White Cast Iron (or Chilled Cast Iron) ‘When the percentage of silicon in cast iron is very low, most of the carbon in the metal is in chemically combined form. The resulting cast iron is called white cast iron. Therefore, white cast iron (or chilled east iron) has no graphite or free carbon and hence is white in colour. It is produced by (a) casting grey cast iron but cooling it very rapidly or (b) adjusting the composition of the metal such that the carbon and silicon contents are low. ‘When white cast iron is produced by rapid cooling of grey castings against metal chills or in metal moulds (which loses heat fast), the product is called chilled grey cast iron. White cast iron can be produced by adjusting metal composition with the addition of elements like chromium, vanadium, or molybdenum which are carbide stabilizers and increase the formation of iron carbide in cast iron, Properties and uses of white cast iron Various constituents of white cast iron castings include: carbon 1.7 to 2.4% (mostly in combined form), phosphorus up to 0.2%, silicon 0.85 to 1.2%, sulphur up to 0.12%, manganese up to 0.5%, and the remaining is iron. © White cast iron is very hard, brittle and wear resistant. © Its fluidity is not up to the mark in molte foundry work. ‘® Hardness of 400 HB can be obtained by keeping silicon less than 1% and carbon about 2%. ‘* Addition of chromium (above 3%) prevents formation of graphite and imparts high temperature strength, better resistance to corrosion to white cast iron. ¢ If nickel (4.5%) and chromium (1.5%) are added to white cast iron, then its toughness and strength is virtually doubled with increase in hardness up to 700 HB. ‘© Being unmachinable, white cast iron is used in parts requiring high abrasion resistance like rim of a freight car wheel, railway wheel brake blocks, hammer mills, crushing rollers, balls and wear plates. ‘* Castings of white cast iron are used for subsequent conversion into malleable iron castings. state and hence not suitable for generalMalleable Cast Iron Malleable cast iron is produced by giving long time heat treatment (annealing) to white cast iron castings. The annealing process consists of heating white cast iron castings slowly to about 870°C and then keeping them at this temperature for 25 to 60 hours, depending on the size of the casting and then cooling them slowly. The two common types of malleable cast iron are: (a) White-heart malleable cast iron and (b) Black-heart malleable cast iron. White-heart malleable cast iron is produced when white cast iron castings are packed in an oxidizing material to remove some carbon. Black-heart malleable cast iron is produced when white some inert material (such as ferrous silicate scale or slag) and annealed, the resulting structure of the castings consists almost entirely of graphite and ferrite, ‘The idea behind annealing white cast iron is to precipitate the combined carbon gradually into free nodular graphite and then to drive it out, thus limiting the presence of total carbon contents to about 1.0%. White cast iron having all its carbon combined in the form of FesC (iron carbide or cementite) can only be produced at low silicon levels because silicon promotes tendency of graphitization. As white cast iron is annealed at temperature about 870°C or so, silicon causes iron carbide to break into iron and carbon in the form of irregular-temper carbon nodules. The resultant cast structure (malleable cast iron) is very ductile and has very good impact resistance, and can be easily machined and is more tougher with improved corrosion resistance in comparison to grey cast iron. Fe, > We + c (lron carbide) (ron) (Carbon graphite) In the above, carbon is forming from the solid state and hence it forms up as fine nodules rather than flakes (which are present in grey cast iron and is the main cause of its weakness and brittleness), It may be noted that grey cast iron castings cannot be transformed into malleable cast iron castings through annealing, because graphite flakes of grey cast iron are very stable ‘and these can go into solution only on melting (and not in solid state as is the case with white cast iron). Malleable cast iron casting not only possesses better characteristics than grey cast iron castings, it is superior to cast steel castings as well since all of the carbon present is in the free form which renders malleable cast iron better machinable than cast steel. Malleable cast iron is used in place of forged steel or wrought iron, where the intricacy of shape creates difficulty in forging. For structural parts, malleable cast iron is limited to relatively thin walls (less than 25 mm) because of large shrinkage and the need for rapid chilling to produce a white cast iron as cast structure, Since malleable cast iron is tougher and has more tance to bending and twisting than grey cast iron, the former