iii

only

things collectively.The

of

I wish

involves

propertieswhich

are

thing, not

PHILOSOPHY

IN

METHOD

SCIENTIFIC

the

be

the

unexplained
thought

that

general,whereas

indistinguishable.

Philosophy,if what
from
indistinguishable

has

been

logicas

said is correct,
that

word

has

now

becomes
come

MYSTICISM

112

be used.

to

The

of two
the

not

mentioning any
member

of

the class

if :v is

as

is

/3,whatever

with

logical
forms, i.e. with

of

with

occur,

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classification

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the

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ments
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of the class

of

x, a, and

hand, it is concerned

those

predicateor relation,such

or

member

member

with

concerning everythingwithout

thing

one
''

example

sharply distinguishedportions. On

be made

can

LOGIC

logicconsists,broadly speaking,

it is concerned

which

for

of

study
very

hand

one

AND

then

is

and

every

member

of

^ may

be."

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the other

analysisand enumeration
kinds of propositions
that

types of facts,and

constituents

with

the

In this way

of facts.

a
inventory of possibilities,
repertory

logicprovides an

tenable hypotheses.
abstractly

of

It

be

might
and

vague

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too

such

definite,they would

It appears,

specialscience.
In

case.

and

space

time, the

judgment,

part whose

is the

for
chiefly

such

problems

have

and

antinomies

philosophershave

among

to

the

deal

with

sciences

correct

it becomes
its

results

as

the

analysisof
the

theory
of the
and

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lacking hitherto.

most

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given

in which

in such

treated

rise to

at all times

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partialand

of

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tradictions
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reason

delighted.
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upon

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those

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investigationof

last for

problems piecemeal,and

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By concentrating attention
forms,
logical

of

logicalform

the

hitherto been

manner,
or

perception,or

been

has

of the

want

the

part of the work

hardest

performance

It is

of

nature

problems

example,

discovery of

the

facts involved

for

too

that this is not

however,

problems,

some

be

point sufficiently

at any

the

would

great importance,

very

merged in

be

study

be of any

that, if its problems became

and

of

that

thought

to

probably

philosophy
obtain,
not

can
subsequent investigation

as

wholly
utilise

IN

PHILOSOPHY

supplements and

improves

METHOD

SCIENTIFIC
it

while

even

hitherto
philosophies

block, in such

they

have

been

could

wholly incorrect,and

were

basis for further

all in

investigations.It

be

not

is

one

wholly correct,

not

were

Most

them.

constructed

that, if they

way

113

used

as

chieflyowing

to

unlike science,has hitherto been

philosophy,
has had
unprogressive,because each originalphilosopher
to beginthe work
again from the beginning,without being
this fact that

able

accept anything definite from

to

the

predecessors. A scientific philosophysuch

,

will be

recommend

which,

all,it will be able

; above

sciences

if

even

they

fruitful after the

than

is,more

is to

The

transfer

to
a

ensure

it would

of

essence

German

life and

made

I beheve,

Divide

and

build

thus

the truth

triumphs

importance

conceived

What

and
of

knit

of them,

out

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is the

the

understanding

of traditional
less

is not,

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is feasible is the

separate and

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sis,
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togetherfragments of

than

the division

"

is

systems of the world, like

up

feasible

more

number

whose

intelligible
system

an

general forms,

into

method

professorwho

any

of the

source

made.

been

to philosophy
possibility

philosophy as

stone.
philosopher's

"

have

impossibleto exaggerate.

synthesis.To

Heine's

this
in

progress

be almost

not

of

corrections

necessary

anything else,the

of science, and

to

hypotheses

of successive approximationsto
possibility

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I wish

like other

invent

to

his

wholly true, will yet remain

not

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tentative

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piecemeal

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problems

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maxim

of

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success

as

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illustrate these

us

examining
for it is
of

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only
a

confronted

in

method
with

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philosophyof

the

meaning

understood.

problem

of space

or

Suppose
as

by
space,

tance
imporwe

are

presented in

/^

MYSTICISM

114

Kant's

what

what

will

soon

is of

appear

that

belonging

physics, and

studies, and

of

problem

perfectly;
with

solved

region ;
remains

to exactness

very

us

and

these

three

be

of

arisen

point of

the

from

general or

more

itself is true

geometry

from

this is

doubtful),but

purely
point

of view

right
space
its
but

as

an

to

be

called

object of logicalor

uniqueness ; not only

there

are

an

are

as

the

Euchdean

(though

space

of

from

the

which,

an

equal and

Euclidean

space.

mathematical

there

same

infinite number
of

logic,has

of abstract

not

axioms,

respect
The

an

this

geometry, having,

of actual

certainlyof

find

which

of these

geometry.

systems, each

arithmetical

body

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title to

perhaps

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mathematics, the

same

Euchdean

famihar

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and

logicalcoherence

with.

deal

difficult to

axioms

of pure

view

empirical

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Given

is not

different

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great

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through

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to obtain

exactly

arise.

geometry.
the

Of

probably
in

of

knowledge, however,

propositionscan be deduced.
difficult,by dropping or alteringsome
body

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has

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knowledge.

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problems

of

statement

Kant

logic,a problem

hoped

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it
geometricalpropositions,
minimum

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certaintyand

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suggestionsof non-Euclidean

of

of

can

logical problem

(i) The
of

with

physics can

theory

obscure

how

see

as

of

problem

the

of

degree

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theory

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great

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problem and

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problem

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entirelydistinct problems,

thre^, the problem of logiccan

these

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solution

three

is

There

concerned.

an

obtaining a

supposed single problem

the

and

of the

different

to

suppose

elements

for their solution, have

methods
in

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are

there

hope

LOGIC

Esthetic, and

Transcendental

discover

to

AND

many

infinityof examples

study

kinds
of

feasible
indeThus
loses

of spaces,
each

kind,

METHOD

SCIENTIFIC

though
of

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find any

of

system

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space.

their order

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their field.

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ordering three-term

tion.
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logicalpropertiesof

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geometer

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resulting

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all these

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of
and

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the axioms

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in

class

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used

purely logical;
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in

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in

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logicalproperties
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to

if any

them.

called axioms.
is

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physical problem
and

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certain

relations

among

geometrical reasoning therefore

gicalpeculiarities
are
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kind

given

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singleone

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mathematician

The

the

necessarily

between
capacityto distinguish

in

which

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in fact is not

unnecessary

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Thus

space

having

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geometry, say, for example, Euclidean

it becomes

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kind

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defined

impossible to

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consider

"

the space

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of

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have

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relation.

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between

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example,

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"

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terms

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illustration

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geometry

three terms
to

kind

of which

kind

example.

an

an

115

find any

it is difficult to

physics may

PHILOSOPHY

IN

of space

difficult than

the

is both

more

teresting
in-

logicalproblem.

ii6

MYSTICISM

The

physicalproblem

in the

AND

materials,a space

of
of

its

the

roughness

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to

or

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possessingthe logicalclearness
mathematics.

degree

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space

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interpretation

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and

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physical world,

LOGIC

Since

precision
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in

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datum

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but

data,

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than

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would

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Dr.

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ghbly
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By

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off with

wears

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ing
oddity of regard-

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its

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world

as

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of

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logic.

and ought in any case

famiharity,
who
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are

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the

friend

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ah initio

point.

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composed

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problem

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led

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of

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sort.

systems composed of data

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and

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infinite number

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in the

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objectswhich

away

assumption

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radicallydifferent

they

with

closelyanalogous to

are

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turned

analogous to
a

of

are

117

data

is less dubious

of data

the additions

when

of

means

It is obvious

hypotheticaladditions.
filUng out

PHILOSOPHY

IN

METHOD

SCIENTIFIC

regards

explained both

been

point
how

MYSTICISM

ii8

the

of

use

and

how

points

themselves

of the

not

all the

are

know

to

belong

to

the

to

actual

there

from
indistinguishable

it ; and,

be non-continuous
from

and

time

but

unanswered
view

of
a

of

point

The

similar

ever

be

is

Continuity,

priori region

as

there

space
tinuous
con-

question

not

only

From

the

point
that

discovery

complete

no

the

of

are

the

obtained.

answer

an

as

from

And

the

of
empiricalmeans
be no
can
empirical

continuity.
the

physicaltheory
both

have

minded
philosophically

of
which

is

of space

little explored. It is associated

theory of time, and

the attention

unanswerable.

found,

space

mathematically simplest assumption,

the

hitherto

discussions

the

physics,where

subject of

large one,
a

of

is that of

empirically

space.

be

to

possibly be

can

objection to

will be

If

many

conversely,actual

in

seem

unanswerable

of view

distinction

which

for

could

that

which

philosophy,however,

questionis

any

nevertheless

are

with

would

not

For

propertieswould

certaintyobtainable in
these
physicalworld : whether

of the
or

physics. Such

indistinguishable
yet empirically

therefore, though obtainable

not

belong

to

sense-perception.

possiblecontinuous

arithmetic, is

propertiesof

continuity.

these
of

spaces

or

with

infinite exactness
is continuous,

of

space

has

space

possiblenon-continuous

may

physical world.

the

be either known

cannot

that

assumption

mathematicallyconvenient

that

space

the

in

propertiesconnected

require an
actual

avoid

entities

logicalspaces

known

or

LOGIC

important physicalresults,

nevertheless

can

are

abstract

lead to

points can

we

Many

AND

have

been

forced

very
with
upon

physicistsby

raged concerning

the

the

theory

of

relativity.
(3) The

problem

Transcendental

with

-Esthetic

which
is

Kant

is concerned

in the

primarilythe epistemological

SCIENTIFIC
How

"

problem

geometry

do

physical problems

and

of

this

question

of

pure

geometry

knowledge

of

logical.Our knowledge
but
is

the axiom

example, that
Our

world.
does

enable

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synthetic a

now

reply,at

"It

is not

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rest

our

in Kant's
be

and

delusion.

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maintain

true, who

that

for example,
parallels,
for

empirically,but

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from

soon

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as

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notion

apphcation
demands

realise how
of

lines among

I think

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to

should

the

"not
of

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is

now

that the axiom

of

is not

to

as

space,
Kant

This

we

maintained

positionis not

and

as
plausibihty

derivative

have

physicalworld
The

seen

philosophers,it is

it loses all

As

is

seen,

in

reallybe points and

physicalentities.

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partly from

occupy

complicated

physical space.

of geometry

that

to

prioriintuition.

refutable, but
logically

can

concerned,

is

means

of actual

be accounted

we

peculiarpositionwhich

knowledge

is true

"

possible?

stillsome

our

made

have

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the

are

it is verified

knowledge

appeared

day geometry

inexactitude

geometry

as

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the

To

Our

logicalone."

logic,partly from
to

far

so

while

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geometry of physics,

the

possible,"if "synthetic"

from

like the

rate

physical

approximately

that

separationwhich

priori knowledge

any

is

assert

to

us

problem collapses.

is

in the

inevitable

the

to

the

assert, for

physical geometry,

geometry and

pure

ducible

enable
with

exactly.Thus,
Kantian

owing

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geometry

to

us

that this axiom

to assert

us

verified,does

between

of

knowledge

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of pure

is true
parallels

of

is' wholly

priori but

enable

not

Our

greatly altered.

are

knowledge

the

geometry, the bearing

of

is

of

knowledge

physicalgeometry

priori. Our
does
and
hypothetical,
is not

119

distinction between

the

logicaland
scope

have

to

come

we

priori?" By

PHILOSOPHY

IN

METHOD

principleof

no

is
the
way

straight
economy,

MYSTICISM

I20

therefore, demands

that

existence

the

of

we

AND

LOGIC

should

abstain

straightlines.

pointsand

however,

as

lines

complicated constructions

of
a

are

accept the view

we

prioriintuition enabling us
when

and

hypothesis would

an

philosopherwho
though

with

by

one

an

in many

an

happens

to

the

that such

in the

mind
of

nature

of

physical

influence of Newton,

Occam's

adopted,

entityin

since absolute

razor,

explanationof

the

prioriintuition,we

physical

its grounds

remove

can

the

space

refute the Kantian

cannot

through an analysisof

one

have

we

I think

arisen

Although, therefore,we

theoryof

of classes

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do

nor

grasped
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by

unnecessary

world.

straight

unobjectionable,
hypothesis,though logically

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soon,

vacillation,the hypothesisof absolute

some

this

and

space,

have

ever

Kant, under

space.

harsh

had

As

points and

know

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ing
assum-

becomes
produced indefinitely

they are

extremely strained

that

by means
hypothesis that

physical entities,the

straightlines

from

here

problem. Thus,

the

other

questions,the analytic
philosophical
method, while not capableof arrivingat a demonstrative
result, is nevertheless capable of showing that all the
as

positivegrounds
and

that

in favour

of

theory are fallacious

theory is capableof accounting

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METHOD

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confusions

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PHILOSOPHY

IN
such

121

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MYSTICISM

122

parts of the external

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PHILOSOPHY

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MYSTICISM

124

lacking
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Realism,"

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VI.

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Qualities
pp.

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191-218.

125

of

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Proc.

MYSTICISM

126

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MYSTICISM

128

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129

persistencearises only through

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MYSTICISM

130
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ceived
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LOGIC

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OF

CONSTITUENTS
is

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131

commonly

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MYSTICISM

132
be

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of observation, actually
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advances

Berkeley
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to

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pain."

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dialogue between
190 1), I, p. 384.

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CONSTITUENTS
or
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great toe, what

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133

qualityof painfulnessitself.

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MATTER

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The
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ments
arguthe

MYSTICISM

134
causal
Now

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the notion

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Physics
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MATTER

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MYSTICISM

136

conceptionwhich
value.

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our

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of

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tained,
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137

causation
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MATTER

OF

CONSTITUENTS

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stituents
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MYSTICISM

138

AND

LOGIC

prima faciedifficulties in the way of this view are

chieflyderived from an unduly conventional
theory of
The

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space.
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positions.In

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dimensions, and

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sun

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three-dimensional

six

will be

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few

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parts of

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by

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assign the positionof

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all

Since
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space
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particulars:

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take

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namely, three to assign its positionin
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to

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number

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spaces

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But

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perceived by observers,

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these

perceived

parts of sensible spaces

between

of three-dimensional

the

139

the different parts of the sensible space

perceived by different

is

MATTER

OF

CONSTITUENTS

"

aspects

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would
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two
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objectsof sense, which is what I call a
perspective ;
am

"

"

MYSTICISM

HO

(2) the assemblage

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ago

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ticular."
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have

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definition

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particularswhich

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what
might be called

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effected

composed

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of

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particulars

sun

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different ways

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LOGIC

aspects of the

ago.

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not

of all the

^thisassemblage is what

"

are

AND

psychology nor from space.

principlemay be obtained from

the considera-

OF

CONSTITUENTS
tion of time.

The

MATTER

either

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me.

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suggested by
of times

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biography

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before

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ticular
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biography

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*'

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simultaneous
may

advocating.

sum-total

The

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to which
perspective
simultaneous
particulars

physics.

"

introduction of

much

spective
per-

man's.

simple relation,not

has
principleof relativity
reasons,

my

define the
"

be understood

to

one

direct

no

their

itself

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all
given particular
belongs as
where
with the given particular,"

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is

.; there

belonging
particulars
and particulars
belonging to another
of which
other hand, any two
particulars

the

so

like the

all-embracingtune,

one

all-embracingspace, is a construction
time-relation

141

lived

are

by

no

one

called

are

official."
The

definition of

continuity

and

of

'*

thing

"

is effected
which

correlations

by

have

of

means
a

certain

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things." That is to
independence of other
perspective,there will
say, given a particular in one
usually in a neighbouring perspectivebe a very similar
differential

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from
differing
particular,
order

of small

quantities,according

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perspectivespace,
the

universe.

to
given particular,

of

positionof

and

not

It is this
in the

law

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to
two

change

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involving

perspectivesin

of the other

continuityand

of

law

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"

things

"

in

differential independenc
pass

from

one

MYSTICISM

142

"

is to be called

LOGIC

that defines the class of

another

perspectiveto
which

AND

thing."

one

Broadly speaking, we

particulars

may

that

say

physicistfinds

the
"

into
things,"while
classify
particulars
into
finds it convenient
them
the psychologist
to classify
biographies,"since one perspective
perspectives and
and
data of one
percipient,
may constitute the momentary
it convenient

to

"

**

"

constitute

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biography

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percipientthroughout

r^We

discover

to

"

of the

of

knowledge

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based

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senses.

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thought

evidence

upon

certain

form

themselves

physicalworld,
"

the mind,"
in

so

far

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but

construct

classes and

physics assigns to

"

mental

in

rests

I have
and
in

could

not

of the

mental,"

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in

matter.

so

far

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constructions

elaborate

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having
Since

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out

it is

senses

the

propertieswhich
cult
is diffi-

not

embarked

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view

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upon

physiology,psychology, or

tried

to

show

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it rests

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ultimate

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this argument

prejudices prejudices in
the

to

come

constituents

sense

rather

series

technical, I have

"

from

grounds for this view,

quately
physics,can only be ade-

upon

provided by

as

But

it has
sense

symbolic logic,showing

materials

article.

of

subjective." The

they depend
with
dealt
by

are

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through

derived

"

in

were

that

development

of

data

amoimt

obtained

part of the ultimate

as

depending upon

and

immediate

the

When

is obvious

the

partly through

the

of

begin with,

to

physics itself,party through arguments

physiology, psychology or metaphysics,
be

object has

nature

I mean,

with

and

of

data

physical world.

the

by physics. It
empiricalscience, giving us

physicsis an

of the

possible the

as

of

whole

discussion.

physical world,"

dealt

world

the

far

as

the

his life.

our

up

constituents

ultimate

speak

sum

now

may

been

may

constituents

of

physics,
meta-

upon

favour

are

of

matter,

fusions
con-

manence
perand

CONSTITUENTS
confusions

derived

from

space,

OF

sense-data

correlation

causal

failure

from

and

sense-organs,

sensations.

and

these

the

causallydependent

the

upon

body

of the

his mind.

it appears

is apt to

been

those

rightin

world, of which

in connection

are

with

to

dependence

the

upon

complicated

more

beliefs

erroneous

of causal

conception
mis-

through

correlation.

constituents

is

them

our

is irrelevant to their nature

Unduly simple

percipientrather

the

notions

If

merely

are

to

to

as

of them,

their

When

place in physics.

have

space

which

two

been
look

men

great

at

same

table, it is supposed that

what

the

what

the

other

same

place. Since

shape

and

colour

sees

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are

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in the

quite the
each

by declaring what

up,

"

word

to

what

say

be that space
it would

than

physics,and
space

is

correlations

they

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further

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to

appear

by

mean

^and time

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it.

is much

The

way,

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manipulations

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use

seems

jective
sub-

glib
to

complicated

more

the finished

space

of

structure

things,"from
we

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by

means

of six dimensions.

this six-dimensional
"

covered

truth

logicajconstruction, obtained
from

men,

purely

who

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three-dimensional
all-euibracing

one

particularsoccupying
in

puzzle those

^thoughit would

"

the
and

sees

rather

or

be

to

sees

one

for the two

same

hastilysolved,
difficulty,

we

of the

awareness

and

realists.

stumbling-block to

this raises

is

and

physical
happen to be immediately aware
;
and all that is mental
purely physical,

we

they themselves

of mind,

is

be, and, like all causal dependence,

ultimate

the

among

existence

on

sense-data

contentions, sense-data

our

with

said

have

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of

causal

to

as

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existence

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to

found, is

to

give rise

as

have

The

percipient,we

than

matter

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upon

of

If what

subjects is valid,
logicallyindependent of
than

143

unduly simple

from

the

MATTER

obtain

which
what

space,
with

of
The
fied
classi-

certain

physics can

MYSTICISM

144

regard
**

matter

as

"

suitable
the

It is

"

and

of

physical things

into series of classes of

the conflict between

point of

view

of

if what

its

been

of the

likelihood

be

theory
it is

that

of

mistakes,

What

I do

physicsand

of

This

the
flict,
con-

mistaken, flows from

vanishes

soon

as

brieflyoutlined,

the

the

avowedly hypothetical.

theory

than

more

from

Apart

it is

of

for the

is that
said

be

can

it may
for any

closely analogous theory

besetting realism,

difficulties

The

Leibniz.

much

claim

theory except

I have

which

true.
certainly

this is

that

true, and

other

done, that

overcome.

is not

said

dissected

have

and
classification,

of

claim

not

be

respectively
experience.

been

we

is discovered.

source

In favour
I do

have

point of view

psychology can

has

"

total

as
particulars,

the

different methods
as

of

or

"

when

only

momentary

if

may,

exist, form

to

form

they

way,

biographies," which

percipienthappens

sense-data

LOGIC

classified in another

perspectives

AND

the

of

fusions
con-

of physics,
account
philosophical
resulting from
discreditingsense-data,

obstructing any
dilemma

the

yet remain

which

world

outer

This

probably

since

would

which

the

that

can

does

be

freeing it
unnecessary,

with

theories

same

merits.

better

from
or

problem

as

But
of

as

with which

be

these

finished
it deals.

or

seem

as

hypothesisand

itself

it does

being

true,

prove

true

than
what

discoverable

gradually
irrelevant,

grounds,
a

invented

be

it suggests that

assumptions
On

be

to

and
starting-point,

unfounded.

as

might

chance

which

theory

theory

certainty is likelyto

all such

work, though not

the

the

other

theory

our

it to attention

of the

prove

of the

knowledge

our

by

present competitors,and

known

by taking

not

the

has

theory

of its

avoided

many

have

of

source

are

all these

"

advocate.

any

the sole

mend
recom-

basis for further

adequate

solution

VllI

PHYSICS

TO

I. THE

is said

PHYSICS
It is

supposed

What

we

Nothing,
data

and

experiment.

lating
verifiable,i.e. capable of calcu-

be

subsequently confirmed

by observation

learn

so

far

of

sense

certain

certain

different from

make

atoms

do

not

If such

kind

verifiable
But

to

relation

through
is the

can

only

tions.
spatio-temporal rela-

physicalworld
molecules
have

are

have

colour,

no

taste, and

no

verified,it

be

sense-data

to

with

be

they

must

sense-data, and

their correlation
correlation

must

case,

only

one

term

of the

found

by
empirically

have
be

A
the

relation
correlated
cor-

But

in

correlation,namely, the

the other

145

solely

alone.

itself ascertained

be ascertained

sensible term, is ever

L

puscles
cor-

must

objectsbeing constantlyfound together.

our

prima

smell.

even

of correlation

how

noise, electrons

objects are
their

through
some

no

these

diate
imme-

of colour, sounds,

patches

of the

supposed contents

facievery

by

experiment ?

and

physicsis concerned, except

as

tastes, smells, etc., with

The

based

experiment.

and

can

empirical science,

an

results

beforehand
observation

be

to

to

STATED

PROBLEM

observation

upon

SENSE-DATA

OF

RELATION

THE

term

seems

essen-

AND

MYSTICISM

146

LOGIC

Therefore, it would

tially
incapableof being found.
the correlation

with

There

two

are

(i)We

may

without

the

sense-data

from

philosophers. It

in

be

these
has

far

so

often

this way

that

adopted by

adopt

to

this way

to

adopted physics ceases

experiment

upon

our

inference

by

causes

been

it is

as

that

tion
observa-

and

is to be avoided

much

as

possible.

as

(2)We

functions

physics leads
we

can

far

as

to

data, it

this
expectations,

be

must

In

physicsas

functions

of

impinge

waves

colours, and
from

as

have

waves

other

Thus

of

as

since
possible,
in

And

experienced.

expression as

of

commonly

so

sense-

function

accomplishing this

set

of

sion
expres-

forth, sense-data
when

physicalobjects:
the

upon

But

on.

been

we

eye,

the
vice

validlybased

are

waves

as

such-and-such
such-and-such
in fact infen'ed

Physics

versa.

upon

expressed

see

be

cannot

empiricaldata
functions

appear

until the

of the

colours

sense-data.

if physics is to be verifiable

followingproblem
of

be

must

far

so

logico-mathematicalwork.
interesting

colours, not

the

regarded

so

in

Just

of affairs is inferred from

problem

The

be

can

capable

leads to much

and

sense-data.

physicalstate

sense-data.

as

of

only expect what

the

actuallydefiningthe objectsof

in

succeed

may

physics as

if

principlea priori,

themselves, and

be necessary

Therefore

alone.

than

way

based

empirical or

verifiable.

un

result.

some

about

This

may

extent, but

some

other

causes

their effects.

know

we

be known

can

ever

physicswas

empirical verification,
e.g.

of

need

have

something

that

say

for

avoiding this

of

ways

which

by

sense,

verified,is itself utterlyand

to be

to

objectsof

seem,

Physics exhibits

physicalobjects,but

physicalobjectscan

we

are

sense-data

verification

be exhibited

as

faced

is

with
as

the

tions
func-

only possible

functions

of

sense-

SENSE-DATA
We

data.

sense-data

in terms

instead

them

therefore

have

PHYSICS

AND
solve

to

147

equations giving

the

physical objects,so

of

give physical objects in

make

to

as

of

terms

sense-

data.

