General Architectural Drafting

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General
Architectural
Drafting
ARCHITECTURAL
DRAFTING
WILLIAM
E.
WYATT
Practical Arts Division

J.
Sterling
Head
Morton High School
Cicero, Illinois
B
CHAS.
A.
BENNETT
Peoria, Illinois 61614
CO., INC.
Copyright 1969, 1976
By William
E.
Wyatt
All rights reserved.
87002-072-2
Library of Congress Catalog No. 75-964.
Printed
in
the United States of America
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes
his
thanks to the
firms,
to express
many
and associations
persons,
have
that
Kroehler Mfg. Co.
Newspapers
Long Bell Division.
Life
International Paper Co.
been of assistance during preparation of this book. When drawings
Meadow
or photographs supplied by others
Morgan Sash and Door Co.
are
presented, a credit line ac-
Many
companies each
illustration.
illustrations are
based upon infor-
Steel Products Co.
Mosaic Tile Co.

Mueller Climatrol.
Worthington Industries
mation supplied by others and

acknowlis
their contribution
National Assn. of
edged herewith.
National
Alan
demons
Home
Builders
National
Homes
Lumber Mfg. Assn.
Woodwork Mfg. Assn.
Paratone
Inc.
National
Albert Benda
Paul Roise
American Plywood Association

American Standard Products
Anaconda American Brass Co.
Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co.
Artcrest Products Co., Inc.
California
Redwood
Carpet Institute
Association
Inc.
P.
M. Bolton and Associates
Plumbing- Heating-Cooling
Information Bureau
Portland
Cement Association
Robert Borlik
Charles Bruning Co.
Rohm and Haas
Charles Voighl
Scholz
Cicero, Illinois
Simpson Logging Co.
Commonwealth Edison Co.
Steel City Electric Co.
Erwyn H. James
Eugene Dietzgen Co.
Federal Housing Administration
First Federal Savings & Loan
Berwyn, Illinois
Formica Corporation
Co.
Inc.
Steel Joist Institute
Symons Mfg. Co.

The Ceco Corporation
Unit Structures Inc.
United States Plywood Co.

West Coast Lumberman's Assn.
Western Wood Products Assn.
Weyerhaeuser Company
Wire Reinforcement Institute
Forest Studios
Fred Reuten
Homes
Inc.
Frederick Post Co.
General Electric Co.

Honeywell Corporation
Jack Williams
John Deere Corporation
Special Credit:
The author wishes

his special
to express
thanks to Mr.
Raymond
Kueffel and Esser Co.
Hagood, Mr. Patrick McFall, and

Mr. George Voyta for their drafting assistance on illustrations for
Knape and Vogt Mfg. Co.
this
Joseph T. Ryerson and Son,

Kitchen Maid Corporation
Inc.
book.
INTRODUCTION
This book
is
in three parts:
as a
ings
Part
presents information
II
necessary for building planning
Part
presents information
III
necessary
drawing
it is
is
drawn
working plan. Pictorial drawand working plans illustrat-
ing specific points are often multi-
color
and are not intended
for
use on building plans exactly as
and design.
printed entirely in blue,
principles.
When
multi-color.
Part I describes building materials and explains construction
drawing building
for
shown. Naturally, any applicable

information can be used on your
plan, but
it
will generally require
plans.
modification.
must be
building
materials,
the smallest scale
terminology
for a given item.
and
before
possible to
their
draw
tech-
nical plans requiring such infor-
mation.
Most
and
homes
discussions
illustrations are related to
or
less
symbols shown
all
are
to a scale of
this
is
Vi"=
l'-O"
the size most often
drawings. Individual drawings for
complex than
the building plans in Chapter 49

are
Drawing
drawn
to their smallest allow-
principles for
heavy con-
able size for working drawings.
same
as for light
They
struction are the
construction
except
that
many
must be mastered.
Many explanations in this book
are lengthy, but no discussion
details
presents
For example,
Chapter 38
in
used on floor plan and elevation
buildings of heavy construction.
more
drawn
because
recommended
be-
other light construction
cause these are
in the
construction
principles,
it is
with
familiar
working drawings
book are usually drawn to
Illustrative
the author's belief that a
It is
person
all
there
is
to
know about
a given subject! Rather, the
book
gives a broad overview of
many
different areas.
Examination of the book reveals that some drawings are in

a single color while others are in
are only half the size nor-
mally used, so they
fit
on book
pages.
Questions following chapters

are designed to cover each major
topic presented,
and are an
in-
valuable study guide.

Spelling words and terms are
end of chapters.
good draftsman must be able
listed at the
spell properly, as well as
stand his terms.
A
to
under-
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Steel Joists, 68; Questions to Reinforce Knowl-
edge,
Table of Contents
Terms
Chapter
to Spell
6: Sill
and Know, 70.
and Floor Construction... 71
71; Termite Shield, Floor Joists, 73; Framing,

74; Douglas Fir, Southern Yellow Pine Floor Joists,
75; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, Words to
Sills,
List of
11
Color Illustrations
Spell
PART ONE
Structure-An Architectural
1: Laying
Top Plate, 81; Studding, 82; Base Blocks, 84; Framing Diagrams, 85;
Headers Exterior Openings, 86; Header Schedule, Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, Words to
Spell and Know, 87.
Wall Section, Sole Plate, 79;
Out and Excavating
14
Selection of Building Location on the Lot, 14; Local
Ordinances and Zoning Laws, 15; Plot Plan, 18;

Staking Out, 20; Excavating, 22; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, Terms to Spell and Know, 25.
Stone Bonds, 95; Concrete Block

Bonds, 96; Building Stone, 96; Purchase of Stone,
98; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, 99; Terms
to Spell and Know, 100.
Brick, 94; Brick,
Forms, 27; Mixing and Pouring Concrete, 29; Concrete Block Shapes, 32, 33; Concrete Blocks, 34;
Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, Terms to Spell
and Know, 35.
Chapter 9: Ceiling Joists and Roof

Construction
Methods
3: Footings
and Foundations
88
Chapter 8: Masonry Wall Construction
26
Chapter 2: Concrete
Chapter
79
Chapter 7: Frame Wall Construction
Obligation
Chapter
and Know, 78.
36
Douglas
of Roof Framing,
Fir,
101
101; Ceiling Joists-
Southern Yellow Pine, 103; Securing
Ceiling Joists to Wall, 104; Roof Types, 105; Roof
Load Bearing
Ability of Soils, 36; Footing
37-39;
Line,
Frost
Knowledge, Terms
40;
Shapes,
Shapes Frequently Used, 106; Low Slope Roof
Questions to Reinforce
to Spell
Joists or Rafters,
and Know, 46.
Chapter 4: Poured Concrete Slabs
109; Rafters, 110;
Names
of
Common Rafter Lengths in

Inches, 112; Roof Truss, 113; Preliminary Design
for Nailed Glued Trusses, 1 14; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, Terms to Spell and Know, 115.
Roof Parts, 111;
47
Suspended Concrete Floors, 49; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, Terms to Spell and Know, 52.
116
Chapter 10: Roofing

Chapter
5:
Structural Metal
Welded Wire Fabric, 53; Wire Sizes, 54; Kinds and

Use of Beams, Reinforcing Bars, 55; Fiber Stress
20,000# per square inch, 56, 57; Sample Weight
Calculations, Standard Shapes, 58; Standard Steel
Pipe Columns, 62; Weights, Dimensions and Data,
Beams, 63; Elements of Equal
Standard Steel
Angles, 64; Elements of Unequal Angles, 65; Standard Steel Angles Weights, Dimensions and Data
Equal and Unequal Leg Angles, 66; ChannelsAmerican Standard, Steel Angle Irons to Support
Four-Inch Masonry Walls, 67; Ryerson Open Web
I
53
Roof Coverings,
119; Slate, 121; Flashing, 123; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, 124, 125; Terms to Spell and
Know, 125.
Definition of Roof Sheathing,
16;
Chapter 11: Post, Plank and Beam

126
Construction
Framing Systems, 126; Beam Shape, 127, 128;
Maximum Spans for Floor Beams, Roof Beams,
129; Typical Glued Laminated Beam and Purlin
Sizes, 130; Roof Decking, 131; Questions to Rein-
force Knowledge,
Terms
to Spell
and Know, 134.
General Architectural Drawing
Chapter 12: Modular Construction
135
137; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, 143, 144;

to Spell and Know, 144.
145
Door Sizes, 146; Multiple Application of Same Door Type; 147; Door
Jambs, 151; Thresholds, 154; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, 155, 156; Terms to Spell and
Classification of Doors, 145;
to Spell
Closed Cornice, 228; Attic Ventilation, 230; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, Terms to Spell and
Know, 233.
tions to Reinforce Knowledge,
Chapter 15: Stairs and Stair Framing
169
Stringers, 169; Stair Types, 171-174; Stair Uses

and Locations, Structural Details, 175; Calculating
Number and Size of Treads and Risers, 176; QuesSpell
Terms
to Spell
and
PART TWO
to
Chapter 16: Insulation
Terms
Know, 241.
function and beautyessentials

of Planning
and Know, 178.
Method
234
Chapter 22: Exterior Wall Coverings

Wall Sheathing, 234; Horizontal Siding, 235; Ques-
and Know, 168.
tions to Reinforce Knowledge, 177, 178;
226
Exterior Trim
165; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge,
Terms
219
Chapter 21: Roof Overhang and
Chapter 14: Windows and Glass

157
Window Types, 157-162; Mullions, 162; Window
Glass, 164; Window Insulating Glass Standard
167, 168;
and Know,
Chimneys, 219-221; Fireplaces, 222-225; Fireplace Opening and Liner Dimensions, 223; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, Terms to Spell and
Know, 225.
156.
Sizes,
to Spell
Chapter 20: Chimneys and Fireplaces
Terms
Know
Terms
218.
Modular Coordination, Building Material Sizes,
Chapter 13: Doors and Door Frames
Reinforce Knowledge,
179
244; Duties, Fees, 245; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, Terms to Spell and
Know 246.
for, Training,
Chapter 24: The Drafter
184
Chapter 17: Electrical Requirements
244
Chapter 23: The Architect

Need
Heat Transfer, 179; Classifications of

Insulation, 180; Sound Conditioning, 182; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, Terms to Spell and
Know, 183.
of
247
Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, 247.
Units of Measure, 184; Abbreviations for Units of
Chapter 25: Design for Today's Living
Measure, 185; Number of Wires Required, 186;

Required Lighting Outlets and Switches, 187;
Lighting Fixtures, 190; Questions to Reinforce
Knowledge, 192, 193; Terms to Spell and Know,
193.
Chapter 18: Plumbing
194
Water Distribution System, 194; Waste Removal,

196; Recommended Minimum Standards for Individual Sewage-Disposal System, 198-200; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, Terms to Spell and
Know, 201.
Chapter 19: Climate Control

Gravity Warm Air, 203; Hot Water and Steam
Chapter 26: Determining Needs and

Wishes of the Client
Specific
206; Radiant Heating, 208; Determining Heating

Requirements, 210; Heat Loss Data, 211; Reciprocals, 212; Calculating Building Heat Loss, 213;
Room Heat Loss Schedule, Approximate B.T.U./H.
Furnace Capacities and Sizes, 215; Questions to
261
Information the Architect Must Know,
262.
202
Heat,
248
Elements of Beauty and Design, 249; Application

of Design, 252; Steps in the Development of a
Floor Plan, 253; Practical Considerations, 256;
Areas of a Home, 257; Planning the Exterior, 258;
Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, 259, 260;
Terms to Spell and Know, 260.
Chapter 27: Room-By-Room Planning

Entries and Halls, 263; Living Rooms, Dining
Rooms, 265; Den or Study, 267; Bedrooms, 268;
Bathrooms, 269-273; Kitchens, 274-278; Designing the Kitchen, 278; Wall Units, Cooking Top or
Sink Units, 279; Base Units, 280, 281; Utility and
Pantry Units, 281; FHA Minimum Kitchen Stan-
263
Table of Contents
dards, 282; Multi-Purpose Rooms, 284; Garage
Chapter 35: Sections
or Carport, 285; Questions to Reinforce Knowl-
edge, 286-288;
Terms
to Spell
350
Sections, Full Section, 350; Half Section, Offset

Cutting Plane, 351; Questions to Reinforce Knowl-
and Know, 288.
edge, Terms to Spell and Know, 353.
289
Chapter 28: Furniture

Sketches of Furniture Most Often Used
289-292.
in
Chapter 36: Pictorial Drawings
Homes,
Directions
Chapter 29: Community Factors to be

Considered
293
Kinds of Communities: Urban, Suburban, Small

Town, Rural; Utility Services, 293; Real Estate
Taxes, Transportation, Stores and Shopping Centers, Fire Protection, 294; Schools, Churches,
Parks, Recreation and Cultural Opportunities, 295;
Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, 297.
Orientation, 300; Plot Plans, 303; Questions to Re-
Terms
to Spell
for
Two-Point
Exterior
Perspective,
358; Perspective for One-Point, 375; Questions

to Reinforce Knowledge, Terms to Spell and
Know, 376.
Chapter 37: Sketches and Rendering
377
Wash, 379; Graded Wash, 381; Wet-lnto-Wet,

382; Opaque Water Colors, 383; Items for ConFlat
sideration
298
Chapter 30: Site Planning

inforce Knowledge,
354
Isometric Arcs and Circles, 355; Oblique Drawing,

356; Cabinet Drawing, Perspective Drawing, 357;
dering,
Questions
Terms
in
Rendering, 386; Procedure for Ren-
Introduction to Rendering Details, 393;

to
to
Reinforce
Know and
Spell,
Knowledge,
402.
400-402;
and Know, 306.
Chapter 38: Architectural Symbols
PART THREE
From Ideas to Reality
Part
1.
Part
2.
Part 3.
Part 4.
Chapter 31: Drafting Tools and Techniques

308
for Developing Skill
Drawing Tables and Boards, 309; Instruments,
310; Handling Paper and Pencil, 312; Beginning
to Draw,
Line Weights, 314; Architect's Scales,
317; Tools for Curved and Irregular Forms, 319;

Drawing Aids, 322; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, 327, 328; Terms to Spell and Know, 329.
Part
5.
Part 6. Supply Pipes,

Part 7.
Part 8.
403
403-406
Window Symbols, 407-411
Door Symbols, 412, 413
Plumbing Symbols, 414, 415
Radiators, 415
Structural Details,
416
Heat Ducts and Registers, 417

Electrical Symbols, 417-419
Chapter 39: DIMENSIONS and Notes
420
Extension and Construction Lines, 420; Dimension Lines and Dimensions, 422; Dimensioning
Floor Plans, 432; Dimensioning and Notes for Ele-
330
Chapter 32: Drafting Mediums
Tracing Paper, Cloth, and Film, 330; Grids, 331;

Water Color Paper, Poster and Illustration Board,
332; Matte Board, 333; Questions to Reinforce
Knowledge, 333, 334; Terms to Spell and Know,

334.
vations, 436; Dimensioning, 437; Metric Measure-
ment, 439; Metric Measure Building Plans for a

Small Home, 442; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, 455; Terms to Spell and Know, 456.
Chapter 40: Organization of Building

Plans
335
Chapter 33: Architectural Lettering

Lettering Styles, 335; Width of Letters, 337; Lettering Hints, 338; Applique Lettering, 339; Pres-
sure Sensitive Lettering, 340; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, 341.
457
Standard Sheet Sizes, Trim Lines, Borders, Lines,

457; Titles, 458; Sheet Layout, Schedules, 459;
Lintel, Door, and Room Schedule, Questions to
Reinforce Knowledge, 460, 461.
Chapter 41: Drawing Plot Plans
462
Drawing Scale, Determining Plot Plan

Shape, Positioning Plan on a Drawing Sheet, BePlot Plan,
Chapter 34: Orthographic Projection and

342
Architectural Drawing
Orthographic Projection, 342; Curved Parts, 346;
Auxiliary Views, Orthographic Views and Building
Plans, 347; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge,
348; Terms to Spell and Know, 349.
ginning the Drawing, Building Lines, 462; Building

Outlines, Construction Outside the Building, 463;
Contour Lines, Utilities, 464; Elevations Above Sea

Level, Dimensions for Plot Plans, Lettering, Condensed Outline to Reinforce Knowledge, 465.
Genera/ Architectural Drafting
Chapter 42: Drawing Floor Plans
How a
"floor plan"
is
466
Structural Elevation Details, Exterior Elevation Details,
Viewed, Drawing Scale, Page,
Stairs,
Chimney
Condensed Outline
to Reinforce
Knowledge,
487.
Technical Data, 466; Drawing Wall Outlines, Door,

Window, and Opening Locations, Wall Object Lines,
Chapter 47: Drawing Framing Plans
488
or Fireplace, Closet Parts, 467;
Drawing Scale, Sheet Size, Floor Framing Plan,

Ceiling Joist Framing Plan, Roof Framing Plan,
488; Steel or Concrete Framing Plans, Wall Framing Diagrams, Condensed Outline to Reinforce
Knowledge, 490, 491.
Drawing Kitchen Equipment, Utility or Laundry

Rooms, Bathrooms, Built-in Storage, Room and
Area Lighting, 468; Lettering, Symbols, Exterior
Items on Floor Plan, Room Heat Source, Ceiling
Joists, Access to Attic or Crawl Space, Elevation
Indicators, 469; Cutting Planes, Condensed Outline to Reinforce Knowledge, 470, 471.
Chapter 48: Mechanical Plans
492
492; Plumbing Plans, 493; Heating and Air Conditioning Plans, 494; Schematic
Diagrams, Condensed Outline to Reinforce KnowlElectrical Plans,
Chapter 43: Drawing Basement or Footing

472
and Foundation Plans
edge, 495.
Drawing Scale, Sheet Size, Construction Materials

and Methods, Beginning the Drawing, Drawing
Chapter 49: Working Plans for a

Contemporary Home
Wall Footings, Wall Openings, 472; Pilasters, Area-
ways, Chimney or Fireplace, Stairway, Access to

Crawl Space, Broaden Wall Outlines, Floor Sup-
497
and Foundation Plan, 500,

Window Schedule, 502; Door
Plot Plan, 499; Footing
ports, Furnace,
501; Basement Plan,
ties,
Schedule, Lintel Schedule, 503; Floor Plan, 504;

Electrical Floor Plan, 506, 507; Front and Rear
Water Heater, 473; Laundry FaciiPlumbing, Electrical Outlets, Dimensioning,

Lettering, 474; Symbols, Room Heat Source, Floor
Joists, Checking the Plan, Cutting Planes and
Identifying Codes, Finishing the Drawing, Condensed Outline to Reinforce Knowledge, 475,476.
and Right Elevation, 509; Roof

Framing Diagram, 510-513; Laundry Chute Detail,
Elevation, 508; Left
514, 515; Outdoor Fireplace and Patio Detail, 516;
Removable Fire Pan Detail, 517; Bathroom Detail,

518-520; Typical Closet Detail, 521; Kitchen Detail, 522, 523; Fireplace Detail, 526; Stair Detail,
527.
Chapter 44: Drawing Exterior Elevations.. 477

What Are
Elevations?,
Drawing Scale, Locating
Elevations on Drawing Sheet, 477; Beginning the

Drawing, Floor Line, Ceiling Line, First Floor Joists,
528
Chapter 50: Reproduction of Drawings
Blueprints and Semi-dry Prints, 528; Ammonia
Grade Line, Footings, Walls in Elevation, Determining Which Roof Elevation to Draw First, Beginning
to Draw the Gable End, 478; Hip Roof, Drawing a
Chimney Terminating on the Roof, 479; Chimney
Pot, Liner, or Cap; Saddle, Gutters and Downspouts, Gable Louver or Ventilator, Window and
Door Line, Door and Window Openings, Object
Lines for Walls and Sills, 480; Dimensions for Elevations, Symbols of Wall Materials, Cutting Planes,
Condensed Outline to Reinforce Knowledge, 481,
482.
Chapter 45: Drawing Building Sections
Vapor Machines, 529; Storage and Retrieval, Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, 532; Terms to Spell
and Know, 533.
Chapter 51: Specifications
and Know, 532.
Chapter 52: Estimating
543
Approximate Methods, 543; Abbreviations of Lumber Terms, 544; Mensuration, Frequently Used
Conversions, Weights and Measures, Acreage and
Areas, Square Tracts of Land, 545; Estimating by
Determining Exact Quantities, 546; Estimating
Materials and Labor, 547, 548; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, Terms to Spell and Know, 549.
483
Drawing Scale, Section Through a Typical Wall,

Other Wall Sections, Sections for Different Levels,
483; Sections for Finished Attic, Stairwell, Fireplace, Kitchen Cabinets, Bathroom Cabinets,
Closets, Sections Through Doors and Windows,
484; Miscellaneous Section Drawings, Condensed
Outline to Reinforce Knowledge, 485.
Chapter 46: Drawing Elevation Details
534
General Coverage, 534; Short Form, 535-542;

Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, Terms to Spell
Chapter 53: Architectural Models
550
Presentation Models, 550; Building Frame Walls,
486
556; The Entourage, 562.
Kitchen Elevations, Bathroom Elevations, Shelves

or Cabinets, Fireplace Walls, 486; Roof Framing,
Index
10
565
Color
Illustrations
Curtain walls with sandwich panels between vertical
Relationships of surfaces
kitchen features laundry equipment

cealed behind folding doors, 275
Built-in
"L" shaped
Storage accessories
planning area, 276
kitchen
a corridor layout,
Hard surfaced materials make
this utility
con-
ings, 383
Opaque water-color rendering done
in
tones of gray,
384
277
Airbrush rendering, 385
room easy
An eight
284
unit
apartment building, 388
Ink line drawings with water-color washes,
389
Pen and ink rendering with water-color washes, 390
296
showing building outlines and planting
Plot plan
Presentation
loca-
plot plan
floor
plan
rendered with water-color
washes, 397
302
Rendered
Plot plan
wash renderings, 380
Professional and student opaque water-color render-
Beautiful, conveniently located schools are an asset,
tions,
identification of surfaces,
Diluted and strong water-color
built-in
A kitchen design adapted from

to maintain,
345
members, 239
A second wash presentation, 398
showing roof outlines, 303
Rendering and plan, 498
showing building outlines, 304
company
Rendering of the large home, 331
Presentation model of a light
House plans for the home, including maid's quarters,

shown on preceding page, 332
Views of a finished model with entourage, 562
building,
Various views of presentation model, 563
11
551
..
Part
STRUCTURE
AN ARCHITECTURAL
OBLIGATION
4.
Laying Out and Excavating

Concrete
Footings and Foundations
Poured Concrete Slabs
5.
Structural Metal
6.
Sill
2.
3.
7.
8.
9.
10.
and Floor Construction

Frame Wall Construction
Masonry Wall Construction
Ceiling Joists and Floor Construction
Roofings
and Beam Construction

Modular Construction
Doors and Door Frames
Windows and Glass
Stairs and Stair Framing
11. Post (Plank)

12.
13.
14.
15.
16. Insulation
17.
18.
1
9.
20.
21
Electrical
Plumbing
Climate Control
Chimneys and Fireplaces

Roof Overhang and Exterior Trim
22. Exterior Wall
Coverings
13
One
a
Selection of Building Location on the Lot
In choosing a building location,
you must know the exact
VtA
'/l6
Vt
SECTION
property boundaries of the building

the
site. It is not enough to take

word of the person from whom
the property
He may
is
tea
being purchased.
be entirely honest
in his
when he
SECTION
Vi
SECTION
describes the
boundaries of the property. But
beliefs
way to be absolutely sure

have a survey of the property
the only
is
to
made, following the
legal descrip-
tion as given in the abstract.
An
abstract gives the exact legal de-
scription of property, stating
boundaries
as
measured from
and merid-
A SECTION OF LAND
latitudes, longitudes,
ians.
Much
of the country
is
di-
IS
vided by government survey into

sections of one square mile each.
Sections
are
divided
sections of halves
into
sub-
and quarters.
These are divided into further

halves and quarters. A legal description of property and its use
might read as follows:
The property known and described as
Lots nineteen (19) and twenty (20)
in Block two (2) in J. C. McCartney
and Co. Subdivision of the South
half of the
ONE MILE SQUARE
Southeast quarter of the
The indicated divisions are described as follows:

V2
Va
Ve
V\b
=
=
=
South half of section.

Northeast quarter of section.
South half of northwest quarter of section.
Northwest quarter of the northwest quarter of section.
South half of the northeast quarter of the northwest quarter of section.
'/64
Northeast quarter of the northeast quarter of the northwest quarter of section.
'/3
Divisions of
14
one section
of land (1 sq. mi.)
1:

Northwest quarter and the East half
of the
Northeast quarter of the South-
property and a record of the

payments may be recorded.
hearings, the rezoning will either
re-
be approved or denied.
west quarter of the Northeast quarter.

Section 20. Township 39 North. Resubdivision of Blocks one (1) to five
(5). is to
be zoned as a Second Com-
Restrictions
regulations
An owner may add any
abstract also
shows previ-
use.
Future owners are bound
used.
to
them. For example, an owner
dates acquired and transferred to
require
new owners. Amounts of money
of masonry construction. The cost
of the
transaction are usually stated.
and quality of future buildings

may be predetermined. Uses of
Money borrowed
the
other considerations
or
against the
may
total
is
also
property
area of the property, and the
edges of the building to the prop-
builder wishes to introduce an-
zoning laws. Most communities
other kind of structure, he
regulations
certain
stating
be located. For example,
apply to the governing body to
may
have the property rezoned into a

different class. The case will be
would
it
not be possible to build an indusplant
trial
in
new
may
where
types of structures
residential
reviewed and public hearings will

be held to give all property
area an opportunity
neighborhood. Zones are usually
owners
classified as (1) first residential-
to express their wishes. After the
in the
instances
is
deter-
ordinance.
local
governing
All
construc-
tion requirements are usually as-
check the local ordinances and
have
many
In
lines.
mined by
zoned and a
is
be
practice
the build-
the height of buildings
and Zoning Laws

If the
the
ordinance to state the
ordinances
Before construction can begin,
common
to
distance one must allow from the
erty
y
Local Ordinances
define
ing can occupy in relation to the
be specified.
N=
ordinances,
usually
amount of ground area
future buildings to be
property
It
for a local
may
ous owners of the property, and
all
zoning
methods of construction
restric-
tion he desires regulating future
mercial District.
An
Besides
Deed
sembled and published in booklet

form called the building code.
Determining Building Location
Other homes in the area help

determine the location of a new
house
on
the
property.
If
all
other structures are built in a row,

a given distance from the front
of
the
lot.
should be
new
the
in line
structure
with them.
single family, (2) second residential multi-family. (3) apartments,

(4)
first
commercial,
commercial.
(6)
(5)
second
heavy industrial. These names

and ratings may vary from one
(7)
locality
were
to another.
built
zoning
NOTICE
industrial.
light
Many
P.M., on
Cicero,
ordinances
July
96,
in
Town
the Cicero
of Cicero's Zoning Board of Appeals at 7:30
Town
4937 West 25th
Hall, located at
Street,
at which time the following proposal will be considered:
That property known and described as Lot 36 and the East Vi of Lot 35 in Block
3 in Householder's Addition to Morton Pork in the East Vi of Section 28, Township
39 North, Range 13, East of the Third Principal Meridian in Cook County, Illinois,
commonly known as 4808 West 24th Place, Cicero, Illinois, be rezoned from First
were estabone may find
Residential to First Commercial.
a variety of buildings, constructed

for many different purposes.
Monday,
Illinois,
areas
up before adequate
lished. In these areas
public hearing will be held by the
Other
areas have been zoned after con-
Ordinance
is hereby given that a copy of the proposed amendment to the Zoning
be available for inspection by any interested person at the meeting effecting such classiNotice
will
fication.
struction of at least a part of the
Zoning Board of Appeals
buildings. In these older areas
of the
may be
into
difficult
to
tell
Town of Cicero
WILLIAM MAGUIRE
it
exactly
Secretary
which zoning category prop-
erty should be placed.
Public newspaper notice of rezoning request
15
Part One: Structure An Architectural Obligation
Laws
new con-
to
that extends over this
to
usually prohibit
struction
On the other hand, a setback

behind other structures will tend
to obstruct the view from the new
line.
building.
When
planning the location
of a structure
it
is
well to take
Many
16
may
take years before the area
again have the harmonious,
enriched look of belonging, unless
value of the property because
large
it
an established look. Many

large developers move into an
area and proceed to remove all
shrubs, hills, and even
trees,
gives
it
and other
existing
lawns.
finished
the
of the building can be adjusted
it
will
saving in cost but can add to the
times the location
into consideration trees
growth.
allow existing natural features

remain. This not only is a
When
area
barren wasteland.
The beauty
of this
home
is
they
looks
If this
are
like
happens
sums
are spent
on sodding.
transplanting,
or terracing.
natural terrain
may
basic
landscape
possible.
examples of construction
the
The
offer the best
in
Some
which
natural landscape has been
preserved are shown on these two

pages.
enhanced by nature's landscaping.
Preserving existing trees around a building site adds beauty to the structure.
17
This
modern plywood home blends well with
its
natural setting.
working plot plans are included

in Chapter 41.
Plot Plan
Establishing the
Grade
The grade or
The working drawings should
show a plot plan giving the outline and shape of the property.
This plan
is
dimensioned, showing
locations of
and easements
alleys,
Generally
sidewalks,
all streets,
the
for utilities.
property
owner
can use easement space for yards

and gardens, but the utility com-
pany
still
reserves the
access for placement
of
right
of
and repair
utility services.
The
and outline of
buildings to be placed on the property should be drawn on the plot
plan. Dimensions from each of
location
the
relationship of
building to ground
important.
The grade
very
is
line
is
the
point at which the earth touches

the foundation of the building.
One
usually selects the highest
point
on the perimeter of the
building
the
when
starting to lay out

location.
building's
mensions applying
line are taken from
All
to the
di-
grade
of the basement in
many new
careful not to place the building
too close to the ground because
and other
be shown
location. Trees, shrubs,
obstructions
when
upon
lines
should
their presence has a bearing
Contour
showing the elevations above
the construction.
sea level of the property are in-
cluded on some plot plans.