is, therefore, used for various, automobile and agricultural components like tractor and plough components, gear housing, crank cases, levers, spanners, gear wheels, ete.Different types of malleable cast iron Malleable cast irons as per BIS are classified as (a) White-heart malleable cast iron, (b) Black- heart malleable cast iron and (c) Pearlitic malleable cast iron, These are designated by letters WM (White-heart), BM (Black-heart) and PM (Pearlitic malleable) followed by minimum ultimate tensile strength in kg/mm?. These are covered under IS: 2108-1962, IS: 2640-1964 and Is: 2107-1962, (a) White-heart malleable cast iron: It is made from that white cast iron which has high carbon and sulphur contents, enabling the metal to be melted in cupola and later cast in sand moulds giving white cast iron castings without flake graphite. Silicon and manganese are kept low because silicon promotes graphitization of carbon, and ‘manganese offsets the stabilizing effect of sulphur which helps in chilling the casting even in sand molds. A typical composition of furnace charge for white-heart malleable cast iron may be: C—3.2 to 3.6% Si—0.4 to 0.9% Mn—up to 0.4% S—0.1 t0 0.3% P—0.1% (max.) During annealing, the castings are kept in an oxidizing and decarburing medium in boxes, usually kept in red haematite ore. The boxes are then annealed at temperature between 870°C and 1000°C for about 6 days and later slowly cooled in furnace. The carbon (in castings) gets diffused and oxidized. This way, the surface layer of casting is decarburized, but the central thick section of casting has a matrix of ferrite and pearlite in which very finely divided or nodular type graphite (called temper carbon) is found embedded. The amount of temper carbon in white-heart malleable cast iron is less than that present in black-heart malleable cast iron. White-heart malleable east iron shows non-uniform mechanical properties, for example, thicker sections of castings are harder and stronger, less ductile and lessimpact resistant when compared to thin sections. The maximum thickness of casting is, therefore, limited to about 18 mm. White-heart malleable cast iron is used for making hardware items, pipe and pipe fittings, farm implements and automobile parts. (b) Black-heart malleable cast iron; White cast iron used for the black-heart malleable cast iron has lower contents of carbon and sulphur. A typical charge of metal for making black-heart malleable cast iron contains the following: C—2 to 26% Si09 0 1.6% Mn—0.04 to 0.17% S—0.08 to 0.5% P—0.03 to 0.1% White cast iron to make black-heart malleable cast iron should have enough silicon to promote graphitization of iron carbide and sufficient manganese to offset the stabilizing effect of sulphur. The molten metal is very fluid and hence suitable for casting thin sections. ‘The castings are packed in a neutral substance like sand and then kept in furnace for annealing at 870°C for 3 to 6 days. There is no decarburization at the outer surface of castings, and the lower carbon contents permit a higher silicon content without the risk of formation of graphite flakes in the centre of casting. In this case, carbon is not separated out and removed (as in case of white-heart malleable cast iron). During cooling of annealed castings, the combined carbon separates out but all of the carbon does not change into graphite, rather the microstructure of annealed casting comprises nodular graphite (temper carbon) embedded in a matrix of ferrite. The amount of temper carbon is more in this case in comparison to white-heart malleable cast iron, Black-heart malleable cast iron has ferrite matrix. The mechanical properties are uniform throughout the sections of the casting. Machinability is improved. It has higher impact resistance. The tensile strength may be about 3.6 tonnes/em? and elongation 15%. This metal is replacing steel in many applications for the reason of being cast into intricate shapes. Black-heart malleable cast iron is used in automobile and tractor parts for crank cases, rear axle housing, bearing housing, hubs, bush bearing, gear wheels, levers, spanners, agricultural implements, marine industry for ships components such as hinge, door keys, mountings, textile industry and machine component and joint fittingsfor gas and water pipe lin (©) Pearlitic malleable cast iron: It is an improved version of black-heart malleable cast iron and is made by controlled heat treatment. Instead of having a ferrite matrix, it has a pearlitic structure, which is stronger and harder than ferrite. These irons are obtained by interrupting the second-stage annealing process, by introducing larger quantity of manganese which prevents graphitization of pearlite or by air cooling followed by tempering. The castings finally comprise a matrix of pearlite, martensite or sorbite instead of ferrite of black-heart malleable