CHARACTERISTICS

II.

When

whole

of what

rather

such

by

There

on.

divisions

causes

discovered, there

our

does

not

regards

differ

its function

whereas
may

be

the

and
object-side,

as

problem

and

perceptionas
of this paper.
are

it will be

included
It is to

constituents

always sense-data

as

datum

from

Its

that

of

sense

is thus

be named

object can
of

logical

truth

or

but
hood,
false-

complex fact, which

not

two -term

propositionalform
of

truth, not

the

on

mere

particular. This logicaldifference,

it is, is not

important
;

observed

of red is to the left

perception, is
the

be

can

it
epistemologically,
as
simple sense-datum

gives knowledge

acquaintance with

which

observation

involves

relation, but

An

inherentlyincapable of

suitably called

as

and
particulars,

the

tion
atten-

with

in which
is

asserted,and

far

so

giving knowledge.

in

gives acquaintance
relation

often

regarded

different,however,

is very

two-term
not

greatly from

singledout

be

before.

patch

present point of view

structure
sense

this

mean

colour, particular

where,

divisions

that

in deciding
difficulty

some

appear

no

as

of

of blue, is also to be

patch

from

might

as

the

mean

time.

one

sense-datum

one

to

w^ere

complex fact, such

of that

is

considered

be

I do not

at

sense

particularpatches

so

is to

what

in

part of the whole

:

noises, and

SENSE-DATA

sense-datum,"

given

is

attention

*'

of

speak

OF

very

convenient

of

to

sense-data

among
be

relevant

observed
a

datum

in the strict sense.

that
of

to

our

regard

present
data

of

for the purposes

the

particulars

perception are

MYSTICISM

148

G)ncerning sense-data,
while

they

of all

our

of the
which

word

will
of

means

more

exist at times
times

when

when

they

the fact that

could

of the

they

construct

of

world

except by

they

the

continue

at the

; hence

in

episte-

all-important. But
gives,of
If

is.

all that there

are

to

directlyand

we

directlyknow

we

and

knowledge
the

actual

would

they

from

selection

haphazard

problems

Sense-data

data.

data is

are

that

our

privilegedpositionof
disappear,and

ing
mean-

impersonal metaphysic,independent

an

accidents

know,

not

all that

are

all that

they are

raises

sense-data

not

are

data

presumption

no

course,
we

they

the fact that

mology

do

of the external

know
primitively

there

are

epistemologicalbasis

course

time

one

are

they

precariousinferences,whether

at

are

of

later.) We

less

or

that

particulars.(The

"

external
us

concern

objects which
^

of external

knowledge
**

know

we

this is the

data, and

are

LOGIC

AND

data

probably
a

of

mass

ignorance, the
would

probably
a

as

appear

objects more

rather
less

or

like

In

them

only that
saying this, I assume
with
which
there are
we
particulars

that

probable
data

is in relation

In this respect,
it is

^^!to
v-

Thus

acquainted.

not

to

It is

sense-data.
that

the

have

the

give the

pays

no

only when

we

ask

importance

data, without

man

to

how

physicscan
re-emerges.

SENSIBILIA

sensihile to

husband

specialattention

of sense-data

necessarilybeing
of

sense-

metaphysics

as

sensihilia to those

name

of

are

metaphysics.

to

objectswhich

metaphysical and physicalstatus

same

the relation

be reckoned

nominally

III.

I shall

specialimportance

epistemology, not

physicsis to

impersonal, and

be known

the

it is

man

data

to any

sense-datum
becomes

as

sense-

mind.

Thus

is like that

of

husband

by

SENSE-DATA

entering into

relation

the

sensihile becomes
relation

of

terms

for

is at

one

time

"

Can
"

sensihile

word

questionsare

another

well
to

apt

It will be

exist
from

those

few

be

have

we

the
such

logicalpuzzles.

all sensihilia

It is
sense-

are

data

not

are

^/

there

whether

which

be

to

elucidate

to

serve

regard

sense-data

but

the

amplifiedas
which

use

we

ceed,
pro-

I propose

to

be

shortly to

these

arguments

sense-organs,

thing presents
exactly the
fog or

which

to

same

smoke

contained

are

and

nerves,

in

piece of

given place is
also of the

is

us

way
or

to

seem

brain.

matter

function

as

for their

examined,

only

me

The

as

it is

appearance

dependent

glass. Both

statement

that

presents when
not

only

interveningmediimi.

of the

jectivity,
sub-

the

on

which

upon

these,

upon

vening
inter-

dependences

the

appearance

viewed

from

piece of matter,

(The

terms

to prove

dependence

causallydependent

coloured

the

being,in
physics. There

and

mental,

not

as

i.e. causal
physiological
subjectivity,

but

time

one

are.

arguments,

in

"

sensihilia.

are

fact,part of the actual subject-matterof

being given ?

of sensihilia.

are

"

at

in trivial

all sense-data

preliminaryremarks,

will
make

that

is like

"sense-datum,"

inferringsensihilia

of

Can

Unless

word

entangle us

"

for that

epistemologicalquestion

an

means

"

not

metaphysical question whether

data, and

"

time

being married

without

the

as

that

seen

being given

both

ask

cannot

particularsensihile
at

as

still exist at

We

the

object which

an

sensihilia exist without

and

sense-datum,

Can

"Can

also

whether
can

exist

into

to have

important

sense-datum.

husbands

ask

must

and

discuss

to

exist without

sense-data

asking

It is

sense-datum

it is not

when

We

wish

similarlya

by entering

sense-datum

149

marriage, and

of

acquaintance.
we

PHYSICS

AND

used

in

\^

MYSTICISM

I50

"

this statement
"

"

appearance,"
in the

the

because

some

leave

be included

^there

were

to

human

body. What
merelyawareness

sense

in which

are

to be used.

The

discussions, is
dealt with

these

constituents

that

may

prove

mind

no

were

to

only

be

"

mental

be well to define
and

"

"

physical

preliminary

all

"

thing
some-

world

doubtful, but

it is

their nature

whatever
physical,

and

mental

"

"

mental

been

discussed

therefore

I must

I shall

"

call

particularas

difficult

decided.

and

myself

controversies.

when

fact

difficult,

more

content

"

mental

is

after many

these

to

answer

particular

something,
a

be

is

what

of the actual

given
satisfactorily

dogmatic

call

in

mind

meaning

as

may

of the term

have

present purposes

assuming

that

logical.
physicalor physio-

in
physical,"

are

side
in-

to be.

definition

contains

is

of the constituents

to be called

are

controversies

shall

with

PHYSICAL

understood

some

can

appearance

by physics." Physics,it is plain,tells us

they

and

be

to

about

The

"

*'

word

they present

in fact, is
sensibilia,

to

ARE

the terms

continuity

^er impossihile

"

this question it will

discussing

the

what

If

if there

adds

SENSE-DATA

places

exist,in relation

everythingelse

IV.

Before

mind

the

not

sense-organs,

such

body

be sense-data

the

from

that

suppose

fined
de-

have

but

sensibilia.

among

would

and

body

it,all those sensibilia would

body, which

^will all be

"

places. Any

complete

"

nerves

the

such

at

given place,"

things appear

and

unreasonable

appearance

would

brain

by

it not

makes

"

ascertaininghow
cannot

we

from

present paper.) We

of the

surrounded

not

view

intervening medium

course

of

means

"

matter,"

"

LOGIC

AND

"

it is

mental

constituent.

"

aware

when

For
with
I
of
it

SENSE-DATA
It will be

PHYSICS

AND

that the mental

seen

the

and

151

physicalarc

to

reason

The
"

doubt

mental

is of
For

sense-data

importance

concerned

they

Mach

of

been

compatible

mental

In discussions

monly confused, namely

(i)Do
of them

? in other

certain time
not

are

I propose

And

continue

that

after

often

opinion,to imply
believe, been

potent

be data, that

merely

If there

causal
with

it,and

we

that

they

tend

subject-matterof physics.

in

regard
have

to show

their

to

held,

to treat

that

they

non-persistence

tained
empiricallyascer-

from

it carries

quite free

my

this has, I

; and

some

do

after ceasing
persisting

I contend,

inference

laws, then
are

view

as

were,

sense-data

if,as

probable

changed
persistun-

of confusion

certainlywould

; but

mental

were

they

physical?

or

never

The

physical,while

are

mental

are

source

in
impossibility
logical

to

is

they

present problem.

our
a

at

thought, quite erroneously in

that

sensible
data

are

mental

sense-data

be data.

ceasingto

persistis

not

com-

to exist at times when

they probably

yet maintaining that

not

are

we

sense-data

(2)are

to assert

have

might

words, do sensihilia which

sometimes

data

and

present

questions are

objectspersistwhen

sensible

the

standpoint.

sense-data, two

on

or

hold, with

not

to say in the

I have

physicalis merely

the

and

their doctrine

their

from

reached

with

it is

realists," that

new

arrangement, yet what

is

paper

is that

maintain

I do

"

the

the

cussion.
present dis-

our

being granted

Although

and

James

in

present inquiry whether

our

also mental.

are

and

in

definition of the

our

to

this

physical,and

difference between
one

am

of indifference

matter
not

little

what

are

of

the correctness

to

as

"

no

they overlap.

that

suppose

of

I know

necessarilymutually exclusive, although

not

no

such
them

as

imphcation
part of the

MYSTICISM

152

Logicallya
which

the

subjectas
The

existence

far

so

that

is part of A.

is therefore

The
in

view

There
is

part from

"

sensations."

in the

sensation

is

which

the other

external

in the

the

merely
as

that

as

their

But

if

"

constituents

of the

journey is to

be

is

So soon,

from
clearlydistinguished

"

are

to be

be

in the

recognisedas

physical world,
before

is

cases
as

disis in

fore,
theresensa-

physioway

of

THINGS

AND

performed

that

and

chairs are,

world.

stituent
con-

is in many

is recognised
to
subjectivity

sensibilia

Thus

subject'sbody

the

tables and

SENSIBILIA

and

subject

the

logicalnot psychical,the chief obstacles

regardingthem as physicalare removed.

v.

part

sense-datum,

The

sensation

part of the material

arc

in

againstthe subjectas

in

but

doubt,

consisting

subject is

the

the sense-datum

subject as

sense-data

tions,and

no

sense-datum.

is mental.

over

which

subject'sbody,

T' tinct from

fact

of

It is true

aware.

therefore

hand, stands

object

the

data.

sense-data

the fact

mean

of which

complex

and

\;]on

By a sensation
of
awareness
subject's

similar

being

is derived,

persist

other

ever

between
distinguish

why

but
physiologicalsubjectivity,

failure to

be

can

not

why

nor

way,

is when

should

mental

are

of A

of B

without

exist

only

priorireason

datum,

not

their

no

logically

not

existence

sense-datum

to be

ceased

volitions do.

for the

existence

the

that sense-data

also from

the

upon

should
particulars

I
j

subject;

in which

know,

particularwhich

of the

the

contain

not

is therefore

logically
dependent

after it has

It does

of the sense-datum

upon

as

awareT)

is

of
object,a particular

an

part, as for example beliefs and

dependent

is

sense-datum

subject

LOGIC

AND

we

long
can

the ultimate
and

difficult

arrive either at

SENSE-DATA
*'

the

"

thing

of

common

different sense-data
"

the
as

'*

these

though

to

to

have

two

said, not

light,it
different

and

shapes

in the
be constituents
confess

white

to

until

in

derives
supposed impossibility
"in

phrase

that

is too

the

often treated

as

in

see,

of the word

such

advantage
of

different

namely
which

kinds

the

as

we

limitations, to
^

Proc.

to their

treatment

"

which

shall

establish
Arist.

Soc,

in

shall

it is

"

deserved
un-

places

"

sense-datum,
the

placefrom
spaces,

possible,with

certain

to

correlation
1909-1910,

it

shortly

given an

Two

and

on

unperceived

we

every

who

Kant, in his

as

as

space

different

belong

see,

The

though

^as

"

opponents.

it appears

These

"^

those

It is the

which,

involved

are

place at

it appears.

although,

by

even

the difficultiesto realists and

has caused

"Are

conception of

The

unambiguous

place

ably

this

psychologicalinnocence, supposed.
ambiguity

been

preciselyin

it is

"

"

futable.
irre-

be

recently to

the

philosophy

given, simple,and

its apparent force from

lies.

defend

not

both

argument

Perception ?

of

place,"and

same

its weakness

reflection would
were

This

article entitled

an

Secondary Quahties Independent

taneously
simul-

therefore

contrary opinion has, however,

Dr. T. P. Nunn

It is

different

these

cannot

one

whom

co-exist

cannot

me

to

shiny.

plausibihty,that

physicalworld.

appeared

by

phrase

and

one

it appears

another, towards

to

place,and

same

to

angles ;

obtuse

two

colours

of the

The
maintained

the

mere

as

present

while to another

appears

without

wholly

regarded

table will

given

while

brown,

it reflects the

must

be

must

angles and

acute

it appears

man

"

rectangularappearance,

of

are

sensibiha

subjectivephantasms.
man

"

matter

regarded as appearances of
it seem
different people has made

which
"

thing

same

"

the

at

or

sense

153

supposed impossibiHty of combining

The

physics.

PHYSICS

AND

pp.

between
191-218.

them.

MYSTICISM

154

What

observer

observers

concerned.

observer

are

each

No

place

is identical with

of another

observer.

combining

the

and

the fact that

where, however,

"

'those

"

thing

the

to

happen
An
a

be

to

example

number

of

people in

tables

these

people have

"

thing

appearances
which
actual

exactly the

the

to

spectators, there
which

spectators.

If

man

were

which

him

would

which

intermediate

it presents to

appearance
organs,

be

nerves

would
and

the

not

two

exist

data.

are

data

as

to

the

others

to

suppose

the

possible

between

and

to

appearances

although

it is without

that, from

two

present

the

brain, of the newly arrived

stillit is not unnatural

to

other

the
:

ances
appear-

other

would

between

as

suppose,

sit down
room

of

others

presents

may

them

appearances

Besides

present

as

of

two

enable

to

room

we

the

are

say, the

No

spectators, and

to

there

Suppose

sense-data, yet there

same

are,

there

although

pictures.

in the

it would

others, the appearance

tinuity
con-

Ihey

thing."

given thing

appearances

of

grounds

on

seeing,as they

of these

"

of another

appearances
also

their data

several

in

may

regarded as belonging

be

all

similarityamong
"

sense

sense-data, but

to whom

together certain

to group
one

and

questioning their

appearances,

room,

place ;

one

placeaffords

one

among

this clearer.

questionof

no

common

chairs, walls and

same

is sufficient

of

privateworld

class of its appearances

to

are

make

may

of

which,

observers

no

"

actual

are

system

same

of

in the

include

must

resemblance,

private world
the

for

the whole

we

the

all exist in

sensibilia,"if any,
and

place in

whatever

which

those

only

not

in the

thing

same

private to

space

appearances

ground

fact be identified with

of the

is therefore

they cannot

physicalreality. The

in

There

different

accordinglyno

"

LOGIC

call the different appearances

we

to different

one

AND

this

sense

spectator,

the

position

which

he

existed
need

occupies, some

now

before

Since

"

the

from

all of them

purposes

invented

by
sense

the

if the

for the

necessary

deny a

assertingthis

here is
from

of which

sake

substance
; it is

or

unnecessary

CONSTRUCTIONS

entity.

that which

method

are

Wherever

analyse

to
"

place,"a

desirable.

is this
philosophising

It is

The

ing
underlyabstain

Our

procedure

has swept away

useless

menagerie

it used

to

be

fested.
in-

INFERENCES

VERSUS

proceeding
of the word

should

we

substratum

the

Before

that

was

whom

to

merely expedient to

preciselyanalogous to

VI.

will

thing

the

demands

the
philosophyof mathematics
with which
metaphysicalmonsters

of

ciple
prin-

the

by

the class of its appearances.

these appearances
from

But

class of appearances

is due, economy

to

distinct

something

as

par-

of its appearances,

prehistoricmetaphysicians

identifythe thing with

not

of

underlying them.

razor,

fulfil the

indefensible

singleone

any

thought

and

of Occam's

common

be

to

came

room

supposition,however,

without

cannot,
with

of the

insisted upon.

not

"

thing

tiahty,be identified
it

This

and

155

appearance

his arrival.

be noticed

merely

PHYSICS

AND

SENSE-DATA

and

few

supreme

explain

the

general remarks
maxim

biguities
amon

in scientific

possible,logicalconstrtcctions

are

to

he substituted

for inferredentities.
Some

examples

of the substitution

inference in the realm

to elucidate

serve
case
as

the

of irrationals.
the

supposed

rational

limit ; but

of mathematical

days, irrationals

of series of rationals

the

objectionto

for

philosophymay

of this maxim.

uses

In old

Hmits

of construction

this

Take
were

which

first the
inferred"
had

no

procedure was

MYSTICISM

156

it left the

that

for this

and

day

existence

longer tolerate

no

number

the

of

case

such

as

certain

common

this

number.
inferred

But

from

of them,

its existence

virtue

the

of

cardinal

number

equallynumerous

of

this

of

element

be

apphed

supposed
regarded
The

of doubt

similar

have

to
as

to classes

of

as

I have

by

the

these

shown

then

observe

constructed

function

of

need

we

This method,
found

so

the

of

fruitful in the

be

can

be

Given

the

to

is
a

supposed

make

are

these

little logicalingenuity,

substitute

body

not

of less

thetical
hypo-

requisiteproperties.This

the

and thereby obtain

entities,

interpretationof

metic.
arith-

proceeds

logicalfunction
has

elsewhere,

cases.

entities in order

some

entities which

remove

propertieswhich

the

dint

By

construct

necessity

fictions.

all similar

and

in

unless

philosophyof

construction

the

supposed

propositionstrue.

will be

the

themselves, which

which

entities, we

required of

in terms

metaphysicalreality,but

any

is

the class of

as

propositionsnominally dealing with

inferred

we

the

dinal
car-

By defining

thereby

symbolicallyconstructed

method

hoc.

avoid

from

method,

closelyanalogous in
set

in doubt,

collections,we

in

number

constructed

metaphysical postulate,and

needless

their

be

to

collection

given

equally

something

cardinal

the

as

metaphysical postulatead

all

can

supposed

remain

must

Two

of

Take

them.

have

to

collections,not

the

from

numbers.

is

define

now

of ratios, instead

inference

long

so

We

present

class of ratios, thus

means

appear

something

of the

definition.

cardinal

collections

numerous

merely optative,

stricter methods

constructingit logically
by
arrivingat it by a doubtful
again

LOGIC

of irrationals

the

reason

irrational

an

AND

for the
a

new

and

supposed

ferred
in-

less doubtful

propositionsin question.

philosophy of mathematics,

equally applicable in

the

philosophy of

SENSE-DATA

where,
physics,

long

applicationof

all who

have

in

engaged

and

points,instants

11 constructions
I " in

the

of

data

be

cannot

This, however,

approached

at

all, only after

only

can

we

which
certain

we

even,

see

for the

beginning.

can,

however,

the inferred

entities should, whenever

the

data

which

there
upon

other
appear
and

I shall allow

than
from

which

the
my

of other

sense-data
evidence

of

(b)the

places where

I suppose

"

there

to be real

inferences
to

should

be formulated

the second

this

place

be done, be

can

than, like
from

remote

inference.

the

myself

of two

are

people, in

The

favour

of

mately
testimony,resting ulti-

analogicalargument

own

as

subjected

sich,something wholly

an

is the

The

is given,rather

existence

entities which

(a) the

of which

be

possible. In

nominally support

which

inferred
kinds

Ding

ideal, to

an

the first placethey should

generalmanner
whose

inference.

be reached, if

to

very

in the most

similar to those

present

sense-

of others

of

element

and
explicit,
perfectly

made

the Kantian

sense-data

long preliminarylabour
the

wholly

matter

add, of the

may

the

some

guiding principles.In

always be

exhibit

would

since

unavoidable

are

the

and

substitutes

which

but
nearly as possible,

as

portions

sense-data

the method

remain

must

be

is

who

mathematical

between

without

known

Whitehead,

Dr.

more

for inferences

single person,

the

particlesof physics.

and

of sense-data, and

terms

yet

collaborator

complete applicationof

rr

matical
mathe-

the
physics,since I owe
for its application
entirely

region intermediate

of the

this

to

stimulus

applyingit to

studied

in
originality

claim

myself cannot

the

apphed

completely ignorant of

been

this method

friend

my

fact that

have

suggestionand
to

been

have

subjecthitherto
logic.

157

I do not doubt, it would

for the

but

ago

PHYSICS

AND

in favour

sensibilia

happen

"

to

of minds

which
be

would

minds,

no

although they are

no

one's

MYSTICISM

158
data.
will

Of

these

with

it, and

basis ; but
whom
for

affections

human

to render

It may

thing can
sense

thought

be

present any
and

only

in the

while

the

at

the desire
desire

my

myself

not

edifice

of

is

physics
sensibilia

therefore

are

hypothesisand

as

in

aid in

an

dogmatic part

soon

which

be taken

to

which

monstrosity ;
appearances
be used

the edifice is

as

rather

as

data

not

are

of

to

illustrative

an

preliminarystatement
philosophy

of the

being raised, though

as

"

that

through

feel the

tions.
ques-

place where

to
hypotheticalscaffolding,

"

These

maintain

regard these supposed

lightof

completed.

aU

second

serious

exist

structure

possiblycapable of being removed

"

share

to

^in

majority

the

more

monstrous

nervous

I should

nevertheless

as

solipsistic

upon

doubt, not

dispense

to

stronger than

appearance

I do

appear.

anyone

able

are

entities raises much

organs

it could

It would

solipsismscientifically
satisfactory.The

class of inferred

no

they

are

will, no

logicaleconomy,

be

to

physics

^and I fear

"

entities,the first

unchallenged.

pass

establish

thus
those

the

to

greatest satisfaction

the

me

LOGIC

classes of inferred

two

be allowed

probably

give

AND

than

physics in

its

final form.

VII.