Additional methods of showing
the less waterproofing
is
Some codes determine
required.
the maxi-
mum depth if the basement rooms
and other items to be constructed.

These are dimensioned when it
necessary to determine their
to prevent mois-
are to be used for living purposes.
also includes all drive-
is
made
and termite damage.

If one places the building
high above grade, it is likely to
look as though it were built on
However, if families live
stilts.
in basement apartments, the structure may be built high enough
so the basement windows will be
above ground. The less underground depth a basement has,
this reference
ways, sidewalks, patios, terraces,
The plan
is
ture, rot
point or bench mark, as it is

sometimes called.
Recent preference in building
has tended to keep the floor line
close to the grade. The omission
homes has been one of the primary reasons. Yet one must be
the property boundaries are given.
vision
of the danger of dampness and

rot.
Most communities have
ulations governing
floors or
wood
the
reg-
distance
parts of a building
must be above grade. The FHA

Federal Housing Adminstration
places a
minimum of 8 inches
wood parts must
as the distance
be above grade. There are exceptions to this rule, if
18
adequate pro-
Yet development of new building

materials
purposes,
has,
for
all
practical
made this code obsolete.
Recent developments have enabled
buildings
to
be
placed
below grade.
When the grade is being established, adjoining terrain must
be given consideration. The
ground should slope away in all
directions. Otherwise, water from
entirely
adjoining
property
may
drain
and cause erosion, or it

may back up against foundation
and basement walls and cause
moisture problems inside. One
must also consider what surface
water from a new site is going
to do to adjoining property.
across
NAME OF
STREET
Plot plan.
19
Staking Out
When
staking out a building,
the distance of setback from the

front property line
is
usually de-
mainder of the building. Single

batter boards, as shown, may be
used for marking offsets or indentations. The corners must be exlevel,
or
of the building.
Then
drive a small
stake in the ground at the exact
end of the
small tack or nail can
front corner of each
building.
then be driven into the stake to
mark the exact location. The stakes

should
be
driven
with the ground.
almost
flush
batter board,
such as the one shown, should
method of
of
right
an application
Pythagorean theorem,
the
which
using
establishing
This
triangle.
After the outlines of the building have been established, thev
can be marked on the ground
across to represent the front edge
is
di-
square.
with marking lime. The line or
square;
line
is
employing the 6-8-10
actly
first.
both
in
rections, the building
transit
stretched
termined
checked diagonally
staging
any right triangle

the square of the hypotenuse is
states: In
sum of
of the other two
equal to the
is
removed
for excavation.
Very simple rectangular
is
struc-
tures, as in the illustration,
may
be staked out as a single section,
the squares
all at the same time. However,

most structures must be staked
See
out in sections, or different parts
sides.
or
at a time,
illustration.
Taut, or tightly stretched, lines
because of the irregu-
of the outlines of the build-
larity
the two
of "staging." or carpenter's twine,
ing.
front corners, using 2x4 stakes of
a suitable length, tapered at one
are fastened over the batter

boards to outline sections of the
end with a hatchet or power saw.
footing.
The
fastened by cutting notches in the
bay windows, recessed entries,

areaways, and porches, require
special laying out and forming.
The shape of a building should
then be constructed
batter
boards
at
should
be
These
lines are usually-
Additional
offsets,
placed no closer than 4 feet from
batter
the outside edge of the footing
edges of the footing, by looping
cause
around the boards, and

tying. The strings can also be fastened around nails driven in the
more material and labor

struct.
boards.
ing footings
line.
Then
1x6 boards are used to
connect the stakes. The top edges

of the lx6's should be straightlevel
grade
and equi-distant above the

line.
Next an approximate layout

of the footing is measured off and
batter boards set up for the re-
boards to line with the
string
The diagonal method

for checking the square.
lustration.
reads the
If the
is
good
See
il-
tape measure
same when
the area
is
for
be kept as simple as possible beirregular
This
is
shapes
require
to con-
not only true for
excavation and forming and pouralso
for
building.
and foundations, but
all
other parts of the
The
layout of a building
with irregular outlines, and sections,
is
shown.
"L" shaped batter boards.
Straight batter board.
20
as
Il
Batter boards and string layout for a
rectangular building.
Using the
method
6-8-
10 right-triangle
to check
squareness
of a building corner.
y/A
II
<v, / /
/ /
/ / /
Checking
for squareness, using the di-
agonal method.
Batter boards and string layout for an
irregular
shaped building.
Batter boards and string layout for an irregular shaped building.
21
Excavating at a construction
site.
Excavating
The excavated
earth
is
trans-
ported far enough from the immediate vicinity of the building

site to
prevent interference with
construction
interfere
work and
so as not to
w ith deliveries and stock-
piling of materials.
Top
modity
for
in
most regions and

price. For
premium
sells
this
and the subshould be piled in two sepa-
reason the top

soil
very scarce com-
soil is a
soil
rate locations.
It is
not always easy
to get the contractor to
do
backfill
this
as
of the time involved:

therefore it should be stated
in
because
clearly in the plans
and
specifica-
and should be
possible.
Backfill
as clean
with
trash
can be a haven for termites

and may cause both water pockets
and settling around the foundait
tions.
tion wall.
While the earth is being moved

and while construction is in progress, care should be taken to keep
of the
soil
of
site is
made. Firm clay makes an
the
excavated
material
free
The
terrain
and the condition
should be checked carefully before actual selection of a
debris and rubble. At least a por-
ideal base for a building of light-
tion of the earth will be used as
weight construction, whereas a
22
ing equipment performs
many operations
during construction
upon
construction
would require excavating an area
dependent
piles or footings to
considerably larger than the size
the conditions of the soil to be
extend to bedrock. Rock formations near the surface might require blasting and heavy equip-
of the building.
removed.
ment for removal, which would

add considerably to the cost.
to use a shovel and other

hand tools. However, much of the
hand labor has been eliminated
and replaced with power tools
such as trenchers, crane and dragline, backhoes, and bulldozers.
building
of heavy
would need
sand were encountered, added width would be required for the footings. ExcavaIf
loose
might be much more difficult

because sand from surrounding
areas would tend to fill in. This
tion
can be done in
different ways. The old
Excavating
manv
way is
See illustrations.
The method of excavation

23
is
it
is
sides
not
to a large extent
If the soil
is
uncommon
quite firm,
to use
the
of the excavation as the
outside form for pouring concrete.
more
typical for light con-
struction. In
heavy construction,
This
is
the earth
is
removed from
a larger
area than the building will oc-
cupy, and forms are constructed

to retain the concrete for footings
and foundations.
-fiSs
Leveling the construction site with a landscape rake.
Questions to Reinforce Knowledge

1.
What
is
the purpose of having
a building that
a survey of the property before con-
3.
What
What
is
an abstract?
is
meant by a
is
meant by deed
section
of land?
4.
What
What
6.
How
0.
is
is
a zoning ordinance?
it
possible to have a
zoning ordinance changed?

7.
What
8.
How do
if
be constructed?
may be
an area before construction
What
is
the value of a plot
2.
What
is
meant by the term
an
14.
area help determine the location of
15.
Why
in
13.
6.
What
ground than formerly?

is
meant by
is
meant by the term
is
is
meant by "grade"?
a bench mark?
are floors usually built
24
the term
7.
What
"staking out"?
19.
What
What
20.
How
8.
is
a batter board?
is
staging?
does the Pythagorean
theorem apply
plan?
"legal description"?
a building code?
other buildings
extra expenses
closer to the
"terrain"?
a developer completely
What
What
is
to
started?
1
is
is
can existing trees affect
What
incurred
clears
re-
strictions?
5.
How
building construction?
struction begins?
2.
9.
to laying out
a build-
ing?
What
is
meant by the term
"diagonal method"?
22.
Why should rubble and debris
be kept from
backfill material?
!!_!
'(
v
i
a!T]
ft
i^Hll
**Mj
'
'
-mm-
Excavating a trench with a backhoe-loader.
Terms To Spell and
Know
property
neighborhood
terrace
adjoining
boundaries
apartment
easement
erosion
purchased
commercial
utilities
basement
abstract
locality
obstructions
staking
surveyor
height
bearing
batter
regulations
barren
contour
transit
community
terrain
elevation
Pythagorean
structure
approaches
legal
industrial
site
foundation
residential
driveway
perimeter
25
hypotenuse
staging
"l
Concrete
Ingredients of Concrete
The
chief ingredients of con-
cement a mixture of
lime and powdered clay sand,
crushed stone or gravel, and
are
crete
somewhat, depending upon the
upon
desired plasticity of the concrete
product. Note:
Under no circum-
to
stances should
the concrete be
or
allowed to freeze during the setting
mix.
the
The more water one adds

mixture the more plastic
the
pliable
material
becomes.
the strength of the finished
period. If the temperature
is
near
However, additional water
freezing, yet concrete
be done, the mix
ingredi-
weakens the finished concrete.

Use only enough to allow the
mixture to reach corners and
ents will vary with the job the
recesses of the form. Six gallons
added to the mixture, generate

heat which helps prevent freezing; and temporary shelters may
water.
Proportions of Mix
The proportions of the

concrete
is
Generally
to perform.
speaking, the
more cement
in the
mixture, the stronger
it
Cement
expensive;
is
relatively
therefore only
enough
will be.
is
used to
assure that the concrete will per-
For ordinary concrete, such as in basement floors,

drives, and sidewalks, the mix
usually consists of one 94 pound
bag of cement to every 2Vi cu. ft.
of clean sand and 3 cu. ft. of
form
job.
its
%"
crushed stone or
washed
gravel.
The
screened,
FHA
mini-
of water per bag of cement

quantity
Note: Any water
in the
the free
water
includes
Damp
sand and gravel.
is
the
recommended.
usually
mixture
in
the
materials,
of course, would require the addition of less water than would dry
before
icals
available
are
The
in
setting time
However, extreme warmth can
Concrete
may
to support loads.
weighs
about
not be required
Concrete usually
145
pounds per
crete
may become
the desired finish

is
in
weight per cubic
added protection,
is
not only
unwashed but
contain a large quantity
Effects of Temperature
and Moisture
The amount of water
at
will
vary
It
It
about
If
is
for
with
canvas
also a
or
for
proper
good idea
the concrete
five
the
as
it
This will help to
moisture
the
retain
curing.
dampen
slag.
of sand and other foreign matter

such as twigs and clay.
are
and blastfurnace
to cover
such
material
lava slag, cinders,
The more common
before
achieved.
weather and,
hot
very
cubic foot. In order to reduce the

foot, lightweight
solid
is
necessary to add more water
gravel.
may
faster
cause a problem because the con-
Washed
also
much
than in cold.
Lightweight Aggregates
sisalkraft paper.
which
heat
materials.
fused with ordinary road gravel,
is
warm weather
the place of the crushed stone or
gravel should not be con-
and
concrete,
the
aggregates are sometimes used in
is
when
that,
supplied from portable heaters.
one part
requirement
heated
be built around, or covers placed

over,
cement, three parts sand, and five

parts gravel or crushed stone.
mum
may be
poured. Also chem-
is
it
work must
daily
to
for
days during curing.
temperature
is
either
Besides water, the temperature
too cold or too hot during the
which concrete is poured and

a tremendous effect
curing process,
cured has
26
damage and
ing of the surface
may
flak-
result.
2:
Concrete
Forms
Being
while
it
is
semi-liquid, eonerete
have
must
mix
"container"
taking shape. Such conforms.
tainers are called
Forms
made of lumber, plywood,

hardboards, or metal. They may
are
on the construcready-made forms

in place on the job.
either be built
tion
or
site
can be
set
Most larger jobs require the use

of both. For large straight
foundation walls the manufactured forms are convenient. For
columns,
posts,
special
shapes,
usually
are
footings,
job-built
more
and
ones
satisfactory.
round posts are to be

poured, the forms are usually
made from cardboard tubes.
NOTE:
If
After the concrete

set,
is
thoroughly
the forms are then
Manufactured concrete forms.
removed
or "stripped." If walls are being
poured, the forms are held to the
shape by wire or strap

After the forms are removed,
correct
ties.
these wires
crete
remain
in
the
con-
and are sometimes objec-
tionable to the appearance of the
Most ties can be

broken back beneath the finished
surface by turning them. The
cavity where the tie is removed
should be filled or "painted"
finished work.
Reinforcing
The
and a
strength of the concrete
and
improved
resistance to cracking
shifting position can be
by the addition of metal reinforcement.
27
Concrete forms being raised
in
place with a crane.

Symons Manufacturing Co
This
rod, the
pendent
either
has been welded into square or
smooth metal
rectangular mesh. Examples are
reinforcement
deformed not
is
diameter of which
upon
the
is
de-
amount of
strength required, or wire which
summarized
illustrated
and
Chapter
Structural Metal. Re-
5,
in
inforcing in slab concrete should
be kept near the bottom. While

the
pouring
is
in
workman should
similar device
slightly so
it
to
will
progress,
use a
lift
be
the
hoe or
the mesh
embedded
firmly in the concrete. Reinforc-
up
from the bottom of the excavation
if they are to be of any value.
ing rods must also be held
Wire mesh reinforcement
Steel stair forms being prepared

for installation.
Complex forms
for a
foundation wall
Deformed reinforcing
bar.
2:
Concrete
Mixing and Pouring Concrete

was
This
livered
originally
bags;
in
gravel were
the
dumped
On some
it
is still
handled
de-
sand and
near the
where the concrete was

mixed.
hand
The cement was
operation.
site
be
to
and the entire

mixed thoroughly
The con-
shoveled
then
is
is
it
ported
to be used.
in
On
smaller
probably be trans-
will
a conveyor,
with a hoe or shovel.

crete
crete
jobs
manner.
in this
always possible to
not
larger jobs
from a bucket;
is
is
very small jobs
The workman shovels the dry ingredients into a wooden or metal

mixing box; the water is added
contents
It
reach the point where the con-
wheelbarrow.
On
may be placed on
or pumped through
it
large flexible hoses that can be
moved
as
the
work
progresses.
For high work, cranes or lifts

are employed.
Concrete being poured from a
ready-mix truck
is
shown.
Concrete
is
often transported to upper
levels by conveyor.
into
wheelbarrow and transported to

the point where it is to be used.
This method is laborious and
time consuming on larger jobs.
A concrete mixer, usually
equipped with a gasoline engine,
helped make the mixing of concrete less of a chore. The mixer
of today is usually mounted on the
back of a truck. The ingredients
are measured into
hoppers located
ply point.
The
it
from large
at a central
concrete
while the truck
is
the construction
is
sup-
mixed
on the road
site.
When
to
the
is
placed, the customer
can specify what mix he desires.
order
If the
concrete arrives at the con-
struction site with a low pouring
multistory building formed for pouring.
consistency water from a tank on

the truck
is
added
as required.
The mixer has a short trough

attached for dumping the concrete to the job. Several exten-
sions for the trough are kept
on
the truck to enable the operator

to reach
work
struction job
points. If the conis
large
enough
to
warrant, large hoppers and mixers
may
be
set
up
at the site.
29
Forms being set
for the foundation of a large house.
Vibrating
straight,
When concrete is being poured,
is
may
tion the striations are to run.
prevent the mix from completely

the space. Voids or pockets
filling
may weaken the structure or allow

water to pass through
wall.
Vibrating the fresh concrete with

poles helps settle the mix. These
poles have motors or compressed
attached
hoses
air
Vibrating
them.
form
helps
material.
concrete
being poured
is
flat surface,
tamped with
sometimes
is
it
a "jitterbug" to set-
the coarse aggregate below the
Remaining
cement, and sand
when
Note:
be smooth
is
troweled.
tamping
Excessive
cause the aggregate to

the
bottom of the
slab,
will
settle
to
reducing
the strength of the concrete.
poured on a flat surface, the mix

must be leveled to the desired
height. The straightedge used is
The screed
screed.
moved back and

surface,
forth across the
dragging
screeds are
the
concrete
Motor driven
sometimes used on
large jobs.
Topping
finish
topping
after
is
set,
coat will not adhere
The
break away,
likely to
leaving the rough aggregate ex-
The
posed.
must
topping
be
exposing gravel or crushed
A smooth surface
is
usually
Topping the concrete with

and
a mixture of cement, sand,
on
purposes
some concrete work,
it is
desirable
to leave the aggregate protruding
above the surface. This is called

"exposed aggregate" concrete.
The rough surface, as shown, is
achieved by leveling the concrete
in the customary manner, except
that
it is
retarder
not troweled.
is
after the screeding
is
The sub-surface of
hardens
A chemical
placed on the concrete
completed.
the concrete
in the usual
manner but
placed over the base coat while
the retarder prevents the surface
mix is still plastic or pliable.

However, if the base coat is relatively smooth, a rich mixture of
dry cement and sand may be
sprinkled directly on and troweled
from hardening. After the sub-
surface
to
The
surface
insure
monolithic
surface
has
set,
the
in
the
on
circular motion,
Retarders can also be added to
partly hard-
cause of expansion and contrac-
A wood
float,
in the illustration,
used to achieve
to changes in temperaTherefore lines are usually
due
tion
ture.
scored in the surface to allow the

concrete to
"move"
in
unobjec-
tionable places. If the surface
effort.
Textured surfaces are some-
shown
Large, uninterrupted areas of

concrete are likely to crack be-
shorter time, with less
times desired.
set-
in a
ened concrete. On large jobs this

is too time-consuming. Troweling
machines accomplish the job in
much
hardened con-
ordinary concrete to slow the
Expansion Joints
moved
is
crete below.
Troweling
with a hand trowel,
surface
aggregate to remain firmly
attached
ting time.
Smaller surfaces are smoothed
the
washed with a hose, which removes the top mix but allows
slab.
manual
During the leveling process,

aggregate may work to the sur-
desired.
added
is
properly to the base coat.
stone.
one-piece
or
topping
the base coat of concrete has
is
to the desired level.
face,
monolithic
must be troweled until moisture

from the mix is worked to the
After the concrete has been
has
to the desired finish.
Screeding
called
For decorative
is
the
concrete
the
aggregate,
will
finish.
one method of achieving

a smooth finish, but much faulty
construction has resulted from
such attempts. A good product
water
the
surface.
used for a textured
float
for a floor, walk, or other large,
tle
Exposed Aggregate
Wood
finish. If the
more dense
When
vibrate
to
is
swept with a coarse broom, the

brush strokes going in the direc-
either the stiffness of the mixture
or air trapped in the form
grooved face
shallow,
desired, the troweled surface
this.
The
as
can be
float re-
places the trowel during the finishing operation.
30
If a
striated-
is
quite large, expansion joints are
used to allow for expansion and

contraction.
filled
These
joints
are
with tar or a fibrous material
which has been impregnated with

tar.
The
joints are placed so as
2:
Concrete
Exposed aggregate concrete
is
used for
When
this patio floor.
not to present an objectionable
terials
appearance.
concrete, consider 25 cubic feet
Purchased by the Cubic Yard
as one cubic yard instead of the

customary 27 cubic feet. One de-
Concrete
is
purchased by the
is
the cause.
sires to figure a
figuring
job as close as is
is better to have
cubic yard. Imagine a piece of
possible, but
concrete 3'x3'x3'. This represents
too much concrete than not

enough. Serious delays and faulty
construction can result from or-
one cubic yard. Concrete will not

usually pour out full measure.
Loss of the water by evaporation
and absorption into adjacent ma-
dering too
it
little
continuous pour.
31
concrete for a
Expansion
joints
control
cracking
concrete surfaces.
BULLNOSE BLOCK
Standard concrete block
size.
(See page 34)
BULLNOSE CORNER BLOCK
Vl
STANDARD BLOCK,
CORNER BLOCK
CORE
BULLNOSE JAMB BLOCK
CORNER BLOCK
STANDARD BLOCK,
CORE
Vi
HEIGHT BLOCK
DOUBLE CORNER BLOCK

Typical concrete block shapes.
32
OFFSET BLOCK
SOFFIT BLOCK
I
OFFSET BLOCK
OFFSET BLOCK
PILASTER BLOCK
LINTEL
JAMB BLOCK
HEADER BLOCK
Typical concrete block shapes.
33
PARTITION
OR SOLID BLOCK
Concrete Blocks
Concrete can also be purchased
mortar joint and
is
the usual aggregate, but
made
with other
%"
block
less
on
is
all
to
is
called
actual size
measurements.
allow for the
still
lay
up
the
given size. The reathe 16" measurement
at the
Cinder and haydite

added to make a lightweight
block. These are not designed to
sons
will
be load bearing, or supporting.
shapes of concrete blocks. Pat-
support only their own

Beams support the floors
and walls. The block are used to
terns for laying of concrete blocks
wall off areas in a building and
frequently used patterns for laying
Concrete
concrete blocks are shown in

Chapter 8.
Concrete blocks are purchased
by the hundred or, on smaller
jobs, by the individual unit.
to
vertical Installations.
is
The
materials.
will
form outer
walls.
blocks can be purchased which
Exposed aggregate panels are frequently

used for
the nominal size.
are
weight.
III.
8"x8"xl6". This
gravel
They
Federal Savings, Berwyn
is
The reason
blocks are also
First
blocks
form of ready-made blocks.

These are composed of cement,
sand, and a fine aggregate. Small
in the
have decorative aggregates such

as marble or granite chips.
The standard
size
of concrete
for
be discussed
There
are
later.
many
sizes
and
are limited only by the imagination of the designer.
Extensive use of concrete adds to the beauty of this home.
Samples of
2:
Concrete

1
From what materials
Why
2.
ordi-
20.
vary the proportions of the ingredi-
What
is
21.
road
tween
22.
the
difference be-
gravel
and
23.
When
concrete
is
not
24.
re-
how
gregates are sometimes used?
to
What two
happen
concrete
if
are
things
How
is
poured
are the ingredients of
kept
warm
What
while
it
8.
it
is
meant by the term
What
is
meant by
the term
What
is
meant by
the term
is
the
is
the
name
of the item
concrete
in
What
it
is
a broom
and
finish,
What
is
exposed aggregate
What
is
a retarder, and
why
27. From what materials are ordinary concrete blocks
What
crete blocks?
are
made?
lightweight
When
What
material
What
used
10.
is
sometimes
are some of the ma-
12.
1
3.
in
What
What
What
Why
away from
is
is
is
is
the
reinforcing
are they used?
bottom of the ex-
How
can the consistency of
What
difficulties
from having voids

1
7.
What
is
in
can
result
the concrete?
meant by the term
vibrating the concrete?

18.
What
is
meant by the term
tamping the concrete?

1
9.
31.
What
is
the standard size of
a concrete block?
Terms To Spell and
What
Know
concrete
columns
flaking
ingredients
reinforcement
hardboard
fibrous
plastic
deformed
texture
impregnated
aggregates
wheelbarrow
striated
evaporation
sisalkraft
hopper
retarder
absorption
curing
consistency
screeding
trough
expansion
mesh?
reinforcing rod held
concrete be varied?
16.
concrete purchased?
reinforcing rod?
14. Describe a ready-mix truck.

5.
is
the process of re-
cavation?
What are decorative concrete
form construction?
called?
1
How
30.
place
moving the forms from the concrete
29.
blocks?
con-
posts?
terials
Concrete privacy screen.
curing?
used as a form when pouring round
9.
Awooc
achieved?
used?
28.
holds
that
26.
in
use?
7.
What
concrete?
is
warmed and
concrete
for
level-
Portland Ceinenf
is
25.
likely
freezing conditions?
6.
used for
machine troweling?
quired to be load bearing, what ag-
5.
is
monolithic concrete?
washed
gravel?
4.
tool
topping?
ents of concrete?
3.
What
ing concrete?
sometimes
one
does
is
made?
nary concrete usually
is
the process of level-
ing the concrete called?
35
Extra strength forms are frequently necessary for heavy construction.

When
Footing and Foundation Size
Two factors which influence the

size
of a footing and foundation
port, the
in the
are:
Load-bearing
Weight
ability
of the
soil.
determining the weight
which one
same
LOAD BEARING
must sup-
lineal foot
weight of
all
ABILITY OF SOILS
materials
foot of building
SOIL TYPES
must
Rocks or Gravel
of
the
structure
as
Minimum Requirements
For large construction projects

the load-bearing ability of the
soil should be determined by an
engineer. For most light construction the accompanying table will
Coarse
Sand Compact
Stiff
Clay
Fine
Sand Dry
matical calculations to determine
Fine
Sand Damp
light construction
not necessary to
the sizes to be used.
Housing
it
The Federal
Administration
Medium Clay
requirements for firm
soil
FOUNDATION
Definition of a Footing
footing
is
the concrete or
other solid, enlarged base which
supports the foundation, a col-
umn,
pier, or other weight.
The
footing helps distribute the load.
Definition of a Foundation
foundation
is
that portion
of the walls of a building which

is below the floor joist. Usually
most of the foundation is beneath
the finished grade.
KEY
Keyed footing and foundation.
36
miniSoft Clay
^
A
make mathe-
For most
is
mum
be adequate.
for
distributed.
IONS SQ.
10
Hard Pan
be considered.
FT.
and Foundations
3: Footings
Footing Shapes
For lightweight, thin-walled
such as garages and
buildings
may
storage sheds, the load
When
footing thickness and foundation
width are the same, the footing width

may be determined by the 30 60
be
at
as
wide as the ma-
least
be supported.
terials to
ing
foundation must
must be
at
least
wide as the foundation
minimum
The
foot-
twice
wall.
as
The
thickness of a bearing
foundation of poured concrete is

6". However, local codes frequently
require
the
of a
use
greater thickness. For frame

buildings an 8" thickness is often
used. Masonry veneer and solid
masonry buildings may require
be poured. Because of
than the foundation. If slightly
struction
and pour
is
difficult.
It
more weight must be supported,

and the earth is firm, it is permissible to use a flared footing. The
foundation is dug to the desired
depth and the base is widened
is
with a shovel to give a slightly
floating slab. This type construc-
typical foundation
The
footing
tion are usually
at
The
the sections meet.
is
rec-
and founda-
poured
separate
parts or settling
may
footing
to
help
the floor of a building
be of concrete, the
to
floor,
foundation, and footing are some-
poured
times
as
single-unit
used more often
is
in moderwhere it is not necadd a great amount of
ate climates
essary to
insulation.
The
insulation
is
of the foundation wall and must
may
cause the
footing and foundation to sepa-
may be
of necessity.
joint can
enter the area between the two
key
When
in cases
placed on the exterior perimeter
cause two problems: Water
used onlv
where
times. This forms a joint
rate.
is
tion
larger base.
tangular.
the
may
desired,
the irregular shape, the form con-
The
that
tion
is
and founda-
require the use of a footing other
method.
state
not
stronger support
If a
a monolithic footing
placed
in the
remedy
these
problems.
extend
(Note:
top of the floor.

exposed and does not
the
to
It is
present a desirable appearance.)
The
insulation
is
then faced with
asbestos board or other inorganic

material.
(See next two pages.)
10" or 12" foundation thickness.
The width of
foundation
a concrete
wall
block
8"
should
be
minimum. The thickness
Two-piece footing
and foundation.
or
height of the footing should be

the
same
as
the
width of the
foundation.
The 30 -60 method of deter-
mining the
the
thickness
footing
or
width
height
is
and
also
sometimes used. An example of

this method is shown.
Monolithic
Individual building codes differ
widely as to required
sizes.
drawn the
build-
Before a plan
is
ing code for the locality should
2 x
On
a flared footing the effective bearing
width should be at least twice the foundation width.
be consulted.
37
footing
and foundation.
FOOTING SHAPES
ROCK LATH
BEVEL SIDING
PLASTER
BASEBOARD
BASE SHOE
SHEATHING
Poured footing and foundation for frame dwelling.
FINISHED FLOOR
SUBFLOOR
Frame building with poured

footing, concrete block
foundation,
ANCHOR
and concrete
BOLT
slab floor.
CONCRETE
BLOCK
FOUNDATION
REINFORCING
RODS
WATERPROOFING
HEAT DUCT
ANCHOR BOLT
INSULATION
ASBESTOS BOARD
38
Combined
floating slab, foun-
dation,
and footing.
3: Footings
and Foundations
VAPOR
BARRIER
^- RIGID
INSULATION
Footing and foundation for

joists
wood
and masonry veneer wall.
Poured footing and foundation for frame

veneer house with a slab floor.
CONCRETE BLOCK
FURRING STRIP
LATH
AND
PLASTER
BASEBOARD
footing and foundation for a solid
masonry
building.
GROUND
/
LEVEL
EARTH
39
Frost depths.
Frost Line
The depth of the footing is
determined by the depth to which
the ground is likely to freeze.
Freezing and thawing cause the
expand and contract.
the ground freezes below the
ground
If
to
footing
it
force the wall to
will
move, which will cause cracking.