cast iron. Tensile strength is higher (about 5 tonnes/em? or more). Hardness is 200 to 260 HB. The ductility is, however, lower. It is machined better than steel, gives good finish, has good wear resistance and good fatigue strength, and better damping than steel. Pearlitic malleable cast iron replaces stee! forgings for universal joint yokes, gears and small crank shafts. Ductile Cast Iron (or Nodular Cast Iron) Other names of ductile cast iron are: spheroidal graphite cast iron or high strength cast iron. It is a relatively new and fastest growing ferrous alloy because of a wide range of properties; it can be stronger than mild steel, yet poured from a low cost melting furnace such as cupola. It is called nodular cast iron because the free graphite in this metal is in the form of tiny balls (spheroids or nodules) rather than the flakes as present in grey cast iron, Ductile cast iron is obtained by controlling composition of the metal and also by adding ‘magnesium (in the form of magnesium-ferro-silicon) in the molten metal. The added element alters the surface tension of the graphite in the molten iron and causes it to condense into spheroids. In the form of tiny balls, graphite has no detrimental effect upon the mechanical properties of the matrix, so the strength of the ductile cast iron depends on the type of metallic ‘matrix, for example, with a pearlitic matrix, it can have tensile strength up to 85 kg/mm? which is equivalent to the strength of high carbon steel, but ductile cast iron is superior in castability and machinability. Having several times greater tensile strength than ordinary grey cast iron, as also highly increased ductility and shock resistance, ductile cast iron combines the advantages of grey cast iron, such as ready availability, ease of founding and better machinability, besides many of the product advantages of steel. The elimination of weakening effect of flake graphite gives magnesium-containing iron excellent engineering properties. It has particularly high tensile strength, elastic modulus, yield strength, toughness and ductility. Under stress, ductile cast iron behaves elastically like steel.Composition of ductile cast iron Ductile cast iron is produced by adding magnesium (or cerium) in the ladle. A typical composition of ductile cast iron is as below: Mn—0.1 to 0.8% P0.1% Ni—up to 3.5% Mg—0.05 to 0.10% Nickel and manganese increase the strength of ductile cast iron but lower ductility. It has high fluidity, castability, strength, toughness, wear resistance, weldability, pressure tightness and, machinability, besides high heat and corrosion resistance. According to BIS, spheroidal graphite cast iron (ductile cast iron) is designated by SG, followed by minimum ultimate tensile strength in kg/mm? and percentage elongation, for example, SG 42/12 has ultimate tensile strength 42 kg/mm? and percentage elongation 12%. Properties and applications of ductile cast iron Properties and applications of ductile cast iron are given in Table 3.1. TABLE 3.1 Proparties and applications of some typical ductile cast ironsPeopoion ‘Minima Yel of Application tensile senqh—fomgation (HB sirengh —pfem?)—in Seon (kgiem) Angi Peoritie matrix, high S815, 80 oe 200-270 Gear, dies rolls, strength as east, can for wear te casily.hanened ressomnce and suengi Ferrie motrin, aia, 0 0 140.200 Pressire costings, excelent valve and pump ‘machinabilty and Dodi, shock ‘good ductility resisting pts Fully fete mattis, 4360 2810 Is 140-190 Navy shipboard ‘maximum ductility and eter shook resising. parts Uiformly divided 70 $00 Cy 240-300 Gears, pinions, ‘ne peat matt, crank stats, excelent ‘cams grids ‘combination of track rollers ssrength wear normalized or teenpered Maus of tempered 8725 esas cy 270-358 Gears, pinions, martensite, oatinauen crank shafts, ‘cams aides, resisance, may be ‘tack rors alloyed for providing ardent TIN AND ITS ALLOYS ‘Tin has a very low melting point (232°C). It is a soft metal but is brittle when cold. It is ‘malleable at around 100°C when it can be rolled into sheets or drawn into pipes. Tin has good corrosion resistance against water and organic acids and hence is used as coating on steel containers for food and water like tanks, cooking utensils, etc. ‘Tin finds application as an alloying element in soft solders, bell metal, bronzes and bearing metals. The most extensive use of fin, a silvery white lustrous metal, is as a protective coating on the steel sheets (called tin plates) used in making containers for food and other products. The low shearing strength of tin coating on steel sheets improves its performance in deep drawing and other general purpose press working. Tin-based alloys (called white metals) usually have copper, antimony and lead as alloying elements which provide hardness, strength and corrosion resistance. Another important alloy of tin is “babbitt” metal, which contains tin, copper and antimony and is used as journal-bearing material because of low adhesion and low friction coefficient.