SPACE

PRIVATE

AND

THE

SPACE

OF

PERSPECTIVES

We
"

have

place,"and

sorts

are

place at

which

Leibniz's

being
The

how

it

to

the

first fact to

and

two

places of

is

which

word

different

namely

the

it is perceived.

which

placefrom

from

in the

sense-datum,

be advocated

monadology,

less smooth

no

every

it is and

theory

that

comes

with

associated

The
to

explain the ambiguity

to

now

closelyanalogous

it differs

chieflyin

tidy.

notice

sensibile is

ever

so

far

datum

to

is that,
a

as

two

can

be

covered,
dis-

people at

SENSE-DATA

things seen

The

once.

denote

different

two

without

them,

concerning

others

by

similar that the

closelysimilar,so
to

PHYSICS

AND

sensible

can

be used

communication

with

Thus

view.

each

its

contains

of

or

space,

sight with

of

various

own

other

private

the

spaces,

is
psychologist,

of

enables

correlate

to

us

which

all

embraces

which

have

what

thing in

same

that
have

the

against

the

with

the

and

This

into the

multiplicity

from

all

to

The

place

place in

any
if we

assume,

This

logical

as

it,and

around

or

in

therefore

privateworlds

two

The

place does
appears

which

question,therefore,

not

physical reality of

of the

arise,and

different

to

colours

and

at

private

the

call different appearances

shapes

our

positionis relative,a place is

occur

same

the

private space

one

sense-data.

own

thingsin

we

given object

different

the

though interestingto

constituent.

combining

of

the

common

no

touch

correlate

is,is a place in privatespace.

place cannot

same

of

to

us

senses.

them

that

demands,

only definable by
the

for it would

percipient. For

of another

economy

spaces,

experience
merely solipsistic

is different

place therefore
space

rather

space

our

sense-datum

private world

great importance in regard

present problem, since

cerned,
con-

are

This

however,
no

of

world.

of other

spaces

some

point

in the

his sense-data

as

only experienceteaches

that

space

private

that

seem

difference

far

so

person,

lives in

seem

arises from

always

impossible.

be

objects would

it would
But, in spiteof this similarity,
difference

often

people are

words

same

which

159

the fact

spectators to

affords

argument

no

'a\h these

shapes

and

colours.
In

addition

privateworlds
another
as

space,

point,or

to

the

private

of different
in which
at

least

belonging

to

the

there is,however,
percipients,

one
as

spaces

whole

private world

spatialunit.

This

counts

might

be

MYSTICISM

i6o
described

as

private

world

which

the

view.

the

for the

And

is

"

We

have

now

ordered

in

correlated

as

real

in different

I wish

the different

which

of
perspectives,

"

sensibilia,"may

same

similar

"sensibilia"

in

to be identical

found

perspective is
Such

another.

of

appearances

since each
in each

thing.

have

presumably
defined

as

not

the

in
perspectives
member

In

our

"

"

"

will

"

in
in

called

be

monadology,

was

was

ance
appear-

an

completeness.

of

in certain

others.

certain

classes

"

The

thing

if k is the

thing 0
of

given

perspectives,but

some

class
multiplicative

mutually exclusive

sensibile

universe, there

class of its appearances,

of the

spatial

system of perspectives,we
in

of

group

"sensibile"

one

which

appearances

which

very

perspective is

In Leibniz's

sensibile

contain

contain

one

the whole

assumption

such

no

thing will

of

"

two

iffthe privatespace

sensibilia

thing."

perspectivea

of each
make

one

"

with

"

that

similar to, the

very

correlated

mirrored

monad

or

thing.

same

certain

of

of the

both

one

In this way

correlated

*'

of

space

sensibilia

perspective.

of another

"

of the correlated

order

one

with,

of

it.

the appearances,

discover
cannot

shall call

means

the

nevertheless

private

by

and

one

spatialorder

the

; and

ones

of

perspectives

regarded as

are

space

speak

to

percipient,I

of

views

someone

This is effected

"

the

as

point

suggestion that

when

assuming

each

appearance

certain

of it

By moving, and by testimony,we

different perspectives,
though they
the

the

the

when

space.

sensibilia

view, since

speak

explain how

to
one

from

obviate

to

without

perspective."

"

regarded

reason,

are

of

to

only

same

privateworld
it

order

world

points

presents

prefer,however,

in
perspectives,

private

be

universe

LOGIC

of

space

may

AND

oi

appears,
k

k
,

"

"

being

class of
then

being a

sensibilia."

6 is
class
And

SENSE-DATA

AND

is a
a perspective
similarly
class of the
The

by

thingswhich

certain

penny

perspectives;

in

it looks

some

of

various

the

multiplicative

is effected

space

the appearances

of

perspectives. Suppose, say,

in

appears
it looks

some

i6i

in it.

appear

of the differences between

given thing in

in

of the

member

arrangement of perspectivesin

means

that

PHYSICS

of different

number

in

largerand

smaller,

some

circular,in others it presents the appearance

of varyingeccentricity.
We may collect
ellipse
in which the appearance
of
togetherall those perspectives
an

is circular..These

the penny

line, ordering them

in

series

apparent size of the penny.

the penny
will

appears

as

will be

is of the

penny

these will form

and

By

ordered
such

as

means,

presents

before

by

all those

the

order.
spatial

order
spatial

of

one

had

with

of

of the

same

the
utilising

the

the

one

The
and
"

which

which

the penny

arranged in a threeExperienceshows that the same

have
any

resulted
other

differences between

whose

whose

elements

of

construction
are

whole

perspective-space."

made

all-embracing
space
space

size of the penny.

be

can

chosen

has

the

penny)

if,instead

thing

it

which
other

the appearances

things in different perspectives.It

empiricalfact

case

is completed

in question,
or
appeared in all the perspectives
any
method

which

this

arrangement

apparent

would
perspectives
we

penny,

in the

certain thickness

in
perspectives

dimensional

of the

of

circle concentric

visual appearance

variations

perspectivesin which

size ; when

same

the

straight

one

plane (though in

different

placeon

in
perspectives

line
straight

many

by

Those

be placed upon
similarly

there

will

we

possibleto

is this

construct

physics.
has

justbeen explained,

will
perspectives,

be called

MYSTICISM

i62

AND

"

"

VIII.

THE

PLACING

LOGIC

OF

"

THINGS

"

AND

SENSIBILIA

IN

"

PERSPECTIVE

The

which

world

SPACE

have

we

of six dimensions, since it is

We

have

and

space
within

the various

physics is

that

the

constructed

between

privatespace
for the

larger are
those

is
be

in which

being

as

it appears

the

so

the eye

near

touch

By

seen.

touches

penny

sense,

removed,

we

penny

line of

were

the

; and

All these lines meet

in

perspective.This

perspectivewill

place where

the penny

is."

It is

evident

in what

stnicted
"

now

physical

sensibile."

There

space

are

grow

beyond

say)the

penny

it could

If

the

previously

two

associated

is first the

penny

means,

place,that is,in

sense

been

say,

with any

of the penny.

means

be

not

have

we

be done

may

certain

than

by imaginingthe

defined by
perspectives
a

appears

experience

as

perspectivesby
same

our

series until the

the

perspectivesin

line of

to

penny

nearer

further.

no

however,

may,

far

(aswe

any

results

revert

will not

prolong

may

line of

prolong the

of another
other

we

the eye, but

travellingalong
defined

if it

that

percipient's

the

as

conscious
un-

tinction
dis-

the

penny

to

smaller, but

space

that

us

the

nearer

apparent size of the penny

certain limit,namely, that where

goes
a

regarded

means

disastrous

Let

perspectivesin which

the

by

of the

the

and

blurred, with

philosophy of physics.
:

penny

is

it is because

and

of this correlation

been

contained

three-dimensional

perspectivespace

has

the perspective

private spaces

one

performance

series of

between

perspectivesseverally. It

of this correlation
of

correlation

various

the

world

is itself three-dimensional.

explain the

to

now

is

three-dimensional

of which

perspectives,each

far constructed

so

defined

certain
"

as

places in
with

place which

is the

the

con-

given
per-

spectiveof
the

is the
"

is

is the

place

is the

is

"

with

"

which

the

To

the

"

; this

"

The

perspectiveis

one

'*

the

place from

"

where

"

"

sensibile

the
'*

which

place at

sensibile

*'

sensibile

*'

the

which

that

subjective and
the

sibile
sen-

appears.

of which

the
physicist

and
interesting,

more

is

accordingly

physicaland external. The causes, limits

of each of these two apparently
partialjustification
to him

appears
and

incompatible views
of

him

to

**

the

appearance

interesting,and

more

accordinglyappears
percipientis.

an

the
psychologist

the

To

is the

of which

of

thing is

the

appearance.

Secondly

appears.

perspective,
namely,

another

This is

member.

"

words

member

163

"sensibile"

the

is

is

thing is

in other

which

"

sensibile

the

which

at

place where

an

"

the

member,

correlated

sensibile

place where

sensibile

"

the

which

place/fom

there

"

which

PHYSICS

AND

SENSE-DATA

with

placesassociated
We

have

place
and

our

therefore

need

not

which

to

is

there

much

duplicity

sensibile."

physicalthing a

meaning (whether true

us) in saying that

concern

belong is inside

is correlated

with

belong, we

may

sense-data

"

the above

assignto

can

sense-data

our

mind

our

given

we

from

In this way
different
perspectivespace.
in perspectivespace,
body acquire positions

in the

parts of

that

seen

evident

are

being the positionof

the

perspective

regard
in

this

Since

head.

our

perspectiveto

mind

our

the

false

or

which

our

perspectiveas
If,

perspectivespace.

therefore, this perspective

is,in the above

defined

sense,

inside

for the

ment
state-

that
the

nearer
"

the

various

them

the

are

to

nearer

place

belong
where

true

or

good meaning

is in the head.

mind

appearances

which

meaning,

is

head, there

our

the
to

the

of

We

can

given thing

thing

than

others

perspectivesthat
thing

false,for the

is."

We

statement

now

that
;
are

can

of

some

those

are

to

nearer

thus

that

of

say

more

find

is

to

MYSTICISM

i64

AND

LOGIC

be learnt about

thingby examining

viewing it from

distance.

for the

phrase

subject and
to

One

of sense-data
when

changed

which

is that the appearance

shutting our
the

to

look

thing

is of

thing

whenever

there is a very

Nevertheless
two

of my

looking at

is such
of the

an

thing will
of

matter

changes

are

some

at

remain

thing an

not

of the

matter, which

defined

appearances,
of matter.

be

THE

the
but

We

our

this
want

to

may

there

as

say,

of the

distance

however

be, there

still nearer

or

are

are

to, the
is

change

thing which

from

the

next

to

thing

the

this

consideration

sideration
con-

of

topic.
OF

hardly be
be able

From

altered.

physicalthing
can

change.

only comparatively distant

DEFINITION
"

between

which

shall say that the

certain

in the

changes.

may

We

appearances

thing

must

IX.

we

as,

adopted

change

of it may

naturally led

are

we

as

thing changes when,

while

unchanged,

is defined

of the appearances

most

near

hand

than

more

appearances

We

as

thing if all

to

perspectivein

appearance

the other

other

our

as

definition

unchanged.

in appearances

thing. On
in

remain

definition,that

the

to

near

thing

to

eyes, the appearance

my

whereas

appearance,

change

so

up

its appearances

shut

in every

changes

eyes

them

the appearances

thing I

subjectivity

important distinction

in which

different ways

If after

of

datum

is due

necessarilysome
one

any

If the

the

thing itself has

change

(which is the

course

is

the

the

screwing

double.

the class of its appearances

above), there

the

our

between

thing may

that

to suppose

or

eyes,

of

by

meaning

appearance

alleged for

^for example, when

"

intervene

an

often

reason

also find

can

things which

find it hard

we

make

the

thing of

him."

"

We

it close to than

MATTER
"

as

the

taken

to express

class of its
a

definition

the

fact that

as

the

of

appearance

causallyaffected by

PHYSICS

AND

SENSE-DATA

thing in

given perspectiveis

between

the matter

165

the

thing and

the

'*

perspective.We have found a meaning for between

to
matter
thing and a perspective." But we want
something

thing,in
We

we

order

off,we

it is a

as

approach

him

limit

The

set up

of

matter

their distance from

as

; then

It is obvious

that from
of

appearances

thing

data.

The

definition

thing diminishes.

the

rightdirection
We

are

now

definitions.

journey from

reverse

thing and
a

thing is

of the
altered

spectaclesor by

eked

probably

it

sense-

by

out

pirically
em-

structions
con-

suggests the

matter

to sense-data

of

appearance

function

of the

by interveningsmoke

which

The
or

appearance

be reckoned
we

of

mist, by blue

in the sense-organs

nearer

is performed

thingin a given
composing the

matter

interveningmatter.
alterations

in outline the

understand

percipient(which also must

interveningmedium). The

of the
the

But

positionto

by physics. The

perspectiveis

be

to

from

this

to look.

in which
in

limit of its appearances

is the

definition will have

and

We

far off.

limit to be obtained

such

is no

be

limit may

seems

there

we

as

probable that there is something in

because
definition,but it is not quite satisfactory,
It

be

only

Jones

followingtentative

the

given thing

of

the appearances

than

more

Jones

would

limit, that

physicsthe

"

count

therefore

may

towards

of

it is

see

accuracy

Jones reallyis.

view

point of
"

we

get

we

thing is nearer.

the

if the appearances

tend

to be what

close to

; then

man

smiling. Complete

attainable

taken

when

ances.
appear-

on

information

the

be
of

class of appearances

the influence of matter

to state

see

he is

see

the

the whole

than

that
commonly assume
accurate
a
thing is more

about
Far

other

or

as

nerves

part of

approach

to

MYSTICISM

i66
the

AND

LOGIC

thing,the les^itsappearance

^s

matter,

we

its appearances
ffliing,
initial character

them

the

and

distances

itself,
we

and

further

divergemore

and

more

in terms

thing.

tend

appearances
"

thing reallyis,"as opposed

be.

it

to what

laws,

to be

seems

that

feehng

the

"

is

matter

more

to

seems

of

erroneous
entirely
"

real

the

statement

of the

source

these

is what

merely

This, together with its necessityfor the

causal

thing

which

diminishes

distance

the

as

small

the

than

to think that the limit towards

come

divergence

at very

other

causes

their

lies between

which

Since the appearances

by

the

from

from

of their

laws

of the matter

less affected

are

the intervening

by

travel further

the causal

; and

to be stated

are

is affected

than

sense-

data.

Consider
In

for

looking at

datum

and

given thing and approachingit,one

will become

divide.

Thus

limit, when

one

there

is how

causal

This isin some

at

sense

of units

thing,

of matter

only

one

arises.
infinite divisibility

of a thing resides in its matter.

efficacy
an
empiricalfact,but it would be hard

because
it precisely,

to state

the

to

finite distance, is

again
in the

Hence

end.

no

indefinite number

an

This

The whole

seems

will

of these

sense-

represent niany things,

may

appearance

correspondingto what,
appearance.

each

near
approach indefinitely

we

will be

there

several, and

this process

to

of matter.
the infinite divisibility

example

"

causal

"

efficacy

is difi"cult

to define.

What

be known

can

about
empirically

I thing is only approximate,because

"^^

the

appearances

and

cannot

But

of the

accuratelyinfer

it is inferred
we

appearances

thing

can

from

get td know

cannot

very

of

small

distances,

the limit of these appearances.

approximatelyby

observe.

can

we

the matter

It then

be exhibited

of the appearances

means

turns

out

by physicsas

that

these

function of

SENSE-DATA
the

in

matter

immediate

our

visual appearance

hght-waves
of

of

One

offers
of

appearance,

sufficient to determine
it goes

although
them.

The

it is

as

distance

that

seems

like
itself has

the
the

become

Between

conscious

in the

This

will be

is

that

with,
of

we

which
perspectives,

experience,though
them

should

of the world

"

"

a
or

sensibile."

cussions
dis-

the

actuallydo

to

so.

into

of

dividinghistory
different

by

biography
This

will

parts of
that

By this

means,

of

thing
any-

"

later than,

necessary

number

one

direct time-relation of

might all form

it is not

is divided

Physics

introducingexperienceor
define

may

given

struction,
con-

belong

it is divided

as

earlier
(directly)
a

is

through

both

suggests a way

experiences,but without
mental

of this fact

of way

sort

same

by

relativity.

person'sexperience,there
after.

be effected

inferences.

perspectiveswhich

two

before and

only

all-embracing space.

with

of

structure

all-embracing time

one
one

connected

determining

towards

TIME'

X.

It

appearances,

hidden

of the

dynamical

is not

object for example,

possibleat all,can

of elaborate

means

leads to confusions

This

its other simultaneous

certain

of tlie

difficulty.

visible

determination

far

thing,so

real

e.g. the

function

object is a

the eyes.
no

167

neighbourhood

distant

that reach

thought, but

PHYSICS

AND

as

thing
every-

or

taneous
simulseries

give a

person's

one

all

or

the

any

of

history

mutually exclusive

biographies.
^

A.

On

advocated
most

of

this

Robb

A.

interestingand
his

and
A
Theory of Time
Space, by Mr.
first suggested to me
the views
Press), which
1 have,
omitted
for present purposes,
is
what
novel
in his theory. Mr. Robb
has given a sketch

subject,compare

(Camb. Univ.
here, though

theory in a
Cambridge, 1913).

pamphlet

with

the

same

title

(Heffer

and

Sons,

MYSTICISM

i68

We

have

biographies.

The

of

appearances

correlate

to

now

AND

natural

Suppose
A's

shouts

shout.
his

and

simultaneous

of B's
B's

sound."

That

A 's shout

is

shout

own

the

is,we

and

to

been

said

light.

The

in

certain

at

that

from

of

moment,

with

thing

this

belonging

to

conventional.
of

such

simultaneous

with
in the

hears
his

hears

B's.

In this way

hears

not

to

Since

in

with
one

formulation

the

thing

is

being

as

at

is

of

another,
of causal

given

partly to

that
same

according
direct

no

grouping

Its motive
as

be

to

are

regarded

biography

one

given thing

maxims

all

be

the

that

certain

velocities

various

time

is

course

contrary they spread outward

the

temporal
a

applies of

sound

perspectives, which

appearances.

correlatingthe

another,

when

general principle

are

On

of the

nature

velocityof

when

constituting what

as

moment.

the

about

different

grouped together
a

he

with

not

time

the

when

time

the

events

is effected.

appearances,

at

"

we

exactly

have

if

thus

but

assume

we

that

between

time

the

has

equally

this,

shout

shout

event

hears

own

should

given

assume

half-way

correlation

What

with

of his

same

we

he

as

interval

the

other,

each

obviate

To

soon

an

be

to

are

convenient.

repHes as

of

different

two

biographies

hearing

the

that

to say

not

is

there

different

the

is

A's

hearing

with

other.

B, and

exactly simultaneous
each

in

be

this

but

between

hearing
and

different

to
;

to

Then

A's

made

would

thing

simultaneous

as

times

the

given (momentary) thing in

perspectives belonging
taken

LOGIC

events
event

partly
laws.

with

exist

means

time

the

the

appearances

moment

is in
the

seciu-e

which
are

to

the

to

secure

in

part

tion
verifica-

are

exactly

exactly
taneous
simul-

convenience

SENSE-DATA

XI.

PERSISTENCE

THE

from

Apart

physics, three
world

main

physicswith

of

problems

arise

the world

of

2.

the construction

of

construction

of

permanent

these
We

have

; it remains

how

seen

in the

moment

combined
arrive

how

the

assumption
underlies

persistent

of

the

"

one

"

thing

of

at

"

of

one

have
are

how

and

thing,"

matter

"

times

we

The

physics.

substance, which

permanent

procedure

in different

different

at

one

technically
of

physics,cannot

be

course

metaphysicallylegitimate: just as the

thing simultaneouslyseen
by many
people is a

regarded

or

fact

the

is an
not

have

set
a

"

time

now

"

depending
at which

to

the

different time.

grouping of

the

the
upon
"

"

certain

of

state

sensibilia."
*'

thing

"

as

place where
the nature

what

"

the

thing is

of the

is in this state

these

time, but

constructed

one

thing

at which

consider

of appearances

the

by

sensibilia,"in different perspectives,

in

from

/
struction,
con-

construction, being in

the momentary

all simultaneous

limit of the times

have

certain

assemblage of

velocities

be

people must
that

seen

spreading out
The

times

at different

thing seen

one

different

nothing but

We

one

as

so
same

of

second

physics. We

of

"

to

matter.

the third.

appearances

appearances

first and

form

to

belonging

as

at

correlated

the

things or

the

all-embracingtime

consider

to

singletime

to consider

combined

perspectivesare

namely

singlespace

already considered

problems

connecting

in

sense,

of

have

of

fluctuating hypotheses

the

the construction

We

MATTER

AND

1.

3. the

now

of

any

THINGS

OF

169

PHYSICS

AND

appearances

leads

belongingto

us

"

with

sensibilia."
is the lower
We

occur.

tok^speakof
the

"

another

same^* thing

"

at

MYSTICISM

I70
For

this purpose,

confine

when

of

to

*'

connect

of the

shall have

all that
of the

thingfor

that

the

tinuityin

in

If

we

can

given biography
have

we

in different

seen

biographiesas
of a thing,we

state

for the

complete

struction
con-

thing.

begin with,

to

begin with,

to

since

momentary

historyof

common

that the

of
identity

always correlated with

body is one
physics. A human
but for physics its
sense,
is not

sense

for
common

constantlychanging. We may say, broadly,

common-sense
conception is based upon conat the

appearances

data, while

"

is necessary

identityof matter
persisting
thing for
is

"

thing,then,

same

the

matter

sensibilia

one

It is to be observed,

least

singlebiography.

sensibilia

appearances

LOGIC
at

may,

*'

two

appearances

how

we

within

ourselves

always say
are

AND

ordinary distances

physicalconception is

the

based

of

sense-

the

upon

from

at very small distances

continuityof appearances
the thing. It is probable that the common-sense

ception
con-

is not capable of
concentrate

persistenceof
The
^

fore
completeprecision.Let us thereattention upon the conceptionof the

our

in

matter

first characteristic of two

piece of

matter

be

connected

which, if time
themselves

form

and

we

if the

believe that the

colours

compact

intermediate
between
But

times

those
there

are

at

at

the
two

which

given

at

occurs

two

series of

form

compact

series.

from

change

different

are

by

space

the leaves is different in autumn

but

of the

appearances

same

different times is continuity.The

at

must

appearances

must

physics.

The

two

mediaries,
inter-

series,
of

colour

it is in summer;

what

gradually,and that,
given times,

the colours

there

are

are

intermediate

are

important

times.

considerations

that

as

regards continuity.
First, it is largely hypothetical.We

do

not

observe

SENSE-DATA

to

that, while

assume

passes

through conditions

which

it is

171

it is merely

thing continuously,and

one

any

PHYSICS

AND

observing it, it

not

are

we

intermediate

thesis
hypo-

in

those

between

perceived. During uninterrupted

tion,
observa-

it is true,

continuityis nearly verified ; but even

motions
here, when
are
rapid,as in the case of
very
explosions,the continuityis not actually capable of
direct verification.
data

found

arc

"

"sensibilia
therefore

only say that the sensepermit a hypotheticalcomplement of

will preserve
and that
as
continuity,
Thus

to

such

there

may

have

already

we
'*

sensibilia,"we

"

sensibiha,"

can

be such
made

such

is true

identity. It

rocks, mountains,

continuity.

in many

such

the

as

the

tables, chairs, etc., where

fluid, it fails
continuous

infer

motions

the

observation

what

characteristic

common

which
of

the

are

to

as

obey

belonging

able to define

of

arrive at

d5aiamics. By

times

laws

certain

the

motion, which

in other

of the

drop

same

at

sea

other time.

at any

We

effects of the

the

direct sensible

from

assumption of continuit^^
addition

to

as

continuityis

""

persistentthings, and
as

time

from

*'

to

''sensibilia"

at

piece of matter,

presupposes

time

sensibilia

simple laws, namely

tlie

"

those

different
we

Starting from

dynamics.

assemblages of

regarding
to

ances
appear-

by sensibly

travel

from

modifications

such

found

the

regards

reasonable,we

seem

drop

required in

sense

making only

one

any

be inferred

together with

conformity with

can

of sea-water

current, but they cannot

The

We

gradations from
other

as

approximatelyhomogeneous

an

utterly.

us

time to any

one

any

parts of

such

cases,

change slowly,continuityis sufficient,but

cases,

-y

sufficient criterion of

that

such

admit

and

preserve

is not

hypothetical

of

use

point pass,

required to

are

as

ever,
Since, how-

complement.

will let this

Secondly, continuity
material

we

are

assumption

/
^"

MYSTICISM

172

construction

or

time

of the

of

motion.

occurring,during
and

times

the

different
*'

"

motions

their

Thus

given in

in which

manner
as

the

stillto

the

same

historyof
questionwhat

whole

the
particular,

every

combine

we

belongingto

when

even

place is

take

after

the

be

given, will

are

appearance

at different times

is

the world

"

"

of

matter.