The accompanying map shows
minimum
States,
depth
footing depths for dif-
of
sections
ferent
frost
ever, this
cannot be used as an
tion
workmen can move

difficulty. If damp-
that
vary
from
ness
stan-
for draining the area should be
depths
codes
must be con-
before plans are drawn.
The
mum
FHA
places the mini-
height of basement ceilings
at 6'- 10". If the
ceiling heights.
and
recommended government
sulted
National lumber Manufacturing Associc
allow adequate air circula-
local
dards. Local codes
Basement
be-
organic material.) This space
all
will
likely to occur.
distance
Many
specify
,s-
maximum
The minimum
tween the bottom of wood floor

joists and the ground is 24". (The
earth should be scraped free of
How-
is
absolute guide.
United
the
based upon the
Unexcavated Areas
basement
to be
finished as habitable rooms, 7'-6"
or 8'-0"
is
more
is
desirable.
40
about without
is
made.
likely to occur, provision
Many
builders place a 3"
slab of concrete over the

excavated area. Note: A screed
is
it
used to level the concrete but

to a smooth
is not troweled
finish.
Space between the earth and
and Foundations
3: Footings
Stepped footings and foundations

are frequently required when
building on uneven terrain.
Pier data for unexcavated areas.
must not be confused
floor joist
with height above grade.

in
Footing
If the
terrain
This allows the concrete to bond
not always possible to

level
base
for
foundation.
Then
must conform
ground,
always kept
make
and
footing
shape of the
the
level.
is
the
to the
although
it
footing
the'
To
base
is
vary the
footing to minimize cracking and

shifting of the concrete.
Two
They
rods are usually adequate.
should not be placed above the
Rod may
also
be placed
in
the foundation walls to increase
tance between steps should be no
than 2'-0". The horizontal

or
thickness
footing.
The
should be
the
be
should
height
vertical
at least
same width
4"
together.
in
If all
poured
the Pour
one time and breaks
or splices must be
as
other
footing,
and
as the footing.
pilaster
wall.
It
is
a post built into
may
occur
made
they should
not
To be
effective,
pilaster
occur
The
breaks should be kept clean and
41
is
placed on the inside of the build-
when
additional weight must
beam
if
span a basement, a pilaster might be used

to support the end of the beam.
is
to
in the
close to a step or pilaster.
should be thoroughly
the
in
foundation wall or the support-
large
the concrete cannot be

at
same
thick,
A
the
be supported. For example,

Breaks
the
member
Pilaster
ing,
their strength.
step heights should not exceed 2'-0". The horizontal dis-
portion
is
ing walls above the foundation.
center of the footing.
height, place steps in the footing.
The
less
the
addition of reinforcing rod to the
uneven,
is
made.
before
Reinforcement
Most construction requires the

Steps
next pour
Fooling and Foundation
dampened
Foundation Wall Materials
Although poured concrete
is
used commonly for foundation

walls,
it
is
relatively
expensive.
a lightweight foundation of this

type.
The
as for
installation
wood
Hard
is
the
same
posts.
varieties
of stone and
brick are also used as foundation
Both
materials.
likely
materials
cessive moisture if soft

rous.
tile
ex-
and po-
drain around founda-
tions of these types
are
from
disintegrate
to
is
necessary.
stone foundation or retaining
wall can be battered or sloped, as
shown, to gain added strength.

Pilaster
Concrete Block
and beam pocket
Concrete block
is
used quite
mamust be comwith mortar. Metal
extensively as a foundation
terial.
In special cases, other materials
and methods can
substitute.
earlier
made
shown in the ilrecommended be-
reinforcing, as
methods,
tops of the posts are
joints
pletely filled
One
sometimes used today, is to dig round

holes in firm earth and place
wooden posts in the holes. The
of the
The
lustration,
is
tween alternate courses of block

to help minimize cracking. Hollow
block walls are less waterproof
level,
than
solid
concrete,
so
more
so the building can be constructed
upon them.
In pole construction,
these posts also act as the vertical
framework for the walls. Cypress,

and redwood are materials well suited for this method
of construction. Other kinds of
cedar,
wood may be used
but they re-
quire the addition of a pressuretreated
preservative,
such
as
creosote, to retard decay.
Wood
to
last
piles can be expected

about thirty years. The
part of the pile subjected to the

weather deteriorates much more
rapidly than that below grade or

in water. A shallow
foundation wall can be used to
cap the tops of the poles to pro-
submerged
long their
life.
Wood
This wall also acts
as a level base for the

crete posts are
sills. Consometimes used for
42
sill
supported on concrete posts.
and Foundations
3: Footings
waterproofing
is
required to keep
the moisture from penetrating.
Drain Tile
When
as a
the
foundation serves
basement
wall, or if water
might not drain properly otherwise, a 4" inside-diameter drain
should be placed around the
tile
perimeter of the building. The

tile is placed at the same level
as the footing, and about 6" outit. The tile should be laid
bed of gravel or crushed
stone. The joints between the tile
should be left open about %".
side of
in
These are covered with strips of

building paper or roll roofing to
prevent gravel above the tile from
entering
tile
The
it.
may be
material for the
field clay, concrete,
or
bituminous fiber. The drain tile

should be connected to the sanitary
hibits
sewer (unless a code proit), a storm sewer, or a dry
The
between the tile

sewer or other
drain should be cemented.
well.
leading
joints
to
the
When
basement
floor
does not
extend to the footing, the dram

tile is
placed near the
as the
When
basement
floor
extends to a foot-
ing,
the drain
tile
is
positioned adjacent to
the footing.
floor.
sami
level
Waterproofing Foundation Walls
As was
stated earlier, concrete
can be made more dense by addof
adulterants
ing
terials to the
the wall
ma-
other
may make
mix. This
more waterproof, but
it
should not be the only measure

taken. Also, some building codes
prohibit the use of adulterants.
Coatings of waterproof materials

are placed on the outside of the
foundation wall.
One
known methods
is
layer, or layers, of tar
of the best
to
mop
on the out-
The
side of the foundation wall.
use of plastic film between the

is an excellent newer
method. A 1" coating of cement
mortar is specified by some codes.
Others require cement in addi-
layers
tion to tar.
At the juncture of the wall

and footing, extra care should be
taken.
The
be rounded
tar or
mortar should
in the
corner to form
a cove which will flow water
from the
page 43.
Many
joint.
See
away
illustration,
products are available
that are advertised to waterproof
Some of
a wall from the inside.

these
may work
to
degree.
However, such waterproofing
is
not usually very satisfactory. If
water
wall,
penetrates
pressure
the
masonry
against
exerted
the protective coat will probably
cause the wall to scale and
Outside
built
up
waterproofing
in
layers
blister.
may be
and has the
wall to help resist pressure.
Areaways
to
or
Window Wells
Concrete areaway
The purpose of an areaway is

keep the earth away from an
opening, such as a window, in
44
and Foundations
3: Footings
foundation wall. The areaway may be made of metal or

the
concrete.
inside width should
Its
more than the wall

opening. The top of a window
in a foundation wall must be
be about
1'
above the grade line; the distance

the areaway extends from the
same as
window below
building should be the

the depth of the
The minimum
grade.
distance
from the edge of the building is

l'-O"; the areaway should extend
below the window sill at least

The bottom of the areaway
should be covered with gravel or
crushed stone. Provisions should
6".
be made for draining surface

water from the well. If the bottom
of the well
a guard
more than
is
2'
At least two anchor bolts secure each
deep,
portion of the box
sill
to the foundation.
should be provided.
rail
Above Grade
Height
Unless special provisions have
been made
rot
and
for protection against
termites, the top of the
foundation should be a minimum

of 8" above the finished grade.
No wood
parts should be closer
than 8" to the ground. Offsets
may
be placed
in the top
of the
foundation to allow masonry to

end even with the grade. An ex-
ample
is
shown on
the footing
and
foundation detail on page 39.
'/8"x3"x3" steel plate.
through
bolt
head of the bolt
into
poured concrete
wall at least 6" and into a masonry wall at least 15".
When
anchor
bolts are placed in piefs, a hole

slightly larger
than the diameter
of the bolt should be drilled in a
so
the
in contact with
between each
Vents should
brick.
be provied with a screen of not

less
than eight squares per lineal
The minimum amount of
inch.
foundation walls no more

than 8'-0" apart (on center).
ventilation for crawl spaces
Every board to be anchored must

have at least two bolts.
feet
in the
or unexcabeneath a building
to
remove
moisture and circulate the
and
is
not ventilated,
of ground area. Vents should
be placed near the corners of the
manner
air. If
mold
rot will result.
It
is
not
necessary
to
it
is
directly into a
When
the wall
is
of
from some of the vertical
joints,
or place a series of bricks in a

vertical position with
45
open spaces
if
basement and one
half the space between the floor

joist
possible to omit mortar
place
the building's crawl space opens
and crawl space
floor
is
usually 8"xl6", and cast of iron
brick
as to
foundation vents in the wall
Vents for foundation walls are

or aluminum.
provide adequate cross ventilation.
The crawl space
the area
is
square foot for each 150 square
building in such a
Foundation Vents
must have ventilation
Bolts
Anchor bolts help tie the framework of the building to the

foundation. They should be at
in diameter. They should
least
extend
is
Place the
plate
the steel plate. Bolts are placed
vated area
Anchor
the
8"xl6" foundation
vents.
open.

1
What
What
What
2.
3.
is
a footing?
is
a foundation?
most common
the
is
14.
material for a footing? Others?
What
4.
15.
used
frequently
for
What two
factors determine
What
the
is
re-
quirement for foundation thickness?
between the width
the difference
of the footing?
width of the foundation wall and the
21.
What
30 -60
22.
meant by the term
is
method
What
0.
a key
is
When
of
determining
meant when one says
What
it
used?
flared
What
footing?
are
its
What
minimum
thick-
is
Why
is
a pilaster?
frequently
cypress
How
can the
life
of
wood
If
brick
soft
wall
used for a
is
what
is
likely
to
of
applied on
is
a foundation wall?
Why?
drain
What
tile
placed around the exterior
of the building.
What is the minimum diswood building, the foun-
tance, on a
dation should extend above grade?
Why?
meant by the term
is
monolithic footing and foundation?

13.
What
side
25.
is
advantages?
12.
the
is
24. Explain the function of the

is
placed between the footing
is
hori-
between steps?
23. Waterproofing
which
and foundation?
1 1
What
minimum
the
is
happen?
footing size?
1
What
foundation
thickness or height of the footing?

9.
height
posts be extended?
the relationship between the
is
maximum
used as a pile?
To meet minimum standards,
8.
what
9.
20.
and the width
of the foundation wall
used?
it
the
steps?
on normal-weight construction, what

is
is
ness of the concrete connecting the
To meet minimum standards,
7.
7.
18.
FHA minimum
What
is
zontal distance
the size of a footing?

6.
6.
meant by stepped
is
Why
of the steps?
foundation walls?
5.
must one be concerned
What
footing?
are two kinds of con-
forms
crete
Why
with this line?
is
26.
How
does one determine the
number of anchor
27.
the frost line?
Terms to Spell and
What
is
bolts
needed?
a foundation vent?
Know
termite
lineal
preservative
flared
creosote
anchor
thawing
submerged
ventilation
pilaster
juncture
pier
cypress
penetrate
ceiling
cedar
bituminous
horizontal
redwood
areaway
vertical
46
<&
Prepared Earth as a Base
If
concrete
the outside of a building, or
moisture
does not
have
if
be poured over lose
be
It
in
may be poured
smooth, firm earth.
state,
If the earth
tamped
or
should
is
on
directly
has been disturbed from

ural
to
compacted
its
be
nat-
A
any
thin,
shape, such as a
floor,
concrete slab
broad,
flat
For
is
is
The
size
size.
Note:
would con-
smaller than the stated
is
is
only
wasted
size.
For
5
l
/s"x3 5/8"
in
planing
and smoothing down before you

purchase
^5
if
and comshould be noted on

leveled,
habitable
in
a vapor or moisture barrier be-
At
the
and the concrete.

time the most
fill
present
may
is
sheet
be obtained
to 40' in width, thus
minimizing the number of splices
needed. Note:
An adhesive
to insure waterproofing.
concrete slab serves

inside of a build-
material
usually
is
Recommended
concrete.
sand,
up
material
should be applied to joint splices
between the earth and
placed
in rolls
used
The vapor
a
floors
require
structures
Fill
on the
some
ing,
gravel,
is
clean
or crushed stone.
barrier also
makes
pouring and finishing of the concrete less difficult. If concrete
is
poured directly onto the fill, the

porous material tends to absorb
water, thus
making
achieve the desired
it
harder to
finish.
Cinders are sometimes used but

they tend to deteriorate, leaving
right
materials
help
Reinforcement
The
voids beneath the concrete.
the
level
Most building codes require

the
addition of wire
fabric
to
They also absorb surface

water and help drain it away from
concrete
the floor.
vent separation, thus holding the
surface.
The
it.
earth beneath a floor
this
When
only approxi-
of
For
stated.
the working plans.
as a floor
form to the dimensions of the

lumber being used as a form.
Dimension lumber is usually
the other
pacted
if
filled,
the
actual size
example, a 2x4
be
to
surface.
is
the floor will cause the top side to
plastic film. This
clearly
in
under side of
become damp. Concrete
widely
applications
4" nominal
nominal
the
for a building the preparation

is
Water
porous.
is
contact with
the earth
Under-Floor
thickness of a concrete
drawn
plans are being
any
porch,
flat
most
minimum
mate.
When
Barriers
Concrete
tween the
verj costly.
is
or
walk,
other broad,
This
is
driveway,
slab
and pump a mixture of cement, earth, and water

under it to make it level again.
example,
Definition of Concrete Slab
holes
drill
Vapor
the
the concrete
well
to eliminate
then necessary to
is
As
fill.
the concrete will crack.
settles,
fill
considered on the inside, the concrete
Concrete should never
settling.
be used on
to
is
the
minimum
under-floor
erably 6",
if
fill
thickness
is
4",
load bearing.
47
of
pref-
slabs.
If
the
concrete
cracks, the wire fabric will pre-
crack to a
minimum.
Electrically
welded fabric with 6"x6" spacing

is
frequently used.
DIAGONAL CROSS-BRIDGING
EXTENDED ENDS
WELDED CONNECTION
CONTINUOUS
HORIZONTAL BRIDGING
BEAM ANCHOR
PIPES
AND DUCTS
Steel Joisf Institute
Steel joist assemblies.
48
4:
Suspended Concrete
Floors
Concrete
floors, in
addition to
being fireproof, give a structure a
found with no
method of construction.
rigidity
Many
times
it
is
of concrete
floors
other
desired to lay
locations
in
other than on or below grade.
When
used above grade, a

method of supporting the con-
crete
is
Open web bar
necessary.
joists as
shown
in the illustration
are sometimes used to span the
area where the floor
The
is
is
desired.
and spacing of the joist

determined by the span and
size
Ribbed metal used as a base for

above-grade concrete floor.
the load to be supported. Cor-
rugated
or ribbed
metal
is
at-
tached across the joist as a base

for the concrete.
Other materials also serve as a
the metal for the deck might be

8'-0"
long,
plus
2'
increments
base for the concrete. Lumber,
board
over this basic length. The length
plywood, or
shown, are also available.
of manufactured sheet materials
quently used.
For most
are fabricated in even foot
of
measures. By utilizing these
across the joist. Fiber boards
materials for floor

as
Manufactured
and roof decks,
bar
joist
light
construction,
spacing on 24" centers
we keep waste
makes maximum use of other
lengths,
building materials. For example.
minimum.
Pan type forms can add
to both structure
full
to a
fiber
plywood
best
for
floor are
should
is
is
fre-
exterior grain
roof decks
great live load
and beauty. Beams and
The
be
placed
work
where no
to be supported.
poured as one unit
with steel forms.

The Ceco Corporation,
Scilingo Pholo
Two kinds of loads must be

supported by the floor and roof
decks: (1) A dead load is the
actual
load
live
is
is
usually quite expensive. In addi-
it.
to the time and materials

needed for the forms, some arrangement must be made for
weight in addi-
supporting them in their proper
weight of the materials
in the floor, or bearing

(2)
floor or roof of this type
upon
tion
Wood
For example,
people, furniture, and auto-
place.
mobiles are
beneath the form to hold it while

the concrete is being poured and
tion to the materials.
live loads.
Precast Joist
cured.
Precast joists are manufactured
away from
in a plant
Reinforcing
rod
(prestressed)
is
or metal posts with
cross T's at the top are placed
These
posts
are
Precast
joist.
called
shoring.
the job
under tension
site.
placed in a form,
and the concrete is poured around

the rod. Examples of precast
joists are
shown.
Monolithic
When
is
desired,
a single
Beam and
Floor
a one-piece floor system

it
form
is
possible to build
for the floors
and
beams. Necessary reinforcing is

wired in place and the concrete is
poured as for an ordinary slab.
However, the mix must be
vi-
brated and worked into place so

the exposed under
smooth
and
have
side will
Precast joists support. Concrete floors
be
finished
appearance.
Monolithic
beam and
floor.
Steel
dome pans form
a monolithic concrete floor

of
system that can also serve as a finished
ceiling
rooms below.
The Ceco Corporation, M. Scilingo Photo
/f
y < 1
^Bt^*z~~^*'
^Si^rt
4_
Ski
.1
Q|gP'"^^kl: ".-I
ft^-^L^
i
* *j
>*->-*
-p
51
Crawl Spaces
When
for Pipes
a concrete floor
used,
is
place major plumbing and wiring
beneath
such a manner that
in
it
is
readily accessible for repair
and
service, using a pipe trench
it
or crawl space as shown.
A3"
concrete floor for the trench will
greatly improve working con-
and help eliminate moisunder the floor.
ditions
ture
Lightweight Aggregates for
and Roof Construction
Floor
from
Insulation
can
temperature
sound and
improved
be
with the addition of a layer of

lightweight aggregate as shown.
It is
not usually load supporting.
Added
would be remust
thickness
quired
if
the floor or roof
Pipe trench details.
support a
live load.
Ordinary roof systems use lightweight aggregates exclusively.

1
0.
What
a good material to
is
use as a vapor barrier?

are two advantages of
21.
What
22.
Why
and
1
2.
What
What
mended
for
is
a concrete slab?
is
the thickness recom-
Why
is
3.
What
meant by the term
is
What
a 2x4 not actually
14.
bar
When may
concrete be
What
joist to
15.
determines
the
size
materials
that
Name
four
might be used over the

port the concrete floor.
over loose
6.
Why
commonly used?
are
is
What
is
Why
24" on
sup-
joist to
Why may
lightweight
in
ag-
ordinary roof
systems?
the
minimum
expanded
planing
corrugated
increments
cinders
plywood
other spacings might also be satis-
vapor
fiber
factory?
barrier
precast
adhesive
prestressed
electrically
monolithic
7.
18.
thick-
a vapor barrier?
applications
What
poor
fill?
Know
settling
6.
is
What
is
joist
center a
spacing?
meant by
the term
dead load?
ness of under-floor
9.
cinders
fill?
What
23.
good
choice for bar
What is under-floor fill? What
choice for
8.
concrete not poured
fill?
materials are
7.
is
a pipe trench?
a floor advisable for
Terms to Spefi and
use?
firm earth?
Why
is
is
gregate be used
an open web bar
is
poured directly on undisturbed or
5.
meant by the term
a pipe trench?
fill?
2.
is
joist?
2"x4"?
4.
suspended concrete floor?
load-supporting
live
concrete slab?
3.
What
What
having a barrier between the floor
Knowledge
20.
prestressed joist?
What
is
meant by
the term
load?
live
1
9.
What
shoring
rigidity
wiring
is
a precast joist?
52
board
Structural Metal
Scope
local
Structural metal
part
is
any metal
adds strength to the
that
building.
It
usually supports or
distributes weight other than
its
Because of the technical
own.
nature of the topic
it is
impossible
do more than acquaint you

with the problems involved. Most
cities and codes do not permit
to
the
draftsman
strength
make
to
calculations.
actual
When
codes
before
establishing
strength requirements and structural
shapes and
sizes,
the desired standards.
meet
to
Each
local
the load
available, one may consult

is
government recommendations or
It is readily apparent that many

assumptions must be made and/
or considered before actual struc-
published industry standards.
To
As previously
he
stated, all build-
responsibility for the calculations.
must support the weight of superimposed or live loads.

Before one can determine the
size of any structural part he must
know its weight and the weight
the
in
chapter are satisfactory for
preliminary calculations, but exgineering data
to
is
be verified be-
their
Factors That Influence
not design all struc-
complete mathe-
matical calculations. This

result
in
would
much unnecessary du-
plication of work.
Many
require-
ments have been previously determined from similar construction
and the
results
porated
into
It
is
have been incor-
tables
and
structural parts
charts.
very important to check
find the weight of materials,
one cannot weigh samples of

building materials! Therefore
manufacturers supply
pertinent
data concerning
products
and
this
their
information
rated into tables
is
incorpo-
and charts
to
be
used for planning purposes, before construction starts.
at the begin-
Welded Wire Fabric

Welded wire fabric is a
pre-
ning stages of planning. For ex-
fabricated steel reinforcing
ma-
is
tural parts, using
or the dead load.
some
of the load to be supported. This
fore construction proceeds.
One does
own weight
In addition,
can be planned.
tural parts
Assumptions
ing parts must support at least
The tables and charts shown
and columns, and whether

is quiescent (no movement) or is subject to movement.
tions
code will have its own strength

and size requirements. If no code
must be checked and

approved by a registered architect
or engineer, who then assumes
does, they
determining beam size, one must

also know what proportion of the
weight is distributed to founda-
difficult to
ample,
if
one
know
is
to support floor joists,

first
know
all
that will bear
beam
designing a
he must
of the materials
upon
and
the joists,
the weight of these materials.
beam
itself
be taken into consideration.
53
drawn
due to
manufactured of cold-
steel. It is
its
a rigid material,
electrically
nections at
all
welded con-
wire intersections,
must
and has the ability

light and heavy
styles. Its main advantages are
speed of installation and ease of
handling on the job. It is espe-
When
cially suitable as a reinforcement.
must also determine the

number, and weight of all
to bear upon the beam.
weight of the
He
terial. It is
size,
joists
The
yet
it is
ductile
to lie flat in
both
GAGE AND SPACING

OF
ONGITUDINAL WIRES
STANDARD PROJECTION
OF TRANSVERSE WIRES
JOT MORE THAN 111
1"
J
i
<
o a
u_
=x
O
>
One-way monolithic concrete slab
.ENGTH OF SHEET TIP TO

OF LONGITUDINAL WIRES
Welded wire
floors, roofs, walls,
good
rule for wire spacing,
usually require wire reinforce-
regardless of wire size or pattern
ment.
formed by
Heavy mats with wires in excess of Vi" eliminate the necessity
individual
reinforcing
rods which must be wired together

at
all
rod intersections; this in-
creases possible uses of welded
wire fabric.
wires
fect
is
Built-in
spacing of
a time saver, assuring per-
alignment of members.
When
a slab
is
on grade,
cross wires
is
that wire
spacing should not exceed twice

the thickness of the slab
and max-
imum
It
spacing
tomary
12".
is
to limit
cus-
is
spacing of both
longitudinal and transverse wires
maximum of 6" in slabs less

than 6" thick. Reinforcing fabric
should not be carried through
loca-
It
should extend to within 2 to 4
welded wire fabric will

depend on the slab thickness. In
slabs 6" or more in thickness,
of the
the fabric should be placed at a
way
minimum depth of 2" below the

and a maximum depth
bination
surface
equal to h the slab thickness. For

x
fabric detailing sheet.
may
Reinforcement Sizes
Wire gage sizes as used in

welded wire fabric are not to be
confused
sizes.
with
ber sizes, so confusion could possibly
result.
sizes is
shown
and edges
inches of the joints

slab.
Suspended concrete or onefloors and roofs used in com-
frame,
with
steel
structural
WIRE
Gage No.
0000000
000000
00000
0000
000
00
steel
1
joists,
precast
poured-in place beams,
joist
or
and
Vt
pan
or
other
construction-
different
involves
engineering
concept.
additional
engineering
data
be No. 10 gage for basement floors
should be consulted prior to their
9
10
and sidewalks; No. 6 gage for

driveways and filling stations; and
No. 4 gage for heavy duty in-
comparison
of
in the table below.
ence indicates that the minimum

of welded wire fabric should
sizes
rod
reinforcing
Both materials have num-
be placed in the middle. Experi-
dustrial floors.
-+-B
to a
construction or expansion joints.
tion of
slabs less than 6", the fabric
"*"
and
other concrete structural elements
of using
floor.
TIP
Concrete
an
entirely
Therefore
design.'
11
12
'Adapted from Building Design Handbook,

Wire Reinforcement
Institute.
54
SIZE
Diamete
.5000
.4900
.4615
.4305
.3938
.3625
.3310
.3065
.2830
.2625
.2500
.2437
.2253
.2070
.1920
.1770
.1620
.1483
.1350
.1250
.1055
5: Structural
Metals
kind* ami Use of
llciims
must support. To simplify the

all
weights have
been based on the tables shown
calculations,
To Support Floors
latter
has a
For planning purposes, assume

you are designing a wood frame
width
or
beams
will
building, dimensions of which are
weights and will withstand greater
building
lateral or sidewise pressure.
the weights are as follows:
30'x48'. This building
two
stories as
tration.
The
shown
have
to
is
in the illus-
Weight Beam
floor joists are placed
span
is
too great for continu-
ous wood floor
they must be spliced.

is
ordinarily
The
made above
girder or steel
bearing
the
therefore
joists,
splice
wood
beam, and beneath

of the
walls
area
above. Excessive deflection or sagging of the floor joists will occur

if
the bearing wall
is
not placed
Two kinds of steel beams are

commonly used. These are: American Standard
beams and Wide
Flange beams. The main differ-
Using the section through the
shown
in the illustration,
to Support
load-supporting
joists or wall
no beam
walls
Live load
beneath the spliced
are located
is
When
necessary.
is
The beam
required.
is
placed
at
right
angles
to
is
48'.
If
Local
codes
usually
"
"
"
live load
40
"
"
"
Dead load
]Q
"
"
"
Net load
SO
20
Dead load
]0
"
"
"
Net load
30
"
"
"
Roof
bearing upon
specify
of weight that
and other building
parts
mission to
joists or
beam
Walls
Live load
Dead load
10 pounds per square foot
that the
is
REINFORCING BARS
r
Bar Size
Diameter
'A
rd.
.250
.375
.500
.625
.750
.875
1.000
1.128
1.270
1.410
1.693
2.257
No.
3
Vs
rd
Vl
<6
V,
rd
V*
rd
rd
9
10
1
rd
"I
sq
*
' 1 '/
sq
*lVi sq
14
1'/2
sq
18
sq
/a" bars are plain round; Ve" bars, plain
ound or deformed.
Ml bars are round. These sizes are equivaent
in
quare
cross section area to the standard
new
billet
reinforcing
bar
sizes
ndicated.
iZD
Weight distributed to a center beam.
55
"
interior wall for trans-
ence between the two
"
'
Live load
(See page 59.)
minimum amounts
floors
50
Ceiling
the
placed as shown in the

foundation illustration, the span
joists.
10
Net load
Second floor
not de-
signed to be load supporting, a
beam
40 pounds pet square foot
Dead load
of the area above,
wall beneath the joists
is
above the beam.
Is
in this text.
first floor
When
across the short dimension. This

30'
much wider horizontal

Wide flange
support much greater
flange.
Part
One: Structure An Architectural Obligation
o
n
a a a
a a
a a a
3 3
a a a
a s
ce
a a a
a a
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0
a a
a a
a a
s a a
1 S
a a
a a
3 S
a a
.5
<A
0)
a a
a a
a a
a a
a a
a a
a a
a a
a a
a a
a a
si!
a 3
SS
a s
a a
5 1
a a a
a a
s s a a
a a
3 s
s 1
a a
a a
a a
a a
r>
o
n
1
5
o"
s
S o
CO
i.
-8
0)
Q.
Z
-
*
CI
<
ct
a a a a
a a
O
CI
3 3
a a a a
a a
CO
= 2
SS
a s
5 1
I
I
-0
a a a a
5 S
a a
t>
5 2
a a
S 2
21
O
qls
%
8=
o p
a.
si
I 1
s 3
a a
a a a
s a
2i
B 1
g o
= I
a 3
s |
a a
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c%
a a
a a a
2 5
III
5 S
HI
-j
^
Ik
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a a
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5 %
1 s
s a
aa
a a a a
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a a
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is
a a
So
1
5
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Sr
a a
CO
3 3 s a 3 5
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a s
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3 5
3 3
a a
a a
11
s a
1 s
a a
11
11
a a
2 s
5 s
35 ss
1 a
si SI ja
a:
* 3
z
o
S 5
s:
K 1
a a
a a
I i
s a a a
a a
a a
11
s!
III 11
^
-
56
5: Sfructural
Metals
o
n
*
1
i I
5 5 5
5 5
S 5 2
5 5
k c 1
a s
2 5 2
s;g si
5 s
O
J;
* g
->
Vw^
o
'
'
>
525 o22 S2| 22