‘Solders Solder is the most important alloy of tin, It is used to join metal pieces together, Solder melts at a temperature which is lower than (a) the melting points of the alloying elements, and (b) the metal to be joined. For example, lead melts at 327°C and tin at 232°C but when alloyed in equal ratio, the solder produced melts at 205°C. Solders are categorized as (i) soft solder and (ii) hard solder. (3) Soft solders: ‘These are tin-lead solders. Sometimes cadmium and bismuth are partly substituted for tin to make a solder for wetting copper and brass. The four typical compositions of soft solders in common use ai (a) Tin—50%, lead 50%, melting point 205°C (b) Tin—40%, lead 60%, melting point 192°C (c) Tin—66.6%, lead 33.4%, melting point 225°C (d) Electrical solder—lead 5%, tin 95%, melting point 220° (ii) Hard solders: ‘These contain copper and zine with little tin and are used for joining copper and brass, etc. These are used for brazing purpose and called spelters. Generally, spelters are (i) alloys of copper and zinc (meting range 850-950°C) used for brazing cast irons and steel, (ii) alloys of silver and copper or silver-zine for brazing any metal capable of being brazed (with melting range 600-850°C), and (iii) alloys of phosphorus-copper or phosphorus-silver and copper alloys for brazing copper and its alloys (with melting range 700-750°C). » ZINC AND ITS ALLOYS Zinc-based alloys are widely used in the manufacture of carburetors, fuel pumps, door handles and household appliances. Zinc is a weak metal but has high corrosion resistance. It may be coated on steel by hot dipping (galvanizing) or electroplating (or electro-galvanizing). Zine coating can be provided by hot spraying also. Rolled sheets of zinc are used for roofing purposes and for battery containers. Zinc has low melting point (419°C) and high fluidity. Zine alloys are used for pressure die-casting. BIS has covered zine and its products (sheets and strips) and zine alloy ingots for die-casting under IS; 209-1966, IS; 713-1966, IS: 742-1966 and 1S: 2258-1967, Major alloying elements in Zine-based alloys are: aluminium, copper and magnesium as they provide strength and dimensional control in castings, The main zinc alloys include cadmium zine alloy, copper zine alloy (brass), magnes zine alloy, lead zine alloy and iron zine alloy (for galvanizing and aluminium zinc alloy).LEAD AND ITS ALLOYS Lead is obtained from its ores which are found as oxides or sulphides. It is a soft and weak metal (tensile strength 150 kg/em?). Lead is very malleable and ductile. It is very heavy (density 11.34 gm/em') and can be melted easily (melting point 327°C). Lead can be cast, rolled or extruded. It is less ductile because of poor tensile strength. Lead has high coefficient of thermal expansion and has very high anti-frictional properties because of which it is used in bearing metals. Environmental contamination or lead poisoning is a major concem. Lead is available commercially in the following forms: (a) Corroding lead which is pure, (b) Chemical lead having copper, silver and bismuth as impurities which, however, make lead resistant to corrosion (to sulphuric acid), (c) Tellurium lead has small amount of tellurium added to lead to make it with fine grain, higher tensile strength (about double), as also much greater resistance to corrosion, and (d) Antimony lead has better mechanical properties and is used for storage battery plates. Uses of Lead Lead is an alloying element in solders, steels and copper alloys and promotes corrosion resistance and machinability. Used for water pipes, roof sheets, paint industry and battery plates. It can be rolled into sheets, strips and made in pipes. Important element used for antfriction bearings. It is used with steel and other metals to produce free-machining characteristics. Lead sheets used for flooring in chemical plants and acid works. Because of its softness and ease in rolling, it is used as gasket material. It (with asbestos) is used as pads under machines and buildings for damping vibrations. It is a heavy weight metal and hence used as counter weights in various equipment like cranes. ‘¢ Used for lining purposes to resist sulphuric acid, sea coast atmosphere where lead is used for waste pipes for flow of sea water, for lining the refrigerator roof and aquarium, It is used in pulp and paper industry in the form of pipes for cooling sulphur- gas, for bleaching with hydrogen peroxide and several other applications. # It is used as solid lubricant for hot metals forming operations, joxide BIS Specifications for Lead Some of the BIS standards covering lead and its usages are as below: IS: 404-197 lead pipes IS: 405-1977 lead sheets and strips IS: 25-1979 amtifriction bearing alloys