LOGIC

throughout the
something persisting
which
The motions
are
regarded as
sensibiha
period in which all the

according to

sensibilia

pieceof

AND

certain extent

arbitrary

assumption of continuity. Experience

shows
that it is possible
motions in such a
to determine
that this
the laws of dynamics, and
to satisfy
as
way
determination, roughly and on the whole, is fairlyin
even

the

with

agreement

opinionsabout persistent
determination, therefore, is adopted,

the

common-sense

things. This
leads to

and

criterion

by

which

we

determine,

can

times
some-

whether
only theoretically,
two
at different times are to be regardedas
appearances
The persistence
belonging to the same
pieceof matter.
of all matter
throughout all time can, I imagine, be
sometimes
practically,

secured
To

by definition.

it is that
What
where

is

they

sufficient

of

of

empiricalsuccess

into

beyond sense-data,

go

with

sense-data, but,

to render

as

collection

physics has

one

the

consider what

must

physics.

is proved is that its hypotheses,though unverifiable

ideallysuch

to

conclusion, we

proved by

contradiction

data

this

recommend

of

it

found

physics,in

thing would

in

and

way

series

in which

two

with

"

is

appearances

collect

Now

given.

sense-

belonging

as

regard

series not
behave.

are

calculable when

being regarded

behaving,

general not

whether

contrary,

to
empirically
possible

series,each

"thing,"

sensibilia

point in

no

the

on

all sense-data
"

at

are

laws

to the

belonging to
If it is to

belong to

be

the

one
ambiguous
un-

same

SENSE-DATA

thing or

not, there
so

physics. It

would

the

but

case,

point pass,
we

lay

may

things are
the laws

down

place

for sense-data

usual

connection

But

treatment.
*'

which

of various

are

unreal," and

system,

It

mind

as

This
would

endorse.

it is difficult to

"

A fist.

Natural

how

see

be

Realism

Soc., 1908-1909,

realise how

and
p.

two

to

towards

people

most

objections. First
"

however
activity,

an

nothing

Present

165.

Tendencies

in

parent,"
trans-

un-

term

nonentity. Secondly,no

mere

bare,

is not there,

which, probably,

it is open

But

cinations.
hallu-

and

given."

one

be directed

relation cannot
^

is

dreams

be directed to what

is not

what

the

upon

of its failure

because

impossible to

seems

statement

can

cussion,
the dis-

system of transparent

of
possibility

very

transparent activitycan

apprehend

made

called

unreality.

activities is,I think, also untenable

to

be

says

for the

be

must

sense-

different

would

that

sort

logicalremarks

conception of

to account

Such

the

have

fail to

physics.

of

find

to

are

we

therefore, before embarking upon

A. Wolf

The

empirical

DREAMS

AND

apparently

of the

and
conceptionsof reality

"

our

the world

are

obeys

matter

kinds, requiringsomewhat

all

certain

Mr.

Physical

of physics.
verifiability

how, in

with

Thus

way.

whose

HALLUCINATIONS,

ask

to

let this

series exist is an

such

constitutes the

It remains

data

That

ILLUSIONS,

only one

of appearances

this is

that
may

we

of

the laws

following definition

the

grouping

of

way

difficult to prove

that there is

assume

ofphysics.

XII.

one

present purposes

our

those series

fact,which

only

173

resultingthingsobey

be very

for

and

be

must

that the

appearances

PHYSICS

AND

of

reason

Philosophy,"

Ptoc.

MYSTICISM

174
is

given,and
"

not

behef

Hfe, between

thing.'*

"thing

"

"

"

that

the
In

dreamer

givenness between

in

and
is

of the

merely one
then

what

what

as

Exactly the
objectsbeing

"

private space

of the

with

therefore

**

in which

sense

justas trulyas
(2)The
the

in

way

Words

"

"

are

to

"

with

be

"

can

"

that

in

go

"

life.

generally

"

as

real

from

the

one

"true"

Now

propositions.Thus

the above

wherever
must

such

Erfahrungsgrundiagejitmseres

be

"

and

"valid"

except in derivative

"

"

there

fusions.
profound logicalcon-

"false."

and

only

unreality,"and

"reality," are

all derived

with

in the

"non-existent,"

and
are

privatespaces

waking
"

the

where

they are

pairs,such

applicableonly

propositionsor
Die

dreamer

But

of

dream-

positionin

other

illusion "or

significantly
applied, we

the

the

to

their

datum,

embodies

which

given

life.

with

of

thing,

the

is justas much

have

thing,but

the

applies as

be

conception

pair, "true"

can

waking

if,as

But

compose

of the sense-data

invalid," etc.,

false

life.

perspectivespace.

"existent"

"unreal,"

"

which

dream

They

conceptionof

correlative

used

and

"

Meinong

e.g.

difference in respect of

perspectiveof

there
any

as

is given is never

fail is in their correlation

they
and

there."

corresponding

if, therefore, the

waking

argument

same

and

corresponding

such

hfe,

and

in

in

apprehend

we

be

sensibilia

apprehend

we

"

given comes,

not

the

no

waking

dreams

"

there

point first.

supposes

maintained, what

have

"

not

are

given, for

as
distinguish,
regards waking

there

given

be

can

the second

maintains,^ then there would

we

none

dream-objects are

dreams,

were

that

sense-datum

the

as

thing

take

us

failure to

I think, from

LOGIC

dream-objects

Let

given/'

(i)The

"

convinced

am

assertion that

the

AND

deahng

mental
fundaand

cations
signifipairs
either

incomplete phrases
Wissens,

p. 28.

as

PHYSICS

AND

SENSE-DATA

175

which,
only acquire meaning when
put into a context
with them, forms a proposition.Thus such pairsof words

appHed

can

be

in

other

^ but
descriptions,

to

words,

data, but

only

Let

illustrate

us

Given
assert

could

to

''Of

*'

to

described

in

"

that

true

from

is my

a;

these

the apparent

"

'

is to say

"

To

'

present sense-datum

my
cannot

*'

description,"because
name,

not

explained

this

above

'

The

'

fact

that

proper

Cf.

is

object
(inthe

which

without

is

logic; yet

to

merely false,but
sense-datum

object of

of

case

which
we

shall

which

Whitehead

x'

we

is

and

I have

(loc.cit.)with

it is hard

proceed

supposing)

are

the

to understand

repeat the demonstration

here

which

one

with

their

of the

tion
applica-

present problem.

our

into

inference

"

be

description." But

point fully elsewhere

therefore

descriptionsis
them

is

an

i\;

propositions,but
to

The

is an

There

description. Dr.

help of symbols,
I shall not

is

There

say

"

(roughly):

say

also

My present

say

really

to

true

unaccustomed
is not

it

it may

exists

propositioninferred

meaningless.
strictly
exists

"

is

statement

exists," and

people

be

might

significantand

propositionsto

two

We

present sense-datum."

irresistible to

seems

such

it is

existence."
non-

exists, for otherwise

But

"

and

meaningless either

exists."

present sense-datum

My

names

whatever

"

existence

x, it is

course

datum."

"

terms

that

meaningless, although

non-entities

or

datum

any

say

be

not

the

by

deny

to

or

tempted

"

appUcation

no

entities

to

to proper

of data.

terms

to

have

they

not

"

existence

concealed
names

is

the

by
in

"

only applicable

use

of what

which

way

Vol.

I,

14, and

matically
gram-

reallytransforms

descriptions. It is, for example,

Principia Mathematica,

are

to

legitimate

Introduction, Chap.

MYSTICISM

176

Homer

question whether
"

author

the

means

AND

existed ; but

then

but

If

prefer.
be

to

His

"

"

other

God

were

The

distinction

which
predicates,
light by the theory

Kant

to

of

"

existence

remove

of

notions
What
"

to

with

"

"

ask whether

"

they
ends

"

We

exist

the

"

view

stock arguments

mainly

(i)We

is

may

have
to

as

and

to

seen

fundamental

things

"

that

"

or

appliesequally
as

real."

are

But

synonymous

objectsin

of
reality

or

such

and

There

'*

things

other

or

other
reality
un-

sensibilia,"
together

they are

data, which

not

dreams

these considerations

has

unreal.

are

in detail to the
what

is to be said

others have

said before.

againstreahsm, though
of what
repetition

"

It is the

objects.
"

they are,

legitimately

may

we

objectsof

the

"

the immediate

"

matter.

apply

now

may

will be

*'

failure to notice that

led to the

the

dreams, it is meaningless to

inferred from

of these
a

the

existence

Concerning

to the existence

sensibilia

with

"

or

existence

fact,be taken

in

may,

existence."

inquireas

"

obscurely felt,is brought

altogether from

said about

been

which
reality,"

that

exists ;

arise

descriptions,and

illusions,
hallucinations,and

and

between

metaphysics.

has

''

is

would

question could

no

other

God

name,

proper

then

; and

existence.

and

descriptionwe

"

**

Homer

God

whether

Supreme Being

whatever

or

datum

the

means

realissimum

ens

"

"

here

poems/*

ask

may

*'

God

Homeric

of the

description.Similarlywe
"

LOGIC

varietyof normal appearances,

supposed to be incompatible. This is the case of the
difierent shapes and colours which
a given thing presents
spectators. Locke's

difierent

to

hot

and

first the

have

cold

of different

belongs to

this class of

cases.

perspectivesfullyaccounts

shows

that

(2) We*

have

and

which

water

they
cases

afford

no

where

argument
the

seems

Our

both

system

for these

cases,

againstrealism.

correlation

between

different

is unusual.

senses

belongs here.
this

only

bent

say

that

it is

There

is

means

inference, if

think

we

and,

is

"

the
"

"

"

is

"

visual

those

that

the

case

It is

"

graph,
photo-

say,

the

graph
photo-

seeing

double

therefore

singlevisual
the

thingson

(3)We

which

come

but

are

to

data

often

happens

condemned

accustomed
babies
But

manner

turn

of these

none

dream, and

dream-objects

continuitywith
him, when
^

Cf. Edwin
"

World,
seeing double.
The

are

B.

only

the

cipient
perhas

of

obtain

our

the
from

which

ground

to

arouse

of their

later data.
to

at

may,

picion,
sus-

supposed

Of

it

course

behave

in the

solid objectsmelt,
heavy objectsfly,

undergo

unusual
on

"

Place

of such

them

happen

future

; and

305,

on

this

lack

of

that makes

it is their lack

of IllusoryExperience
both

in

that

occurrences

It is their

past and

condemn

Realism," p.

need

unreal.*'

the dreamer's

Holt, The

greater changes.

even

occurrences

account

called

he wakes,

New

the

on

pigs or

it is not

it is

in view

nothing

earlier and

into

contain

dream-objects fail

that

to

The

explanation than

like dreams,

cases

dreaming,

incompatibilitywith

whether

it double.

normally

we

not

focus.

we

now

of

the moment

which

sense-datum

ask

to

phenomenon

of

also

of the unusual

see

are

eyes, it is in less need

two

to

'*

explanation; indeed,
purely physiological
having

in

and
sensibilia,"

The

false

feel bent

cause

we

straight:

only

bent

mistake

which

duplicated.

are

is

water

touch, though

would

'*

system of

sensibilia

the

to

of

duplicated when

whole

used

and
physiological,

is

but

justas

case

photograph.

thing

thing

look

in this

belongs here, though

bent

stick would

the

The

lie."^

cannot

operate in

that

in

stick

illusion,"but

no

Gladstone

Mr.

as

correlation

"

177

bent

straightto

stick would

The

the touch.

The
it looks

People

sight.

to

PHYSICS

AND

SENSE-DATA

point

in

and

as

Realistic

regards

MYSTICISM

178

correlation

of

others

laws

other

them

LOGIC

private

Omitting

them.

condemning

for

infer from

we

with

condemn

reason

AND

the

is that

them

worlds

"

ground, our
things which

"

the

"

according to

"

things inferred
physicswith the
This might be used to condemn
sense-data.
of

inferred
doubt

the

dreamer

of dreams.

data
of

appearances

the

as

from

"

psycho-analysts. But

the

wish

no

dreams, such

there

"

things

certainlyare

(whatever psychologicalcauses

'

'*

combat

to

of the
where

cases

contribute)

may

'

no

things

those

as

the

waking

are
*'

of such

not

I have

of

theories
psychological

from

Dream-data

things,"but

supposes.

makes

latter

be combined

cannot

that

the

also is very
evident.
For
physicalcauses
of a naval
instance, a door banging may produce a dream
and sea and smoke.
engagement, with images of battleships
of

presence

The

whole
but

will be

dream

owing

the

to

an

of the door

appearance

condition

pecuhar

of

ing,
bang-

the

body

the brain)during sleep,this appearance

(especially
that expected to be produced by a door banging, and
the

is led

dreamer

sense-data

are

physics would
(4)

The

include
last

except

through
this

to

neatly

into

are

recurrent

that

lead

within

to

become
his

own

others.

course

he

illusions
one

class, if they
life ;

insanity. What

but

others

may

*'

jointed sufficiently

makes

this

the

call insane

do

sensibilia

learn

person'sexperience,
discrepancies with

the

is

chief
of

in

instances
the

patient,in
is the

have

other

kind
such

fact that,
show

that

the usual

kind

nothing

not
"

which

might conceivably

were

experience,there
with

completed

those

are

hallucinations

sensory

what

of

Dreams

hallucinatorysense-data

of connection
Of

of

discovery

waking

as

his

calculate.

within

the

experiences of

belong

the

class

discovered

be

cases,

and

such

are

thus

But

false beliefs.

still physical,
and

cannot

the

entertain

to

is not

to

perspectives.

through testimony,but

he

probably finds
and

untrue

far

that

as

patient

can

so

it

simplerto
no

decide, in such

instances

above

the

his madness

differ

"

other

correlations

usual

our

unreflective

the

to
psychologist,

status

expectations,and
form

part of

fact that

kinds

occur

sense

and

But

adds

the data

of

are

connections

and

real,
un-

ences.
of false infer-

would

unusualness

terms

seem

of

complication,not

no

of
be

to

usual
un-

sense

always

therefore

philosophicalobjection.
valid objectionexists to

which

substance

to be

data, it comes

our

to

of inferringthings
difficulty

to the

I conclude, therefore, that

view

part of
except

seem,

even

and
explicable,
physiologically

physically or

Since

things."

expressing physics in

of

the

only

correlations

tions
connec-

become

thought, mistakenly, that in such cases

whereas
they are merely the causes
The

causal

"

with

and

others,

any

as

or

connections

and

normal
ab-

that

tive,
regard as decep-

we

same

"

sensibilia

the

the

of his

and

which

correlations

regards their

as

with

raises

two

appear

justthe
intrinsically

have

data.

the

it would

sense-data, of the kind

from

the

which

mendacity.

From

but

is,

There

between

case,

hypotheses of
equallysatisfactory
friends'

testimony is

the

that

suppose

179

deceived.
being wilfully
theoretical criterion by

is

he
see,

can

PHYSICS

AND

SENSE-DATA

regards sense-data as part

the physical w^orld, and that,

of the
on

actual

the

other

for the
only one which accounts
of physics. In the present paper,
empirical verifiability
In parI have
given only a rough preliminarysketch.
ticular,

hand,

is the

this view

the part

physicalworld
appear
with
ceived

from
further
"

played by

is, I think,
the

above

time in the construction

fundamental

more

sensibilia

"

I should

account.

elaboration, the
could

be

derivable

from

would

hope that,

part played by

unper-

diminished,
indefinitely

probablyby invoking the historyof

the inferences

than

of the

"

thing

its momentary

**

to

eke

out

appearance.

IX

THE

ON

T N
-^

the

NOTION

"

*'

cause

misleadingassociations
from

the

inquirewhat

in

place of

so

bound
inextricably

as

to

make

its

if any,
principle,

supposed

which

determinism,

notions

erroneous

All

is

"

law

Siecondly,.
in science

"

to

me

be connected

with

causality.

to

as

of

to

appear

tion
philosophers,of every school, imagine that causais one
of the fundamental
axioms
or
postulatesof

sciences

this

makes
business
about

causes,

it seems

that

has ceased

to

such

things.

that

passes

bygone

age,

Naturalism

and

to ascertain

yet physicsnever

occurs.

the ultimate

and

for

causes

The

law

of

that
is

the

not

the

should

truth
be

such

to assume

reason

why

physics

that, in fact, there

surviving,like

philosophers,is
the

it is erroneously
supposed to do
i3o

are

harm.

no

much

relic of

monarchy, only
no

the

them.

seeks

I believe, like
causality,

among

as

Agnosticism,

even

philosophyought

look

muster

'never

cause

apparently thinks,

functions,
legislative

such

complaint against physics:

wish

world, he

discovery of

his
of

ground

of those who

the

me

in

Ward,

James

"

the word

gravitational
astronomy,

To

employed

science,yet, oddly enough, in advanced

Dr.

with

up

complete extrusion

desirable

is

that

sophers
causality which philoimagine to be employed ; thirdly,to exhibit
in regard to teleologyand
confusions, especially

certain

the

CAUSE

first,to maintain

philosophicalvocabulary

to

'

I wish,

followingpaper

the word

OF

because

OF

NOTION

THE

ON

1^1._order_tp_ find

i8i

philosophers commonly

_what

out

CAUSE

understand
and

"

by

cause," I consulted

rewarded

was

beyond

Baldwin's

Dictionary,
I found

expectations,for

my

_the followingthree mutually incompatible definitions.^

"

"

(i)The

Causality,

connection

necessary

of events

time-series.

in the

in
be included
(notion of). Whatever
may
the thought or perceptionof a process as taking
of another
place in consequence
process.

"

Cause

"

Cause

(i) Cause

Effect,

and

correlative

related

so

first

immediately after, and

into existence

comes

are

able
distinguish-

two

that

other

exist 'the second

to

ceases

each

to

aspects of reality,which

things, phases, or
are

effect

and

denoting any

terms

the

into

ence
exist-

comes

second

the

whenever

first has

the

whenever

ceased

to

exist

immediately before."
Let

us

consider

these

definitions in turn.

three

without
first,obviously, is unintelligible
**

this

Under

necessary."

definition of

Baldwin's

head,

'The

Dictionary

gives the following:

"

"

That

Necessary.

would

true, but

Something

than

more

in

involved

general law
notion

The

of

of

over

the above

possible,some

definition, with

meaning

is

all circumstances.

intimately connected

it will be

necessitythat

that

so

only

fore,
compulsion is,thereconception ; there is a
the thing takes place."

the

is

not

brute

which

under
cause

which

is necessary
be true
under

digressionto hnger

no
a

of which

with

view
it is

to

if
discovering,

capable ; for, as

it

stands, it is very far from having any definite signification.

The

given

first point to notice

to

the

phrase

"

is that, if any

would

stances," the subject of it

must

be

true

be

meaning
under

is to be

all circimi-

prepositionalfunc-

MYSTICISM

i82

tion, not

false,and
of
is

"

would

in

ends

the

matter
''

circumstances."

justas

LOGIC

proposition.^A propositionis simply true

that

in

true

summer

Thus

when

be true

under

Mondays.
*'

AND

in winter,

it is worth
all

''

varying
"

"

"

if ;t is

it is true

Necessary

is

is true

the
if

stances,"
all circum-

under
"

is necessary,

possible^valueof jf.

followingdefinition

the

Thus

capable.

an

position
pro-

then

are

is mortal

man,

predicateof

Unfortunately,however,
Dictionarysays

that

Thus

we

"

definition in

the

"

but

and

only propositionalfunctions

circumstances."

Hence

What

nonsense.

function which
of its

the

is meant

is necessary

it is

under

argument

Now

propositionalfunction

undetermined

constituent,

definite

is

value

number."

assigned to
The

value

we

is

and
the

variable

true

true,"

under

it stands

this
a

**

these
"

be

true

as

of

"

all
is
position
pro-

propositional

all ciecumstances, i.e. for all

will
proposition

same

"

be

to

arguments."

or

contingentaccording as

is a

true."

definition

seems

when

is true

this definition,the

only

be

can

Baldwin's

is not

can
incompatible. Only propositions

are

"

is also

two

values

is necessary

what

all circumstances

under

A'

on

function,
propositional
meaning that it is true for all possiblevalues of
its argument or arguments."

"

to

is

variable

the

alluded

what
a

as

i.e.

becoming

assigned to

for any

be led to the

should

and

the variable

means

then

Sundays

on

"

off

cut

was

circumstances," the something

"

of which

"

necessary

because

is

circumstances

different values

tion
ques-

propositionalfunction,

value

no

saying that something

expression containinga variable,

when

be

can

I's head

Charles

as

be

question must

there

or

choose

one

But

if

we

adopt

be necessary
or

other

or

of its

expression containing a variable, or

as
a
becoming a proposition as soon
A
is
variable.
A,"
:
are
Examples

an

"

is called

the

argument

oi the

iunction.

ON
terms

the argument

as

"

example,

Plato
man

if Socrates

mortal

or

this

"

and

argument,

which

if it remains

in any

man,

is

by

overcome

be

or

mortal

or

regarded

respect

when

true

is

if

as

followingdefinition

with

to

given
is

constituent

that

with

compatible

way

be

is to

is

not

Socrates

if Plato

not

necessary

but

if either

arrive at the

thus

we

propositionis

constituent

but

.For

is mortal,"

if Socrates

can
difficulty

constituent

183

argument,

as

Again,

argument,

as

specifyingthe

altered

Socrates

man,

is chosen

However,

is

CAUSE

function.
propositionai

our

is chosen.

chosen

chosen.

'*

OF

mortal," will be necessary

is
is

to

if Socrates

necessary
man

NOTION

THE

maining
propositionre-

the

significant.".
We

It is obvious

causalityquoted above.
be the time

must

instance

an

Ci

This

Cg."

of

varied.

time

ti, i.e.

how

be such

"If

as

intended

remain

to

true

be

Thus

occurs.

the

by

event

the event
with

necessary

however

be

ti may

verbal law,, \vill then _be

Ca^saJity,_as_a_jToi

this

much

be

can

the

is an
event ^j
there^
T3ut
^i "occurs,^2j""curs_later."
must
considered
we
specify
precise,
any

that, whenever

before

the argument

ti,it will be followed

to

"Given
:
fo.llpwing
such

that

the earlier event

propositionis

to

respect

at which

causalitywill

the

at

occurs

the definition of

apply this definition to

now

may

later "2 is to

event

Ci,

Thus

occiu\

the

comes
be[)rinciple

"

"

Given

interval
an

am

is true
to

such

interval
I

not
or

discover

I pass,

event

any

ei, there

that, whenever

is

an

event

e^ occurs,

e^ and

eg follows

timeafter

."

concerned
false.
what

For
the

as

yet

to consider

the present, I
law

of

am

whether

merely

this law
concerned

causalityis supposed

to

therefore,to the other definitions quoted above.

be.