555
SSI g|i 22
S
11511 S5 |S5 5 2| ||| ||
58!!! ss~ sis is? S|| ss
2
o-
w
fc
-I
2*
I
O
n
to
**.2
O
O
S 5
a
_
1 z
CN,^^
e^*->w-.--.
f S S
5 5
2 5 5
g 1 g
11
=>
1 1 S S
o p = o o
e o o
2 2 5
SSS2S
3 5 S
-.
s.
2
4
o
5 5 5
<
IA
1
5 5 5
=5
e>
g?2S
5 K
=>
<=
o o
""
oS
Hio
5S
S?
o o
=><=>
o
ao
s
c
^
Ik
5 2
5 5
ill cjsK|| ;;s 115
3 5
5 5 5
5 5 5
2 5
^ o
<e
X
S
t
1 s
2 5
=,
SSS
is?
5 2 2
5 5
1 1
= 1
s s s
K s s
gj
5 5
1 1
as
SSS
i:
s s S B
5
"
2|32S is; ?11||1 III
la 1|I|
5 2 o S o oo
* 3
5 S
2 = 1
"s
57
S 5 S
:
S5S
S S
s:
2 c s
SS
s
:?2

SAMPLE WEIGHT CALCULATION
30'
48'
ratios
tables
Area
1,440 square feet of floor
Width x length
Local code 16 Kips
area for each floor

8'
48'
can be determined and the

still be used, as follows:
Tables
384 square feet of wall
(vertical thickness), the loads
24' span
20 Kips
feet
16
30 Kips
20
x Kips
I6x
600 or x
37.5 Kips
weight
total
Weight of
first floor
Weight of second
Weight of
floor
ceiling
beam
Roof bearing to
72,000 pounds
72,000 pounds
43,000 pounds
00,000 pounds
one-fifth; for rapidly
The
For fluctuating loads causing

vibration, especially
are long as
in the tables
duced
should be
re-
mov-
ing loads, or where loads are

suddenly applied with slight impact, the loads shown should be
reduced one-third.
30 feet
area for each wall
Weight per square fool x number of square
shown
feet
if
compared
the
beams
to
depth
of structural
illustration
metal shapes,
names of
below,
gives
the
structural metal shapes
187,000 pounds
One
half weight bears
on center beam
93,500 pounds
Weight of
3,840 pounds
Weight of second wall
=
=
Weight beoring upon beam
101,180 pounds
first
wall
STANDARD SHAPES
3,840 pounds
This
^^
weight appears quite large, but one
must remember that two stories are

volved
in
SLOPE
SLOPE 5%
in-
2 IN
12
the calculations.
-w
The
tables
on pages 56 and 57
FILLET
give the greatest safe load (uni-
formly distributed over the entire
beam
length) which the steel
beams
will carry.
Mfe
WIDE-FLANGE BEAM
PARALLEL FLANGES
STANDARD BEAM
WIDE-FLANGE BEAM
The building on
page 55 has a uniformly
distrib-
uted load.
The
loads are given in
safe
One kip equals
1,000 pounds.
The loads shown
in the tables
kips.
include the weight of the beam,
which must be deducted
to
obtain
= FLANGE
D = DEPTH
W = WEB
the net load.
The
loads
shown are based on
a fiber stress, or pressure they will
STANDARD CHANNEL
withstand, of 20,000 pounds per
square inch. This stress

reliable
where
for ordinary
the
loads
are
is
SHIP
CHANNEL
quiescent
no movement) as in
most buildings. It is a good idea
check strength requirements of
because some require

materials of greater or less
strength. However, proportions or
local codes,
8.
conditions
(subject to
to
CAR
entirely
FILLET
s]
L.?J
TEE
Structural metal shapes.
58
IVlLLE
J::
Mefals
S: Strucfural
48'
0" FOUNDATION WALL

y
r
r
BE
AM
SP \N
30'0"x48'0" foundation and
and
parts.
beams
It
is
assumed
that the
are stiffened sideways to
prevent buckling
in the
compres-
must
framing plan with continuous span center beam.
floor
page 60 show different load distributions and the percentage of

weight they
support as com-
will
allowable
pared
to
the
be reduced as shown in the following table, observing that the

laterally or sideways unsupported
shown
in
the
length of beams shall not exceed

40 times the width of the com-
Calculating
pression flange.
The illustration on this page

shows a foundation plan 30'x48';
sion flange; otherwise, loads
The allowable
or
deflection
sagging for plastered ceilings

'/j6o
of the span. This limit
is
is
(See pages 56 and 57.)
and
the
The
deflection will
the load
same
beam.
in the
on the
beam
is
placed the 48' direc-
inside
edge.
To
however, the span has been shown as

the entire building length. Note
that after the procedure is
the
mastered,
calculations,
only
the
true
beam
span should be used for making

the calculations.
Unbraced
Proportion
length
to be
Beam
used
Unbraced
Proportion
Length
to be
of
Beam
used
ratio as
Distribution of Loads
The
Strength
Size
of
be reduced
Beam
opposite
the
simplify
not
reached on the span lengths shown

in the tables.
loads
preceding tables.
(If no posts support the

beam, the span is 48'.) Actual
span is the distance from one
inside edge of the foundation to
tion.
following illustrations on
5 X flange width
20 x flange width
25 X flange width
00%
92%
85%
tab. load
30 X flange width
35 X flange width
tab. load
40 x
tab. load
Percentages of calculated loads when
59
beam
flange width
77%
69%
62%
tab. load
tab. load
tab. load
lengths are laterally unbraced.
Part
ooooooooo
the pound, so
advisable to
is
it
use the smallest size that will do

the job.
building has no base-
If the
ment and
Safe load = that given
mum bending moment at
tables.
in
Safe load
Ma
in
given
in
in
used,
it
is
codes specify
Many local
minimum distance
between
proximate
10 that given
are
piers
advisable to place them on ap-
tables.
Wl
Deflection
Deflection as
Vi that
tables.
tables.
piers
is
8'
centers.
piers.
large
number of
not objectionable because
the space between the floor joist
00000000a
EnI
Safe load =
in
basement may be objectionable.
2.4 that given
given
Vt that
point of support
in
Deflections
tables.
3.2 that given
-*|
/
in
companying
tables
12
1
H
in tables.
Maximum bending moment between

loads = 'h Wa.
Load distribution.
From
previous
weight
the
beam was
calculations,
upon
bearing
the
figured to be 101,180
pounds. This
is
the colored area
represented by
on page
55.
Since the weight as calculated

is
in
tables
pounds and the

are
in
kips,
Follow down the chart until 102

kips is shown. When one does
this,
70 kips
the largest
is
Add piers
under the beam to
safe load
length
convert the
spans.
into
number
not adequate for
the span.
the
or columns
divide
required
the
short
The number of posts is

by the amount of
weight into kips. Using the tables
determined
American Standard I Beams,

column at the top of the
open span
for
is
shown. This
desired.
(The longer
find the
the span the greater the
chart that represents 48 feet span.
weight.)
Steel
is
rep-
is
60
beam
purchased by
When
the total bearing
beam
is
divided
by 4, this is found to be 25,295

pounds or 25.3 kips. At the top of
the chart locate the 12 foot span
and follow down the column until
size
reduces
to 12'. This
weight on the
25.3 kips
Maximum bending moment,
in the ac-
illustration
beam span
the plan.
--/
tables.
shown
three posts as
in
Q_
-***
justified.
resented by the shaded area on
is
in tables.
= W.
2.
size
ing described earlier but adding
Mot
the
*---b
beam
Using the same 30'x48' build-
2
Deflections
used only as crawl
is
If so, a large
/-
Safe load =
tables.
Wl
and earth
space for maintenance. Posts in

a
'L
given
'A that
not
is
is
reached. This exact
shown on
the chart, so
one must locate the next larger

weight. This
is
shown
as 27 kips.
Then, as previously stated, the

weight of the beam must be added
to the net weight or load because
the beam must support its own
weight in addition to the building
weight. From the 27 kips on the
column to the
column showing weight per foot. This column
gives a weight of 25.4 pounds per
chart, follow the

left to
the vertical
lineal foot.
When
the span of 12' a
304.8 pounds
.305
kips
to
is
multiplied by
beam weight of
shown. Add this
previous
load
of
25.3 kips. This gives a total load
5: Structural
Metals
12'0" 5PAN
p-
>
6,
r"
*"1
i-
.j
L.
.J
1
1
"
L^ -J
T
il
>
Br
-i
-i
30'0"x48'-0" foundation and floor framing plan with center beam supported by
3 equally spaced posts to reduce beam span to 12' -0" o.c. L ight shaded area is
supported by foundation walls. Dark shaded area is supported by the center beam
and supporting
of 25.6 kips. This size
is still
ade-
quate to support the described

load,
move
size.
so
not necessary to
is
it
beam
next larger
the
to
One should repeat
the
posts are not the
weight
uted,
is
beam
necessary
calculations
separate
if
the
not uniformly distribis
it
posts.
same or
make
to
for
each
beam
size is satis-
factory. (Refer to the charts
pages 56 and
The beam
and
on
Columns
To Support Beams
weighs
25.4
foot.
Since
is
\0"x4 3A"
pounds
per
mit
load
the
beam
or
imposed on the
girder
to
the
footing
spans shown are the same and

since the weight
tion has
tributed,
same
all
size.
is
all
uniformly dis-
beams
If the
building
will
be the
spans between
and the
is
beam spans of
total
12'-0",
load for each span
25,295 pounds. This was pre-
61
load
is
at
is
each end. Thus half

supported by each
The load transmitted to each

post is called the beam reaction.
and on to the ground. The building shown in the shaded illustra-
lineal
this
supported by two posts or col-
post.
columns, or piers trans-
Posts,
57.)
selected
The beam carrying
of the load
Steel Posts or
when making
strength and weight calculations.
umns, one
span.
strength calculations to be absolutely sure the
viously determined
Therefore, the
beam
reaction
12,647.5 pounds. Since two
terminate
over the
same
the
reactions
of the
total
is
beams
post,
two
beams must be considered. The

beams and the loads are the
same; therefore, the total weight
to be supported is 25,295 pounds.
STANDARD
STEEL PIPE
Safe Loads
Nominal
External
Internal
Size,
Diam.,
Diam.,
Inches
Inches
Inches
3.500
3.068
VA
4.000
3.548
4.500
5.563
6.625
6
8
10
12
8.625.
Weight
per
Unbraced Length
18.
16.
13.
30
25
22
19
17
15
44
40
34
30
26
23
64
61
56
51
45
41
12
33.
30
26
21
9.11
42
38
35
4.026
10.79
50
47
5.047
14.62
70
68
90
22
18
10
7.58
20
16
8.071
in Feet
14
COLUMNS
Thousands of Pounds
Ft.,
lbs.
6.065
.
in
Metal
Radius of
Moment
Area,
Gyration,
of Inertia,
Inches
Inches
2.228
1.16
3.017
2.680
1.34
4.788
21
3.174
1.51
37
4.300
1.88
Inches
7.233
15.16
18.97
92
82
79
74
69
63
56
5.581
2.25
28.14
24.70
121
120.
118
115
112
109
105
100
95
7.265
2.95
63.35
115
109
8.399
2.94
137 .133
9.178
3.70
125.9
137.4
86.
8.625
7.981
28.55
140
138
136
133
129
125
121
10.750
10.192
31.20
154
153
151
149
147
144
.141
10.750
10.136
34.24
169
168
166
164
161
158
154
151
146
10.07
3.69
10.750
10.020
40.48
200
199
196
194
190
187
182
178
172
11.91
3.67
160.7
12.090
43.77
217
216
214
212
210.
207 .204. 200
196
12.88
4.39
.248.5
12.000
49.56
246
244
243
240
237
234
222
14.58
4.38
279.3
12.750.
12.750
Standard
steel pipe
Supporting column and
beam
connector.
231
227
72.49
columns.
Pipe column
and I beam supporting
wood
floor joists.
TS3
Metals
5: Structural
two beams are of different

and the loads are not the
(If the
sizes
AND DATA
WEIGHTS, DIMENSIONS
STANDARD
STEEL
same, the reactions
BEAMS
the foundation, the
~r-
If"
n
Lfi
Wj
! O O
ii
fiitl-
!!__
O O
rii"
LjjfJ
tion
at
-i1_c='/,w
'a.
mum
Inches
Wt.
of
Beam,
Per
Inches
Rivet or
Ft.,
Bolt,
18
15
120
'y.6
20'/.
'y>
l'/
105.9
7 7/e
Vb
20%
i'yi 6
100
vn
20 A
90
7V,
V.
20>A
79.9
'/2
20 3A
95
7'/.
y.6
y.
'Hi
16'/2
17
l'/,4
/4
65.4
6'A
17
P/.6
70
6'A
15'/.
54.7
'/2
15'/4
PA
1%
50
5%
/,6
2'A
1 '/.
12'A
l'/4
5'A
mon
pipe,
steel
pipe
steel pipe, steel
/l6
>y.
y.6
.'/a
/.6
7
/.
Vie 3'A
columns are frequently used
light construction, their sizes
safe loads are
y.*
3'/2
y..
'/,
3'A
.'/i6
'/>
"/,6
3'/2
y.6
'A
3'A
y>
3%
'A
V,
y.
"/.6
Vl6
5'A
/l6
9 3A
pa
Vtt
'A
yB
9 3A
IV4
Vn
35
y.
'A
2%
y.
25.4
4V.
y.
'/2
2 3A
'A
31 8
4'A
18.4
20
3 7A
15.3
3V.
17.25
3 5/a
3Vs
A
A
A
3
3
are
"B"
this
series
connectors.
Holes
the
in
/l6
2'A
y.
'y.s
2V
y.6
A
A
connectors and beams, as
'At,
2'A
y.6
y.
trated by the black circles, should
2V4
y.6
y.
be spaced on approximate
y.6
centers.
y.6
y.
'/.
5%
'A
5 3/e
'A
4Vj
4'A
3%
'/
%
%
%
%
,1%
y.6
,'A
y.6
PA
y.4
'A
9.5
2 3A
y.
2 3A
y.
7.7
2%
yu
y8
2 3A
text
in
'y.6
y. 4
2%
loads
calculated based on standard
6V4
"/.6
2>A
of safe
6'/4
."/.6
columns supporting them. Standard connectors using bolts or

rivets are recommended. Tables
'/u
3 s/
they must be fastened to each
'A
Members
are end joined
*i
Vi
.
When beams
,3'A
Joining Structural Steel
other as well as to a column or
"/.
35
in the table.
.'Mi
/l6
shown
for
and
iy,6
Since standard steel posts or
iy..
beams and
9V>
5'A
with concrete. Standard and
9Ve
5.7
posts
steel
of the more com-
ordinary
Wide Flange
"/.6
5'/.
5.7
are:
heavy duty
of
kinds
Some
are used.
columns.
/l6
'A
40.8
14.75
%
'/.
16'/!
PA
1%
\%
y.
10
4
12.5
y.
6V.
23
'A
'/b
75
50
10
l'A
/.
85
42.9
12
total
Kinds of Steel Posts Used
filled
20
the
Inch
lbs.
24
one-half
or
reac-
12,647.5
is
weight transmitted to the posts.
Several
in
beam
location
this
pounds,
-J
Maxi-
Dimensions,
Depth
not be
will
Note: Since the end of

only one beam is supported by
equal.)
'/a
y. 4
7
A
1%
/.6
l'A
,'A
Vi
y.6
l'A
y.6
'A
,'/.6
,'A
l'A
.'A
.%
%6
"A
l'/2
y.6
Weights, dimensions, and data of standard steel
/e
beams.
5W
Column Caps
Pipe columns have steel plates
welded to each end to increase
their surface area and permit
fastening of parts. The cap is
secured to concrete footings by
pre-positioning anchor bolts in
the concrete so the bolts corre-
spond with the holes
63
illus-
in the plate.
Wt.
Size
Per
in
Inches
ELEMENTS
OF
EQUAL
ANGLES
Column cap
bolted to
beam.
xl
'/.
1.23
lVzxlVfcctt*
1.80
2.34
2
2
2
zr
.0.19
3.19
0.94
0.13
0.19
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.63. 0.55
0.62 0.57
x V*
0.28
0.35
0.42
0.48
0.55
0.70
0.85
0.98
0.30
0.39
0.48
0.57
0.93
0.92
2.11
1.8
0.91
2.43
2.0
0.83
0.95
0.84
0.87
0.89
0.91
0.91
2.75
2.2
1.1
0.90
0.93
1.09
1.08
0.97
0.99
1.07
1.01
x3
x'/i 4
8.3
x3
9.4
.5.8.
1.69
.2.0
3y2x3'/2xyi
7.2
2.09
2.5
0.79
0.98
3>/ix3Vjx y.
8.5
2.48
2.9
1.2
3'/2x3y2x'/l6
9.8
2.87
3.25
3.3
3.6
1.5
pertinent information concerning
x Vi
angles.
x6
x'/, 6
6
6
6
x6
x6
x6
determining the
is
size
.3.0.
1.0
1.25
1.09
3.7
1.3
1.24
1.12
4.4
1.5
1.23
1.14
11.3
3.31
5.0
1.8
1.23
1.16
0.78
Va
12.8
3.75
5.6
2.0
1.22
1.18
15.7
4.61
6.7
2.4
1.20
1.23
18.5
5.44
7.7
2.8
1.19
1.27
0.78
0.77
0.77
12.3
3.61
.8.7
2.4
1.56
1.39
0.99
x Vi
16.2
3.2
1.54
1.43
20.0
4.75
5.86
11.3
%
%
13.6
3.9
1.52
1.48
0.98
0.97
14.9.
4.36
15.4
3.5
.1.19
17.7
4.1
1.66
1.19
19.6
5.06
5.75
1.88
1.87
1.64
17.2
19.9
4.6
1.86
1.68
.21.9.
6.43
22.1
.5.1
1.85
1.71
24.2
28.7
7.11
5.7
1.84
1.73
6.7
1.83
1.78
1.17
33.1
9.73
24.2
28.2
31.9
7.6
1.81
1.82
1.17
2.51
2.19
2.23
2.28
2.32
2.37
%
%
%
%
%
%
8.44
y.
32.7
9.61
38.9
7
/s
11.44
13.23
15.00
16.73
x8
x8
x8
0.79
0.79
0.79
/u
64
1.94
2.40
2.86
0.58
0.58
0.69
0.69
0.69
0.68
0.68
.04
1.06
8.2
1.06
9.8
x8
.07
6.6.
x8
x8
used
lintel
.3
x 5/ij
8
8
required. (See page 67.)
11.1
/i
for
'/2
span. This opening size
7.2
Vi
the true
1.47
x6
x6
x6
is
0.59
0.59
0.58
0.58
0.71
6
6
window, door, or
0.49
0.49
0.49
0.48
1.2
shows
actual
0.72
0.74
0.76
1.5
The
0.69
0.77
0.76
0.75
0.64
1.78
x5
x5
x5
other opening width
0.61
0.78
1.44
5
5
5
Spans
1.19
0.60
0.59
6.1
xYi*
Lintel
1.36
0.59
1.73
sizes.
0.90
0.40
0.40
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.61
4.9.
table
1.15
3.07
4.10
0.53
5.00
5.90
x4
x4
x4
angles with legs of different
3.92
4.70
0.51
Vi
x4
The accompanying
.44
angle iron. These may be purchased as equal angles, with both

legs of equal size, or as unequal
x3
x3
x3
4
4
Steel lintels are constructed of
2'/2x2'Axyi
Steel Lintels
>A
3'/2x3'/2X
illustrations.
x 5/i6
x4
x4
x4
accompanying
0.35
0.34
0.34
0.71
4
4
4
in the
0.48
0.48
Suitable methods of connecting
shown
0.55
0.54
0.53
0.81
together
structural metal parts are
0.10
0.14
0.19
2.44
'/
3Vix3'/2X Vi
beam fastened
0.30
0.29
0.29
2.77
Vi
2'/2x2'/2X
0.42
0.44
0.47
.1.65
2'/2x2'/2Xy,6
with metal strap.
0.46
0.46
0.45
0.11
xîs
2'/2x2'/2X
Column and
0.07
0.10
0.13
0.06
0.08
Inches
0.13
0.18
0.23
I%x1%x
x2
x2
x2
x2
x2
0.14
0.42
0.62
lVixiVu y8
0.25
0.24
0.24
2.12
1.92
0.35
0.38
0.40
0.08
l'AxI'/tx
'/b
0.38
0.38
0.37
0.36
0.53
0.69
.1.01
1.48
PixPAx
0.05
0.07
0.09
.0.04
y.
iKxlU!ixtt
Vt
0.19
0.19
0.19
0.30
0.43
0.56
lVSuClVtlX
l'/axl'/ix
0.30
0.32
0.34
0.04
0.06
1.49
>A
0.30
0.29
.0.03. 0.31
1.16
V*
.
Inches
0.03
0.04
<?,.
x
Axis Z-Z
x or y
Inches
.0.02
x]
xl
Inches
0.23
0.34
0.44
X-X and X-Y
ol
Section,
Inches
0.80
kxis
Area
Inches
1%X1 3/4X^16
lJ
Ft.,
Lbs.
Vi
xl
xl'/e
26.4.
45.0
51.0
56.9.
7.75 48.6
59.4
.8.4
69.7
79.6
89.0
98.0.
10.3
2.49
12.2
15.8
2.47
2.45
2.44
17.5.
2.42. 2.41
14.0
1.18
.
1.18
1.18
1.58
1.58
1.57
1.56
1.56
1.55
'
5: Structural
Metals
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66
CO CO K.
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Metals
5: Structural
The total length of the lintel

should be 8" greater than the
opening. The 8" allowance is
Cha nnels American Standarc

Allowable Uniform Loads
Kips
in
For Channels Laterally Supported

For channel
laterally
Nominal Depth and Width-Weight per
Span
Deflec-
18x4
Ft.,
51.9
Fwl
45.8
42.7
Inches
To determine
Deflec-
280
230
234
212
210
203
184
170
154
142
132
50
40
33.9
Inches
156
139
other structural parts, previously
.02
described
163
.03
143
123
111
.03
136
.04
119
103
93
.05
121
116
.06
102
88
79
.07
70
62
.11
115
106
102
.07
89
77
94
90
.09
79
10
92
85
81
.12
71
84
77
74
.14
65
68
62
56
.09
56
.14
51
.17
12
77
71
68
.17
59
51
13
71
65
63
.19
55
47
14
66
61
58
.23
51
44
15
61
54
.26
51
.29
39
35
17
58
54
48
45
41
16
42
40
.37
40
36
34
33
51
48
45
.33
18
31
.45
19
49
43
.42
29
.50
46
44
42
40
41
.46
31
28
.55
39
.51
38
36
34
32
20
57
53
50
47
45
43
40
46
43
40
37
29
27
.61
37
.56
32
28
25
.67
39
.20
.23
.27
.31
calculations
STEEL ANGLE IRONS

TO SUPPORT FOUR-INCH
MASONRY WALLS
SPAN
5
feet
feet
3'/2" x 3'/i" x
feet
4"
4"
x V, 4
4"
4"
feet to
34
33
.72
35
33
31
.78
25
24
27
28
34
32
30
.84
26
23
33
29
.90
29
32
30
29
30
31
28
27
1.03
26
25
24
31
27
26
1.11
23
19.9
17.9
32
33
34
30
29
28
27
27
25
1.18
22
19.3
17.4
1.41
26
25
1.25
22
18.7
16.8
1.50
25
24
1.33
21
18.1
16.4
1.60
35
26
24
23
1.41
20
17.6
15.9
1.69
.86
10 feet
21
.93
21
1.01
22
19.9
1.08
21
19.2
1.16
21
18.5
1.24
SIZE OF LINTELS
3" x 3" x </*"
to
37
to
feet
11
feet to
feet
6"
4"
15
feet to
16
feet
6"
x 4"
W"
"
W
%"
W
1.33
AND REACTION VALUES
61.0
53.6
46.2
41.7
in.
kips
140
117
105
140
101
78
R kips
69
58
52
83
60
46
kip
14.4
12.0
10.8
17.2
12.5
9.6
in.
8.4
8.4
8.4
6.8
6.8
6.8
lintel size.
to figure exact size requirements,
25
26
63.7
sup-
which takes unnecessary time

and effort. The following table
may be used:
.79
30
29
27
PROPERTIES
the
may be
not always desirable
is
it
.73
31
.66
69.1
only,
give
tables
preliminary
23
22
.61
34
.97
For
24
35
35
28
ported by each
The
chapter.
this
load that
total safe
feet to
37
27
26
in
accompanying
.35
38
and
202
154
.01
178
102
22
23
24
as for weight of walls
.02
21
size,
any, are calculated the
live load, if
same
lintel
weight of all materials and desired
tion
280
238
of bearing surface on each side

of the opening.
lbs.
15x3'/i
tion
in
so the lintel will have 4"
made
unsupported, allowable oads must be reduced.
Masonry above
a wall
opening supported
by a steel
67
lintel.
Open Web
Steel Joists
"J" SERIES
Total Safe Loads in Lbs. per Lineal
Ft.
(For nominal joist depths 8" to 14"
incl.)
JOIST DESIGNATION
Span
10J2
10J3
0J4
373
309
400
440
400
480
436
12
259
.324
221
367
338
303
264
.400
13
232
205
83
64
48
12J2
12J3
12J4
12J5
12J6
14J3
14J4
14J5
14J6
14J7
367
335
289
252
383
354
329
307
417
385
357
333
450
415
386
360
500
462
429
400
343
320
400
373
443
413
486
453
529
493
338
318
300
284
375
353
333
316
300
282
350
329
311
235
294
388
365
344
326
425
400
378
358
463
435
261
300
286
270
247
212
265
240
219
200
310
287
262
239
340
324
309
290
370
352
336
322
227
147
135
184
25
220
203
125
27
116
145
174
266
245
227
210
308
294
26
170
157
08
135
162
196
235
BJ2
in Feet
8.4 75
9.4 ??
10
11
364
14
90
15
66
276
238
207
16
46
182
369
343
320
289
256
221
281
313
196
>28
175
205
157
249
222
199
294
85
142
180
21
128
163
22
117
149
225
204
186
23
107
136
170
268
243
222
203
24
98
125
156
186.
17
161
18
144
19
129
20
28
.1
278
249
192
175
160
Total Safe Loads
ir i
Lbs.
per .ineal
Ft.
187
(For nominal joist depth s 16' to 24"
411
389
272
252
incl.)
JOIST DESIGNATION
in
6J4
16J5
16J6
16J7
16....: 75
413
367
330
298
450
400
360
327
500. .5 38
71
250
213
47
184
299
254
219
28
160
13
141
feet
SJ8
18JS
18J6
18J7
18J8
20J5
20J6
20J7
20J8
380
345
410
373
430
460
418
358
307
283
444
400
364
4 78
3 91
389
350
318
433
390
355
467
420
382
500
450
409
.3 58
281
261
342.
312
321
2 66
240
207
180
375
346
307
3 31
325
289
249
217
350
323
299
191
333
306
264
230
261
300
225
196
269
234
168
202
34
158
191
140
169
264
234
173. .206. .249
34
229
203
182
220
36
38
125
151
181
209
is
33
20
88
22
38
24
00
26
28
30
32
4 30
3 05
40
42
44
46
331
383.
354
329
307
153
136
122
163
197
146
176
288
262
234
210
110
132
159.
190
...
48
Steel Joist Institute,
391
Web
68
Standard Specifications ond Load Tables Open
Steel Joists.
22J6
22J7
22J8
24J6
24J7
24J8
392
362
336
313
.417
382
409
436
350
323
375
346
285
248
321
400
369
343
320
367
338
312
272
218
273
242
216
239. 294.
212
265
189
169
237
194
300
282
254
228
140
127
175
159
145
205
186
170
153
192
174
.225
139
126
116
158
145
186
106
.133
.156
193
172
155
115
300
212
385
357
333
313
294
278
249
204
170
5: Structural
Metals
Bar Joists
Bar
may
and
Chapter 4,
illustrated
as
joists,
discussed
briefly
in
be used as structural floor
and roof framing. Because of the

large number of sizes and weights
available,
possible
to
and tables
The two most com-
for all joists.
mon
not
is
it
descriptions
include
are the "J" or junior joists
and the "H" or long span
joists.
Limit the clear span of J-series
24 times depth.
joists to
The ends of
steel joists shall
extend a distance of not less than

4 inches over masonry or poured
The ends
concrete supports.
extend not
over
steel
less
shall
than 2V4 inches
supports except where
opposite joists butt over a narrow

steel
Rohm & Hoo Photograph
support and attachment
is
Structural steel for a
made by welding
movable dome.
or bolting.
Bridging-spacing
no case
In
shall the spacing
Completed dome showtng swimming pool through roof that can be opened.
of
bridging or sag rods be greater
than given in the following table:

Clear Span
Up
1
Number
of Lines of Bridging
One row
14 feet
to
4 to 2
near center.
Two rows placed
feet
at ap-
proximately Vi points of
span.
21 to 32 feet
Three rows placed at
approximately
Vt points
of span
32
to
40
feet
40
to
48
feet
Four rows placed at
approximately
5 points
of span
Five
rows placed
approximately
at
It points
of span.
Joist
Spacing
Joists shall
the
be so spaced that
loading on
each
does not
exceed the allowable load given

for the particular designation
span in load
it is
table.
recommended
For
that
and
floors,
maximum
spacing be not greater than 24".'

Structural Steel Data,
J.
T.
Ryerson & Son,
Inc.
& Haoi Photograph
1.
What
2.
Who may make official
structural metal?
is
Why?
tural calculations?
How
3.
Are
structural parts
by
always
mathematical
using
data? Explain.
local
specific area,
required
8.
9.
in
a building, do
support
What
What
What
where can one obtain
26.
If
information
in
concerning
and
sizes
of
is
a dead load?
inch,
is
make
load?
live
meant when one
is
is
quiescent"?
What is welded wire fabric?