MYSTICISM

i84
The

secorid definitioiLneed

First, because

reasons...
"

perception

or

itself,
must

be what

Secondly,because
introduces

the

detain

not

of

us

notion

process

consideringcausality.

in

speaking of
"

of

of

the

in

consequence

very

two

not

the

but

process,

it is circular

long^for

us

:
psychological

concerns

taking place in

as

LOGIC

it is
"

thought

"

AND

another

process
it

process,

which

cause

be

to

was

defined.
; indeed
fa^^
regards clearness, it leaves nothing to be desired. But
of
is caused
by the temporal contiguity
great difiiculty

definition is by

Thejhkd

as
a

effect which

and

cause

instants
hence

either the

cause

or

assumed

endure

to

faced with

for

for

dilemma

relevant

contiguousto

the

diminish

the

however

much

remain

an

duration
we

have

that

definition excludes

the later

parts

earlier

we

might

of
plurality
is

be

cause,

causes.

within

itself,then, in the first place,no

found

strange

"

in nature,
too

strange

without

defined, will
that
the

If, on

and
to

in the
be

second

such

to

still

will

altered
as

led

purely static, involving no

the

be

not

are

hmit, and

it, there

diminish

be

can

be

shall

without

cause

the true

parts

parts ;

(by the definition)

hand,

cause

are

involving

reached, for it will be observed

been

we

later

therefore

earlier part which

the effect,so
altering
not

only

of the

may

are

and

Thus
effect.,

the

by

both

^ut Jh^n

its earher

that

effect,and

influence

cannot

plain that

if the

must,

is a process

effect, since the

the

to

compact

versal)
require(ifcausalityis uni-

shall

seem

is

two

finitelime ; indeed,

cause

causal relations between

it would

both

or

finite time,

if the

we
change within itself,

moreover,

definition it is

of the

wording

effect

Jhe

definition is correct, endure

the

the time-series

contiguous,since

are

No

definition asserts.

the

the

other

change

cause

place, it

accepted, in spite of

is to
seems

bare

logicalpossibility^that

the

"

for
when

it

time,

or

well

have

unchanged

effect. 'This
and

cause

effect

effects, they

time^nterval

producing its

to

the view

time

in

assumed

was

as

t,

earlier

any

that

; if there

separated by

be

must

effect,

the

at

without

contiguous in

be

can

into

so

dilemma, therefore, is fatal

and

causes

on

done

have

185

existingplacidly

after

cause,

might just as
gone

CAUSE

suddenly explode

time, should

some

OF

NOTION

THE

ON

finite

pretation
inter-

above

the

are

of the first definition.,

What

is

the
essentially

causalityas
Baldwin's
Thus

John Stuart

main

Law

fact which
And

has

Now,

is found

is the

has

and

other

some

rightlyperceived that

it is used

that

observation

by

fact in nature

preceded it."^

it is

that

conditions,

produce
i And

the

nevertheless

law
tinues
con-

Thus

in science.

b,

every

c,

in

law

[the

law

perceive physicalphenomena,

and

the

other

words,

effects."

same

he

its

by

same

causes

:
"

laws.

causality]

This

means

(2) that
1
-

Logic, Bk.
Time

and

certain

these

(i) That

d, previouslyperceived,can

shape

of

is determined

phenomenon

the

or,

again

We

argued, this

that

obey

same

which

"

means

a,

of
recognition

says

"

"

succession

every

suppose

first of

the

philosophers.

other

by philosophersis worthless,

to

"

between

from

of

law

science, is but the familiar truth,

inductive

Bergson, who

stated

as

given by

Mill saj^j

of
invariability

obtain

is

above

of Causation, the

pillarof

that

elicited

one

definitions

"The

to

the

of the

statement

same

occur

phenomena

again in

phenomenon

ill, Chap. V, "

Free
IV ill,p. 199.

2.

mena
phenothe

P, which

MYSTICISM

i86

AND

appeared after the conditions

conditions

only,will

conditions

are

A great

Bergson
each

that

too

^are

which

at

causes

for the

consensus

above

is meant

long

since otherwise

"

"

there

our

on

law,

of the

"

event

the

are

?
be between

law
a

be

must

is

that

cause

particular,but

likelyto

recur,

that

universal

some

of

It follows also that

instances.

something

viously
law, is ob-

It follows

trivial.

becomes

be many

may

of the

statement

something

be

to

the

Wliat

recur.

is meant

a match,
striking

automatic

what

forced

of the whole

short

state

universe, since it is highlyimprobable that this will

of the

not

"

an

in the

is not

"

event

questionshave

are

the time-interval

may

intended

an

difficulties

of

question of pluralityof

the

statement

by

(i)^An"event,'*

which

different

effect ?

and

"event

principle

(i) Wliat

an

number

) Two^of theses,which

the

the

philosophersof

among

'^Iomit

science from

on

what

to

it

even

"

present, since other graver

by

\ (2) How

As

however,

arise.

to be considered.

science.

the

on

philosophers

their views

take

to

are,

once

following:"

same

principle. In fact,

principle, but
apt

There

attention

the

as

science rests

on

this

employs

from

not

is,there is a fair
schools.

it

such

other,

soon

as

again present."^ \

no

"

after these

d, and

c,

recur

part of Bergson'sattack

assumption
employs

b,

a,

fail to

not

LOGIC

be

or

by

degree of

is to be the

If such

too

force the match

we

is something like
into the slot of

penny

is to be struck,
For

temperature of the penny.

relevant,

were

Time

and

state

not

must

our

"event

Free

Wilt, p.

"

202.

nor

if such

would

an

it must

is to recur,

event

an

narrowly

"

event

dropping a

machine.

defined

"

an

occur

with
what
siderations
con-

at

THE

ON
most

and

once,
"

An

the law

event,"

widely

(2) Tlie

CAUSE

187

give information.

to

cease

universal

of many

being instances

OF

would

then, is

admit

to

NOTION

sufficiently

defined

in time

particularoccurrences

of it.

iiext-

.qxiestionconcerns

tinie.-interyal

the"

._

Philosophers,no

contiguous in time,

but

impossible.Hence,
intervals, there
between

this, for

be

must

effect.

which

something

t,

before

In

order

know

that

interfere with

as

am

been

far from

never

be

more

than

certain

and

comes
velocity,

tions.
calcula-

my

that

supposed

the

insure

to

to

the

effect.

environment, the probability

the

the

last,when

at

probabilityof repetition

It is these

law of

which

found

certain

an

of

be

course,

fairlydependable regularitiesof

that

do

mass,

the

that
regularities

better

would

have

It may

moving

formulation
never

failed.

sequences

be

there

that

when

with

with

they

be such

rule that

in contact

where

causality;

tliere may

fail.

exception to

an

in

penny

environment

in the

means

daily life.

never

this interval

ticket there is

difficulties,it must,

denying

in fact

the

make

expected effect, we

fail,it is thought that

to

raises

once

we

nil.

many
in

occur

time

of

put my

my

is included, the

these

that

have

which

of the

this

suggestedthe supposed

could

out

nothing

include

we

almost

spite of

found

are

short

repetitionis diminished, until

admitted

have

is

But

environment

sequence

draw

sure

there

as

becomes
In

be

to

at

happen during

may

can

lapse

This, however,

by itself,adequate

soon

of
whole

finite

upsets the machine

it.

is not,

cause

which

earthquake

And

infinitesimal time-

no

However

as

already given,is

prevents the expected result.

the slot,but

must

are

effect

and

cause

reasons

some

insuperabledifficulties.
interval

of

since there

and

cause

think

doubt,

than

more

pane

stone

of

will
of
a

glassof

i88

MYSTICISM

less than
not

deny

when

certain

that

they

infancyof

observation

bodies in air

usually fall

law

of

the

existence

this

kind,

gravitation. What

uniformities,as

it aims

we

fast

more
as

later it

the

from

into

moon

advance

in

science

difference.

takes
are

farther

us

first observed,

and

consequent,

circle of antecedents

continuallywider

nised
recog-

relevant.

principle
imagine

otiose.

As

same

as

antecedents

the

with

some

would

remain

importance

fact

scientific

that

to

lated
calcu-

have

antecedents

the

were

be

given
come
be-

unlikelythey will
involved,
principle

utterlysterile.

of these

they

been

have

consequent

it is very

that

Hence, if this

recur.

the

exactitude, the

comphcated

so

sophers
philo-

science,is therefore utterly

to be vital to

soon

effect," which

same

cause,

sufficiently
fully to enable

science

the latitude

make

must

"

The

the

of the

the
Theoretically,

uniformities which

the crude

as

The

know

to

shape

there

even

into greater differentiation of antecedent

ever

wishes
the

upon

altitude.

the

and

sun

short, every

that

appeared

difference,and

positionof

and

All such

bodies fall is

That

depends

of

of sequence

densityof the air. It is true that there is

nearly uniformitywhen they fall in a vacuum
; so
Galileo could observe, the uniformityis then complete.

made

away

assumes

certain vagueness

science

the

the

But

In

fall. This

they

bodies and

far

"events."

qualitativestatement

vague

is that science

upon

to

way

discoveringthem.

at

in the

unsupported

the

on

uniformities

depend

saw,

in the definition of the

how

deny

of invariable
that

or

useful

that

stage

was

I also do

even
regularities,

observation

the

of such

exceptions,is

without

not

science

LOGIC

thickness, the glassbreaks.

the

are

AND

lead

to

considerations
a

procedure, partlyin

more

the

correct

fact that

lies

partly m

account

they remove

of

THE

ON
the

with

analogy
of

point

latter

voHtion

human
such

cause

fruitful

will become

illustrations.

For

maxims

have

which

OF

NOTION

which

the

makes

the

by

I shall

purpose

189
ception
con-

of fallacies.

source

clearer

this

CAUSE

The

of

help
consider

some

few

great part in the historyof

playeda

philosophy^
(i)

"

Cause
This

other.""
of

effect must

and

is still by

have

grown

in

up

is too
it.

cause

Or,

parts of

unless

the

law of
and

could

causality; for, in

"effect," science

usually very
fact, two

to be

something

of the whole

to

the

at least

views
4)1.^^^^^
unduly simplified

some

of

that

show

to

seems

able

inexplicable,

legitimatesense

any

not

termed

are

them.

widely dissimilar, the

states

been

have

to

contained

assuming

upon

could

for this belief is that

supposed

cause

It is

previouslycontained

mind

are

always

which

depend

to

nature

our

philosophy

mind

what
particularly,

more

universe

equallynoble

from

each

extinct.

that

which

ground

one

the

means

no

example,

universe

dissimilar

nobler

seem

and

nothing mental,
matter

for

thought,

less resemble

or

prominent in

principlewas

occasionalism, and

still often

more

"

"

cause

the

universe, and

"

"

cause

they

are

being, in
"

effect

"

particularevent.

some

(2) "Cause

is

analogous

nexiis
be_arL.intelligible

maxim

philosopherswho
It is

stated.

justbeen
from
w^hat

purely material

"familiar

to

in any

unconsciously in
would

rejectit

mind

world.

could
I do

imagination." Nothing
sense,

than

the

view

not

not

the

when

the

by "intelligible"; it
other

effect."

and

cause

probably operative in

considering,that

is meant

volition,since there

between

is, I think, often

of

to

have

is less

connection

This

tions
imagina-

explicitly
we

have

resulted

professto
seems

must

to

know
mean

gible,"
"intelli-

between

MYSTICISM

iQO
act

of will and

nexus

desired

an

of

only
law

hold
of

between

such

between

events

*'

The

compels

cause

the effect does

seems

largelyoperative in
as

maxim,

and
"

define

falls

as

Wliat

I want

cause

as

meaning

point

make

to

the

does

person

help of

hi, there

come

it is, in

**

cause

"

be

can

not

is meant

thing
some-

abstain

to

found

This
for the
later.

return

he

wishes

And

is

do, there

to

no

be calculable

may

where

So

desire.

desire does

question of compulsion.

no

of the

effects,that

the

determine

the

cause

not

Hence
com-

as

"

be such

cause.

is that

of

suppose
and

that,

are

we

the word
told that

in which

sense

the

It is not

quite clear

the

only precise

function

pluralityof

admit
we

"

compel

effect in
the

substitutes

"determining";

I know,

is, if

maxim

same

for tiie word

by

^aras
we
relationVjIf
so

effect must

do

to

cause."

I shall

his wishes

much

determines

effect does

sense,

of circumstances

present is that compulsion

earlier events.

form

vaguer

what

what

may

effect.

determine

tlie

We

or

been

general,misleading to regard

})eUingthe
A

has

which

to

clear at

compulsion, however
by

prevent,

second

our

set

desires

belief

This

with

Any

in

sense

of determinism

circumstances

the

some
a

"

follows

as

some

sought.

that is abandoned.
"

for

room

be

complex notion, involving thwarted

very

long

"

which

"

*'

dislike

the

replace

no

the cause."

circumstances

tliat

word

is

the

something

presupposes

as

which

effect in

the

supposed

could

nexus

compeTAT when

is said to

from

soon

compulsion

which

sort

could

as

the

laws

of fact, it is connected

matter

the

compel

not

which

physics leave

as

which

which

but,

"

".events

science

obviouslythe

effect is such

and

cause

the

But

causalitycontemplates ;

two

(3)

LOGIC

its fulfilment.

between

causalityin
any

AND

or

causes,

given

the

such, but, given the

one-many
but

not

cause,

of
the

effect, the

THE

ON
cause

have

may

effect the

the

and

and

But

narrow.

the

cause

*'

the

"

"

efEect

later,we
of

"

"

and

from

more

common

place ;

but

at

of time

they

be

from
have

ceased

that

it

it wills,not

when

what

it wills.

This

of what

is meant

by

involves

the very

view

combating,

it is not

to

"operate"

thus

when

finite
their

cause

"

volition

of causation
us

of

to

certainlyrepresents

to

that, if*,

vohtion

it "causes"

merely happens

open

imcon-

seen

definition

only operates

operate

exist.

the above

it

"operates"

separatedby

their effects,and

objected to

"operating"

be

do

supposition

causes

already

must

to

sense.

consciously or

have

This

since the

nothing can

belief that

all,they

deal

some

in the

to

pressed
unex-

"

volition

ceased

nothing."

still exist in

all.

We

vohtions.

causes

effects after

in

still

consists

at

The

between

it has

to exist is

assimilatingthem,

to
sciously,

by

in this maxim

volition.

results

what

lack of symmetry

it must

it wills takes

plurality

illusory.

and

"operate"

It may

effects instead of

has ceased

now,

as

five minutes

world

operate when

cannot

effects

what

interval

is

taking

of arsenic, and

"

causes

are

"

is vague

oppositecourse,

prejudice. It has, I fancy, a good

attractiveness of Bergson's duree

except

there

effect

what

mistake

when

his death

of the

state

maxim,

past has

that

the

cause

common

with the

The

whole

supposed

exist,because
is

the

Thus

cause
"

adopt

of
plurality

"

(4)

the

"

drinking oLa. dose

the

results

Vaguely and narrowly

widely. Many antecedents

shall have

causes.

*'

if we

the

not

however,

death, because

man's

we

effecf

and
precisely

J'

cause

191

the effect,but

of causes,

Plurahty

cause

CAUSE

alternatives, then

determines

conceiving the

'*

may

OF

of many

one

cause

cause.

from

only

as

been

say that the

may

NOTION

be followed

the usual

operating," but
which
as

we

are

view
as

it

engaged

definitioji. We

MYSTICISM

192

may

that

say

of which

circumstances
But

this

which

will

is

the

to

open

(5)/* A
maxim
and
a

is very

In

analogous

operating

that

"

should,

we

it is/*

inferences

denial

of

Leibnizian

or

poral
concerningtemassumption that causes

in

are

obscure

some

in the

as

to

at

maxim

the

And,

led

monism

to

upon

they

This

urged againstNewton,

it has

analogous

the

volitions.

contiguity,the

*'

of

portant
chieflyim-

"

thence

i.e. that

to

is

ideas

prejudiceagainst action

philosophy

Like

operate,"

it was

of

source

it rests
contiguity,
"

What

operate except where

action, and

monadism.

it wills.

of causation.

has remained

transient

what

some

similar

introduces

I contend

as
reject,

widespread ;

distance."

tliere is

by

notion

the usual

cannot

cause

followed

conception, and

if we

notion

usual

when

yet considered.

not

us

"

operates

usually be

to notice is that

is not

LOGIC

similar volition in rather

vague

have

we

*'

volition

in virtue

law

AND

from

drawn

of

case

this

way

temporal

maxim

are

wholly groundless.
I

return

be

can

found

take

to

question, What

the

to

now

the

place of

the

law

laws

or

supposed

of

law

causality?
First, without
as

sequence
admit

may

in

hold

is

an

break
so.

of which
this

the

case

This, of

it is

of any

it

has

been

never

such

assumes

law,

found

our

present

indubitable.

fail,

to

it will be found
hitherto

We

may

frequentlyobserved

to

found

been

will continue

the inductive

concern,

we

observed

principle,

reasonably be questioned ;

may

as

have

been

probable that they

course,

truth

treat

has

sequence

If stones

principleis not

discussion

and

the traditional

that
probability

cases.

windows,

the

such

cases,

inductive

in future

to do

as

that, if any

great many

there

to

contemplated by

are

of

uniformities

such

passing beyond

but

I shall in this
then

say, in

sequence,

that

ON

earlier event

the

OF

NOTION

THE

is the

CAUSE

and

cause

the

193

1|

the

later event

effect
Several
sequences

different

very

and

cause

from

unobserved

instance, is

whereas

the relation

of

effect ; I
and

I do

of

sure

sense,

where

cases

be the

sense

shall

find them,

we

of

is meant

if there

even

cause

is that

only

without

one

present

our

actuallyare

Strikinga

A.

fail to

in

will

match

the fact that

some

ignite.

will not

be

which

believe

that

assumed
is its

in causal

every

in

cause

this

where

sequences

presumption that they always

any

to be found.

are

In

the

third

will be causal

sequence

shall not

we

Our

the

refuse

repugnance

which

we

fact that

through
interval.

"

the

to

cause

in

of

case

our

; for

present sense

night is the

saying this

arises from

the sequence

and

to

effect must

time, any

such

interpositionof

other

of

sufficiently
frequent

to say that

imagine

can

finite interval

says

place, any

example,
of

cause

the

day.
with

ease

fail,but owing

be

to

separated by

circumstances

fail

might

sequence

in the

Mill,discussingthis instance of night and

day,

"

It is necessary

should

believe

not

to

our

only

using the
that

the

word

cause,

antecedent

and

cause

case

Thus

in spiteof
igniting,

antecedent

some

we

follow

not

place,it

second

has

event

all that

occur.

of B

cause

and

damp

are

In the

does

of its

cause

matches

will also

be the

may

have

we

of

case

to

are

we

observation, it is probable that when

other

the

occurs

true

sense,

supposed

was

this merely that

when

even

present

our

of

grounds

on

by

discovered

that,

effect in

mean

effect

and

in any

probable,

than

more

no

cause

not

having

mean

special

In the first place,the sequence,

effect.

be necessary.

such

traditional relation of

the

hitherto

not

make

considerations, however,

that

always

we

has

'

MYSTICISM

194
followed

been

by

beso."^

of

but

causal

things endures,

such

which

useful in

tend

be

to

may

laws

dailylife and

in any

occurs

is
be

The

in the

law of

advanced

and

cause,

merely

which

the

is

later instant

doubt

the

"

"

'*

effect

laws

science,

soon

as

as

illustrate

In the motions

nothing that

of
be

can

effect ;

an

instant

for

every

two

earlier

other

any

or

is to say, the

That

of that

function

simply that

"

"

same

cause

is

in such

to

the

instant

old

therefore
There

is

could

that

"law

of

be
be

"

causality

books

the

function

they

of

sophers
philo-

is unfamiliar

seek

an

unduly

questionof repetitions

no

producing

could

that

system. .A'

pervade

the idea of

and

nothing

nothing

and

why

reason

simphfied statement.
of the

sequence,

two

cause

of them,

most

establishing.

"

every

there

**

long continued
is

kind

ment
given instants. This stateand not only in the special
physics,
throughojjt

properly called

to

instant is

any

gravitation.
\ But

so

of the

probable

calculable.
theoretically

properly called

has

laws

be

differential equations

configurationat

at
configurations

holds
of

causal

any

at
instant,or the configurations

the

configurationat
the

.JCertain
at

be called

can

of finding

hope

infancyof

science.

hold

one

instants, render

No

will

system, and which, given the configuration

velocities at

case

always

gravitationwill

nothing that

formula

found,

of
particle

and

it

moment

at

of

bodies, there
mutuallygravitating

and

the

at any

displacedby quite different

science is successful.

can

long as

contemplated

sciences aim

place,such

though

there

as

the

falsification of any

fourth

give up

to

observed

advanced

more

the

Mill

as

have

we

falsified without
that the

shall have

we

laws

sequence

called

that

In this sense,

what

LOGIC

the consequent,

constitution

present

In

AND

the

Loc. cit.," 6,

"

"

same

effect ; it

ON
is not

in any

relations.

is the

only

relation between
the

the universe

is

is many-one,
of

rate

changing
i.e. such

is

that

the

when

"

law

something actuallydiscoverable
the

above

proposition has
"

than

philosophers.
L In regard to
be made

must

(i) No
priorior

causality
above

the

any

instant

any

part of

this relation

change

in the
the

of

state

is to be

practiceof science,
right to

be found

the

name

of

in the books

observations

several
principle,

"

one

that

pretend

can

"

self-evident

is it,in any

constant

causality

in the

to

nearest

"

of

"

this

state

at

the

better

a
"

of

law

any

is

of

rate

is too

the

at which

rate

of

equations

that instant, and

at

If the

given."

There

of the universe

is determinate

change

universe

*'

in the

change

"

relations

impossibleto

stancy
con-

sameness

language ;

follows

as

the state

of

rate

It is

non-mathematical
be

in

of differential

sameness

phrase.

would

approach

of

sameness

195

effects that the

consists, but

law

"

correct

CAUSE

and

causes

even

phrase ;

OF

"

And

accurately in

and

of

sameness

scientific

of

simple

NOTION

THE

sense,

or

science

of laws

number

above

principleis

necessityof thought."

premiss of

generalisationfrom

the

empiricalgeneralisations.

it is an

which

Nor

empirical
are

selves
them-

"

(2) The
future
the

same

The

the

future

sense
"

word
:

another

makes

law

difference

no
"

in which

"

determines
the

past

"

number

variable

if that

of

other

the

past and

past in exactly
"

determines

determine," here, has

certain

between

the future.

purely logicalsignificance
"

variables
variable

is

determine

function

"

of

them.

(3) The
the

course

law

will not

of events

be

within

empiricallyverifiable
some

small
sufficiently

unless
volume

MYSTICISM

196

approximatelythe

will be

from

distance

example,

approximatelythe

be

provided

be distributed,

from

farther

much

gravitationvaried
motions

present, but

could

we

the old

(4) Although

by science, something
"

of nature

The

principle

principleof

the

same

is

the

to

the

it is at

*'

assumed

uniformity
inductive

not

assert

effect,'*but

same

That

acceleration
found

is to

the
the
say,

function

as

hold

to

law, agreeing with

regards the past, which

of this

that it has been

will hold

principleis simply
found

to be true

the

principlecannot
only probable to a degree

hence

is not

does

future, or that, if it does

other

some

been

If

that

as

accepted on

nature

an

very

throughout

past, it is expected that it will continue

in the

hold

laws

of laws.

permanence

has
configuration

ground

is

cause,

exhibiting,e.g.

observable

there
as

law

the
to

uniformityof

are

justas regular

call the

may

rather

or

be

causality

we

must

the fact.

"

trivial

of the

might

"

law of

which

is assumed,

grounds.

when

"

system

difference

discover

siderable
con-

planets are.

mathematical

never

question.

distance, so

most

world

subjectto

much

justas

and

planets,the

of the

in

fixed stars
the

the

the

is at

fixed stars may

the

than

sun

made

what

the solar

all the

that

of the

states

volume

however

directlyas

stars

remote

most

the

small

planetsin

same

two

regard to

the

of

motions

LOGIC
in any

same

differ in

only

which

universe

For

AND

th^

supposed

for the
the

itself hold,

not

future.

inductive

in very

considered

which

cannot

The

ground

instances

many

be

law

certain, but
be

accurately

sense,

although

estimated.
The

uniformityof

it is assumed

practiceof science,must not, in its

out
regarded as a kind of major premiss,with-

in the

generahty,be
which

nature, in the above

all scientific

assumption

thai

reasoning would

all laws

of nature

are

be in

error.

permanent

The

has, of

ON

THE

less

course,

than
probability

that

particularlaw

that

is

particularlaw

than
probability

the

to such

and

assume

what

such
the

that the law^ of

of that year
until it

assumption

procedure is, of

is not

nature

like
empiricalgeneralisation,
all such

it is better

cases,

to

given particularinstances
by

argue

way

probable in

by

of

In all science

in its

The

system

may

to be

connection

with

systems."

These

A
one

what

that

may

behave

sorts

in the

same

not

are

some

way

the rest of the universe

for

such

probably
verifiiable,

call

be defined

as

very

we

we

cannot

important in

"relativelyisolated
follows
a

that

"

given period is

assignablemargin
throughout

purposes
but

the

gravitationwhich

point is

may

may

of laws

outside

matter

system relativelyisolated during

which, within

only

for example,
gravitation,
system, is only empirically

of universal

we

is

to

the latter.

that

This

exact.

the

of

ignored
law

In

from

the conclusion

only approximatelytrue,

empirically
verifythe
believe

law

the solar

be

an

instance, than

new

distinguishtwo

it is assumed

believe this to be

we

by

secondly,those

to
applications

verifiable when
solar

be exact.

may

to

is

mortal."

that are" empiricallyverifiable but

only approximate
but

than

have

we

the

acquiresa higher probability

but

method

This

that

immediately

major premiss ;

either case,

the former

first,those

the

to

1916

to

as

fact

are

men

argue

assume

priori,but

all

structing
con-

almanac.

the

by

will

up to the end

true

known
"

up

it will

of the

dictated

course,

valid

In

assumption

volume

next

less

more.

no

remain
no

has

given case,

for 1915

it will make

to the

uniformityof

Almanac

gravitationwill

; but

comes

Science, in any

or

assumption

the

it will be

that

this

that

for all time

requires,but

case

Nautical

the

and

permanent

date.

197

assumption

the

permanent
is

CAUSE

OF

NOTION

of error,

will

period,however

be constituted.

MYSTICISM

198
A

AND
"

be called

system may

there

of

would

universe

which

assignedmargin
such

of error,

"^"^'
Strictlyspeaking, we
which
the

the

is

but

not

regards economic
have

been

It will be
that

ought

tides ;

observed
stated

help

it is

This

in

from

them

neighbourhood.

from
can

be

laws

for

complete
a

for

the

system

example,

isolation
the practical
gravitation,

system in this respect

fact

in advance

uniformities

assuming,

sun-

respect.

the isolation of

known,

were

this

prove

If the

as

true, it would

been

will be inferred

approximate

of universal

of the

that

isolated
practically

cannot

we

system alone.

deduced

solar

believe

specifythe respect

to

crises had

that

that

universe

be

the law
the

observed

for this

could

to

reason

isolated in
practically

even

fact

the whole

the

phenomena, although, if Jevons'

system is isolated.

than

occur.

spot theory of commercial

not

more

isolated.
For example,
relatively
isolated as regards fallingbodies,
relatively

regards

as

is

of the rest

states

produce

during a

is

system

earth

might be

there

in fact

do not

states

"

isolated
practically

given periodif,although
the

LOGIC

that
But

there

be

can

is very

it should

by

deduced

the

in its

little matter

be observed

of

isolated

that

of
only important as providinga possibility
discoveringscientific laws ; they have no theoretical

systems

are

importance
The

case

in the finished structure

where

one

B, which

event

reallyonly
isolated

the

philosopherstake
It may

happen

whenever

certain

period,it is followed

form

system

which

is

as

period. Tt is,however,

good

fortune

occurs

by

A
B

another

cause

fundamental,
of

that,

practically

as

result

throughout

occurs

; in that

is

A and

case,

of
a

practicallyisolated throughout

that

if this

"

"

simplifiedinstance

most

system.

science.

A is said to

event

general scientific laws,

of

to

be

; it will

regarded as
always

be due to

piece of
special

ON

circumstances, and
of the universe

OF

NOTION

THE

would

had

different

199
if the rest

true

the

though subject to

laws.

same

The

essential
to

from

the

events

is the

past, or,

more

"

generally,events

define

may

"

called

from

in which

istic
determin-

deterministic

system

system is said
.

"

be

to

data, e^, 62,

form

"

deterministic

e^, at times

if

is the

E^

given

when,

ti,t^y

^" respectively,
of the

state

relation of the

t, there is a functional

time

system at any

(A)

^,^f{e,J,,e,J,,.,,.e"J"J).

The

"

system will be

period

"

within

if t, in the
,that

formula

be

is such

universe

has

events

set

one

In the

case

We

outside

*'

e^, e^,

...,""!

is part of
"

shall call

It is to be observed

of determinants
of the

is true

determined

motions
the

of the
solar

as

of
a

the
a

the

ministic
deter-

which

one

is

*'

capricious."

"

determinants

that

will in

time

any

universe,

If the

system which

given

period

that

system I shall call

configurationsof

times

I shall call
such

system.

be

may

system, determinism

; if not, not.

part of any

throughout

formula,

above

longer true.

no
a

system

of the

deterministic

period, though

may

whole,

The

as

"

concerning this system,

the

future

certain

not

posed
sup-

time

at any

Any system
be

possiblemay

We

system.

follows
A

is

been

of inferring
the
possibility

assigned times.

certain

inference

causalityhas

which

function

perform

at

such

of

been

have

not

been

CAUSE

"

system which

general have

many.

planets,for example,
at any

system

two

given

will be determinants.
may

take

another

illustration from

psycho-physicalparallelism. Let

purposes

of this

that
illustration,

to

us
a

the

hypothesis

assume,

given state

for the
of brain

MYSTICISM

200

given state

of mind

i.e.that there is
each

is

what

LOGIC

relation between

of the

We

other.

certain, that
practically

certain brain

given state

vice versa,

always corresponds,and

one-one

function

is

AND

them,

also assume,

may

to

given

of the whole

is

there

will be

twice

ever

in

relation

one-one

given person'smind
universe.

of

whole

to say, that

given

material

The

have

confusion

is

"

the

"

"

"

be

mind

as

We

But

when

exactly as
it would

some

the

true

deduce
the

that

to

matter

regard

of brain to mind

one-sided
if the
there

mind.

But

were

dependence
relation

would
the

be

were

dependence

on

is
is

given, it
matter.

history of
at

the

mind

end,

through

have

gone

that

if the relation
there would

brain, while
as

Bergson

dependence

involved

mind

subject to

as

one-one,

one-many,

one-sided

if the

matter

is

then,

and

of mind

is determinate

of the brain

mind

the

not

who

matter

subject to

It is true

many-one,

and

given, and

matter
as

out

is

with

those

in which

meanwhile

must

correspondinghistory.
a

of the

system, then

of the

state

mentioning matter,

ever

beset

if the state

regard mind

be to

is

sense

work
could, theoretically,

without

be

in

to mind.

also determinate

brain

deterministic

to matter

subject

must

universe, then

of the mind

state

of the

state

forms

world

subject

not

material

the

relation of mind

the

material

^assuming,that

"

to have

seems

thought that, if the

when

material

of

state

determinants

are

universe

which

on
philosophised

It is often

material

mind

Hence

whole
of

states

of the

mental

the

of the

state

that, if

man's

and

between

given

state.

same

universe

material

parallehsm is true.
psycho-physical
illustration is important in connection

above

certain

the

determinants

are

states

and

It follows

universe

exactly the

of

state

corresponds,since it is highly improbable that

brain

that

so

is,in any

versely,
con-

poses,
sup-

of brain
case,

on

only

ON

it does

logical;
do

not

mechanism
"

of matter
the

we

"

of

mechanical

mind

and

system

I contend

so

question

whether

logical system.
is meant

"

by

is not much

; let

or

what

by

is

fact

^are

"

^ifit be

"

certain

followed

fact

bearingwhatever

by
the

on

were

be

all wishes

were

whether,

and

ground
There

desire

the

purposes

^those that

"

or

be

Now

the

mechanical
there

The

thwarted.

is

world

has

it is teleological

realised,and

are

universal

more

is mechanical

might

actual

our

for

wishing it to

is,in all these

is in

moment,

fact

the

determined."

it should

that

avoiding confusion

what

"

far,

adopt.

might

question

teleological,

cal,
therefore, be settled by proving that it is mechani-

cannot,

in

how

or

argument

their realisation.

There

sense.

all wishes

in which

the

question whether

system in which
one

desires

^that the universe

"

in the above

but

fundamental

more

or

accuratelywhat

in which

one

the

teleo-

particulardefinition we

the

position
sup-

on
"

is not

or

"

nobler
not

is

sake

This

lightwhatever

It is difficult to define

affected

it, is

for the

system.

teleological system,

certain pieces

suppose,

no

universe

realised,i.e. in which

deeper

us

^throws

"

Broadly, a teleological
system
are

of

case

know

we

as

mechanical

the

"

no

the

questionwhether

open

matter,

not

or

argument, that it is
"

or

take

may

It is an

at certain times.

world

to

stinctive
people in-

is what

purelyjnatfiriaUsiich
as the positionsof

are

of

compelled

teleology.A system may be defined as

that
when
it_hasa set_ofdeterminants

and

mechanical

shall be

we

201

mean.

illustration

another

CAUSE

do, which

to

it to

imagine
As

that

mean

desire not

thingswe

OF

NOTION

THE

be not

questions,a
between

There

senses

is one

is
teleological

no

mechanical.

determined.

various

be

what
Let

in which
sense

very

"

we

can

infer and

consider, for

us

the
^and

great difficulty

future
very

may

be

important

MYSTICISM

202

one

^in which

"

We

it will

future

view

You

this is

to

future

the

the

the

past

But

case

useless to wish
"

if

be

such

effect

its

past. But

not

have

that

different.

unless

the

were

Of course,

past

they

the

more
are

facts

can

; this
seem

our

^If

less
obviouslyit is use-

the

make

cannot

if you

happen

of

forthcoming echpse

application

an

to wish

as
"

rejoined,

the

^it

from

they

can

have

can

not

no

mere

quent
subse-

effect
upon

the

past would

are

have

different ;

it

no

have

present wishes

could

can

what

something

that

past

wishes

our

This, again, is

mean

our

know

to

"

present wishes

had

been

conditioned

been

different

therefore, if

different,the past would

cannot

^true, but

"

of contradiction.

to be different

been

be different from

our

be different.
what

it was,

present wishes be different from what

again
to

was

remove.

And

not

therefore

present wishes

no

does

past had

it

being definedas

Obviously, our

past, and

objectto

my

in

errors

is

past."

different if

been

just those

again

obviously we

cause,

the

the

effect

An

alter the future."

exist, and

not

the

upon

tautology.
to

did

they

alter

cannot

you

was,

it different

the future, sometimes,

would

**

also you

it will be

But,"

should

we

it will be ; this

e.g. in the

that

the fact that

by

than

the law

of contradiction.
"

upon

it has been

what

simply by

forward,

extent

some

what

for the accident

told,

past other

than

future

cause

The

to rest

other

different.

but

me

it different.

just as

by

to

wish

of the law

determined

not

are

can

which

already know

you

we

applicationof

mere

it

equally determined

to

make

cannot

it will be

as

and

."But,"

causation

oi

; but

happened

as

seems

quite independently
that

sense

backward

happen.

regard to

is

it has

past, while you

iThis

the

regard the past

works

regard the
the

namely,

all

the fact that

memory

LOGIC

it is determined

scientific laws,
will be.

AND

be

is

merely

merely

the

U)

law

that

of contradiction.

wishing generally

depends

ON

THE

upon

ignorance, and

the future

regard to
where

wish

often

very

i.e. many
there

NOTION

"

seems

feelingsarises from
but

the

not

future

Although
future

the

that

future

"

of

sense

the

the

by

when

they speak

they

have

in mind

as

meet

function

with

by

formula

deterministic

about

of any

at

it will be what
to

M.

given

in

What

of which

the

calculated,
theoretically

But

this

at

besets

systems,

what
as

point we
been

has

well

what

as

is
be

function

co-ordinates

at time

particlemoves,
/i"f%"fzisuch

It follows

there

of certain

deterministic

deterministic

are

x^, ^^, z^.

able
measur-

Let

system.

us

whose
particle,

Then,

however,

the

functions
be, theoretically,

must

that

the
that, theoretically,

universe
as

great,

system, whose

any

consider, in illustration,
a
singlematerial

exhibited

and

Bergson

people have

means

that

seem

moment

quantities,must

material

to refute

me)

degree of complexity,however

admitted, it would

state

the

which

others.

If formulae
are

by

past.

our

past

determined.

as

at least

of the

in

most

which
great difficulty,

said above

is said

is

the

that

"

notably

of the future

in

memory.

seems

what

be exhibited, and

can

it

But

realised.

fact that

so

it is not

mind

future

its reahsation

fact

by

mere

(atleast

pragmatists,yet

(2)that

difference

determined

opponents of determinism,

some

main

the

be known

can

it will be is sufficient

past

are

accidental

the

is determined

the

future, it and

regarding the
doubt

no

in

commoner

practicallyindependent system,"

wishes

203

is therefore

regard to

the

concerns

form

in

than

CAUSE

OF

time

at

function
in the

sense

t must

of t.

Hence

defined

whole
be

state

of

capable

our

above.

universe
But

of the

being
will be

if this be

MYSTICISM

204

true,

AND

information

no

conveyed about

it is deterministic.

statingthat
involved

is

LOGIC
universe

the

in

It is true that the formulae

infinite complexity,and therefore

strictly
not
or
capable of being written down
practically
apprehended. But except from the pointof view of our
to be a detail : in itself,if
knowledge, this might seem
the above
be

must

be of

may

considerations

sound, the material universe

are

deterministic,must

be

subjectto

This, however, is plainlynot what

difference between
be

seen

infinite number

and

more

there

are

more

that
for

; it may

law

will hold.

that

has held

be

past, but

hitherto

We

cannot

Hence,

say

it

assuming

even

shall have

we

in the

hold

must

^there will be

divergingfrom

other hitherto

some

may

fits the

reason

no

will hold

of the inverse square

the law

in future

which
"

laws,
persistent

assuming that

intended

formula

future.

in the

The

distinguisha
formulae,not empirically

it in the

from

view

gravitation

of

of other

intended.

was

the

some

the law

say

"

and

Given

follows.

as

facts hitherto
an

this view

laws.

indistinguishable

that

which

every law

future, because

past

facts which

obey one law will also obey others, hitherto

there
Hence
but diverging in future.
indistinguishable
be laws

must, at every moment,

are

broken

now

hitherto

after

ceases,

that

that

law

axiom

an

can

be

has

been

falsified.

fact that, in many

quitesimple laws

nor

simplest formula
science

apphcable is selected, and

the brute

fact cannot

methodological

If the

of Nature.

does, in

the simplest formula

time, to be applicable,

remains

sense

with

not

science

that will fitthe facts.

this, quite obviously, is merely

precept,

which

What

for the first time.

fact,is to select the simplestformula

But

unbroken

have

hitherto

regarded

it be used

to

as

We

are

departments
been

having

found
any

has
thus

no

left

of science,

to hold.

This

prioriground,

support inductivelythe opinionthat

the

ON

THE

laws

will continue

same

hitherto

true

sciences

these

remained

laws

sciences

advanced
their

sciences
The

has

done

not

not

laws

exhibit
of

acceleration

irrelevance

involves

it is

given

in

time, though
formulae.

case

It will
it to the

that
i.e.

our

volitions
"

are

in

and

no

have

an

been

certain

configuration,
this

principle

extended

to
"

in which

time,

may

do

formity
uni-

course,

lapse of

case

in

appear

suffices to

our

come
over-

; but

know

not

all

scientific

no

unless, of

argument,

in

it.

said if we

has been

to

in

is true

to

the

the
or

correct)can
is

no

observed

will is the

apply

doctrine

deterministic

some

false,is

exist

system,

defined

sense

prioriconsiderations

hand, there

merely

be

may

be

the time

might interpretthe

we

regard
"

of fact ;

but

jointly;

time

belong

determined

easily

free will.

this doctrine

one

of

to diminish

Whether

the

as

much

(i) Determinism

the

All mechanical

function

this consideration

question of

and

that
principle

formulae.

to illustrate what

serve

that

to

difficulty
completely, I
it does

be

consideringseems

our

absolute

not

well

other

integratedform,

Whether

our

any

time

an

sciences to the

meaning justthis,that

as

the

have

be fallacious to argue

the

time

fact

"

of nature
law

as

of the

In

scientific laws.

that

subject-matter of

been

wholly,by

not

advanced

simply because, hitherto,

the

have

configurationand

of the

those

obeyed simple

into
explicitly

enter

in the

than

laws

so.

we
difficulty

must

not

has

laws, while

partly,if

met

it would

advanced

subject-matter

ascertainable

simple

others, for it may

are

205
moment

the state of the advanced

of the

state

CAUSE

; for at every

less

are

Moreover

true.

OF

being falsified,
though

are

from
inductively
future

NOTION

question

mere

(ifour
on

above.

cussions
previous dis-

either side.

prioricategory

of

uniformities.

As

On

causality,
a

matter

MYSTICISM

206

of

fact, there

volitions ;
volkions

f'

that

quite possiblethat

V^ things,are
*^

found

we

that

the

other

bearing rests

effects,or

that

do.

of natural

other

(3) Besides

there

determined,

of what
is the

above

was

purely material
which,

functions

of those

evidence

up

to

all volitions.

that

is the

this

mind.

by

no

only

means

It may

We

as

they

are

be

demerits

it has

created
the

and

volitions

question whether

mechanical

part of

part of

there

the

same

are

This

laws

all volitions
is

empirical
in

regard

observe, however

mechanical

supremacy

part

are

system with

conclusive
to

are

they

system.

again, there

important

that

they

data, make

it is not

impliesany
well

our

it is not

of the

one

determinism

form

Here

point,but
It is

as

volitions

that

i.e. whether

material

data.

their

feel that

means

It is

further

defined

if volitions

even

with

causes

general question whether

certain

it has

its laws

to

determinants, i.e. whether

given

that

no

conscious.
int respectively

are

question whether

of

has

compel

causalitythat

mechanicallydetermined,

are

to

that

of

view

edicts.

human

theory

we

the

oj

anthropomorphic

of

oppositionbetween

of which

freedom

in which

sense

causes

mere

are

it to be.

choose

traditional

other

subjective sense
The

to assimilation

with

to

it is

and

some

as

obedience

enforces
These

laws

we

artificial

an

the

belief that

compelled, but

than

of the

hand,

the

nature

due
superstitions,

will is not

well

that

rash

very

allegedagainst determinism,

upon

governments
and

be

to

be determined.

question whatever.

the

regard

overwhelming,

volitions,as

some

freedom, sometimes

is

everythingmust

on

bearing on

it would

determined, except in the

not

(2) But,

ML

But

evidence

the

in

empirical evidence

some

determined.

are

maintain

is

there

LOGIC

uniformities

observed

are

thus

AND

of matter

system,
over

system which

is

THE

ON

susceptibleof
be determined
material
which

by

facts.

make

; thus

It would

mechanically determined
notion

(4) The
with

of

deducible

however

much

Determinism

does

reasons
are

associated

legitimately

not

Three

meanings

it will be
wish

imply

of

are
:

"

performed
otherwise.

do

to

actions

that

are

necessary

sense.

A propositional
{/3)
function is
values

of

sets

volitions

that

is often

when

agent may

not

by

as

necessityis spoken

when

the

well

notion

actiofi is necessary

(a) An

in this

confused

confounded

commonly

system may

fallacious.

determinism.

from

view

the

are

susceptible

therefore, that the

which
necessity,

is

determinism,

mechanical

seem,

dishke

207

is also

volitions,as

of

sets

people

CAUSE

determinants

material

determinants

of mental

OF

NOTION

true.

are

This

is not

sense

relevant

all its

when

necessary

to our

present

discussion.

(y) A propositionis
constituent

when
of

argument,

words, when

the

connection

taken

the

determinants

But

constant.

and

has

'ffWe
found

no

may

this

emotional
now

sum

first that the

and
of

sense

up

our

law

of

considered

the

that,instead of statingthat

its determinants
occur

is
be

the

volition

being kept

necessityis purely logical,

1

discussion

of

causality. We

as
usuallystated by
causality,

is not

nature

system,

varied, the time-interval

importance.

is false,and
philosophers,
then

be

to

constituent

the determinants

at which

constituent

that

as

in other

deterministic

with

volition

the

as

between

in

given

that constituent

however

true

In this sense,
of

to

function,
propositional

necessary

if the time

necessary,

respect

it is the value, with

it remains

be varied.

may

with

necessary

employed

in science.

of scientific laws, and

one

event

A is always

We

found

follojyed

MYSTICISM

2o8

another

by

the

at

involved

category
as

found

that

likely

have

example,

trivial

and

system

with

other

volitions
for

determined

by

determinism
but

in

for

is

part

not

supposing
volitions.

therefore,

yet

capable

kind,

to

we

the

The

problem

if

we

were

of

being

we

that

determined

be

are

that
is

revealed

mechanical

be

also

found

we

that

that

for

Finally

decided

sense

very

that,

may

here

determined,
in

freedom

denying

will

and

mechanically

are

may

system

volitions

supposing
conclusive,

not

or

free

We

form.

determined.

of

problem

for
but

strong

determined

peared
ap-

universal,

useless

different

quite

vohtionally

or

the

reasons

of

laws

determinants

of

set

priori

any

necessarily

not

times

later

scientific

scientifically
one

find

called

we

or

to

of

fact,

mechanically

teleologically
considered

sets

unable

existence

empirical

which

earlier

at

were

the

purely

in

except

the

We

time.

same

times,

events

relations

functional

certain

at

other

and

stated

they

events

determinants,
or

B,

event

certain

between

LOGIC

AND

reason

no

spection,
intro-

by
events

of

right,

free

mainly

decisively

if

even

not

are

will

versus

illusory,
solved.

BY

KNOWLEDGE
AND

ACQUAINTANCE

KNOWLEDGE

BY

DESCRIPTION

''

^HE

object of

it is that

-*-

"

candidate
do

who

I have

considered

logicalpoint of
the
well

order

make

to
"

explain what

and
I

"

by

of the

relation

mean

judgment,

but

we

purely

I wish

of

to

sider
con-

knowledge
of the

as

abovemake

possible.

as

"

antithesis between

the

I say

acquaintance."
when

the

have

the

speak

sort
sort

quaintance
ac-

first of all

object,i.e. when

not

do

shall in this paper

object itself. When

here, I do

constitutes

that

from

in view

object

an

to

"

the

most

get

What

follows

theory

to

logic,and

mean

cognitiverelation

is

I shall
description,"

acquainted with

aware

relation

clear

will

who

elsewhere^

in what

brief

that

subjectis merelyjdescribed?

logicaldiscussions,I

logicalportion as

who

will be elected, though I

problem

to

positions
pro-

knowing
I know

example,

to consider

the

know

we

without

candidate

; but

question in

mentioned

am

For

I wish

this

view

"

votes

where

in relation

as

In

is.

problem

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where

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votes.

in

gets most

know

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what

is to consider what

followingpaper

know

we

about
or

the

to

that

am

directly

of

cognitive
which

constitutes

presentation. In fact, I think the relation of subjectand

1

See

references
209

later.

direct

of relation
which

try

MYSTICISM

2IO

object which

I call

relation

of the

of

AND

LOGIC
is

acquaintance

object and

simply the

subject which

That
is, to say that S
presentation..
the same
with O is essentially
thing as

presented to S.