Where is welded wire fabric
meant when one
is
stress of
37. Can
based
20,000 pounds
6,000 pounds per square
how can
reactions
What
When one
what
29.
is
38.
What
is
3.
How
its
is
Can you
welded wire
determined?
size
think of reasons
fabric
why
should not be
30.
How
39.
a compression flange?
says lateral sup-
the allowable deflec-
beam
size
shown
in
does
from
one
the
determine
load
"beam
have
reaction"?
same
the
column?
are posts or columns
beams?
How
are steel columns se-
What
How
is
are steel lintels?

their size
42.
What
43.
Is
44.
How much
is
there
a bar
determined?
joist?
more than one kind?

bearing surface
on masonry must a bar

45. Do you know
tables
the text?
40.
41
used on steel
why
joist
joists?
pansion joints?
14.
What
is
the difference
sizes
and
be-
ing rod sizes?
15. From the wire fabric illustrations,
can you describe the difference
between positive and negative steel?

16.
What is
the apparent value of
a detail sheet for welded wire fabric?

1
7.
What do we mean when we
say a reinforcing rod

18. Are
is
deformed?
reinforcing rods de-
all
formed?
1
9.
tween
Flange
What
a
I
is
the difference be-
Standard
beam?
and
Terms to Spell and
Know
reinforc-
Wide
structural
welded
spliced
distribute
connectors
flange
technical
intersections
lateral
verified
ductile
kip
calculations
install
impact
duplication
alignment
buckling
incorporated
gage
deflection
recommendation
longitudinal
allowable
assumptions
transverse
represented
superimposed
suspended
transmit
proportion
data
reaction
quiescent
equivalent
terminate
pertinent
billet
70
have?
bridging
carried through construction or ex-
tween wire gage
beam
two
cured to concrete footings or floors?
tion for plastered ceilings?
12.
is
one
on
How
joined to
meant?
is
deter-
size
Explain.
the table be used to
the required calculations?
27.
What
36.
"fiber stress"?
is
column
is
mined?
uniformly distributed?
is
28.
port,
steel
column spacing de-
is
How
35.
a kip?
is
per square inch, and the local code

specifies
How
34.
dwellings
a safe load table
on a fiber
and bottom of
columns?
recommended
in
are steel plates placed
top
the
termined?
is
25.
required
is
strengths
What
What
What
the
is
Why
33.
floors?
all
load which floors
24.
used?
used
What
says, "The load
10.
live
23.
structural parts?
7.
31. What is meant by the term

"beam span"?
32. What is a pipe column?
im-
on
says the load
no code
pertinent
22.
and
calculations?
If
When
beams
steel
codes
influence strength requirements
6.
it
should carry?
How do individual
5.
Is
Explain.
all
calculated
deflection?
is
portant, or a problem?
21.
are weights of materials
determined?
4.
What
20.
struc-
is
<a
Sill
shrinkage of lumber across the
Sills
The
rests
is
sill
is
on the
wood beam that

foundation. The sill
a
pressed carefully into the mor-
tar to insure a
good
seal.
Washers
are placed over the anchor bolts,
and nuts are tightened to hold

the sill in place. The anchor bolts
prevent the sill from slipping on
the foundation and also secure
the frame to the foundation dur-
grain. This
tion of
ing
Two methods
Framing
the
to
danger of shifting or separating.

One disadvantage is the time
is
Expansion and contracframing will cause crack-
of the exterior surface, or
necessary
"letting
for
in"
ribbon. (See page 512.)
The
minimum amount
usually
wood frame.
The major advantage of
rial.
notch for thicker materials
would weaken the
loon framing
is
its
bal-
dimensional
Studding extending to
prevents any change of
on the outside of the
sill
building.
When
used with ma-
disadvantage
made
is
studs.
that
Another
the
studs
must be raised or put in place at

the same time as the floor joists.
Working over an excavation or
basement is difficult.
FLOOR JOIST
in
of time, thus
CORNER STUDS
them a firm, clean walking and storage surface for the

remainder of construction. An-
giving
other advantage
is
that the solid
subfloor over the box
sill
helps
eliminate drafts, which can be a

fire
hazard.
The box
parts. The
sill is
the bed plate.
ber
is
composed of two
horizontal
The
member is
mem-
vertical
FOUNDATION
a header.
The chief disadvantage
rib-
of \" mate-
is
Western or plat-
complete the base or platform
or
notching the studs to receive the
bon
form framing is most widely used.

This method allows workmen to
a
allows
this
separation of masonry from the
shape
of floor framing
veneer,
materials to be attached without
be faced with masonry veneer or

stucco.
sonry
when
the exterior of the building
the
of Floor
are illustrated.
undesirable
stability.
ing high winds.
Methods
is
is
Platform framing at a building corner.
71
Pressure Treated or Applied

Preservatives
Floor framing near moisture

or earth
susceptible to decay
is
and termites. Preservatives should

be added to the framing to prolong
is
its
life.
The
best protection
gained by applying the pre-
under pressure. Deep

is insured. Bulk preservatives may be purchased and
job-applied; however, this is
time consuming and the results
are not permanent.
servative
penetration
Balloon framing for an exterior
wa
<
"V
T---.i
r--,. -L___
US- Deportm
Map showing
(line
AA) the northern
BB, the northern
limit of
damage by subterranean termites in the United

damage by dry-wood or nonsubterranean termites.
limit of
71
States;
6:
Sill
and
Floor Construction
A
A
termite shield
and
is
placed over
piers.
It
should
extend past the edges of the foundation two inches and be bent
down to a 45 angle. The purpose
of the bend
to
is
help prevent
termites from bypassing.

a boring insect.
is
tunnels in
wood
It
material.
ter-
Grout or Mortar with Shield
The spacing of the last

would be 16" if modular con-
spacing.
about
shield.
This acts as a base for
wood
parts.
placed
is
The grout
acts as a
weather
helps level
It
joints are
ners,
this
made
Termite shield above

foundation wall
at the cor-
termite
meets
is
minimum
is
requirements of
are suitable for
Because of their abundance, workability, and strength,

light
Openings In termite shields as those for

anchor bolts must be completely sealed.
most frequently
weight of this
ter).
Spacing of 16"
frequently used.
for floor joists,
begun
handle. Southern, long leaf yellow
first
the strongest of the native
softwoods. Douglas
and spruce have
fir,
hemlock,
slightly
strength but are suitable.
us-
it
this size for
when
is
espe-
the under sides of
the joists form a base for a finish
less
When joists
o.c. is
When
most
laying out
measurements are
outside edge of the

or header joist. It is 16" from
at the
the outside of the edge joist
beam
vision
must be made
some
pro-
for
tying
They should be
minimum
of 4" and be
nailed firmly to secure, or a scab
of lumber should be nailed across

the joint as shown in the second
on page 74.
beams, and girders which
might be considered a part of
floor framing are discussed in
illustration
Posts,
Chapter
remaining joists except the
all
73
or girder,
together.
lapped a
(header) to the center of the second joist, and then 16" o.c. for
last
must be end joined
over a
them
Spacing for floor joists may be

24" o.c. (on cen-
12", 16", 20", or
group makes them easy to cut and

is
is
When
ceiling.
floor joists.
The
needed, and use
cially true
Floor Jolsl
are
is
greater
desired, the cost
the entire structure. This
Many woods
is
When
not unusual to select the largest
size
N;
used.
quently used for conventional

framing. The term nominal means
several joist sizes are required,
not stay at the proper angle.
softwoods
are shown. See page 75.

Nominal 2" lumber is most fre-
thickness
sometimes used and
some codes, but this is not recommended. The material is soft and
is likely to decay. The edges do
allow-
ually considerably greater.
paper, or aluminum. Roll
roofing
maximum
"not actual." Finished size
shields are: copper, copper coated

kraft
the
smaller than 2".

for
deter-
is
able span for dimension lumber
soldering.
Materials used
%" from
frequently placed
woods and
seam should also be

The joint is best closed by
sealed.
is
the outside edge of the foundation
comparative strength of different
shield must be end joined, or
when
sill
construction,
or header of the box
Size of floor joists
of termite
pieces
wood frame
first joist
mined by the total load to be

supported and the distance they
must span. Charts showing the
must be cut in the

anchor bolts. Tar or
some other plastic material
should be used to seal around the
When
In
discussion
begins on page 135.
wall.
seal.
can-
for
bolts.
this topic
the
builds
Holes
shield
of
over the
top of the foundation and
the
struction were used.
thin layer of grout or mortar,
not tunnel through the shield.
pine
one, which will end with uneven
joist
the foundation
mite
Termite Shield
When
1.
framing floor openings,
the joists should be doubled.
SOLID BRIDGING-
Framing
BUILT UP GIRDERFloor joists lapped over a built-up girder.
SCAB
Joists spliced
above
built-up
girder.
A ledger provides bearing surtace

joist and girder intersections.
at
TRIMMER JOISTSJoist
The
illustration
framing
for flues or fireplaces.
shows the method
of framing openings and names
of the parts involved.
When fram-
ing openings for fireplaces

-METAL
Joists
may be
CONNECTOR
secured to a girder with
metal connectors.
and
the area between the wood

and masonry should be filled with
flues,
a fireproof insulation.
74
Wood fram-
ing should be spaced a
minimum
of 2" from the masonry. Note

also that ends of joists
may
terminate in a chimney or
place and that
load
bearing
doubled.
all
not
fire-
framing beneath
walls
should
be
Floor Joists
DOUGLAS FIR COAST REGION
Association
Select
Dense
Structural
Construction
Spacing
Nominal
sizes (inches)
1950
1700f
30
2x8
2x10
2x12
?.
Denotes Grade
is
Utility
Dense
Construction Standard
Select
Structural
Construction
19501
17001
Utility
(inches
o. c.)
2x6
Lumber Grades
Construction Standard
14501
LB. LIVE
1200
(1)
LOAD
14501
40
12001
(1)
LOAD
LB. LIVE
Ft.
In.
Fl.
In.
Fl.
In.
Fl.
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
12
11
11
11
11
10
10
10
10
16
10
10
10
10
24
10
12
15
14
14
14
11
9
4
15
15
15
12
14
16
14
10
13
24
12
12
12
12
11
11
12
18
18
18
18
16
17
14
14
14
13
11
In.
13
11
10
2
16
10
17
17
17
17
15
17
14
16
16
16
16
13
14
14
14
20
17
17
13
Ft.
24
15
15
15
15
6 12
12
21
21
21
21
19
16
19
19
19
19
17
18
18
18
18
24
17 10
17
10
17
10
17
10 14
16
10
16
10
16
10
16
20
20
14
10
20
17
15
10
12
not a stress grade
SOUTHERN YELLOW PINE-MEDIUM GRAIN

Association Lumber Grades
No.
Spacing
Nominal
size (inches)
(inches
K. D.
Dense
2"
Di-
mension
No. 2 Dense
K. D.
2"
Di-
No.
Dense
No. 2 Dense
2" Dimension 2" Dimension
mension
No.
K. D.
Dense
2"
Di-
mension
No. 2 Dense
K. D.
2"
Di-
No.
Dense
2" Dimension
No. 2 Dense
2" Dimension
mension
o. c.)
1700
1500
30
Ft.
2x6'
In.
Fl.
LB. LIVE
In.
Fl.
In.
11
11
10
10
10
16
10
9
16
14
24
12
15
17
24
15
14
4
2x10
16
15
1700
12001
40
2x8
Fl.
1
14
15
In.
Fl.
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
10
10
10
14
14
14
14
13
13
12
12
11
18
18
17
17
16
16
14
14
15
17
6
15
11
13
13
15
In.
Ft.
18
10
14
17
1200
LOAD
12
17
1450
LB. LIVE
In.
11
17
17
16
16
14
14
11
21
21
21
20
16
19
19
19
19
18
18
18
18
24
17
10
17
10
17
10
17
10
16
10
16
10
16
10
16
10
21
Spans
may be
Table of floor
20
20
20
(b) Spans shall be decreased 5 percent from those shown for lumber
more than 2 percent but not more fhort 5 percenf scanf from American
Lumber Standards sizes measured at a moisture content of 9 percent or less, lumber scant more than 5 percent not acceptable.
for 2"x6" lumber having actual dressed size of l s/a"x5 s/a"

increased 2 Vi percent.
Notes: (a) Spans may be increased 5 percent from those shown
for rough lumber or lumber surfaced two edges (S2E).
1
12001
LOAD
11
24
2x12
14501
joist sizes
75
and
their spans.
Bridging
Bridging
used between joists
is
and spread the
to stiffen the floor
concentrated load over a greater

area. Cross bridging
the type
is
most commonly used. Bridging as

shown in the framing diagram is
usually constructed of l"x3" lumber.
The ends
Bridging
joist.
an angle
are cut at
them
to allow
to
against the
fit
may
also be
made
of metal.
The top of the bridging is nailed

before the subfloor
nailed in
is
The lower ends remain
place.
loose. After the finished floor
lower ends are pulled
in place, the
flush with the
bottom of the joists
and
If
nailed.
the
joists
are
warped, the crowns are placed

near the top. When the lower ends
are nailed,
floor.
it
tends to level the
Actual strength gained from
the addition of bridging

tionable, but
their use.
is
ques-
most codes require
Most minimum
Some
require-
ments space the bridging not less

than 8'-0" apart. This means most
typical rooms will have one row
in the center. If the span is more
than 16' 0", two rows would be
required.
subfloor can be laid across,
Three materials are commonly

wood subfloors. Plywood
now is most popular.
used for
Until recently,
common
most
was tongue and groove
lumber.
Minimum
the
thickness
at
right angles to the joist, or di-
agonal,
joists.
at
45
angle to the
diagonal subfloor allows
the finished floor to be laid in any

direction. Also
When
corners.
exposed
to
it
helps "hold" the
a subfloor
to be
is
the weather for an
Diagonal subfloor.
extended period of time, some of

the boards should be omitted to
allow for drainage of water.
End
joining of boards for the
subfloor should be done over floor

In some cases, when end
matched tongue and groove lum-
joist.
ber
Subfloor
(1)
building codes require floor bridging
is
is
used, the joints can be
made
between joists. However, the lumber should bear, or rest upon, at

least two joists and no joints in
Tongue and groove subflooring

times spliced between
succeeding boards should be made

over or between the same joists.
is
and maximum width is 8".

Excessive warpage can result
from using wider lumber.
2S
/3z"
(2)
(S4S),
size
Lumber surfaced
is
also
four sides
sometimes used. The
required
is
the
same
as for
tongue and groove lumber. The
Tongue and groove lumber provides strength
76
at joints.
is
joists.
some-
'
6:
Sill
Plywood
(3)
become
has
widely used as a material for subfloors.
BLOCKING AT EDGES OF PLYWOOD
and
The
large size of the sheets,
which they
the speed with
can be nailed, offsets the slightly

higher cost of material. Greater
care must be taken
the
joists.
Any
when spacing
discrepancy
in
spacing will prevent the ends of

panels from resting on the
joists;
excessive waste of material
and
time will result from poor spacing. When using 16" spacing for
floor joists,
quate.
plywood
The outer
is
ade-
grain of the ply-
wood should be placed across the

End joints should be stag-
joist.
gered so successive panels do not

break, or end over the
same joist.
Unless tongue and groove plyMost plywood subfloors require support
at
all
wood
edges.
to
is
used, blocking
support
edges.
is
required
low-grade
sheathing of unsanded plywood

is
usually used.
Joist
Framing for Solid Masonry
When
FIRE
JH"
solid
masonry is used
no box sill is
for exterior walls,
CUT
JOIST
required.
bedded
The
in,
of the wall.
3"
ends are im-
Two methods
ting joists are

tration.
joist
or placed on a ledge
Joist
shown
of
set-
in the illus-
ends should have
minimum
bearing on
solid
masonry.
Pockets for
f
>
'!
i
i
'.
'
>
beam ends should
be provided in foundation walls.
Foundation and wall with
fire
cut
joist.
Section through a wall showing square

cut joist seat.
Beam
77
pocket
in
poured concrete wall
Minimum
bearing
beam ends
beams
are
is
4".
surface
"letting
clearance
ribbon?
used,
What
7.
for
When wood
should be provided at the sides

and ends of the beam. This allows
8.
meant by the term
is
when
in"
it
have over brush-applied ones?
native softwoods?
9.
10.
What
What
What
is
a floor
is
the strongest of the
is
2.
placed
Why
%"
is
joist?
material
placed
is
box
floor joists?
sill
inside the
sometimes
edge
of the
What
is
When
bridging?
Why
is
2.
What is a termite shield?

What is the purpose of bend-
3.
Why
are the joints soldered
4.
Why
is
in
the shield?
mortar placed over
ture
is
6.
wood
What
part of a
placed upon
What
are
this
wood
struc-
mortar?
two methods of
wall framing? Explain each.
Why
are
joists
laid?
What
are three materials
becoming most popular?

22.
Why
fre-
Which
are joints not broken
over the same
joists
when
laying
subfloors?
Terms to Spell and
What are some other methods
15.
quired
When added
at
floor
strength
is
re-
openings, what
is
to the joists?
6.
Why
is
framing not placed
against chimneys and fireplaces?

17.
What is the minimum
distance
between framing and a chimney?
78
is
Why?
sometimes
of end-joining joists?
done
the termite shield?

5.
3.
14.
ing the termite shield?
or otherwise closed
lapped over a beam?
is
the bottom of bridg-
foundation?
1
in
used?
quently used for subfloors?
wood
the
What
ing not nailed until after the subfloor

is
the most frequently
used spacing for

1
8.
space?
20.
applied preservatives for termite pro-
alignment can also be made.
Know/edge
this
19.
tection
to
What advantage do pressure-
expansion and contraction

and permits air to circulate around
the beam. Minor adjustments of
for
referring
seam
Know
spruce
soldering
nominal
aluminum
ceiling
grout
scab
shrinkage
bridging
ribbon
subfloor
softwoods
discrepancy
hemlock
V
Wall Section
During this discussion the
frame wall of a building is considered as a single unit, even
composed of many
Framing a wood
was originally done one
at a time, on the construc-
though
it
piece
no longer true.
Only on very small jobs would
the framing be done in this manner. Wall sections are usually
completed and then raised in
tion site. This
place.
necessarily
then erected.
the ultimate in progress of con-
In
is
individual parts.
wall
the wall section might be

assembled on the subfloor and
tion
is
On some
light
construc-
volume
parts are cut

a
shop or
production,
the
and assembled
Volume
factory.
in
pro-
duction can increase quality and
reduce the
number of man hours
of labor per unit, as well as im-
proving working conditions because

for
of
the
efficiency.
structure
assembled
in this
Parts
and
manner do not
being
cut
toward
indicate
struction methods.
total
trend
The
as
merits of
prefabrication and the use
of components
not
prefabrication
total
be
Custom
in
discussed
built,
building will
at
this
time.
or one-of-a-kind
framed very
manner. Quality
of materials and workmanship
building, can also be
efficiently in this
usually exceeds that of a building totally assembled on the
site.
Sole Plate
The
sole plate
is
a 2x4, with
wide dimension contacting the

subfloor. It is placed beneath all
its
stud walls.
When used on exterior walls it

customary to align the edge of
the bed plate flush with the edge
is
of the foundation, as shown to

left. Another arrangement is
sometimes substituted as shown
the
in the illustration at the right.
Outside face of sheathing
FOUNDATION
flush with foundation face.
_|
Outside
face
of
sheathing
protruding
past foundation face.
79
The
and helps hold
proper spacing.
a
subfloor.
their
also serves as
It
means of attaching
the
an anchor
sole plate acts as
for the studs
the wall to
sometimes
is
It
placed around the entire perimeter
of the wall, including door openThis helps
more
rigid while
make
ings.
After the wall

the plate
openings.
is
it is
nailed in place
is
removed from the
When
bearing walls are
parallel to floor joists,
with them, the

doubled.
tween
When
joists,
the wall
being erected.
joists
and
in line
should be
the wall
is
be-
blocking as shown
in the illustration
is
used to pre-
vent the floor from sagging be-
tween
BEARING WALL PARALLEL TO JOISTS
joists.
Joists are doubled beneath bearing walls. Double joists
may be
joined together, or
separated by spacers to accommodate wires or pipes.
Non-bearing walls
when blocking
is
may be spaced between
joists
provided. Also, note the block-
ing at edge joints of the plywood subfloor.
NON-BEARING WALL PARALLEL TO JOISTS
80
7:
Top Plate
Plates are placed over the top
of
studs.
all
and
They
serve as spacers
the top of the studs in
tie
place. All plates
on outside walls
should be doubled because the
joined, the splice should be
over a stud.
permissible
plates
load
for
is
to
to
It is
use
interior
sometimes
top
single
walls
be supported.
if
no
the
cut
and handle
made
must
in
stud.
the top plate
at a corner, the plate
is
joined
should be
lapped so the corner can be tied

together as in the illustration.
When
panels of modular con-
struction are used for walls, the
different length
top plates are sometimes stood
amount
on edge as shown to the right,

and serve as a header around the
studs usually offsets the
of material saved.
When
same
When
How-
ever, the extra time involved to
splices
both top plates, the

splices should not be made over
weight of ceiling joists and rafters

bears upon them.
made
be
When
top plates must be end
perimeter of outside walls.
SINGLE TOP PLATE PERMITTED FOR INTERIOR
NON-BEARING WALLS-DOUBLE TOP PLATES
RECOMMENDED
Combination top plate and header

use with modular panels.
SPLICES
ABOVE STUDS
6" WIDE NAILER
Frame
wall intersection with
one wa
ending between studding spacing of

adjoining wall.
Joining top plates at wall corners and above
TOP PLATES LAPPED
studs.
AT CORNERS
81
for
Part
Studding
Studs are the slender
rights that
work of
form the
the walls of a structure.
made
Studs are usually
actual size of which
One
wood up-
vertical frame-
is
of 2x4's
Vi "x3 Vz
exception
notable
".
the
to
standard thickness of frame walls

is
area which must accom-
the
modate the larger soil stack or

vent pipe for the bathroom
plumbing
This wall
fixtures.
is
usually constructed of 2x6's.
The studding should be of

uniform length, which is determined by the ceiling height
For
desired.
ceilings
conventional,
common
most
8'0"
of homes,
is
in
it
the
height.
ceiling
Note: This measurement

the stud length,
flat
is
not
only used
is
determining length. Studs are
usually
The
16"
spaced
stud
on
centers.
Studs spaced 16"
turned so the wide
is
dimension forms the thickness of

the wall. In rare cases where no
load must be supported, as in a
the
wall,
closet
turned
so
represents
stud
may
be
dimension
the
short
the
thickness
of the
done only if space

is at a premium. The 16" spacing works well in "hanging a
curtain" of most wall materials.
wall.
In
it
is
This
is
some very light construction

permissible to use 24" spac-
For example, studs for a

garage or shed might be so spaced.
The uniform spacing is usually
continued over window and door
ing.
Most frequently used built-up

corner stud arrangement.
openings.
It is
impossible to start measur-
ing stud spacing at the outside
corner of a building and keep

the studs on 16" centers on the
inside of the building at the
same
82
o.c.
from inside building.
7:
time.
One of
the spacings (inside
or outside) must necessarily be
ofTthe 16" module.
It is
to start the spacing
customary
from the
in-
shown in the stud layout

diagram. Then studs can be more
easily located when nailing
side as
through plaster is required.

It is desirable but impossible
to purchase lumber
that
is
per-
no warp or
wind (twist). Yet only the
straightest
lumber should be
Studding arrangement for four intersect-
fectly straight, with
selected
studs.
for
If studs
are
warped, the crowns,
noticeably
ing walls.
Intersecting
forming
to
normal stud
When
covering
sheathing or wall
applied,
is
this
helps
pull the wall into a straight posi-
an
If
tion.
occasional
stud
is
extremely warped, but must be

used,
SECOND STORY
surface,
relation
in
to
the stud
arrangement. If an inside wall

ends between studs, the first
arrangement (page 82) is used.

If it ends on wall studs, the second (page 83) would be used.
can be partially cut and
it
pulled
into
straight
position.
Stud Intersections
then
At wall intersections on the
nailed over the cut to hold the
interior of the building, the studs
scab or extra piece
is
stud firm.
are arranged as shown.
Corner Studs
Studs at Wall Openings
When two
exterior
corners
must be joined to
form a corner post. Two methods
are shown. The first illustration
shows the method most frequently
meet, studs
used.
The
short
wood
sections
between the studs are blocking

used to help form the post. Short
is
to be
supported for
times omitted.
in
Between an
Wall and an Outside Wall
Inside
be joined
ment
Fill
and outside walls may

as shown. The arrange-
to use will
be determined by
the position of the inside wall
window opening.
a second floor, the portion of stud-
ding above the header
Studs To
for a
the headers over the opening. If
no weight
nating one extra
full stud.
Framing
Double studs are placed at all

door, window, and other openings. The outside stud extends
from the bottom to the top plate.
The inside stud is cut to receive
scrap boards are used, thus elimi-
Inside
nailing.
toward the
outside and the next toward the

inside.
V between
accommodate
WHEN NO
OMITTED
ding spacing.
placing one
studs are Inset
con
wall
or high points, should be alternated,
Two
adjoining ones to
The
is
some-
studs are used
addition to the ones on the
16"
However, when
window and door place-
spacing.
possible,
ment are arranged
to
with the stud spacing.

next to the opening
normal spacing.
83
is
conform
The stud
used for
Framing
is
not
for a
as
door opening. This method
frequently
used
as the other
method shown on page
84.
Base Blocks
Short
same
scraps
of lumber
and
thickness
the
width
as
studding are placed against the

studs
opposite
opening to
the
provide for nailing the ends of
baseboard and casing.

Corner Bracing
Temporary corner braces may

be used
at
studded wall openings
and room corners
insure
to
square corner. They are applied

at a 45 angle to the studs. If
rigid
sheathing
is
not to be ap-
plied to the exterior,
it
is
l"x4"
"let-in" corner bracing.
neces-
sary to place permanent braces
The accompanying chart shows
on the outside of the studs. These

are made from l"x4" lumber
and are "let in" to the studs. As
said, if plywood or rigid insulating
sheathing is used, no additional
Firestop
bracing
both walls should have lumber

placed between the studs to
is
required.
and Nailers
Balloon framing leaves an open

space along the studs. This space
acts as a flue if fire occurs.
ern framing
is
not as open, but
serve as a firestop.
of installation are
vertical
wood
West-
Two methods
shown. When
coverings, such as ply-
or hardboard paneling, are
applied directly to the studs, these
boards also act as backing. This
makes the wall
firm
and provides
additional nailing surface. See
page
85.
the header size required for vari-
ous spans. See page 86.
Two methods
header
are
method requires
the header.
of installing the
shown.
The
older
short studs over
Newer
construction
methods use a large header to

fill
the entire space above the
opening.
The
additional material
required would not be as great

as the labor for laying out, cutting,
and
installing crippled studs.
Additional material can be saved
when
applying
inside
wall
sheathing
coverings
the parts need not be spaced
Headers
rafters,
floors above,
Frequently used method of framing a
door opening. Small blocks of 2"x4"

called
ing
base blocks afford additional
surface
baseboard.
for
securing
crippled
casing
stud
above the header.
is
nail-
and
added
as
shown
on
the 16" module.
and additional
must be supported
over doors, windows, and other
openings. Headers of lumber on
edge or plywood laminated beams,
Joists,
or
because
in the
illustrations,
Plywood box beams are very

desirable as headers
good weight-toSuch beams are

used with post and beam
exceptionally
strength ratio.
also
structural systems.
are used.
84
when long
spans are needed. They have an
7:
Dimension lumber nailed together to form

a header.
Solid headers completely filling the space
above an opening give added strength.

require uniform width lumber, and speed
construction.
PLYWOOD BOX BEAM

For wide openings plywood box
Two methods
installing firestop be-
of
make
beams
excellent headers.
tween studs.
Framing Diagrams
When construction was entirely
a one-part-at-a-time operation,
was necessary
to
Conventional
method
of
installing
header above an opening.
it
draw complete
to show the
framing diagrams
workmen how
structure.
to
assemble the
At the present
this
is
not always done. However, any
information not placed on the

working drawings leaves the final
decision of framing location to the
builder.
Any person planning a structure

should be able to show the loca-
members. If
assembled away
the planning must
tion of the framing
the
parts
are
from the site,

be exact, to assure a proper
when
the building
is
fit
assembled.
Wall framing diagram (size and location dimensions are necessary to complete the plan).
85
Headers Exterior Openings

Roof construction
Roof
joist
with bearing partition,
slope 3
T
Width of
Header
size
structure
"1
(on edge)
in
2 or
Rafters with bearing partition
-^T^
Slope over 3
in
Trussed rafters
*<^?'^>-
^^-^^v/^^^
r*
1
Slope 3
to
26
feet
wide.
2-2 x4s
2-2 x 6s
2-2 x 8s
2-2 x 10s
2-2 x 12s
to
32
feet
wide.
2-2
2-2
2-2
2-2
2-2
3'0"
2'
6"
6'
6"
5'0"
4'
6"
6"
TV
'
0"
8'
6"
3'
6"
10'
6"
x 4s
2'
6"
x 6s
4'
6"
x 8s
6'0"
8'
1
Vi
x 10s
7'
9'0"
6'
0"
0"
7'
6"
5'
8'
6"
to
bear on 2-2 x
0"
9 6
<
"
'
6"
'6'
0"
6"
Note: The above spans are based on allowable fiber stresses in

follows: For 2 x 4s, 800 psi; for 2 x 6s and larger, 1,200
These a//owob/e stresses are average values taking into consideration upgrading for doubling of members. Where 2 x As having
jamb opening; headers
8'
3'
'TV
'
4'0"
5'
6"
J.
8'
6"
3'6"
5'0"
psi.
Triple studs at
story
or 2 story
6"
bending as
'
Vi
4'0"
.
5'0"
6'0"
B'0"
12' 0"
6"
6"
6"
2-2 x 4s
2-2 x6s
2-2 x 8s
2-2 x 10s
2-2 x 12s
3'
8'
6"
6'
4'
x 12s
0"
2'
'
3'0"
x 10s
6"
6'0"
0"
8'
5'
x 6s
0'
or 1 story
x 4s
>
6'0"
i
4'0"
6"
x 12s
x 8s
Habitable space
6"
26
3'
2-2
2-2
2-2
2-2
2-2
12 or less
in
story
Up
AS\K
/\
partition
in
Rafters with bearing partition
"f
Slope over 3
12
12
Braced rafters with bearing
in
^<f\>^
i
Trussed rafters slope over 3
^^~\^
less
4'
6"
5'
6"
allowable fiber stress exceeding 800 are used, the spans for 2 x 4s
may be increased by 20 percent. Where conditions vary from these
assumptions, design headers in accordance with standard engineering practice.
4s.
Federal Housing Administration
86
7:
sample wall framing diagram

a small structure is shown.
See drawing, bottom of page 85.
HEADER SCHEDULE
for
typical schedule of
is
shown
the illustration. This
is
very con-
venient for workmen, as
OIIAN
HEADER
HEADER
CLEAR
WIDTH
HEIGHT
SPAN
4"
4"
3'-0"
4"
6"
5'-0"
S'-3'/<"
4"
8"
7'-0"
7'-3'/4"
4"
12"
10-5"
io'-9y4"
KEY
header
sizes for a building
in
elimi-
it
nates the need to locate and figure

the length for each header.