But

of the word

word

the

acquaintanceare

presentation.To
object even

an

will be

same

of

danger that,

emphasis

so

may

The

result

that there is no
to

or

lead to

something

before

else.

the

speaking

in

object as

the

view

of

is the

2+2=4

even

In

the

to

emphasise,

second

is,to my

presentation,we

to lose

sight of
lead

to

the
the

ject.
subview

arrive at materialism

we

what

that

mind,

my

There

of this is either to

whence
subject,

actually

relational character

concerned.

are

we

acquainted

am

that

of

nitive
cog-

arises. This

the
presentation,

of the fact with which

those

it is not

occasion

is

sions
exten-

in most

acquaintanceis designed

word

the word

than

mind,

when

said to know

am

thinking

am

place, the
more

that

say

moments

whenever

again
in which

sense

when

at

natural

as

that

say

different from

mind, provided it has been

before my
and

to

begin with,
to

constitutes

acquaintance

the associations and

words, it is natural
with

has

converse

is

presented is part

of

arrive at idealism, and

should
we
subject,whence
but for the most desperatecontortions.
arrive at solipsism

the

I wish

Now
in my

the dualism

to preserve

terminology, because

fundamental

fact

of

subjectand object

this dualism

to

seems

concerningcognition.

Hence

because
it emphasisesthe
acquaintance,
subjectwhich is acquainted.

the word
a

Wlien
we

are

we

acquaintance

sense-datum
is

When

with

the kinds of

are

acquainted,the

sense-data.
direct

ask what

first and

see

colour

with

which

most

the
I

am

or

colour

hear
or

of

which

example

is

noise, I have

the

acquainted in

generally,if not always, coniplex. This

prefer

need

objectswith
obvious

me

is

noise.
these

The
cases

particularly

KNOWLEDGE

BY

obvious

in the

merely

that the

parts with

sensible

is not
would
be

Whether

an

possible.

there

This

with

being

is

question arises

of
the

on

its

stituents
con-

whole

it

it should

why
in

self-consciousness, which

must

we

not

form

acute

an

be

possibleto

aware

reason

no

but

contains

and

it is

question,but

easy

that

seem

connection

without

complex

of course,

mean,

object is complex

spatialrelations.

of

aware

not

211

supposed physicalobject is complex,

direct

the

that

I do

sight.

of

case

ACQUAINTANCE

in
now

brieflyconsider.
In

we
introspection,

be

to

seem

varying complexes, consistingof objectsin

conative

and

it often

the sun,
the

I desire

food, it often

desire for food.

in which

complex

am

of

aware

of which

am

of self-consciousness

connected

with

is difficult,but

plainfacts
with

ourselves.

with

the

know
here

the

stand

as

"

complex

with

has been
which

we

shall have

to

know
a

is
:

We

that

we

complex

have
not

are

acquainted

slightly

too

account

is

direct

suppose

that

wished

relation.

in which

we

with
"

we

A."
I

"

also
Now

does not

object of acquaintance,
"

'*

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Also

for

acquaintance

is

something

to maintain

with

It

only acquainted

if

analysed,and

acquainted

are

it is

question of

and
large,

do not

we

to

argued at lengthhere.

acquaintance with

no

The

of^

state

opposed

as

to
impossible,

am

by description.If we

follows

we

something

there

any

when
of my

aware

but
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for

known
that

"

proposition

the

be

It is plainthat

complex

am

see

seeing

; and

sun

discover

to

is too

not

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assume

of my

myself alone,

subject,to

probably

if we

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nitive
cog-

When

aware

constituent.

the nature

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am

of the

happens
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But
I

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to

various

ourselves.

to

that

happens

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sun,

mind

relations

of

immediately aware

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argue

acquaintance,and
we

are

acquainted

perceivethat acquaintance

MYSTICISM

212

is the

relation.
relating
have

must

i.e. must
This
"

AND
Hence

have

define

But

subject-termin
as

effort.

It would

suppose

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seem

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know

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This

The
been
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of

universals.
and
Not
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green
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does."

to

may

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all

might

point

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are

*'

or

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sense-datum.
particular

above

awareness

of

awareness

conceiving,

is called

concept.

if

such

yellow

this is

universal

judgments

resembles

as

yellow

less than

yellow is the predicatein

yellow," where

And

yellow;
"

blue

we

cient
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have

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quite

not

is called

aware

of

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as

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sight

from

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subjectin

"

And

all

far have

of the

(though
be

sufficient number

blue

we

it further.

so

awareness

of universals

aware

is the

be

present

our

derived

be

may

we

we
intelligence,

this universal

analysis

For, from

knowledge

of which
we

I,"

cannot

for

discuss

not

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Awareness

universal

only

important

in addition

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same

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its constituents.

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have

level with

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to

knowledge, introspectiveknowledge

objects,

of

happy

existents, and
particular

of

hearing. But,

kind

aware."

question whether

be called sense-data.

theory

exactly on

or

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largesense

means

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awarenesses

as

"

therefore, either

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purposes,

am

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to

Thus

complex

definition,being merely the proper

throwing lighton

as

"

Thus
/

necessary,

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regarded

be

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an

acquainted with myself,and

am

certain

as

complex

is acquainted,

of which

awarenesses

therefore, requiresno
name

well
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as

this cannot

definition

that this

is that which

subject-termas

subject-term we

the

know

we

constituent which

LOGIC

universal

"

this

"

is

relations,too.

KNOWLEDGE

objects of

are

awarenesses

after, resemblance,
would

ACQUAINTANCE

BY

desire,

itself,and

objectsof

and

before

down,

awareness

to be all of them

seem

and

up

213

which

on,

so

we

be

can

aware.

In

regard

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in which

be said that

may

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this is before

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know
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For

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with

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Thus

instances

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ment
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constitutes

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meaning
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directly:

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to

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of
not

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terms

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merely

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of it.
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sorts of

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which

we

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fact

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often

we

given objects,but

anything."

such

particularcases

another

judgment

"

ever,
view, how-

relation is the

here

and

acquainted with

were

actual

before

know

fact that

before

other
;

the

know

we

things,but

could

we

we

third

the

definite

not

are

the

definite

not

example,

another, and

first is before

are

it

relation

This

the

of

only

example,

that."

with

which

are

propositionas
of such
aware
directly

be

before

is difficult to reconcile

For

such

may

we

itself,but

directlysuch

know

understand

we

this

as

relation

constituent.

that," and

"

complex

it is

we

before,though

as

universal

of the

aware

complexes

relations, it might be urged that

to

or

include
more

objectsof
universals.

all existents, and

constituents

are

all

which

we

Among

complexes

existents,such

of
as

this-before-that,this-above-that, the-yellowness-of-this.

MYSTICISM

214

universals

Among

AND

I include

is a constituent.
"

**

disjunction
with

the

remembered

with

"

the

"

It is not

ticular
par-

universal-

disjunction
might

no

also call it the

quite parallel
things

concept-percept,"because

but
imagined belong with particulars,

or

can

percepts. (On the other hand, universals

called

which

Thus

which

objectsof

abstract-concrete."

opposition

hardly be

all

all objects. We

includes

particular

LOGIC

we

acquainted

are

with

identified

be

may

concepts.)
It will be

that

seen

acquainted

are

opposed

known

things are

to

which
description,"
"

By

"

"

so-and-so

"a
a

"the

or
"

so-and-so

phrase of

shall call

"

mean

I shall call
"

"

mask

is

of the

phrase

pass them

by, since they do

What

"

*'

is an

that there

though
a

we

I wish

simply of

**

form

"

we

know

when

descriptionwill

the so-and-so

I shall say
when

"

that

an

that

"

is

iron

the

various

are

in the

is the nature

to

where

cases
a

definite

any

such

"

"

mean
mean

of

know

we

description,

object.

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definite

sequel, speak
definite

any

tions."
descrip-

phrase

of the

singular.

objectis
it is

the matter

exclusivelywith

is concerned

descriptions

Thus

with

shall, therefore, in the

descriptions.

"

man

man

to discuss

acquaintedwith

which

matter

form

"

concern
directly

not

objectanswering
not

are

(inthe singular)I

the

knowledge concerning objectsin

our

"

but
ambiguous descriptions,

with

connected

to discuss.

description.Thus

problems
I wish

the form

description. There

definite

phrase of

the so-and-so
"

definite

knowledge by

ambiguous "description ;

an

ambiguous description,and

an

is

any

"

"

consider.

now

so-and-so."

the form

we

physical objects (as

These
people'sminds.
I call

what

must

we

description

other

by

us

which

objectswith

included

not

are

sense-data),nor

to

the

among

the

"

known

"

by description

so-and-so," i.e. when

we

KNOWLEDGE
know

that

certain

is

there

property

do

we

BY

have

not

but

we

who

are
one

the

who

man

votes, but
i.e. we
the

*'

will

who

by

know

get

most

may

in

fact, the

"

''

ais

we

"

we

is

say

justone
"

the

object which

is the

Larmor

is the

Larmor

is

The

are

with
even

candidate

when

exists

we

know

are

that

not

fact, is the so-and-so.

"

"

means

one

we

to

we

Sir

Joseph

else
one

Thus, when

not

is."
is

we

be the

to

exists,but
are

the

Joseph

one

know

position
pro-

Sir

some

else is."

exists when
know

has

"

means

the so-and-so

we

no

"

object which

an

object which
we

no

The
a

"

else has.

candidate, and

that

mean

we

that

means

candidate

Unionist

that the so-and-so

any

position
pro-

any

so-and-so.

"

nothing

Unionist

acquainted with

is the

so-and-so

candidate, and

so-and-so,
know

Unionist

Unionist

is,

something with

is

exists,"

so-and-so

property so-and-so, and

"

although

know

not

the so-and-so," where

when,

object which

the

one

have

we

so-and-so

exists,and

do

we

is

is

acquainted.

are

When

he is,
"

form

where

of the

most

get

shall say that

that the so-and-so

so-and-so, yet

will

the

"

votes

We

name.

sense

else)with

one

who

possiblybe acquainted vnth

we

there

some

propositionof

any

merely descriptiveknowledge

although we

in this

of the candidates

which

know

know

not

candidates

which

vnth

the

that

know

vidllbe elected, and

acquainted

do not

candidate

of the

We

is,in fact, the candidate

we

do

be

can

quaintance.
ac-

him

about

known

was.

votes

with the iron mask

man

likelyalso acquainted (inthe only

very

in which

he

object by

same

propositionsare

gets most

having

generallybe implied that

the

who

215

more,

no

of the

that

know

not

candidate
case

know

many

do

we

it will

knowledge

We

existed, and

object,and

one

and

ACQUAINTANCE

we

may

acquainted

be the so-and-so, and

acquainted with

any

objectwhich, in

MYSTICISM

2i6

words,

Common

even

using a

person

the

same

constant

(solong as

to which

the

makes

in which

take

us

the

have,
a

as

be

suppose)with
object,and

is,they

very

much

which

of him

friend's mind
knows

that

Here

the

only

were

with

into

come

thus

the

various

which
a

is

case

with

as

were

will

physical

known

as

course,

of

characteristics
friend's

mind

essential

point is

descriptionsall apply

when

descriptionactually in
The

the

sense-data.

these

by description.It is,of

of chance

not

we
(rightly,

body

to

knew

who

acquainted
His

the

object,and

him,

connected

In

always wishes

if a person

about

connected

is accidental.
the

But

his mind,

will

it

certain

body.

known

appearance

is

there

judgment.

was

he

Bismarck's

matter

that

self
himself, he him-

about

which

object.

this person

were

ment
state-

some

acquainted.

was

of the

judgment

mind

of the proposition

Suppose

he

judgment

the

still more

That

he

object

directlyto designate

with whom
a

the

falsehood

or

name

for

sense-data

thinks

his

simply standing

What

he

only thing

acquaintance with oneself,Bismarck

use

different.

man's

The

Assuming

has the direct

made

and

for

people,or

appears.

constituent

Bismarck

body

times.

truth

name

used

descriptionof

certain

'

have

if he made

name

proper

for different

Bismarck.

particularperson
might

by

name

proper

descriptionrequired to

illustrations.

direct

might

this case,

for

the

some

thing as

himself

to the

about

made
such

generallyonly

is rightly
used) is the

name

of

applies. But so long as this remains

usually
particulardescriptioninvolved

difference

no

Let

the

in the mind

name

the

constant,

the

different

at

person

thought

replacethe

will vary

thought

the

express

usuallyreally

are

correctlycan

name

proper

description.Moreover,

names,

proper

if we
expressed explicitly

be

LOGIC

is to say, the

That
descriptions.
a

AND

to

the
that

the

KNOWLEDGE

BY

entity,in spite of

same

ACQUAINTANCE

217

being acquainted

not

with

the

entity in question.
When

did not

who

we,

j
.

about him, the

be

some

more

him.

in most

cases,

"

of him

The

"

word

is

travels in

Germany,

and

map,
which

so

know

we

which

we

are

mention

definite
have

to be

other,

acquainted,

are

described

is not

if

to be

description. For
"

men
we

is

make

can

involve

Chancellor

knowledge

of the
can

we

in

acquainted
"

to

some

"

the

particular

only
of

be

to

some

beyond

we

say,

Empire

was

an

assured

of

the

^usuallya testimony
others, apart from

heard

from
the

with

the

thing

the

*'

something

which

long-livedof

most

him

or

from
logically

apply

must

about

others
way

about

follows

what

psychologically,
apart
convey

to

particularwith

If, however,

German

virtue

(asopposed

judgments concerning

no

description gives.

in

that, in

example,

compelled,

of what

or

knowledge

merely

description

is involved

applicableto

to

descriptionwhich

judgment

there,

to be

our

the

on

particularwith

future

seem

reference

some

Germany

reference

and

it would

descriptionknown

Such

to

man."
Ger-

difierent

have

shall be

reference

"

except

obtain

to

German

it will recall

of

applicable,we

of here

Thus

us.

involve

must

which

are

past, present, and

dates),or

told

but

if

that

of the

some

the look

acquainted.
of

To

some
we

knowledge

assume

us

again

will

people.

point,to bring in

some

any

to

But

on.

"

probably

required to identify

abstract

are

German

for different

the

than

all the words

meanings

we

of historical

ment
judg-

will

mass

first Chancellor

the

as

Here

Empire."

at

minds

our

But, for the sake of illustration,let

think

we

Bismarck, make

in
description

less vague

or

far more,

"

know

man,

this
what

the

the

first

matist,"
diplo-

astute

truth
which

or

of
we

read.

the

our
are

sidered
Con-

information

fact about

man

we

actual

MYSTICISM

2i8

which

Bismarck,

thought

AND

gives importance to

really have

we

involved, and
All
the

contains

Solar

System
are

which

connection

something only

is to

like, if

should
Bismarck

is

in

the

constituent.

describe the
"

was

which
in

was

In

there

this

as

the

true

is still the

described

and

is known

we

are

not

and

do not

know

which

What

us.

called Bismarck,
thus

can

like to affirm, namely,

enables

is the

B
to

us

may

is that

employ

vary

object

communicate

propositionconcerning
we

to

the

the

we

actual

description

descriptionis correct),the

described

but

we

necessarily

are

is unknown

object B

should

Bismarck, and that, however

(so long

we

varying descriptionswe

is

judgment

the

That

Bismarck,

diplomatist,"where

astute

the

intend to

involving

diplomatist. We

astute

an

Bismarck.

spiteof

is

there

propositionwe

an
was

know

that

be,

or

make, namely, the judgment of which

an

that

often

about

make

to

But
and

what

thing described.

Bismarck

know

the

about

statement

form

the

defeated, since the actual

we

with

exist

could

or

make

we

anything

could,

can

suspect that

merely

not

the actual
say

we

alone

himself

he

we

more

by metaphysics,involves

might

not

about

when

say,

when

or

one

we
by description,

known

but
description,

cepts.
con-

particularsis involved.

statement,

our

of

particulars. In logic,on

that, when

seem

some

acquainted.

whatever

actual

to

It would

make

from

concerned

are

exist, but with

reference

no

we

with

we

wholly

ticulars
par-

similarlyinvolve,

Universe, as considered

contrary, where
does

consists

"

with
particulars

more

or

"

start

such

one

places ^London, England, Europe,

which
used, descriptions

the

judgment, the

our

the

otherwise

of

names

earth, the

even

LOGIC

This

same.

to

be true, is what

acquainted with
it,though

proposition
is
which
proposition,

we

the

know

interests

us

propositionitself,
it is true.

KNOWLEDGE

BY

It will be
removal

from

Bismarck
who

people

only know

who

of him

the

to

hierarchyin

by description. But here,

ultimatelyreducible

known

the

sively
progres-

are

regionof universals.

the

are
particulars,

in the

as

lars,knowledge concerning what

is

with

acquaintancewith particulars,

from

universals,like many

us

those

to

man

These

men.

is

there

particulars:

him, Bismarck

knew

of
longest-lived

there is a similar

Many

with

219

stages in the

various

are

through history,the

further removed
and

there

acquaintance

to

iron mask,

that

seen

ACQUAINTANCE

known

only

particu-\
I
by description
of

case

is known

is|

knowledge concerning what

to

by acquaintance.

The

the

epistemological principle in

fundamental

analysisof propositionscontaining descriptionsis this

Every propositionwhich

we

posed wholly of constituents

From

what

advocate

this

of

case

Let

us

has

been

said

with

first

at

for

reasons

he

must

we

com-

acquainted.!

are

will be

I propose

how

propositionswhich
the

which

already,it

and
principle,

begin with

understand

can

plainwhy

the

meet

to

it.

sight contravene

supposing the principle

true.

The

chief

that

it

make

judgment
what
If

entertain

or

it is that
make

we

it is

plain that

not

the actual

constituent

say that this

that is

or

well

proposition which
relation

believe

of

entities which

mind

compose

about
who

to

an

But
I

of

occurrence,

several

what

is

or

supposing

JuliusCaesar

was

explain what

as

can

we

(say)JuliusCsesar,

understand.

we

judgment,
a

judging

constituent

that

supposition without

judgment.

to

is

principletrue

the

are

person

of the

be

judgments

we

judgment

further, it may

supposing

scarcely possibleto

seems

knowing
about.

for

reason

before

going
I

when

mean

judgment,
To

is

begin
I take

or

of

with
to

be

entities, namely, the

judged. If,e.g.

judge

MYSTICISM

220

that

loves

AND

B, the judgment

existence, at

certain

LOGIC

as

of

moment,

relation,called judging,between
B.

That

certain

is to say, at the

complex

whose

B, and whose

and

for this view

been

here.

constituents of the
the

which

complex
the

case,

and

by

But

"

love

is another

When

we

is called

to

now

loves B.
where

cases

we

Thus

we

have

not

constituents

are

distinctive

in

question are

what

is meant

by

A
A

that
"

we

and

love

loves

B.^

understand

often understand

of the

relation

are

proposition supposed.
enunciated

may

be

mind

is

called
Thus

re-stated

one

the
the
as

enough knowledge

judgment. Supposing, like judging,is a

a

stituents
con-

there

that

say
and

B,

loves

love and

the

supposing

my

suppose that A

relation,of which

terms

and

me

propositionin
term

possiblebetween

can

and

relation

proposition

to make

Thus, in the above

should

"

the

of

proposition,"I

B, which

and

constituents

understanding

I shall not

simplythe

thus

reasons

the

judging

and

Coming

My

judgment,

particularjudgment
B.

and

are

judgments

love

and

of

myself

are

and

elsewhere,^ and

judgment.

myself

all my

of the
and

is the

constituents

judging.

shared

judgment

is

is judging.

this view

Assuming

love and

and

judge,there

myself

are

set forth

when

relatingrelation

have

repeat them

terms

four-term
specific

and

me

time

consists in the

event

an

The

term.

constituents

manyother
of the

principle which
follows

Whenever

I
a

"

I have
been
of Truth."
PhilosaphicalEssays, The Nature
suaded
perunduly
by Mr. Wittgenstein that this theory is somewhat
I believe
which
it to require does
not
simple, but the modification

afiect the
'

above

[1917].

argument

Meinong,
passim. I formerly supposed,
contrary to Meinong's view, that the relationship of supposing might
taken,
misI was
be merely that
I now
think
of presentation. In this view
and
is
view
But
Meinong
depends upon the
right.
present
my
is no
and
in assumption there
in judgment
theory that both
single
but
the
several
constituents
the
of
or
assumption
Objective,
judgment
are

Cf.

in

Ueber

many-

term

Annahmen,

relation

to the

mind.

KNOWLEDGE

ACQUAINTANCE

of supposing or judging occurs,

relation
the

BY

mind

supposing or judging

This

questionis acquainted.
make

cannot

judgment

it is that

what

principleis evident

as

to

soon

I shall, therefore, in what

and

it as

use

merely

to

the

we

ing
knowor

position
sup-

of this

truth

principleis understood

the

principle,

the

follows, assume

guide in analysingjudgments

that

say

of
in

the mind

judgment

our

that

me

as

the relation

suppositionwithout

seems

by

with which

making

are

we

It

about.

or

is

to which

the terms

is related

be terms

supposing or judging must

221

that contain

descriptions.
now

to

Julius Caesar, I

that

he

himself

Returning
be admitted

which

judgment
of
'*

of

I believe

judgment.

"

by

mean

may

I know

about

him,
on

schoolboys.

Now

in order
I

when
the

judge

things

serve

name

was

to

not

although
ideas
think

am

may

of

the

he

and

is

what

up

him.

been

theory

is

"

For whatever

that

theory

that

suggested in

itself is

was

plague

was

my

mind

substitute
of

some

the

man

else I may

his

for

of the
\^ill
whose
have

I mention

him

name.)