1
What
meant by the term
is
"raising the wall"?

2.
What
its
purpose of a
the
is
soleplate?
it
9.
What
4.
Why
are the plates lapped
is
How
is
is
21.
Know
prefabricated
component
modular
a framing diagram?
workmanship
sheathing
the size of headers
Why is a schedule for headers

included
on
working
perimeter
sole plate
scab
studding
blocking
studs
firestop
header
drawings?
outside walls?
5.
6.
An
What
What
a stud, or studding?
is
size material
architect and a builder discussing the framing plans during construction

of the building.
usually
is
Wood
used for studs?

7.
8.
What is their normal spacing?

When may they be placed
dimension represents
the small
the thickness of the frame wall?

9.
what
When
10.
What
Why
referring
warp? What
is
is
to
lumber,
wind?
a scab?
is
blocking sometimes
is
used when forming a corner post?

12.
joining
What
two methods of
are
an inside wall
to
an outside
wall?
1
How
3.
14.
are interior wall
How
are the studs arranged
at openings for doors
15.
1
it
6.
inter-
framed?
sections
is
Terms To Spell and
corners and where inside walls
join
so
3'-3'/"
a header? Explain
determined?
sometimes
ber?
at
What
construction.
20.
What is a top plate? Why

made from two pieces of lum-
3.
is
18.
HEADER
LENGTH
What
What
and windows?
is
a base block?
is
corner bracing?
How
applied?
17.
What
material
is
is
firestop?
What
normally used?
87
Product* Ail

the interior finish
Masonry Materials
Stone,
clay
tile,
brick,
concrete
block,
terra-cotta, or specially
processed forms of each are classified as
masonry.
and the provi-
sion for attaching the finish to the
masonry.
When more
than one
of the above materials
is
not sufficient to pre-
Therefore
fastened securely together.
stones are placed crosswise of the
Solid
As
consid-
ered a masonry wall. However,
may
is
vent the wythes from separating.

individual
wythes so they
wall constructed entirely
other materials
with mortar and reinforcement.
This bond
wythe (thickness) of masonry is

used, they must be bonded or
Masonry Construction
Any
wythes. All wythes are bonded
be used as
is
Masonry
said, a solid
tie
bricks
or
the two to-
gether. Or, instead of placing in-
masonry wall
constructed without a frame-
work of studding or space between
dividual units across both

wythes, header courses, as shown
in the illustration, are used. The
8:
ties may be
mortar joints for
Corrugated wall
placed
in
wall reinforcement.
masonry used
secure the
to
wythes should equal
at least
4%
of the outer wall surface, and

should extend at least 4" into
the interior wythe.
wythe
is
interior
called a backing.
is
concrete block
it
The
faced
is
When
and
even
the backing
with
brick,
seventh course of brick
is
placed
as a header course. This allows
the
each
header course to tie across

second course of block
They may be composed of separated wythes spaced

monolithic.
apart to represent a specified wall

thickness.
wall, the
is
To be classed as a cavity
minimum cavity width
2" and the
maximum
and moisture, the cavity

between wythes may be filled with
insulation. Sprayed foam insula-
cold,
tions are especially good.

inert
When
face brick
is
used as a
sometimes desires not
reinforcement.
facing pattern
Then
to disrupt
with header
the practice
is
must
be
bridged
with
Hollow Masonry
to tie
the wythes with corrugated wall
or other metal reinforcement.
Minimum
is
to rot
The space between masonry

units
ties
Welded wire reinforcement adds strength

and holds wythes in position.
They are
and are not subject
decorative exterior covering, one
courses.
4".
and mold.
backing.
the
is
Since masonry transmits heat,
spacing of such ties

16" on center vertically and
Any
wall constructed of
interior
voids the area of which
exceeds
sectional
32" horizontally.
ma-
sonry units or blocks which have
25% of
the total cross-
area is
classed
as
hollow masonry.
Masonry Cavity Walls

All
masonry
walls
are
not
Soldier course in
89
running bond brick.
RUNNING BOND
Construction detail with masonry veneer

wall covering.
Wall section combining
masonry
veneer and wood siding.
VERTICAL SIDING
Masonry Veneer
building,
masonry veneer
is
finishing or decorative
a solid
material
a less expensive maThe backing may be of
covering
terial.
masonry, wood, or metal frame

construction. However, the term
veneer
mean
is
that
usually
masonry
intended
is
to
applied as
a covering over a material other
than masonry.
When
veneer
applied over other masonry,
it
is
not intended to
to support only
its
It
is
own
meant
weight.
When
veneer is applied over

frame construction, a 1" air space
is left between the masonry and
wall sheathing. The veneer is attached to the frame with metal
wall
Normal spacing for the

16" vertically and 32" hori-
ties.
ties is
The
space allows for
is
zontally.
is
variations in the thickness of the
usually referred to as facing.
is
and
be load supporting.
masonry, and
Veneer placed over wood frame
of heat,
not a true structural part of the
moisture.
air
resists
cold,
transmission
and penetrating
90
BRICK VENEER
8:

peak or gable may be of 6" masonry. Note: This is accepted primarily in low-cost buildings. Most
codes would not permit it. Gen35'
high
may be of 8" solid masonry.
Walls
erally,
walls less than
more than 35' must be 12" solid

masonry. Most codes will permit
12" and
first story walls to be
second story walls
The
veneer
is
8".
minimum
for
thickness
two-story
of
structures
4".
Parging
is
a layer of rough
smooth finished) plaster made
from sand and portland cement.
It is used as a waterproofing on
exterior foundation walls, between
solid masonry walls and interior
coverings and between masonry
wythes. This prevents the masonry
backing from discoloring exposed
Parging
(not
Corrugated wall
for
ties are nailed
maximum
into studding
strength.
decorative masonry.
Weep
Holes for Cavity
and Veneer Walls
Temperature
differences
be-
tween interior and exterior walls

lead to moisture condensation.
This must be ventilated. Special
may be used, or vertical

mortar joints may be omitted
every 4' in the bottom course.
vents
Masonry Wall Thickness

and Height
Wall thickness and height for
masonry will
vary with local codes. These must
be checked before wall planning
can be completed. The FHA
materials used in
gives
the
following
minimum
standards: Solid or hollow cavity

walls less than 9' high at the top
wall plate line and 15' or less at
91
Part
Flashing and Termite Shields
Except for very arid regions,
one must place flashing at the base

of solid or hollow masonry, as
shown
in
the illustrations.
termite shield
is
The
similar to that
used for a frame wall, except that

it is not visible from the exterior.
Bond Beams or Top Plate

If the structure
in a
is
to be built
high wind or earthquake area,
bond beam of concrete
is
used.
8:
With
masonry,
solid
this
is
a re-
inforced concrete band, extending
around the perimeter of the buildFor 8" and 12" walls, two
No. 4 reinforcing rods are re-
ing.
quired.
the
If
building
is
con-
structed of hollow concrete block

units, the
with
lintel
bond beam is formed

blocks as shown and
two No. 4 reinforcement rods

added; then the units of the reinforced band are filled with
concrete.
If in neither a high wind nor
earthquake area, a single top plate
may be placed over both wythes
for masonry and firmly secured

with anchor bolts. These should
be placed as for foundations.
When
hollow units are used, the
voids in the top course are
rilled
with concrete.
PIPE
CHASE
Lintels
When
openings
masonry
windows or
in
are required, as for
masonry above the openmust be supported. When
doors,
ings
Masonry above pipe chases and recesses

most frequently supported by steel
wall recesses are required, as for

flush radiators, pipe chases,
is
and
lintels.
other equipment, these openings

must also be supported by lintels.
lintel is a
horizontal construc-
member over
Lintels may be
tion
A masonry arch gives
the opening.
constructed of
poured concrete, pre-cast concrete,

or concrete lintel blocks. These
are held to their proper position
with
wood
temporary
vertical
supports called shoring; reinforce-
ment is added and the voids filled

with concrete. Arches of masonry
may
also serve as lintels.
concealed
When
lintels are desired, struc-
tural metal
may be
the lintel extend a
used.
Ends of
minimum
of
4" into the masonry wall.
93
its
own
support, so no steel
lintel is
required.
table of steel lintel sizes
is
Chapter 5, Structural
Metal. Lintels must be clearly
indicated on the working drawing;
a schedule of lintel sizes, coded
to specific openings is most
shown
in
desirable.
Damp-proofing
action
Since capillary
damp
moisture from a
draws
exterior
surface toward the interior, some-
thing must be done to stop this

flow.
Silicone spray
on exterior ma-
sonry surfaces will help. Parging,

or rough plastering the wall on
the inside with a coating of Port-
cement mortar and then
land
Furring strips block moisture transfer and serve as nailers for wall coverings.
coating this surface with bitumi-
nous damp-proofing
will
retard
in direct contact with the exterior,
masonry
the flow of moisture.
When
a cav-
this is sufficient.
cautions must be taken. Furring
wall
ity
ing
is
used, the damp-proof-
may be
placed between the
wythes. Since a cavity wall
is
not
finishes
Interior
plied directly to the

ity
wall.
may be
ap-
masonry cav-
However, when
solid
strips,
is
used, additional pre-
least
at
in
thickness
must be placed over the dampproofing.
Brick
a baked clay product.
Bricks used as an exposed dec-
determined
orative material are called face
using this material on prominent
by the natural color of the clay,

or earth colors may be added during manufacture. Red and buff
are the most common. However,
brick is manfactured in almost
bricks. They are uniform in size

(usually within Vi 6 " limits),
have neat, square corners and
exteriors.
Brick
The
is
finished color
every
color
is
imaginable.
Bricks
close quality control during

facture.
Common
uniform
in size or color.
manu-
bricks are not
They
product
that
is
the
It is
the author's opinion
common
walls suggests
only excuse for
brick
on exterior
more of a run-down
appearance than any other single

factor of construction.
are
used primarily as backing material, or sometimes on the sides
Names and Sizes of Brick

The names of brick shapes
vary within specified limits, as

determined from manufacturers'
and back of
well standardized; however, the
samples. Variant colors and tex-
tures.
may be purchased
in quantities
of a single color, or they
may
tures are obtained by using glazed

brick,
which has a coating of
ramic on the
face.
ce-
tially
a building,
if
par-
obscured by other struc-
These are porous, and

absorb dirt readily. They eventually present
ance.
an unsightly appear-
The expense of
94
a quality
exact sizes are not.

ing
is
are
chart show-
names and approximate
sizes
given on page 96. Individual
manufacturers may vary

the sizes shown.
W from
"
FLEMISH
RUNNING
DIAGONAL
HEADER
Brick bonds.
UNIT
RANDOM
BROKEN END
3 UNIT
3 UNIT
2 UNIT
4 UNIT
RANDOM SHORT
MEDIUM RANGE
RANGE
RANDOM ASHLAR
"
95
Standard
2'/4"x3 3/4"x8"
Modular
2'/4"x3 s/8"x7 s/8"
Jumbo
Norman
2%"x3 A"x8"
Brick
2'A"x3 5/8"xll
5/8"
S.C.R.*
Roman
Baby Roman
.
/8 "x3 5/8"x11 s/8"
certain styles
/8"x3 5/e"x7 5/e"
the people
2 /2"x3 5/8 "x9"
Some
Size may vary

with manufacturer
bonds, and
Registered trademark.
This
brick
is
in-
tended as a single thickness, low cost, one-
masonry
Building Stone
ways
of
and methods with
who developed them.

the more common brick
Fire Brick
different
of solving construction problems,

have resulted in identification of
Oversize
story
and
tural beauty,
2 /e"x5 /2"xll /2 "

,
Bonds
Differing feelings for architec-
their application to
shown
on page 95.
wall areas, are

trations
Stones most
commonly used
in
building are: sandstone, limestone,
and marble. Lava, quartz

and other stone sometimes are
granite,
used in decorative
factured stone
is
details. Manumade from ag-
bonded
gregates of natural stone

in the illus-
morbonding
into a monolithic unit, with

tar or synthetics as the
wall.
agent. This stone
may have
a rough
textured or smooth polished face,
depending upon aggregates used

and effect desired. This material
should not be confused with "soft"
imitations, which try to simulate
or copy the appearance of true
materials.
Shapes of Building Stone
Rubble
ture.
struction
stone as found in na-
is
When
used in building con-
no processing
is
done
to
produce a more regular shape,

although large natural stones may
be broken to make them more
purposes.
building
for
suitable
Two
kinds of rubble are:
(1
Fieldstone, or stone as one
might find
has a
it
in
rather
field. It
usually
smooth, rounded
The
random to form
surface of irregular shape.
stones are fitted at
The backs may be cut

more uniform thickness.
a wall.
a
for
(2) Stratified stone, which is

found in thin broken layers may
be broken into pieces suitable for

building. It may be laid with the
strata in a vertical or horizontal
position.
PATTERNED
ASHLAR 4x8,
4
x 12, 4 x 16, 8 x 12,
AND 8x16
Concrete block bonds.
stones
When
laid vertically, the
present
many
faces to the viewer.
horizontally they
may be
or uncoursed (random).
96
irregular
When
laid
coursed
Scholz
Random
Stratified stone as
Homes
Inc.
stone adds to the beauty of this home.
used on the front wall of
this
home
gives a rugged effect.

Scholz
Homes
Inc
fiOfeSSSHranO
&3E&
97
Purchase
Stone
is
The quoted
on pick-up
depending upon the type saw
Trans-
shallow saw cuts are made the

length of the stone along the top
and bottom edge. The stone is
at the quarry.
this.
When
3Vi" stone
is
used, a ton
approximately 50 square
feet.
Ashlar. Imagine a piece of stone

10'xl0'x20' being taken from a
quarry.
From
this
stones are to be cut. These manufactured rectangular shapes are

called ashlar. The stone is cut into
thick,
with
}
heights of 2>/4", 5", 1 A" and
lO'/z".
about
pieces
When
mortar
V/i"
is
When
used.
a split face
then broken along

line.
this
used,
is
weakened
selecting stone, one
When
should consult the manufacturer's

or supplier's literature concerning
the product.
one large stone,
small rectangular building
many
Stone
purchased by the ton.

price is usually based
portation costs must be added to
will lay
off
added between
horizontal joints, the courses will
work well with other modular materials. For example, if 2 A" and
5" stones are placed on top of
mortar joint
each other, and a
l
Facing Stone
stated earlier, facing
As
is
usu-
applied over other masonry.

When it is placed over concrete,
ally
the wall must be parged to keep

the concrete from staining the
stone.
may be
Facing
either in
the form of large square or rectangular stones of a uniform

it may be specially
shaped with decoration cut into
thickness or
the
face.
When
planning
the
height
is used between, the total
as
is 7W. This is the same height
one 8" nominal concrete block or
building, the architect specifies in-
with mortar between.

Lengths may be specified, but ashlar stone is usually purchased in
and the stone
is
desired shape.
Each stone would
bricks
random
lar,
or
cost,
lengths.
if
Ends are
irregu-
specified at additional
they can be cut to predeter-
dividual stone shapes. Each shape

plan
is located by number on the
then cut to the
not have an individual shape, but

rather a series of shapes would
be repeated
in the allover plan.
All like stones, of course,
buying
mined lengths.
stone one must specify the quantity proportion of each height
have the same number.
desired; stated as a percentage.

The face of ashlar is either
ing to
When
sawed or
terns
split.
the
stones are delivered to the building site, they are stacked accord-
pat-
marked on by
the manufacturer. Each stone has
this identifying number to corre-
textures,
spond with the working drawings.
The sawed
may have many
would
When
number
as
98
This wall protruding above the roof

a parapet. The stone
is called
covering
is
called a coping. Also
note the built-up roof and flashing

detail plus the 45 cant strip.
8:
Structural
Tile
is
and Facing
The main
similar to brick.
ence
is
tile.
These
Tile
baked clay product
differ-
the cavities built into the
Structural
lighten
weight.
its
made
tile is
as a back-
ing material or with one finished
When
face or more.
finished.
The
used
in
both faces are
unit wall,
single
exterior
may be
fin-
ished as a brick face, or a ceramic
may be
glaze
applied.
ceramic glaze
terial
is
When
added, the ma-
is
called facing
tile.
Sills
Masonry buildings usually

have a stone
ings.
sill
beneath
all
open-
Some manufacturers may
have standard
sizes
more popular
than any others; however, there
no degree of uniformity as to
and shape of sills. One
cannot give as a standard answer
that sills generally have a certain
size. They may range from Vh"
is
the size
5" in thickness.
to
Modern
build-
ings tend to use the thinner
Modern
cussed
later.
parapet
means
a low enclosing
is
extending above a
7.
kinds of mortar are used:

(2)
hydrated lime
of both, with
sand as the aggregate.

finished
is
8.
not un-
mortar be-
meant by the term
is
What
What
What
is
a wall tie?
is
a wythe?
a hollow masonry
is
unit?
9.
How
are two or more wythes
of a cavity wall joined?
10.
is
Knowledge
What
is
What
is
meant by the term
What
What
is
solid
How does one
masonry
ing;
3.
What
is
from the
masonry
is
14.
cavity
wall?
is
What
is
a masonry veneer
it
99
where
determine
re-
the purpose of flash-
What
is
it
is
what are
used?
a bond beam;
why
used?
15.
to a
wall?
hole;
illustrations,
two places where
What
weep
located?
12.
masonry?
is
it
quired thickness of a masonry wall?
wall?
4.
appear-
excess of
in
What
facing?
The desired
6.
tween irregular spaces.
1.
Mortar Joints
cement or
by no
it
called a coping.
or combinations
5.
may be
buildings may
but
typical,
while retaining
header course?
the only size that
1". On rubble walls

common to use 3" of
usually of stone, or terra-cotta,
(1)
have mortar joints
Exposed masonry must be

capped to prevent moisture from
entering between wythes and mortar joints. This cap or covering,
Two
is
much abuse
beauty.
ance determines the size mortar

For ashlar a
mor-
joint to use.
used. Rustic type
roof.
is
easy to maintain and withstands

its
tar joint
wall, usually
tile Is
sill.
design trends will be dis-
Parapet, Coping
Weyerhoeuter Company
Glazed facing
How
is
a top plate secured
masonry wall?
16.
How many
are placed
is
What
25.
18.
26.
When may
directly to
9. Think of
furring strips
two reasons
on masonry
20. Brick
it
it
how
brick
29.
split
colors?
face brick; where
is
rubble?
Is
there
more
What
What
is
is
ashlar?
a coursed pattern
What are the common heights
What
is
meant by the term
face?
30.
is
How
does
show and
one
specify special stone shapes?
What
is
common
brick;
31.
where
Name
and
What
is
the standard thick-
ness or height of stone
used?
23.
What
of ashlar? Thickness?
used?
22.
is
28.
for using
in
patterns of
masonry wall?
for a
walls.
available
is
many standard
21. What is
27.
plaster be applied
a masonry wall?
many
than one kind? Explain.
function?
its
parging, and what
is
as
face brick as you can.
are they located?

17.
Name
24.
reinforcing rods
a bond beam; where
in
32.
five different kinds of
How
is
sills?
stone purchased,
terms of weight and price?
their sizes.
Terms to Spell and
Know
shoring
veneer
matt
terra cotta
velour
rubble
attaching
architectural
coursed
wythe
sandstone
ashlar
flashing
limestone
quarry
granite
mortar
damp-proofing
marble
chat
arches
lava
hydrated
capillary
quartz
rustic
silicone
strata
coping
parging
stratified
parapet
glazed
fieldstone
textures
lintel
block
100
sawed
in
<>
Ceiling Joists

ng with
ceiling joists
Three methods of roof framing
bearing wall.
for light construction are used:
The
(1
oldest
mon method
posed
is
of ceiling
and other
and most comframe com-
joists,
rafters,
parts which are cut
assembled
at
the
building
and
site,
or, for large
may
developments, parts
be cut at a cutting shed, and
then delivered to the individual

building site for assembly.
Ceiling, |oists
and rafters combined

form roof trusses.
becoming widely used

in which the
ceiling joists and rafters are assembled to form a single unit.
(3) Post-and-beam (or girder)
has heavy planks placed across
the beams to form the roof deck.
The first two types will be dis(2) Also
are
roof trusses
cussed in this chapter. Post and

beam roof construction is discussed separately in Chapter
Post and
beam
11.
roof system
101
Ceiling joists and rafters are in
very close proximity and serve to
the
to
shown
as
sides
the
in
illustration.
counteract thrust forces of each
Many
other.
times they are con-
as a
structed
single
Determining Joist Size

Joist size
as in
unit,
determined by the
is
wood
roof trusses, or one of them may

be omitted and the remaining
strength of the
member
the net load the ceiling
as
be required
will
to serve
For these reasons the
both.
of ceiling
discussion
joists
same
The
Since
discussion
primarily
is
light wood frame construction. However, other materials

can serve equally well. For example, steel and aluminum manu-
about
facturers are supplying structural
it is
difficult to
the exact weight of
and
parts,
unit.
species to
joist span,
is
and by
to sup-
port.
and
roof construction will be given

in the
be used, by the
determine
structural
and
research
since
experience
past
all
indicate
sizes
that can be expected to support
the structure, exact engineering
data will not usually be comfor
piled
is
light
construction.
Ceiling joists
may
be lapped above
bearing wall.
It
common practice to use estabminimum sizes from exist-
lished
parts for light construction.
ing tables and charts.
The
Ceiling Joists
and
Ceiling
members
ceiling
joists
are
structural
that support the finished
and
also floors of occupied
space above.
In
act as tension
members
addition,
they
to resist
tables
rafters
minimum
for
used in
ceiling joists
this text
show
standards established
by the
FHA. As mentioned
earlier,
one
must
check
local
codes to be certain these tables

satisfy legal requirements.
the outward thrust of the rafters.
The rafters exert constant outward

pressure
The
on
the
outside
Minimum Loads
ceiling joists tie the building
joists
for Ceiling Joists
above the ceiling
If the space
walls.
not to be used for oc-
is
and prevent the tops of outside

walls from spreading apart be-
cupancy, the rafter slope is greater

than 3" in 12", and attic storage
cause of
is
this pressure.
desired,
net
pounds per square

Splices in Ceiling Joists
If
adequate. This allows 20
continuous ceiling
joists
do
load and
live
of
load
foot (psf)
10 psf.
for
they are spliced over an interior
3"
When
a wall supports the
ceiling joists in this
say the wall

joists
is
manner, we
load bearing.
are spliced they
When
must be
secured together and also secured

to the wall supporting
joists
them. The
may be lapped and

may be
together, or a scab
storage
When
a
ceiling joists are end joined above

bearing wall, scabs should be Vt"
above the lower edge of the joists.
dead
load. If the slope of the roof
wall.
is
psf. for
not extend across the building,
in
30
is
12" or less and no attic

is
may
desired, the total net
psf. The accompanying tables are based upon
load
be 15
these strengths.
When
ceiling joists
floor joists for
serve as
occupancy above,
spiked
strength requirements should be
nailed
the
same
as for floor joists.
102
Ceiling joists
may
be secured to wall
plates with metal connectors.
Ceiling Joists
DOUGLAS
Spacing
Nominal
siie
FIR,
Select
Dense
Construc-
Structural
Construc-
tion
(inches
1950
Utility
Select
Dense
Construc-
Structural
Construc-
tion
Standard
Utility
12001
(')
tion
1700
1450
NO
2x4'
2x6
2x8
2x 10
Standard
tion
O.C.)
(inches)
COAST REGION ASSOCIATION LUMBER GRADES
ATTIC
1200
11
10
11
16
10
10
10
24
12
17
16
16
24
14
14
14
14
12
21
21
21
21
16
20
20
20
24
18
18
18
16
17001
STORAGE
12
17
19501
(')
LIMITED ATTIC
STORAGE
10
10
14
14
12
10
12
17
17
13
14
11
13
11
11
11
10
20
18
18
18
18
20
17
17
18
14
15
15
16
16
14501
14
13
13
17
17
17
15
14
10
12
24
24
24
24
24
21
10
21
10
21
10
21
10
19
16
24
24
24
24
22
20
20
20
20
16
10
24
21
19
18
18
18
18
13
10
10
21
10
21
10
10
21
(b) Spans shall be decreased 5 percent from those shown for lumber more than 2 percent but not more than 5 percent scant from
American Lumber Standards sizes measured at a moisture content of
J 9 percent or less,
lumber scant more than 5 percent will not be
Denotes grade is not a stress grade.

Denotes light framing grade. (Not industrial Light Framing)
Notes:
(a) Spans may be increased 5 percent from those shown
rough lumber or lumber surfaced two edges (S2E).
for
acceptable.
SOUTHERN YELLOW PINE-(MEDIUM GR AIN)-ASSOCIATlON LUMBER GRADES

No.
Spacing
Nominal
site
(inches)
(inches
X. D.
2" Dimension
No. 2
1500
NO
2x4
2x6'
2x8
2x 10
Spans
No.
No.
No. 2
2" Dimension
2" Dimension
K. D.
2" Dimension
No. 2
No.
K. D.
No. 2
2" Dimension
2" Dimension
2" Dimension
15001
14501
12001
o.c.)
17001
K. D.
2" Dimension
for
14501
ATTIC
1200
1700
STORAGE
LIMITED ATTIC
12
11
10
11
10
11
10
11
10
16
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
24
10
12
17
17
17
14
14
14
17
16
16
24
14
14
14
14
12
21
16
16
16
STORAGE
14
12
10
11
11
10
18
18
18
13
13
21
21
21
18
16
20
20
20
20
17
24
18
18
18
18
15
15
15
12
24
21
16
24
24
21
24
24
24
10
21
2" x 6" lumber having actual dressed
1W x 5W may be increased 2Vi
24
24
10
21
24
10
21
10
11
13
17
17
17
14
10
21
10
21
10
21
10
20
20
20
20
18
18
18
18
American Lumber Standards sizes measured at a moisture content
of I 9 percent or less. Lumber scant more than 5 percent will not be
size of
percent.
Notes:
(a) Spans may be increased 5 percent from those shown for
rough lumber or lumber surfaced two edges (S2E).
acceptable.
Ceiling joist sizes
103
and spacings.
Ceiling Joist Spacing

joists
Ceiling
normally
are
spaced on 16" or 24" centers,

with the 16" spacing usually preferred
because
this
more
gives
support to the finished ceiling.

When the 24" spacing is specified
4'x8'
as
used,
are
materials
panels, 16" spacing is normally
frequently placed in the utility

disappearing
room or a hall.
specified.
stairway
access
Framing for Attic Opening
Framing
conform
to
for
openings should
good practice as deChapter 6, page 74.
scribed in
furring strips are sometimesplaced
an inconspicuous place. Access to

an attic with no storage space is
frequently placed in a closet,
angles to the joists on

spacings that conform to the size
of the material. When large sheet
right
Attic access
is
usually provided in
while access to attic storage
convenient for gaining

frequently
to
used
attic
storage space.
and the ceiling is to be installed

using prefinished materials,
at
is
is
Rafters
Rafters are the sloping structural
members designed to support
roof loads. Rafter size
is
deter-
mined by the strength of
wood
rafter
the
by the sloping or
span, and by the net load
species,
the roof
is
to support.
From general observation you

may have noticed roofs that were
practically flat
Securing Ceiling foists to Wall
When
determining factors of roof slope.

In colder climates it is customary
and walls
ceiling joists
to build the slope quite steep to
of the rooms below the joists are

parallel to each other but the
snow and
warmer climates
shed
do not bear upon the wall,

some provision must be made for
securing the two together. Two
methods of joining walls and
joists
ceilings are
shown
ally quite low.
roofs
or Girder to Support
Above Openings
while
in
not nec-
low slope rep-
resents a considerable saving in

materials. However, low slope
in the illustra-
Joists
ice,
this is
essary, so roof slopes are gener-
tions.
Beam
and ones that were
very steep or any angle of slope

in between. Climate is one of the
Non-bearing partitions may

be blocked between ceiling
joists.
If ceiling joists are at a right
must have greater strength
to support additional live loads,
such as an unusual snowfall. Current design tends to favor low

slopes
when
at all permissible.
between
rooms, as when a living and dining
room have no wall between (open
plan), a beam or girder must
angle
to
an
opening
support the opening.

protrudes
below
ceiling, the joists
If the
beam
finished
the
may be lapped
or spliced over the beam. However, if a smooth ceiling is desired
between the two rooms, a ledger

may be added to the beam as
shown and the joists supported on
the
ledger.
The
equal h the total

x
104
ledger
beam
should
depth.
Ceiling
joists
secured
to
both edges of a wall give

nailing surface for finishing
materials.
3uilt-up girders with ledgers permit level
ceilings
between rooms.
9: Ceiling Joists

RAFTER
CRIPPLED STUD
Roof Types
Traditional design has devel-
CEILING JOIST
oped standard roof types. The

more common are shown in the
illustrations on page 106.
These are not the only solutions
DOUBLE TOP PLATE
to
placing a roof on a structure.

design and experimenta-
Modern
Gable end framing
tion
have offered
shapes.
Some
many unusual
new shapes,
of the
based on an expanding technology, will certainly
become standard forms of construction.

Others are merely an attempt to
find something new and different
and have no structural advantage
over existing types.
Some
of the
more promising new shapes
are
illustrated.
To
design a good roof requires
a basic
how
knowledge of the parts and

are assembled
these parts
into a finished structure.
complicated design
is
When
involved,
it is necessary for the designer

to
supply framing plans describing
and
the parts
relation
to
their locations in
the
other structural
members.
Gable Roof
The gable roof is the most frequently used type. When more
complicated types are used, the
gable usually forms the basic part
of the shape.
Building Span
Ceiling joists and rafters are

usually placed across the shortest
building dimension. The distance
from one outer corner of the top

plate to the opposite outer corner
is
the building span.
105
Frequently used roof shapes.
Roof shapes frequently used on contemporary buildings.
BARREL VAULT
CYLINDRICAL PARABOLOID
106
9: Ceiling Joists

RIDGE BOARD
MEASURING
Run
Rafter
LINE
The
rafter
run
is
the horizontal
from one end of the
distance
When
rafter to the opposite end.
ridge board
upper end of the

of this board
is
placed at the
is
rafters, the center
considered as the
point where each run terminates.

BUILDING SPAN
Rafter Notch at Top Plate
bearing surface
flat
is
nec-
upon the
top plate. A notch ("bird's
mouth") is cut on the lower edge
essary where rafters bear
of the rafter so the notch

PITCH
SYMBOL
in
12
width
When
is
equal
top plate.
masonry walls are
solid
and
used
the 2x4
to
wide
top
plate
is
placed covering both wythes, the

notch is still made only 4" wide.
This
is
slightly variable.
Measuring Line of Rafter
The measuring
line
is
an imag-
inarv line running parallel to the
edge of the
through
rafter so that
the
inside
90
it
passes
corner
formed by the notch and extends

the entire length of the rafter.
STANDARD ROOF SLOPES
Notional lumber
Mfg Ajioc
Rafter Tail
The
Roof construction data.
rafter tail
is
the
amount
of rafter extending past the side

COLLAR BEAMPURLIN WITH BLOCKING
of the building to form the overhang. The tail is not considered

LET IN PURLIN
a part of the actual rafter length.

Rafter Span
The
rafter
span
is
the inclined
or actual rafter length, measured

from the 90 corner of the notch
and following the measuring

to the center
Note:
beams and braces strengthen
roof construction.
107
very easy to confuse
span with building span.

Be sure vou understand it. Also
see illustrations on page 108.
rafter
Collar
It is
line
of the ridge board.
Part One; Structure An Architectural Obligation

RIDGE BOARD
VALLEY JACK RAFTER
COMMON
HIP
JACK RAFTER
Roof framing parts
RAFTER
identification.
(1) It is stated as a fraction, as

full pitch, Vi pitch, Vi, Va, etc.
a full-pitch roof the rise
is
On
equal
the rafter run. This
to twice
is
also equal to the building span.
On
Vi
pitch roof the rise
is
equal
The pitch is
amount of rise
to the rafter run. (2)
also stated as the
proportion to each
in inches in
12 inches of run.
Examples are
4/12,5/12,6/12, 10/12, or 12/12.

This might also be stated as "6
inches to the foot," "10 inches to
the foot," etc.
Rafter
As
Angle
stated earlier the rafter
designed in a ratio of
is
rise to run.
The
rafter tables on the carpenter's

framing square are also based
on
Flat roof
this ratio.
lated
framing
The
tables are tabu-
even inches of
in
proportion to 12" or
is
Rise
Rise
Pitch
is
the
vertical
distance
Pitch
is
the
amount of slope or
from the lower edge of the ceiling joists to the rafter measuring
line, when measured at the end of
slant of the roof.
the rafter run.
run. Pitch
It
is
described
as the proportion or ratio of rise

in relation to
is
each foot of rafter

stated in two ways:
108
1'
rise
of run.
in
It
not wise to design a roof with
an uneven pitch such as 4'/2/12

because this prevents the work-
men from
using the tables on the
framing square, greatly increasing

labor costs because of the extra
time involved.
LOW
SLOPE ROOF JOISTS OR RAFTERS

(Roof slope 3
DOUGLAS
Nominal
Spacing
size
Select
Dense
Construc-
Structural
Construc-
tion
(inches
in
2 or less)
COAST REGION ASSOCIATION LUMBER GRADES
FIR,
Standard
Select
Dense
Construc-
Structural
Construc-
tion
Utility
tion
(inches)
Standard
Utility
tion
a. c.)
1700
19501
12001
14501
1950
(I)
1700
Light Roofing
NOT SUPPORTING
2x6
2x8
2 x 10
2x12
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
12
14
14
14
14
16
13
12
10
24
11
11
11
10
12
18
18
18
18
17
17
17
(1)
SUPPORTING FINISHED CEILING
FINISHED CEILING
In.
13
1200
Light Roofing
FT.
13
14501
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
13
13
13
13
10
12
12
12
11
10
10
10
10
10
10
14
17
17
17
17
13
12
16
16
16
16
11
14
14
14
13
Ft.
Ft.
In.
16
17
24
15
15
15
14
10
12
21
10
21
10
21
10
21
10
19
16
10
19
19
19
19
15
13
10
17
17
17
16
12
10
21
21
21
21
in
16
20
20
20
20
24
18
18
18
18
12
24
22
24
16
23
23
23
23
19
22
22
22
22
18
24
21
21
21
21
16
20
20
20
20
14
10
24
24
24
(Roof slope 3
12 or
in
24
24
24
21
less)
SOUTHERN YELLOW PINE (Medium Grain)-ASSOCIATION LUMBER GRADES

No. 1 K. D.
Spacing 2" Dimension
No. 2
K. D.
No.
No. 2
2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension
No. 2 K. D.
No. 1
No. 2
No. 1 K. D.
2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension
(inches)
o. c.)
17001
1500
1450
1200
17001
1500
Light Roofing
NOT SUPPORTING
2x6'
2x8
2x10
2x12
Ft.
In.
12
14
Ft.
14
Ft.
14
Light Roofing
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
14
13
13
13
13
12
10
12
12
12
11
10
10
10
10
10
16
13
24
11
11
11
10
10
12
18
18
18
18
16
17
13
13
17
12001
14501
SUPPORTING FINISHED CEILING
FINISHED CEILING
In.
17
In.
17
17
17
17
17
16
16
16
16
14
14
13
24
15
15
15
14
14
12
21
10
21
10
21
10
21
10
21
16
20
20
20
20
19
19
19
19
24
18
18
18
18
17
17
17
16
12
24
24
24
16
23
23
23
23
22
22
22
22
24
21
21
21
21
20
20
20
20
24
24
Spans for 2"x6" lumber having actual dressed size of 1 $"x5W

may be increased by 2Vi percent.
Notes: (a) Spans may be increased 5 percent from those shown
for rough /umber or /umber surfaced two edges (S2E).
21
21
24
24
24
be decreased 5 percent from those shown for lumber

more than 2 percent but not more than 5 percent scant from American
Lumber Standards sizes measured at a moisture content of 1 9 percent
or less. Lumber scant more than 5 percent will not be acceptable.
Low slope
21
(b)
rafter sizes
109
Spans
shall
and spacings.
RAFTERS
(Roof Slope over 3
in
2)
DOUGLAS FIR-COAST REGION-ASSOCIATION LUMBER GRADES

Dense
Select
Spacing
Nominal
size (inches)
Dense
Select
Structural Construction Construction
Standard
Utility
1200
(1)
Structural Construction Construction
o. c.)
1950
1700
1405
1950f
1700
2x6
2x8
2x10
1200
Utility
(1)
12
11
10
16
10
24
10
10
12
16
10
16
10
16
10
16
10
14
10
16
15
15
15
15
12
10
24
13
10
13
10
13
12
12
21
21
21
21
16
19
10
19
10
19
10
24
17
10
17
10
17
10
12
24
16
23
23
23
23
24
21
21
21
21
24
11
15
15
15
14
14
14
10
12
12
11
10
16
19
19
19
19
14
19
10
14
18
18
18
17
12
16
24
24
11
10
16
16
15
14
10
22
10
23
23
23
23
19
19
21
10
21
10
21
10
21
6
10
16
10
16
19
19
19
18
13
10
(b) Spans shall be decreased 5 percent from those shown for lumber
more than 2 percent but not more than 5 percent scant from American
Lumber Standards sizes measured at a moisture content of 9 percent
or less. Lumber scant more than 5 percent will not be acceptable.
Denotes grade is not a stress grade.

Denotes light framing grade. (Not Industrial tight Framing)
14501
HEAVY ROOFING
LIGHT ROOFING
2x4
Standard
(inches
Notes:
(a) Spans may be increased 5 percent from those shown

rough lumber or /umber surfaced two edges (S2E).
for
(Roof slope over 3
in
2)
SOUTHERN YELLOW PINE MEDIUM GRAIN ASSOCIATION LUMBER GRADES

Spacing
Nominal
size (inches)
(inches
No.
K. D.
No. 2
K. D.
No.
No. 2
No.
No. 2 K.
K. D.
D.
o.c.)
17001
15001
1450
1200
1500
17001
2x6'
2x8
2x10
may be
no
14501
1200
12
11
11
11
11
10
10
10
16
10
10
10
10
24
10
10
12
16
10
16
10
16
10
16
15
15
15
16
15
15
15
15
14
14
14
24
13
10
13
13
12
12
11
11
12
21
21
21
21
19
19
19
19
16
19
10
19
10
19
10
19
10
18
18
18
17
6
4
17
10
17
12
24
16
23
23
23
23
24
21
21
21
21
10
17
10
24
24
10
16
24
of IVs"x5W
Spans for 2"x6" lumber having actual dressed
increased 2Vi percent.
Nates: (a) Spans may be increased 5 percent from those sho
for rough lumber or lumber surfaced two edges (S2E).
1
No. 2
HEAVY ROOFING
LIGHT ROOFING
2x4
No.
2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension
24
8
15
14
10
12
10
10
16
16
14
23
23
23
23
21
10
21
10
21
10
21
10
19
19
19
18
American Lumber Standards sizes measured at a moisture content of
J 9 percenf or less. Lumber scant more than 5 percent will not be
acceptable.
Rafter sizes and spacings.
9: Ceiling Joists
10
14
12
16
20
18
RAFTER
24
22
RUN
25
26
28
30
32
34
36
IN FEET
Rafter span conversion diagram.
Knowing
parts
is
the
names of roof
very important
if
one
is
to
There are two

in
the
text:
sets
one
of rafter tables
for
low slope
parts can also be determined by
and/or roof joists and one

normal rafters with a slope
greater than 3" in 12" pitch. Each
table is divided into two sections.
The low slope tables are divided
studying the illustrations.
so the unfinished ceiling
convey
their descriptions to other
persons. Therefore study carefully

the illustrations
naming
the parts.
Proper methods of joining the
rafters
for
left
Rafter Tables Used
in
Text
and the chart
for
is
to the
finished
pounds per square

as a
foot
is
classed
heavyweight roofing.
The low
slope tables covering
support of finished ceilings are
based on a total design load for

both stress and deflection of 35
pounds per square foot. The
dead load has been calculated

at 15 psf and the live load at 20
the right. Rafters
psf.
Deflection
with a low slope are designed to
'/240
of the clear span up to 15
also serve as a base for the
accommodate lightweight roofing,
feet. If
on their lower side.

In this case the same members
serve as rafters and ceiling joists.
which weighs less than four

pounds per square foot. Any roof-
15 feet the total deflection
Rafters
may
for
finished ceiling
low
slope
ceilings
roofs
is
to
ing that weights
more than four
Ill
not
is
not to exceed
the joists are longer than
exceed %".
must
See tables on
pages 109 and 110.
COMMON
RAFTER LENGTHS
USE DECIMAL
EQUIVALENT CHART TO CONVERT TO
IN INCHES.
FRACTIONS-READ FIGURE TO
LOWER RIGHT OF INTERSECTING
LINES.
RUN
Low
slope tables used in figur-
ing supports for finished ceilings

are based
on a
total design load
and deflection of
30 psf. The dead load has been
calculated at 10 psf and the live
load at 20 psf. The allowable deflection is the same as for low
for both stress
IN FEET
slope roofs with finished ceilings.
Rafters designed for heavyweight
Study and compare rafter
roofing are based on a total load
tables.
The dead load has been
Rafters with a slope greater

than 3" in 12" and designed for
of 30
lightweight roofing are based on
load at 15
a total design load of 22 psf.
The
dead load has been calculated at

7 psf and the live load at 15 psf.
112
psf.
calculated at 15 psf and the five
to
up
is
Deflection
psf.
exceed
Viso
to 15'.
Over
is
not
of the clear span
not to exceed
15' the deflection

1".
Combination
nailed
"W"
"W"
and
glued
truss.
truss with split ring connectors.
Roof Truss
Ceiling joists and rafters
may
be cut and assembled as a single

unit,
with structural support be-
tween the members. The triangular unit
The
tural
than conventional
still
(2)
furnish
the
interior walls
upon the outside
walls, thus per-
desired location.
mitting a clear span
the
can be placed
in any-
entire
Methods
of
Assembling Roof Truss
many
nates the need for bearing walls
conventional
and permits the building to be

framed as one large room. The
ods of assembling roof trusses.
building can be closed
connectors and the other
has
The strucmembers can be smaller

(
truss bears only
width of the building. This elimi-
is
truss
advantages over
framing methods.
no bearing walls are required,
labor costs. (3)
called a
thus formed
roof truss.
reducing construction time and
framing and
same
strength.
They may be purchased, thus
minimum
in after
of time and the area
used for working during the
re-
mainder of construction. Since

113
There are two
common
One method makes

gluing
and/or
wood
use of metal
nailing.
nailed, glued truss
meth-
is
is
When
by
a
used, ply-
gussets, are used at joints.
th
plywood gussets.
Two shapes are used for nailed,

glued trusses. These are either a
W truss or a king-post
truss.
Two
methods of framing the nailed

truss are shown, with
and glued
the latter preferred.
Preliminary Design for Nailed Glued Trusses
All trusses should be designed
conforming
Pitch
Span
2/12 to 4/12
W
W
Chords
practical
-
Truss
20'-8" to 28'-8"
2x4
Truss
28'-9" to 40'0"
2x6
to standard engineer-
ing practice.
Note
that
purchase
to
is more
them as
it
manufactured units than to construct
them
at the building site.
Truss Spacing
24'0"
2x4
to 32'-0"
2x6
8'-0" to
Kingpost
Kingpost
25'0"
The most common spacing

wood roof trusses is 2'-0" on
for
center (o.c). However, this

the only spacing that
Table of truss cords.
114
may be
is
not
used.
9: Ceiling Joists
What
are
three
common
What are ceiling joists?

Where are splices in ceiling
joists made?
4. What is a load bearing wall?
5. What is meant by a scab
3.
6.
What
joist
What
is
ceiling
joists
What
it
is
What
are two methods of
25.
securing ceiling joists to walls par-
26.
27.
How
if
necessary.
.
If
is
no wall between
two adjoining rooms (open
how
are the ceiling
What
be made when
joists
plan),
supported?
special provision should
12.
there
is
an opening
through ceiling joists?

1
3.
14.
What
What
is
factors determine roof
is
name
are
low
slope
roofs
quite popular at the present time?
is
a roof truss?
are the advantages of
methods?
37.
What
are two methods of
38.
for the
What
What
40. Which
is
is
is
What
frequently used?
kind of line
is
truss?
the stronger?
construc-
light
the truss spacing most
tion,
what
a king post truss?
typical
the rafter measur-
is
a rafter
is
rafter
is
rise?
is
pitch?
are
What
What
28.
29.
30. From
why
rise
Terms to Spell and
tail?
span?
counteract
and run related
is
is
a dormer?
a crippled stud?
your
own
reasoning,
are rafters doubled at openings?
What special provision must

be made when framing a gable to
31.
32.
what
Why
lightweight roofing?
truss roof over conventional fram-
39.
accommodate masonry veneer?
a rafter?
slope?
15.
notched
to pitch?
there
is
this?
What
What
What
What
Use sketches,
What
What
41. For
ing line located?
determines spacing of
24.
another
is
Where
22.
the preferred ceiling
to the joists?
rafter
top plate?
rafter notch?
23.
is
furring strips placed at right angles
allel
meant by the term
joins the
What
What
assembling roof trusses?
Why
20.
ing
is
to the ceiling joists?
10.
36.
meant by the term
is
What
19.
also
spacing?
9.
What
8.
35.
Why?
building span?
where
serve as floor joists?

8.
34.
Heavyweight?
the most frequently
is
used roof type?
three factors determine
When do
many
describe as
rafter run?
joist?
ceiling joist size?

7.
What
17.
2.
being nailed onto a
Name and
16.
roof types as you can.
methods of roof framing?
is
What
its
is
a ridge board, and
purpose? Do
ings with a sloping roof
33.
What
is
all
build-
have one?
a low slope roof?
115
Know
prefinished
framing
furring
joists
traditional
rafters
gable
assembly
mansard
truss
gambrel
girder
butterfly
planks
parabola
roof deck
hyperparabola
tension
barrel
thrust
overhang
spiked
lightweight
nailed
heavyweight
species
slope
king post truss
truss
a
Roofings
Definition of
This type roof
Roof sheathing
base
rafters or roof
to
the
framing members
Class A, as de-
which makes them satisfactory
extensively
masonry
commercial
small
in
Two
light
advantages
buildings.
the speed of erection
steel
is
crete plank systems are used quite
Gypsum Base Sheathing

and has
which
very low in noise transmission,
Concrete or
is
rating,
of heavy
However, the con-
buildings
for
construction.
apartments and
structure
Roofs
termined by Underwriters Lab-
solid
over
support the roof covering.
If a
flat.
re-
served
the
is
placed
material
may be
of these materials are usually
Roof Sheathing
and
are
its fire
oratories.
The planks
Wood Roof Sheathing

Wood frame roofs using
roof
framing members, the roof deck
may be
of concrete or gypsum.
Sometimes
deck
this
planks
concrete
or
formed and poured.
made of
is
be
can
it
When
gyp-
sum is used as a roof deck it is

not intended to support live loads
other than water or snow.
sum
Gyp-
prepared with water
is
in a
mixer and sprayed onto the roof

through a hose. It is leveled in
much
crete.
the
same manner
When gypsum
base for roofing
it
is
as con-
used as a
coats a form of
fiberboard or corrugated metal.
form material is not

moved; it acts as a sub-base
This
the roof.
Two
sum over
re-
for
advantages of gyp-
concrete are
its
light
weight and the short setting time

for the material.
Concrete or gypsum roofs are
covered
with
built-up
roofing.
Concrete planks
116
may be
also
as a flooring system.
of masonry
or concrete
are
installed for floor or roof systems.
either
rafters or roof trusses are usually
covered with a wood sheathing.
When wood
shingles are to be
l"x3"
used as a roof covering,
placed across the
strips are often
vacant
with
rafters
spaces
be-
minimum requirements where wood shingles

tween. This meets
but makes
permitted
are
work
tional
later
if
addi-
the shingles
are replaced with other types of
roofing,
which requires that these
spaces be
filled in.
Solid Sheathing
Western
Surfaced-four-sides (S4S) lum-
ber
frequently
is
used
Wood
strips are frequently
roof
as
sheathing. However, tongue-and-
groove or shiplap lumber
is
more
satisfactory because the edges are
held securely together across the
space between
rafters.
Sheathing Lumber Sizes
When either S4S boards or

edge-and-end matched lumber is
and when minimum rafter
is 24" o.c. or less, nominal
1" (actually "/u") lumber is
used,
spacing
used.
When
desired,
is
greater rafter spacing
additional sheathing
Staggered end
with solid lum
thickness
is
also required. Tables
of lumber thickness and spans

are
shown
Beam
wood
in
Chapter
1,
Post and
Construction. Tables of ply-
and spans are
thickness
shown on page
1 1
Breaking Joints
8 of this chapter.
in
Sheathing
When S4S lumber

ceeding
boards
spliced over the

joints should
ternated. If
is
used, suc-
should
same
be
not
rafter.
The
be staggered or
al-
end-matched lumber
used, a joint may be made between rafters but the board must
rest upon at least two rafters.
is
Plywood roof sheathing must be
posi-
tioned so ad|oining panels do not end
on the same
117
Wood
Products Assoc
used to replace solid sheathing when wood shingles are

to form the finished roof.
joist.
Part One: Structure
ROOFS Minimum
An
Architectural Obligation
Thicknesses, Spans and Nailing Schedules
(Grain of Face Plys. Across Supports; Stagger
All
Panel End Joints)
FHA requirements
When the minimum property standards of the FHA are met for each use, this agency
allows the use of plywood in all parts of the home. This table sets out the basic FHA
requirements.
MAXIMUM SUPPORT
SPACING
(Center to Center)
Slate,
SPECIES
PLY-
WOOD
Asphalt or
Wood
(a)
Shingles or Shakes
Roofing
THICK-
Blkd (b)
(b)
Unblkd
16"
24"
16"
16"
16"
%"
24"
20"
24"
plywoods
%"
%"
Groups 2 and 3 of
Western softwood
plywood (d)
w
%"
3/4"
Flat roofs used for walking traffic

such as sun decks shall use same con-
(a)
32"
28"
32"
42"
48"
clips
6"
12"
6d
6"
12"
12"
24"
24"
8d
6"
12"
48"
28"
32"
8d
6"
12"
6d
6"
12"
16"
16"
8d
8d
6"
12"
6"
12"
8d
6"
12"
16"
metal
6d
6"
24"
20"
32"
42"
28"
mediate
8d
16"
42"
Inter-
Edges
16"
20"
24"
32"
Panel
Unblkd
20"
16"
/s"
Blocking of edges shall be by accurately cut wood blocking or by special
(<)
Shingles
32"
42"
24"
(c)
struction as subflooring.
(b)
Unblkd
V\t"
w
w
Nails
Cem. or
Blkd
Douglas Fir,
Western larch and
Group 1 (C-C and C-D
sheathing grades only)
Common
Asbestos-
NESS
NAIL SPACING
NAIL SIZE
Clay
Built-up
designed for
Or 5d threaded
24"
this
purpose.
nails for
plywood and 7d threaded
Vis" and
nails for
other thicknesses.
20"
28"
grades identi(d)
fied as Group 1, excepting the sheathing grades (C-C and C-D) which if identified as Group 1 may take the same
spans as Douglas fir.
This applies also to all
American Plywood Assoc
Width of Sheathing Boards

stated in Chapter
As
6,
wide
boards warp more than narrow

ones. When roof sheathing also
sometimes called decking or roof

boards warps, it presents an unsightly, irregular roof. It can also
affect the quality
may
not
because shingles
lie flat,
thus permitting
wind to lift them from the roof.

Boards no wider than 6" are
recommended.
Plywood Sheathing
Sheathing grade plywood (exunsanded) makes very fine
roof sheathing. The advantages
terior
Building paper
is
fastened between roof sheathing and the exterior roof covering.
are
118
the
same
as
for sub-floors.
"
10: Roofings
in Chapter 6. Tables
plywood roof sheathing are
shown. Even though Vi</' and
thicknesses meet minimum
requirements up to 30 pounds
total live and dead loads for 24"
discussed
used,
for
across the joists.
fully the notes at the
bottom of
plywood sheathing tables to
barrier.
the
laid
be
sure
the
face
grain
placed
is
Examine
care-
requirements
all
are
fulfilled.
sometimes visible
For this reason
is
to the observer.
the author prefers a i"
thickness, with
minimum
more
thickness
When plywood
sheathing
is
serves
as
If the
partial
roofing
immediately,
the
paper may be tacked

nails
or
is
It
vapor
to be
building
in place with
staples.
How-
ever, with only nails holding the
Building Paper
place,
is
it
edges
roof
After
sheathing
covered with
is
felt
ing paper. Manufacturers
mend
desirable if cost will permit.
also
roofing
rafter spacing, the deflection be-
tween rafters
sheathing from the weather.
15
pound paper
This
applications.
in
build-
recom-
most
for
protects
the
it
is
it
is
easily torn.
usually
tacking
wood
held
lath
in
Therefore
place
along
by
the
This protects the paper

from being torn by either the
edges.
wind or workers' movements.
Roof Coverings
vantages over other types.
Built-up Roofing
Built-up roofing
or low slope roofs.
building
slag,
color
used on
felt.
is
The
flat
consists of
It
layers of asphalt
alternate
asphalt
is
final
and
coat of
a Class
fire rating. It is
repair or replace
and
is
It
has
easy to
very wind
resistant.
The crushed stone placed
in
covered with gravel,
the outer layer serves chiefly as a
The
decorative covering but also helps
or stone chips (chat).
and texture depend upon
reflect the sun's rays.
gMfffUnnWiP.MW^
the material used. This type of
roofing
may be
applied to almost
any roof deck, since no nails or

other
mechanical
required.
It is
for concrete
fasteners
built
are
up roof
is
long lasting and ideally
suited to flat installations.
especially suitable
and gypsum but may
be used with wood, plywood, or

fiberboard if adequate strength is
provided at joints in the roof
decking.
Most
satisfactory
results
obtained when the material

plied
by
a professional.
are based
is
are
ap-
Roof costs
on the amount of time
can be expected to last. This

depends upon the number of layers of asphalt and felt that are
applied. It may be purchased with
a 10, 15, or 20 year warranty.
it
Built-up roofing has several ad-
Low slope
built-up roofs are widely used
on contemporary homes.
2/12 the underlay paper should

be head lapped 2". For slopes
less than 2/12 the underlay
should be doubled. Asphalt shin-
Three-tab square butt shingle.
purchased by the square,

feet. The standard
weight is 215 pounds per square.
gles are
Individual shingle.
or 100 square
However, some codes require up

to a 275-pound weight.
Two-tab hex shingle.
Giant individual American shingle.
Asphalt shingles are favored

by many. They are easy to apply,
have a good appearance, are fire
and are reasonable in

They are usually applied
over wood sheathing. When apresistant,
cost.
plying nails or staples to secure

Three-tab hex shingle.
Dutch lap shingle.
the roofing, care must be taken to
avoid joints
Asphalt shingle patterns.
in
the sheathing. If
nails are not properly held they
work around
will
Asphalt Roll Roofing
Asphalt
roll
nailed to prevent water from run-
roofing is
felt
build-
It
is
purchased in
rolls
of
may be either smooth
36" width.
It
surfaced,
with
the
asphalt
ex-
it may have stone granimbedded in the outer

surface. The granules may be
posed, or
ules
distributed over the entire surface or they
may be on
lower half of the
roll
gable rake and fascia from A" to

X
Roll roofing
if
double
This
is
it
is
utility
recommended
that
cemented and
asphalt
strip
shingles,
the
forming the tabs are seen.

first
course of shingles
is
slits
If the
placed on
are illustrated. Perhaps the
the felt underlay is exposed between the slits. One must use a
butt shingle.
strip
from drawing water under them.

Metal edging or starter strip is recommended. When one observes
the roof in the regular manner,
also be
on small
the lower edge be
mon
many
prevent capillary action
to
The more com-
different patterns.
may
farm structures or storage units

where appearance is not a factor.
This prohibits its use on most
homes. Roll roofing is suitable for
roof pitches of from 1 / 1 2 to 5 / 1 2.
When it is used on low slope
roofs,
variegated colors and in
most familiar
a very inexpensive roof
covering used
Asphalt shingles are of asphalt

impregnated felt paper which is
coated on the face with fine stone
granules. They may be purchased
in a wide variety of solid and
not de-
purchased with a patterned exposed edge.
Asphalt Shingles
is
coverage (two layers)

sired.
only the
through
Shingles are lapped over the
ning under the joint.
ing paper impregnated with asphalt.
in or
the outer surface, causing leaks.
is
the 3-tab square
The dimensions of
12"x36". The
shingles are
amount of tab exposure to the

weather (amount of shingle visible) is dependent upon the roof
and grade of shingle used.
Five inches to the weather is a
pitch
Low slope roofs

wind areas may require
typical exposure.
or high
cement under each tab to seal it

to the roof, or the newer selfsealing shingles may be used.
For roof pitches of more than
120
strip
of
roll
roofing or reversed
shingles beneath this
first
course.
Asbestos Cement Shingles

Asbestos cement shingles are
manufactured of asbestos fibers
bonded
in
portland cement. They
are usually striated or textured to
resemble wood shingles. They are

very durable except they are quite
brittle
and
will shatter if struck
a sharp blow.
in a great
They
are available
range of colors. There
10: Roofings
no uniform standard sizes.