But

judgments
some

to

contending,

(A descriptionwhich
thought

my

is

actually in

descriptionmade

the

rests

things that

the

him, it is plainthat when

I think

my

this view

indeed

admitting,and

must

express

of

conquered Gaul,

JuliusCaesar, we

about

it is the

constituent

JuliusCaesar

of March,

forgotten that
have

is

of
plausibility

Julius CcBsar."

forgottenabout
I have

I know

often

Ides

about

name

proper

"

discover

to

that

posed
com-

are

that

ideas," and

it is

point

judgments

that

e.g. that

the
I

"

this

at

of any

righttheory of descriptions.We

idea

my

assassinated

that

the

failure to form

upon

Caesar

Julius

view

called

something

"

idea

the

constituent

But

make.

can

examine

to

necessary

is not

it will

that

assume

such

consist
way,

fundamentally mistaken.

of

yet I
The

MYSTICISM

222

view

which

be

may

is

judgment
constituents
view

things

called

intrusion

which

idea

Such

be

to

The

there

be

object,and
to

reason

believe

"idea"

of

acquaintance
"

wholly

This

ideas."

whicli

is,of

take

would

us

adequately discussed.
the

judging, the
than

constituents

When,
"

actual

of the

as

is
a

from

"

some

the

mind

object.
endless
to be

have
an

I therefore

can

idea of

subject

our

that
any

advocates

if it

were

corollarythat,

objects concerningwhich

we

one

myself with

content

the

an

be called the

largequestion,and

which

no

see

demanding

not

mental

of

know

the

supposed by

with

that

object.

not

vicious

as

the

contrary, I hold

I therefore

complex

far

acquainted with

are

the

course,

therefore, I say

JuliusCaesar

"

in

object will

supposed purely

any

"

to

relation,

far

idea, and

dislike

the

knowing

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we

indications, and

above

rather

only to

the

could

infinitum.

of the mind

constituent

such
of

is

the

to

so

the idea itself has

On

object.

the

by

something which

us

outside

but

and

mind

of

at

that, when

is in

object,there

ad

on

so

mind

the

of idea to

explained by supposing that

in

by inspectionwarrants

state

leads

But

attain

relation of mind,

something

the

be

must

and

us

is fostered

were

called

that, since

judging.

person

it is felt the

regress, since the relation

the

idea, and

utterlyobscure, and,

view

view, however,

outside

knowing about,

between

the
that

could

something

veil between

things.

of the

unless

existent

its constituents

of the

this view, is

suspect that

objects

of

the

event,

supposed

relations, and

mental

some

"

has

nothing discoverable

see,

is

really,in knowledge,

the ideas of those

object,on

who

mind

never
are

LOGIC

"idea

the

become

ideas

things we

there

mental

of the

^we

"

can

that

of the person

the mind

this

be

to

seems

AND

we

in

judge,

entities,are

is the

judgment.

must

substitute

of Julius
Caesar,in
description

for

order

KNOWLEDGE
to discover

him, I

the

saying
Let

assassinated."

the

"was")
Thus
with

himself

has

"

have

phrase, and
is

which
whose
be

which
the

it is plainthat there

the

Thus

phrase

there is no

constituent

phrase must
all the

to

theory

It is

common

to

is no

stituents
con-

Julius

was

not,

of

as

only

complex
"

the

constituent
name

man

"

may
man

one

up

was

assassinated."

was

one

Any

break

assassinated

and

whole,

judgment.

judgment

was

our

corresponding
Julius

was

Ccesar."

regard this phrase as expressing

of the

from

which

and
are

we

have

to be

judgment.

knowledge,

logicalconsiderations,

quainted.
ac-

explained

subordinate

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that

up if we

reached
of

to

constituent

the

one

judgment,

be broken

constituents

the

as

"

whose

man

reason

of the

\^e have

which
with

the

name

into

Ccasar

and

all

judgment.

our

be further

phrase must

it

treat

Julius Ccesar,
"

reduced

of

whose

man

enters

Julius

was

are

we

judgment, therefore, must

not

name

(neglectingthe

wholly

whole, be

interpretedas meaning

Here

the

part of the judgment.

name

called

to

as

was

Julius Ccesar

which

constituent

that is to say, this

rightanalysisof
this

"

was

acquainted,but JuliusCaesar

are

be

that

not,

meaning

concepts with

to

name

whose

man

judgment
is

idea.

an

acquainted,and

requiresa proviso,to

must

judgment,

of the

we

about

JuliusCaesar

Here

are

we

judgment

our

shortly,namely,

**

be

"the

which

are

which

This, however,

CcBsar

with

ceased

whose

man

assassinated."

constituents

in

tense

the

it becomes

was

shape

or

other

"

substitute

must

we

judgment

our

Then

Julius Ccesar

is a noise

that

223

judgment nominally

descriptionis

our

Julius C^sar."

was

ACQUAINTANCE

of

meaning

not

am

Suppose

BY

seen

acquainted with
This

considerations
is also forced
must

two
distinguish

now

that this

be

conclusion,
concerned
upon

us

by

viewed.
brieflyre-

aspects, meaning and

MYSTICISM

224

denotation, in such
The

least)of authorship
denotation

bipeds

*'

the

Thus

we

"

men

be

the

are

same

relation

some

feet and

will be

the absence

the

is the author

class of

of

bipeds,"we

capable of

meaning

denotation, I believe, is

The

which

i.e. of words

names,

do

object,but merely and

an

hold
which
"

"

and

One

for not

reason

author

New
"

and

This

I shDuld
retain

of proper
to

I should

only

words

two

'*

or

has
of

only

the
been

Thought
exclude

now
"

may

to be

know

people
"

of

author
who

did

stituent
con-

the proposition
with

acquainted

the

the

Waverley
not

know

Scott.

denoted

This

this"

"

when

e.g.

round

the

the so-and-so

golden

square

is

its

"

"

[1917].

mountain

by Miss
Implications," Mind,

from

proper

"

the
has

does

self-contradictory."

recently advocated
and

"

propositionsconcerning
"

Take,

"

Law

is that

possibleeven

are

view

to

Waverley

of

reason
"

exist

not

stituent
con-

already sufficiently
emphasised.

denotation.

no

known

was

second

so-and-so

as

particulars,
namely,

we

not

are

proposition

"

has been

reason

the

we

"

The

novelist
"

And

believingthe denotation

when

denotation.

that,

are

of

names

not

case

it.

there

sense,

is that
proposition

even

though

this."2

of the

is

I believe

assign a property

not

solelyname

strictlyproper

are

"

that, in this

further

in the

proposition,except

of the

or

is worth

denotation,

and

"

is misleading if taken
interpretation,

true

fundamental.

"

of

duality

the

men.

ing
assert-

are

identityof denotation, and this assertion

making because of the diversityof meaning.^

as

of

Waverley

an

that

featherless

meaning, containing

featherless

as

with

Similarly

of two

Scott

say

Waverley.'*

"

Scott.

its denotation

of

complex, consisting(at

complex

**

when

the author

Waverley

and

presence

feathers, while

LOGIC

certain

will

will have

constituents

"

phrases as

will be

meaning

the

AND

names

E.

E.

C.

Jones,
Jajiuary,191 1.

in the

strict

sense,

KNOWLEDGE
If

we

to

are

BY

have

we

objectsas

the

preserve

golden

admit

does

that

but

evident

to me

seems

object as

I fail to

the

there is such

"

concerning
so-and-so
Miss

as

the

"

be

"

so-and-so

of France,"

King

however, would

not

objectionto

contradiction
**

form

go

such

ought

A is not

both

propositionis both
attribute

is stated

of

the

on

the

to

the

of
Miss
^
2

B and

round

square,

in the

false."

The

can

predicates,it
form

being both

Jones^

argues

true

is at

false
*'

that

as

Scott

2nd
^

of

"

no

traditional form
those

to

the law

being stated

ing
concern-

evident

once

exception,but
and

law

traditional

present King of France

no

The

the

subject. When
of

is

This,

B," but in the form

predicateto

the

that this

matter.

is that

stated

not

and

ground

of the

root

be

to

Meinong, Ueber Annahmen,

Mind, July, 1910, p. 380.
Q

the

object

an

non-existent.

argument

an

not

true

propositionsabout
square

ment
judg-

no

it might, of course,

merely

instead
propositions,

subjectsand
round

we

ting
in admitdifficulty

only applies to certain propositions,

namely,
which

that

actuallyinvolves

itself contradictory. Now

self-contradictory,
but

real

such

presuppose

that, by parityof form,

argued that this object,unlike

not

tradiction,
con-

there is no

not

that there is no

contends

the present

objectis in

as

Indeed, it

contradictorypredicatesconcerning such
as

have

even

constituent.

Jones2

"

square,

If this is admitted, however,

object.

led to the conclusion

are

does

square

round

one.
"

judgment

such

are

regard this

not

tion,
denota-

is existent, but

square

that it is not

see

that the

round
an

does

the

being. We

round

Meinong

and

that there

and

have

not

the existent

exist. ^

not

Meinong,

mountain

although these objectsdo

to

225

dualityof meaning

say, with

to

the

ACQUAINTANCE

are

other

that
or

just as

the
capable
in-

propositions.

is the

author

ed., Leipzig,1910, p. 141.

Mind, July, 1910, p. 379.

of

MYSTICISM

226
"

Waverley

choosing

in

identityof

asserts

the author

and

AND

LOGIC

denotation

But

of Waverley.

merely
a

is not

of Waverley
noise

certain

and

person,

opposed

; it

that

denotation.

above, that

even

conventionally a

as

names,

the author

convention

belongs

here

author

of

Waverley.

and

and

for, the author

When

it is said that

Scott

statingthat

these

not

should

we

be if

is what

name

been

him

be

write

actually to
nothing

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not

must

to

"

of
"

Scott

"

the
to

"

not

of

is that

author

distinguishmeaning
but

for

names

was

one

man's

Scott

much
would

had
have

not

for

fact

was

as

man,

necessary

which

words

Waverley, we

of

however

the

relation

mere

of

meaning

the

"author"

Waverley," we

these

longer arbitrary.

no

In fact, it would

author

Scott

the relation of
is that

denotation

named.
that

mere

him

having

assertingidentity of denotation,

by

say

merely
of

is Sir Walter."

it

for

names.

are

mean

thing

the

truth

we

author

considered

is not

what

Waverley, that

Waverley,

with

do

to

the

is

two

Scott

of

as

separate words, the and

Given

is called, but

he

called the author

made

to

said

we

meaning

element

is the author
are

**

the

of Waverley

stand

are

the

to

that

rule, reallystand

of Waverley

for Scott

name

Scott is

about

called

the

designate

to

(I neglect the fact,

proper

But
descriptions.)

be

can

tention.
con-

that

like Scott.

information

no

this

be observed

name,

gives us

nothing

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to

mere

of

used
shape conventionally

or

person

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difficulty

some

meanings

In the first place,it should

author

is

there

alternative

among

between

"

means

and

shall have

denotation.

"

be

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to the

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in
"

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when

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the
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we

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concept.

to say that

of

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means

denotation

the

tion
denota-

relation

concept which

this

name

to

is the

The

Waverley."

nearer

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Scott

of

we

called
if

author
has

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we

of

ing
mean-

is the

KNOWLEDGE

Waverley

"

is relevant

denotation
the

alone

"

Thus

Scott

this is

But

learn

Hence

Marmion.

"

Scott

We
is not

thus

mere

Miss

Jones does,

asserts

of

of what
call the

we

"

is meant

by
of

"

"

"

means

Scott

**

its

the

of

made

theory we

"

propositionbecomes
But

this leads

attempt

to

of denotation
to

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some

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examining.

are

at

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breaks
other

we

and

Scott

is the

to

endless

an

and

analysis. When

"

real

author
the

on

meaning M',

regress.

our

of

M'."

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the

assertingidentity

it becomes
this

form,
a

the

"

are

we

same

denotation

propositionas
down,

here

denotation,

call its

M.

Waverley

towards
like

of M,"

meaning

of

"

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means.

of the

progress

denotation
both

Waverley," has

Waverley
"

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another

the

Let

Waverley."

of

"

the denotation

as

of M."

no

regard

"

of

as

Waverley

must

we

"

in

to say,

are

of

Scott is the author

have
The

about

is relevant

if we

Waverley

of

and

"

us

Waverley

of

meaning

author

propositionby

explanation.

we

ley,"
of Waver-

the author

the author

is the denotation

we

we

first tells

nothing

Waverley

of

explainingour
thus

the second

is the author

the author
that

the

first

the

the

Thus

Scott

"

meaning

from

the author

occurs.

author

to suppose

are

"

that

the

is what

"

be

Waverley."

of

from

identity of denotation,

an

denotation

Thus

it

that

would

Waverley."

that

and

which

propositionsin

of

agreed

name,

with

denotation, is certainlyrelevant

is the author

have

"

if the

proposition.

second

of

meaning

the

to

the

of

phrase

"

but

Waverley,

the

opposed

as

and

and

author
For

same

since

case,

Marmion

Waverley

about

the

is the author

the

wrote

the

other

of Marmion

Scott

wrote

he

that

nothing

us

"

plainlynot

Scott

learn that

give

author

propositionas

same

to

relevant, any

is the

227

assertion.

our

would

"

of

meaning

to

were

denotation

same

ACQUAINTANCE

the

Waverley,"

of

author

BY

imperative

analysishas

been

MYSTICISM

228

completed,
"

AND

shall

we

be

able

it is taken
The

first

about

point

observe

to

author

not

but

occur,

author

of

saying

Waverley

the

there

one

and

no

of

some

This

is

why

author

'*

mean

and

one
a

poet
"

Scott

was

mean

Waverley, and
between

**

longer

no

the

was

only
Here

Waverley

appears

as

the
was.

poet," we
he

Waverley

of

wrote

man

one

identity is

the

subject (" he "),

indeterminate
of

"

he

author

and

Scott."

was

the author

and

away,

he

variable, i.e. an

Scott

and

one

one."

some

who

that

Waverley, and

wrote

say
"

we

Waverley
"

we

subject,
knowing

man

one

when

of

author

say,

identityis

the

of

Marmion,

and

propositionsabout

without

are

is to

"

indefinite

an

only

"

was

Thus

We

author

That

Waverley

have

may

the

was

are

we

Scott.

as

the

say

^we

"

of Marmion.

understand

the

say

Scott

who

them.

is not

"

we

Marmion,"

person

wrote

Waverley,"
"

we

Scott

itself,i.e. Scott,

of

were

man

who

can

we

of

When

some

author

variable, i.e. of

such

else wrote

one

both

was

is

there

proposition

Suppose

the author

was

there

Waverley and
is

long

so

of denotation, which

variable.

saying that

that

denotation

only the concept

representedby

forgottenthat

is that, in any

the

will be

certainlynot

obscure

Waverley," provided

of

mentioned,
explicitly
does

remains

phrase

fundamental.

as

"the

reinterpretthe

to

which

identityof denotation,"

as

LOGIC

"

analysed

has been
constituent

of

the

proposition.^
The

phrase

"

follows.

The

author

the

It is

Waverley

it is

why

reason

logicalgrounds
Chap.

which

am

when

"

"

we

say

away

the

be

stated

as

the

author

of

may

of Marmion,"

author

in its favour,
Ill

Waverley

of

plain that

is the

theory

imperative to analyse

the

is expresses

advocating is set forth fully, with the

Vol. I, Introduction,
Principia Mathematica,

in

also, less fully,in Mind,

October,

1905.

KNOWLEDGE

BY

identity.We

have

"

have
a

also that, in any

seen

is

the

actual

Scott, in the

subordinate

meaning
with

the

plainlynot
the

Waverley

the
"

'*

This

the

saying that
and

does.

Some

one

that

some

This

the pro

Marmion,

i.e. some

the

'*

else did."

one

when

else did, and

and

value
Thus

of

the

soon

We
know

as

now

that

the

denotation
many

of the

of the
Q2

is to say that

"

have

position,
pro-

disappear.

must

Marmion

and

no

"

"

is

of

Waverley

wrote

capable of truth,
other

no

value
is

judgment

our

complex containing an
becoming

as
proposition

is determined.

"

proposition

is so-and-so

is

simply expressed by

define the denotation

may

This

the above

it true, but

"

Waverley

propositionis analysed
Waverley and no one

more

i.e.

means

by itself,have

also wrote

constituent, and

this constituent

i.e. that

above

subject

true

"

it is part do

Waverley

makes

propositionalfunction,
undetermined

not,

else did

one

concerns

its
proposition,

escape

function
positional
no

of

only

which

be

as

of Marmion."

wrote

may

the

said to be identical

was

does

one

means

of

rightanalysisof

author

is effected

meaning

as

is,in

That

verbal

author

the author

of

whose

"

in the above

meaning, though phrases of

meaning.

"

the author

; and

case

of

author

"

"

which

We

meaning

(so far

sense

be what

to

of

meaning

the

same

complex

have

would

the

Scott

occurs,

Thus, if

certain universal.

were

"

word

discussion)in

present

our

in which

"

Waverley

identical.

propositionin

proposition,

of

not

are

"

expression
man

of this

"

sense

of

constituent

denotation,

the author

of Marmion

author

the

word

"

229

common

constituent

meanings (ifany) of

while the
and

also that the

seen

is not

namely Scott,

ACQUAINTANCE

and

phrase

"

we
propositions

of

phrase.

is the so-and-so

nothing else is,we

the so-and-so."

naturallymake

"

we

is true,

call
very
about

If

the

great
"

the

MYSTICISM

230
"

so-and-so

**

of

the

to

as

which

the

earlier

in

denotation.

interested

of

often wish

possibleto
be

lack of

logicaland

that

this is

error.

The

an

propositionsin

of the

why,

reason

need

The

propositionof

The

and-so
the

need

is thus

intend

is

the

variable

to
sum

say
up

that

whole

such

subject;
is

There

"

its

appHed

to

the

so-and-

i.e. we

obtain

something which

somethingis such-and-such."

in the

at

the constituents

problem

"

the

of the nature

some,

any,

problem, concerning Which

anything
our

is

which

understand

analysis,when

as
"

form

merged

difficult

we

acquaintance with

variable, i.e. of the meanings of

This

To

to

analysisof propositionsconcerning

further
"

But

descriptionsoccur

in order

do not

is so-and-so, and

alone

is part of the

grammatical subject is

so," is to substitute
a

which

first result of

propositionswhose

as

naturally

object (ifany)

acquaintance with

but
description,

denotation.

get

mentioned)
(unlessit is explicitly

constituent

we
propositions,

to

cases

epistemological
grounds,

actual

is not

this is the

it

denotation

on

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of

Hence

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on

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the

seen,

saw

in such

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have

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descriptionand

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in

the denotation, and

denotation.

the

supposed

of

as

acquaintance :
means

decides

statements

Moreover,

the

Hence,

in the denotation

many

to reach

proposition in

and

so

"

the so-and-so

the denotation

relations

considering the

descriptionis merely
to

same

description occurs.

the

"

the

falsehood

by

for

or

only hindered

comes

also remain

truth

are

as

propositionswill

since
description,

acquaintance,we

near

denotation

in the

than

more

stitute
sub-

we

is the

become

we

false if

substitute

phrase having

other

remain

or

Such

false if we

practicalmen,

as

true

LOGIC

so-and-so," where

the

remain

or

any

"

so-and-so."

the

true

will remain

for

AND

and
I do

so-

of
all.
not

present.
discussion

We

began by

dis-

KNOWLEDGE

BY

tinguishingtwo

of

sorts

ACQUAINTANCE

knowledge

of

231

objects,namely,

knowledge by acquaintanceand knowledge by description.

Of these it is

only the
We

before the mind.

with

have

with

of

is the

object having

some

which

we

property

object and

more,

no

with

objects and

of other

the

whether

or

we

"

we

consists

but
a

are

universals.

judgment

mind^

(One

which

is

forces

us

to

and
propositions,

such

phrases are

such

phrases

which

this

use

as

occur

to

this

physical

us,

being usually

thingsonly known

composed wholly

of constituents

of

an

certain

called

whose

stituents
con-

objects,particulars

be

universal.) When

objectswhich

are

which

the

acquainted.

This

objects with

of it is

judgment,

constituents

occurrence

at least must

all be

with which

constituent

of mental

stituents
con-

mind
clusion
con-

analyse descriptivephrases occurring

that

the

constituents

of

to

say

(unlessthese

phrase merely to denote

judgment, without

what

of

to
propositionsintelligible

into

enters

question

not

are

we

as

and

constituent

of

tion,
only knowledge by descrip-

is rightlyanalysed,the

of it must

in

All

one

such

composed

not

know

we

not

or

to us.
acquainted is unintelligible

not

ideas,"

or

is

acquainted,for

are

found, is

we

minds

it

that

knowledge

knowledge

they primarilyconcern

not

which

are

Our

object.

are
by description,

with

have

to

descriptionsinvolved
sense-data.

have

propertieswith

or

is to say, when

said

are

we

the

involve

us

know

we

object by description,whether

one

We

propertiesin questionbelong to

or

acquainted

to

property
; that

ourselves, but

minds.

other

or

object when

an

acquainted

are

that the

that

possibly with

physical objects

descriptive
knowledge

brings the object itself

that

acquaintance with sense-data,

universals, and

many

not

former

something

is.

objects denoted
judgments

objects
the

are

something
intending to

by

in which

explicitly
psychological

prejudge

the

MYSTICISM

232

This

mentioned).
also

is

himself
the

not

also,

Such

judgments,

In

such
discussion

present

is

a;

"

such-and-such

paper.

the

is

these

only

is

and

truth.
fresh

many

problems

is

not

of

that

meaning.

analysed

by

ultimate
"

such-and-such
else
The

problems,

able,
vari-

the

undertaken

it

that

meaning.

introducing

nothing

of

capable

be

functions

so-and-so

so-and-so

involves

judgments
of

"

of

diversity

phrases,

prepositional

fact,

"

that

can

Scott
and

saying

identity

the

say

Waverley,"

by

assert

descriptive

making

subjects.

not

"

we

judgment,

our

with

therefore,

the

up
and

mean

does

of

explained

denotation

of

plainly,

breaking

be

cannot

identity

of

(recommended

when

author

constituent

view

that

grounds)
the

LOGIC

the

to

us

was

judgment

af"rms
It

Marmion

of

author

leads

logical

purely

on

AND

is,

and

will

analysis
but
in

is
of
the
the

INDEX
Achilles

89

tortoise, 80

the

and

ff,

ff

Acquaintance,the
Alexander,

relation

of, 209

ff

76, 97

Aristotle, 42,

Bacon, 41
Bergson,

14

ff,.
22,

105,

128, 185 ff,

and

177

evil,26

flf

Hegel, 8, 10, 18, 85, 97, 105

Heine, 1 1 \
Heraclitus,i ff,10
Hertz, 34
Holt, 177 n
Hume,

203

Berkeley, 97, 132

Blake, i
Bosanquet, 99
Broad, 89 "

ff

I, 97

the mathematical, 84
Infinite,

James, William,

Calculus, the, 82
Cantor, Georg, 64,

Jones, Miss
Judgment,

ff

icx)

E.

E.

219

ff

C,

224

225

",

81 ff,85, 91

Carlyle,50, 82
Cause, the conception of, 135
180

Good

125

Realists, the, 134

American

Galileo,42
Gladstone,

Kant, 85, 96, 97, 99, ii8ff

Knowledge by acquaintance, 209
by description,
214 ff

",

ff

and renunciation,51
Christianity
Chuang Tzii, 106

Laplace,

Construction

Leibniz, 76, 79,

of permanent

169 ff
Constructions,logical,155

thingsand

ff ;

23
82

ff,97, 126,

144,

160

matter,

Locke, 97
Logic, the

ff

Darwin, 15, 23, 43

Dedekind, 64, 81 ff,85
Descartes,97,

Malthus,

Descriptions,
175,

74 ff ; and

Education, 37 ff
Euclid, 62, 92, 94
Evolutionism, 23 ff,28
Fano,

Free

physicians,
Meta-

logic,75

nature

of, 125

ff;

of, 164 ff
Maxwell,

34

Meaning

and

Meinong,

174,

denotation,223
220

m,

225

Militarism, 50

34

will, 205 ff

Frege, 78

the

Mill, 185,
Mysticism

^ZZ

ff ;

the infinitesimal. 82 ff

Matter, the

93

Faraday,

58 ff; and

ff
and

95

43

Mathematics,
214

of, 68 ff

Taylor'stheorem,

and

Macaulay

126

laws

193

ff

and

logic,i

ft

ff

nition
defi-

MYSTICISM

^34
the
Necessity,

notion

of,207

AND

fF

Nietzsche,
22, 50
Nunn, 125, ^37 "" i53
18, 21
Parmenides,7 flf,
awareness
Particulars,
of,210 fF
S
ff,
78
Peano,
93
Perspectives,
139 flf;the space of,
ff
158
and logic,
1 1 1
Philosophy
Physics,sense-data and, 145 flf
Pierce,76 h
Plato,I ff,10, 30, 60, 97

Pragmatism,22,
Realism
120

Reason

and

105

the

LOGIC

Sensibilia,
148 flf
Space,138 ff; private,158 ff; the
logical
problem,114 flf;the problem
in physics,
r 1 5 flf
; the episteproblem, 118 flf
mological

Systems,deterministic,

Time,

tically
prac-

ff,141 ff,167 flf

Shandy, the paradox of,

10, 21

Tristram
90 flf

18
Unityand Plurality,

Universals,

awareness

analyticmethod,

199 ;

isolated,198; relatively
201
isolated,
197; mechanical,

ff

of,212

ff

ff
and

Ward, 180
Weierstrass,
80,82, 95
Whitehead, 117, 157, 175
Wolf, 173

12 ff
intuition,

Relatives,the logic
of,76

Robb, 167 H
20
Santayana,

Sense-data,
147,

210

and physics, Zeno

flf;

145 flf

89

WILLIAM

BREMUOM

AND

PLTMOUTH,

G)

1433

the

SON,
BNGLAND

ff

LTD.

Eleatic, 64, 80, 84,