Most companies manufacture individual shingles and wider widths
resembling several shingles. These
are
recommended
are
shingles
for
roofs with a pitch of 5/12 or
may be
greater but
used on low
slope roofs if special sealing pre-
cautions are taken. Asbestos ce-
ment shingles are fairly expensive

and are therefore used primarily
on institutional buildings and
finer homes.
Corrugated asbestos cement
sheets are used primarily for util-
Random width wood shingles
ity structures.
Clay
may be
laid either
on wood strips or solid roof

paper.
felt building
Tile
manufactured of
in the form of
baked masonry. There are many
Clay
shale
tile
is
and clay
shapes of clay
be included
tile.
in
If
they are to
your plan secure
detailed information from
manu-
facturers literature.
a very
is
It
durable material and comes
in a
has several
wide range of colors.
It
disadvantages.
quite expen-
It
is
very heavy, and
sive,
must be
by an expert. It is used
installed
primarily for institutional build-
and
ings
expensive
homes.
It
(1)
sawed
of the two.
These shingles are used when

is
desired.
base.
Wood
shadow
factured of cedar,
cypress,
manu-
redwood, or
with cedar being most
frequently used.
Wood
On
less
expensive
split
is
way two shingles
are
split
on the
(called rethis
formed from
of a layer but
codes prohibit the use of
surface
It is
lier,
wood
shingles are not usually
laid
on a
solid roof deck. Strips
are nailed across the rafters to

to the
amount of headlap
desired.
It is
broken
Terne
is
a stone
121
formed natu-
if
struck a
installed in
sheet
much
as flat clay
tile.
are about the
iron
or steel
may
be applied on very low slope

It may have either standing
roofs.
or
flat
locked seams. This roof
should be painted or have a bi-
tuminous coating applied.
It
is
installed over a solid roof deck.

is
good roof; if kept propunder normal use, it
erly coated,
is
The
coated with an alloy of tin and

lead. It is purchased in rolls and
Terne
Slate
Slate
cut into rec-
high cost limits use.
same manner
Weight and cost
not a problem, they
do present a pleasing appearance.

They cost approximately three
times the amount of a good quality asphalt shingle. As stated ear-
conform
its
sharp blow.
Terne
is
is
the thickness
be smooth or rough,
also easily
same.
this
may
roof but
However,
hazard.
fire
is
depending upon the effect desired. Slate makes a permanent
shingles or shakes because
of their
by earth
layers
shingle
the
one piece of wood.
Many
The
tangles of the desired size.
shingles
can actually be divided into two

groups:
either
thin
into
rally
forces.
sawing) to form a taper. In
line at the
shingles are
split,
and then sawed
face
thick butt (bottom end) pro-
vides a wide
shakes,
shakes the shingle
when
a rustic appearance
shape and
The hand split is the more costly
tile.
Shingles
shingles which are
Wood
(2)
wood
Wood
Wood
to their
by machine or by hand.
should be laid on a solid deck

with 30 pound felt beneath the
The
or shakes
sheathing covered with
will last indefinitely.
IkV*^
Unif Structures,
Properly designed standing
It
has very good
resistance.
The
and wind
fire
cost
is
about three
times as great as asphalt shingles.
seam metal
It may be placed over a

deck or may be placed vertically over purlins or furring
roofs.
solid
without a roof deck.
Copper
primarily on
Copper is purchased in rolls

and applied in the same manner
as terne.
It is
also a very durable
material and makes a beautiful
roof after the copper oxidizes to
warm
green patina. The chief

disadvantage of copper is its high
initial cost,
which prohibits
on inexpensive
its
use
as
sometimes used as
a base for con-
crete, as previouly discussed.
it
is
Be-
cause of the rust-resistant zinc

coating, it may be left unfinished
but painting assures better ap-
and longer life. The

and 6' to 12'
sheets are 26" wide

long.
Corrugated or ribbed aluminum
Galvanized Roofing
is
This comes in steel sheets

formed with corrugations or ribs
to add rigidity. The sheet is dipped
into a hot zinc alloy to form a
is
utility structures
However,
Corrugated or Ribbed
ing
used
is
The
Corrugated and ribbed roofings also are often treated with
and bituminous coatings to

life, improve appearance, and reduce noise.
fiber
prolong their
Aluminum Shingles
Aluminum
roof-
not intended for low slope
and
similar in appearance
vice to galvanized roofing.

since
ever,
rust,
cost
it
is
ser-
How-
aluminum does not
need not be painted. The

slightly
vanized but
used for
more than
it
is
still
for gal-
primarily
utility structures.
122
is
also
formed
into
individual and strip shingles, used

for the
same applications as asThe colors tend
phalt shingles.
Corrugated roofing
utility
structures.
rust protective coating.
It
a finished roofing.
pearance
Koppers Com
roofs can contribute to overall architectural beauty.
is
widely used
structures.
on
10: Roofings
to
be bright and have a glossy ap-
pearance.
They
shingle.
However,
transmission
noise
their
They
great.
is
and easy
lightweight
They
are a very durable
to
are
apply.
are used on roofs with over
4/12
pitch.
more than
Their cost
is
slightly
for asphalt shingles.
in flat
and corrugated
are a relatively
fiber glass or translucent acrylic

plastic.
Their uses are as varied
as the imagination.
pecially
roofs
but
These panels are manufactured
They
Generally the panels are of either
suitable
on
structures,
Translucent Panels
styles.
new product.
filter
industrial
as
They
as
they
in
and utility
admit light
the sun's rays.
buildings are
are es-
inserts
Many
being built using
these panels as replacement for

windows, or they are very satis-
and patio
on slopes
over 4/12 but may be used on
factory
roofs.
low
for
carport
They work
slopes
if
best
the
joints
are
calked or sealed. Panels are easy

to cut
and
ing tools.
install
The
using woodwork-
cost
is
for metal roofing but
greater than
is still
satis-
factory for low-priced structures.
Flashing
Where
a vertical surface joins
a roof the joint
must be sealed.
When two roof surfaces
are joined
they must also be sealed. Metal.

plastic,
or bituminous materials
are placed
the joint
in
the water away.
building
the
When
to
lead
planning a
flashings
must be
described and specified. Examples
of flashing at important locations

are
shown
in
the
illustrations.
These should be studied
carefully.
Flashing seals the joint between a roof
and an adjoining
Boston ridges are used to
123
finish gable
wall.
and hip
roofs.
Chimney saddles must be flashed
to
prevent leaks.
A dormer requires flashing above the window and where
it
meets another
roof.
Chimneys extending through

should be flashed on
all
a roof ridge
sides.
Both open and closed valleys should be flashed to prevent leaks.
Questions to Reinforce Know/edge
What
What
it
is
is
roof
sheathing?
are two other names by which
called?
2.
5.
When may
concrete be used
as a roof deck?
3.
What
4.
are some of the ad-
vantages of a concrete roof deck?
When and why
is
gypsum
Are the forms removed when
a gypsum roof deck

6.
What
is
used? Explain.
are some of the ad-
vantages of a gypsum roof deck?
What
is
one disadvantage?
124
7.
What
are concrete planks,
and why are they used?
used as a roof deck?
8.
Why
matched
is
sheathing than
9.
How
lumber?
edge and end
lumber
better
for
roof
S4S lumber?
thick
is
nominal
1"
10: Roofings
1
0.
May
boards ever be spliced
between rafters? When?

1
Why
29.
are wide boards less
narrow ones for
than
satisfactory
What
used?
31.
to
likely
is
happen
if
wide boards are used?

13.
What
one
does
determine
what thickness of plywood

15.
32.
What
Why
to
use?
33.
Why
34.
What
shingle?
is
7.
Why
building paper used
is
beneath roofing?
1
8.
19.
20.
How
is
40.
42.
first
course of
Is it
Is
a good shingle?
there
Where
more than one shape
37. Explain
wood
shingle
and how
terne
is
Is
good
terne
Is
terne
suitable
What
is
the
life
21.
22.
to
Is
Why
45.
What
Why
is
Name
is
the kinds
23.
What
and where
24.
is
How
is
it
asphalt
roll
What
wide
is
asphalt
25.
What
are two surface treat-
ments for asphalt

26. Can
roll
roll
split
between
shake.
47.
What
is
flashing?
Is it
important item on a building?
rustic
shingles
decorative
terne
matched
granules
bituminous
staggered
imbedded
oxidize
alternate
variegated
patina
decking
butt
ribbed
exterior
rake
zinc
staples
fascia
alloy
lath
tabs
fiber glass
asphalt
asbestos
acrylic
warranty
institution
translucent
roofing be used on
low slope roofs? Explain answer.

27.
there
What
Know
resistant
roofing?
are asphalt shingles?
Is
more than one kind? Describe.

What is meant when one
flashing
28.
says 3-tab shingle?
125
flat
and describe.
roll
roofing?
for
are translucent corru-
roofing
roofing
roofing
gated panels and where are they
Terms to Spell and
used?
it
corrugated roofing?
crushed stone applied
the surface of built-up roofing?
is
does copper turn green?
a good material for
this
roofs? Explain.
expectancy
used?
flat
on
used?
difference
and a
What
44.
46.
clay roofing tile?
What is built-up roofing?

Where is this most frequently
shingles?
lap
of terne?
of clay tile? Explain.
What
head
roofs?
43.
an asbestos cement
is
is
wood
material?
most frequently used?
36.
purchased?
it
it
35.
building paper?
the
What
sometimes
codes
purchased?
41.
shingles extend past
is
Why do
shingle?
special precaution must
Why do
the rafters?
is
why not?
39.
asphalt shingles doubled?
relationship does the
What
or
What
face grain of the plywood have to
16.
38.
prohibit the use of
edge of a roof?
the
How
the
be taken when asphalt shingles are
grade
plywood?
14.
"to
says
meant?
used on a low slope roof?
sheathing
is
is
30. Are asphalt shingles widely
roof sheathing?
12.
When one
weather," what
a very
Why?
an
Post, Plank
Wood
beam
post and
construc-
tion consists of a series of posts
with heavy beams across them.
The
posts transmit the building
load to the footing.
The wall area
between the posts does not add

the structural strength.
The
to
wall
acts as a curtain to enclose the
building.
may be
It
wall
may have
construction.
may be built in its

of post and beam or one
structure
entirety
section (such as a wall or roof)
may
be built using
this
method
and the remainder may be
built
method of
ciple
beam
is
a very old
construction.
used extensively
is
much
is
earlier times.
common
also
the
It is
same
favored
as in
heavy
homes.
in
mill construction but not in
in early
It
was
Ameri-
less,
since the
modern
in
method is applied
structures, it is
important.
Scope of Discussion
This unit
iarize
is
designed to famil-
you with the
involved.
It
basic problems
will also
be an aid in
preliminary design work. For
New
Uses
modern
to
beam
ap-
structures,
development
of glued laminated beams, plywood box beams, and other laminated structural components, freeespecially since the
and analysis should be

Post and beam is a
simple system with
ties
structural
to
studied.
relatively
many
similari-
steel
framing.
However, because of the larger

need for framing connectors, and methods of
structural sizes, the
of design has become virtuEven so, the use of
joinery, the system presents
and beam construction has
problems for one familiar with
ally unlimited.
post
final
design purposes, engineering data
Because of post and

plication
dom
another way.
Post and
It
farm and utility structures.

Even though modern building
techniques and methods of joinery have improved, the basic prinin
a series of
lightweight panels or
conventional
can building.
not spread to
all areas.
Neverthe-
new
conventional framing.
Framing Systems
There are two general methods of
is
beam placement. The
first
called the transverse system. In
this system, the
roof beams
fol-
are at right angles to the roof

slope.
When
decking
from the highest
to lowest point
decking
top of next page.
angles to the
beam, which permits roof decking

to be placed in its customary position. The second method iscalled
the longitudinal syslem.
The beams
at
beams,
on the
at right
placed
right angles to the
low the roof slope. The plank

is
is
roof.
it
slopes, which, as said, allows un-
limited design possibilities.
slopes
See two drawings,
Wood
Posts
When
quired.
Post
Posts
are
wood
for
to
be sup-
posts are re-
walls
and
to
support ceiling beams should be
Roof Slope
and beam construction
suitable for
floors
ported, 6"x6"
flat
is
as well as all roof
126
4"x4". Consult the codes,
some
require different calculations.
Post, Plank
Transverse beams extend from a building
edge to a center beam.
Beam Shape
Beams
are usually rectangular,
with the thickness greater than the

width.
The
top of a
beam may be
beveled to follow the roof slope.

If a
load bearing wall
at the ridge, the wall
is
may
placed
replace
METAt STRAP
the ridge beam. See next page.
METAL PLATE
Beam Spacing
Beam spacing and span are

determined by the size and species
of material used and by the total
load to be supported.
When 2" thick tongue-andgroove subfloor or roof deck is
used the beam spacing is not to
exceed 7'-0". If greater beam
spacing
is
desired, thicker planks
must span the beams.

Three tables of beam
given. See pages 129
sizes are
and
Methods
130.
127
of joining
beams
at the roof ridge.
purlin
may be
secured between
beams
before finishing materials are applied.

X
x
X
X
X
x
X
Beams may
be notched to
fit
over
conventional frame walls. The upper 2x4
is
a nailer fastened to the
plank roof.
Beam
connectors.
This subfloor system places
IV tongue
and groove plywood across 4'0"
o.c.
beams.
Heavy plank subfloors may also be supported by a post and beam system.
"
Maximum
spans for floor beams
using 2" plank subfloor

Spacing
Nominal
Silt
1-3x10"
2-2x10"
in feet
Spacing
Fir
Redwood
S.Y. Pine
4'0"
12'-8"
4'-6"
ll'-l
1"
Nominal
in feet
Size
4'0"
2-2x12"
0'-4"
Douglas
Fir
S.Y. Pine
16'1 1"
Redwood
13'- 10'
9'-9"
4'-6"
9'-4"
5'0"
15'-3"
5'-6"
14'-6"
l'-10'
6'-0"
13'-1"
5'0"
5'-6"
10'- 10"
6'0"
10'-5"
8'-6"
6'-0"
13'1 1"
6'-6"
lO'-O"
8'-2"
6'-6"
13'-5"
iO'-ir
7'0"
9'-8"
7'0"
12'11"
10'-7"
'-4"
8'-
11"
7"-l
4'0"
17'-
10"
4'-6"
3'-3"
1C-9"
4'-6"
16'-
10"
5'0"
2'-7"
10'-3"
5'-0"
5'-6"
2'-0"
5'-6"
15'-3"
6'0"
4'0"
6'-6"
7'0"
1-4x10"
Douglas
4'0"
4'-6"
4'0"
4'-9"
5'0"
3'-4"
5'-6"
12'-9"
6'0"
1"
6'-6"
14' 1"
8'-9"
7'-0"
4'0"
4'-8"
3'-8"
2'-6"
2'-0"
'-6"
ll'-l"
5'0"
16'- 3"
0'-4"
5'-6"
5'-6"
6'-0"
'-5"
3'-9"
10'10"
4'-6"
17'11"
7'0"
1
'-4"
13'-1"
4'-6"
1-6x10"
12' -1"
11"
3'-
10"
6'-0"
9'-5"
9'
ll'-l"
0'-8"
1
1-4x12"
'-6"
9'-
'-6"
2'-5"
4'-9"
13'-11"
3'-3"
2'-8"
6'-0"
12'-2"
9'-
14'- 10"
6'-6"
ir-9"
9'-7"
6'-6"
U'-3"
ll'-8"
7'0"
'-4"
9'-3"
7'-0"
13'-
Maximum spans
11"
beams using 2" plank
for floor
10"
2'-2"
'-3"
subfloor.
Maximum
spans for roof beams

using 2" plank decking
Spacing
Douglas Rr
in feel
S.Y. Pine
Redwood
4'0"
10' 1"
8'-3"
or
4'-6"
9'-7"
-4x6"
5'0"
9'-
Nominal
size
2-2x6"
1
5'-6"
or
1-4x8"
"
1
8'-8"
Size
i.i
feet
Douglas
Fir
S.Y. Pine
5'-2"
7'- 10"
4'-6"
4'-4"
7'-4"
5'0"
3'-8"
1 1
7'-0"
5'-6"
3'0"
8'-4"
6'-9"
2'-6"
6'-6"
8'0"
6'-6"
6'-6"
2'0"
7'0"
7'-8"
6'-3"
7'0"
1 1
4'-0"
4'-6"
3'-4"
2'-8"
5'0"
2'0"
5'-6"
6'0"
6'-6"
7'-0"
iO'-ir'
0'-4"
9'- 10"
'-6"
9'-4"
6'-9"
'-9"
'-2"
0'-2"
9'-
10"
9'-6"
4'-0"
4'-6"
15'- 10"
12'11"
1-4x10"
5'0"
15' 1"
5'-6"
4'-5"
9'0"
6'-0"
13'- 10"
8'-8"
6'-6"
8'-4"
7'-0"
12'-
beams using 2" plank
129
0'-8"
or
'0"
for roof
2'-5"
2-2x10"
0'-3"
Maximum spans
'-7"
0'-7"
Redwood
4'-0"
1-3x10"
6'0"
6'0"
2-2x8"
Spacing
Nominal
decking.
3'-4"
10"
3'-8"
2'-4"
H'-IO"
1
'-4"
IC-IO"
1
0'-6"
Beam and
Typical Glued Laminated
TOTAL LOAD
SPAN
12'
16'
20'
24'
28'
32'
40'
50'
60'
SPCG.
30
2.
40
P.S.F.
(LIVE
AND DEAD)
45
P.S.F.
55
P.S.F.
P.S.F.
3%"x
6>A"
3%"
6'A"
3%"
6'A"
3%"x
8'A"
3%"
8'A"
3%"
8'
3%"x
8'/."
3 3A' x
8'A"
3%"
8'A"
3%"
8'A"
3%"
8'A"
3%"
9%"
12'
3%"x
8'A"
3%'
8'A"
3%"
9 3A"
3%"
9%"
3%'
11%"
3%"
11%"
16'
3 3/b"x
9%"
3%'
9%"
3%"
%"
3%"
3"
3%' x 14%"
3%"
14%"
6'
3%"x
8'A"
3 3/e'
9%"
3%'
9 3A"
3%"
9 3A"
3%'
9%"
3%"
8'
3%"
9%"
3%'
9%"
3%'
9 3A"
3%"x 11%"
3%'
1 1
%"
3%'
12'
3%"
1 1
%"
3%'
11%"
3%"
x 13"
3%'
14%"
5'A' x
16'
3%"
3%'
x 13"
13"
5'A'
8'
3%"
3%'
3"
1
%"
12'
3%"x
13"
16'
3 3/s" x
18'
5'A" x
4%"
3"
1 1
3%"
3"
5'A" x
1 1
%"
5'A" x
%"
5'A' x
%"
1 1
%"
5'A' x
1 1
5'A"x 11%"
5'A' x
3%' x 14%"
5'A' x
13"
5'A"x 13"
5'A' x
13"
5'A' x 13"
5'A' x
14%"
5'A" x
4%"
5'A' x
14%"
5'A"x 16'A"
1 1
4%"
%"
8'A"
9%"
1 1
%"
%"
13"
5'A' x
11%"
5'A' x
14%"
5'A' x 16'A"
5'A' x
5'A' x 16'A"
5'A' x
17%"
6'A"
5'A' x
14%"
3%'
14%"
5'A" x
14%"
5'A' x
14%"
13"
5'A' x
14%"
5'A" x
4%"
5'A' x 16'A"
5'A' x
6'A"
5'A' x 16'A"
5'A" x
7%"
5'A' x
7%"
5'A' x
9'A"
7%"
5'A" x
9'A"
5'A' x
9'A"
5'A'
8'
3%"
4%"
3%'
12'
3%"
6'A"
5'A' x
16'
5'A"x 14%"
18'
5'A" x
6'A"
5'A' x
6'A"
5'A' x
8'
3%"x
6'/."
3 3A' x 16'A"
5'A' x
14%"
5'A"x 16'A"
5'A' x 16'A"
5'A' x 16'A"
16'A"
5'A' x
17%"
5'A"x 17%"
5'A' x
17%"
5'A' x 19'A"
5'A' x 19'A"
5'A"x 21'A"
5'A'
5'A" x
5'A' x 16'A"
1
12'
5'A"x 16'A"
16'
5'A" x
7%"
5'A' x
18'
5'/4" x
7%"
5'A' x 19'A"
5'A'
8'
5'A" x
6'A"
5'A' x 16'A"
5'A' x
17%"
5'A' x
5'A'
7%"
x21'A"
3"
9'A"
5'A' x
x21'A"
x21'A"
5'A' x
22%"
5'A' x
22%"
5'A' x
24%"
17%"
5'A' x 19'A"
5'A"x 17%"
5'A'
5'A" x
5'A' x 21 'A"
5'A' x
22%"
5'A' x
24%"
5'A' x
26"
12'
5'A"x 17%"
5'A' x 19'A"
16'
5'A" x
5'A'
18'
5'A"x 19'A"
5'A' x 21Vs"
5'A' x
22%"
5'A" x
24%"
7"
22%"
7"
24%"
8'
5'A"x 19'A"
5'A' x21'/b"
5'A' x 21Vs"
5'A" x
22%"
5'A' x
22 3A"
5'A' x
24%"
5'A' x
24%"
5'A" x
24%"
5'A'
x26"
7"
24%"
7"
24%"
7"
24%"
7"
26"
7"
27%"
27%"
7"
x 29'A"
9'A"
22%"
12'
5'A" x
16'
5'A" x 24 3/e"
18'
5'A" x
12'
7"
16'
7"
18'
x21'A"
5'A' x
22%"
9'A"
5'A" x 22 3A"
9'A"
5'A" x 22 3A"
5'A'
x26"
24%"
7"
24%"
7"
24%"
7"
26"
7"
24 3/a"
7"
26"
7"
27%"
7"
27%"
7"
29'A"
7"
30%"
27%"
7"
x 29'A"
7"
30%"
7"
30%"
7"
x 32'A"
9"
30%"
7"
x 29'A"
7"
x 29'A"
7"
30%"
7"
32'A"
9"
30%"
9"
x 32'A"
20'
7"
x 29'A"
7"
30%"
7"
x 32'A"
9"
30%"
9"
32'A"
9"
x 34'A"
12'
7"
x 29'A"
7"
30%"
9"
30%"
9"
30%"
9"
x 32'A"
9"
34'A"
16'
9"
30%"
9"
x 32'A"
9"
32'A"
9"
x 34Vb"
9"
35%"
9"
37%"
18'
9"
29%"
9"
x 32'A"
9"
x 34'A"
9"
35%"
9"
37%"
9"
39"
2C
9"
x 32'A"
9"
34 '/a"
9"
35 3A"
9"
37%"
9"
x39"
9"
40%"
The loading shown

to be dead had.
Maximum bending
is
is
based on the following

total
load of which 15
3.
criteria.
p.s.f. is
assumed
is 1/240 of span for live load only or 1/180

of span for total load, whichever governs. This meets the
Deflection limit
A.I.T.C. deflection criteria for

stress
is
2200
p.s.i.
+ 15%
increase for
"Commercial and
Institutiona I-
Withovt Plaster Ceiling" use.
short time loading.
130
50
P.S.F.
6'
'This table of typical sizes

1.
35
P.S.F.
Purlin Sizes*
Glued laminated
beam and
purlin sizes.
TONGUE AND GROOVE
DOUBLE TONGUE AND GROOVE
GROOVED
V JOINT
V JOINT
The first table, page 129, is for

floor beams using 2" plank subfloor. The second table, same
page, is for ceiling beams using
2" wood plank decking. The third
table
to
is
or ceiling
This table
laminated
beams
is
be used
if
wider floor
beam spacing
is
is
desired.
calculated for glued
When
lumber.
solid
Plank designs.
are desired their strength
Roof Decking
approximately the same. This
table
SIMPLE SPAN
suitable for coast region
is
Douglas
fir
and
medium-grain
When
southern yellow pine.
JJ
other
species are desired, consult other

tables.
Roof Decking
There are three methods of

laying roof planks:
They may
form simple spans placed from

one beam to the next beam;
may be continuous over

two beams or, (3) they may be
Douglas Fir
NOM.
GRADE AND PARA.
THICK.
3"
Select
random. When placed

at
random, succeeding planks
should not both end between the
same beams. Illustrations showing
the three methods of installation
and tables of maximum spans
are shown. Spans for roof planks
for Douglas fir are also suitable
for southern yellow pine. Note:
Yellow pine has slightly greater
at
-127b
3"
Comm Dex-127c
4"
Select
4"
Comm. Dex-127-c
(2) they
placed
Dex
LIVE
20
15'3"
Dex-127-b
3'3"
their
span
is
usually
limited to 8'-0".
Decking should be face and

edge
nailed
according
to
the
manufacturer's directions.
per Sq.
Ft.)
3'3"
50
2'0"
U'3"
15'3"
2'0"
n-3"
20'3"
17'9"
16'0"
15'0"
20'3"
7'9"
16'0"
150"
0'3"
9'6"
Western Red Cedar

3"
Select
3"
Comm. Dex 427-c
4"
Select
4"
Comm. Dex 427-c
Dex 427-b
Dex 427-b
COMB. SIMPLE
3'0"
1 1
'3"
130"
11'3"
10'3"
17'3"
15'3"
13'9"
17'3"
15'3"
3'9"
9'6"
1
2'9"
12'9"
2-SPAN CONTINUOUS
TT
Fiberboard roof decks are also

but
(Lbs.
40
strength.
used
LOAD
30
Douglas
NOM.
THICK.
LIVE
Fir
GRADE AND PARA.
3"
Select
3"
Comm. Dex 127-c
4"
Select
4"
Comm. Dex 127-c
Dex 127-b
Dex 127-b
20
7'3"
LOAD
(Lbs.
5'0"
per Sq.
40
30
3'6"
7'3"
15'0"
13'6"
22'9"
20'0"
22'9"
20'0"
8'3"
8'3"
Ft.)
50
2'6"
2'6"
6'9"
16'9"
Insulation for Plank Roof
For most regions the roof deck-
Western Red Cedar

3"
Select
3"
Comm. Dex 427-c
ing will be sufficient insulation.
131
Dex 427-b
4"
Select
4"
Comm. Dex 427-c
Dex 427-b
4'9"
3'6"
9'6"
8'0"
2'9"
1 1
2'0"
'9"
0'9"
0'9"
ICO"
5'6"
14'3"
7'0"
6'0"
14'3"
3'3"
(Table continued on next page.]
Obligation
Part One: Structure An Architectural
When
Roof Decking
RANDOM
additional insulation
is
re-
be placed above
or below the decking. The planks
quired,
LENGTH
may
it
are usually
exposed on the
left
underneath side and rigid insulation is placed above the decking.

Purlins
Douglas
LIVE
Fir
LOAD
(Lbs.
per Sq.
Ft.)
50
When beam
spacing
too
is
great for plank spans, intermediate members may be placed across
hung between-the
beams, and secured with metal
connectors. These intermediate
the top of-or
members are called purlins. When

beams are to be left exposed but
the plank decking is not (as when
acoustic
tile
is
the finished ceil-
ing), purlins are usually used.
West Coosf Lumben
GROOVE
FOR
BEAM
IN
UTILITIES
Weyerhoeuier Company
Groove
Insulation
may be
in
beam
for utilities.
placed either above or below roof

decking.
METAL CONNECTOR
This laminated
beam
is
called
a three-hinged arch.
Side view of purlin and its metal

connector.
beam
132
Provision for Utilities
One
big disadvantage of this
method
is
that there
is
no
"attic"
or space between framing for con-
cealed wiring and other

It
sometimes possible
is
utilities.
to rout
grooves in the top of beams or to

leave channels in built-up
mem-
accommodate these utilities. However, when lighting fixtures are spaced between beams
bers to
(on
the
planks)
it
is
virtually
impossible to conceal them.
They
are usually surface mounted.
Quite frequently the post and
beam
is
constructed as a single
unit, as in the
three-hinged arch
Examples of buildings
using plank and beam construction are illustrated on this page.
shown.
This
gymnasium
roof
is
supported by laminated beams and pur
133
Laminated beams are widely used
in
today's building. The arch
is
an example.
Un.l Sin

is wood post and beam
beam) construction?
new method of conit a
What
(plank and
2.
Is
Is
4.
Is
mum
1
floors,
it
used
it
the
homes today?
in
mum
most widely used
what
is
their
mini-
Posts for walls
and
to sup-
beams are what
mini-
size?
2.
the
two beam
mensions, vertical or horizontal,
pared with the past?
subfloor or roof deck, what
6.
What
are
laminated
glued
built
What
are
the
two
9.
What
0.
this
roof slope must one
type construction?
When wood
posts
support
18.
9.
20.
If
Why
insulation
is
sometimes
2"
thick plank
is
used for
is
the
What
is
name
another
What
What
are metal connectors?
utilities
Why
sometimes
with this
for-them?
are electrical work and

difficult to
place
method of construction?
maximum beam spacing?

beams
of
the
and solid
same species and
same strength?
the
1
5.
What
are three methods of
placing planks across roof

1
6.
Which
is
beams?
the stronger, south-
ern yellow pine or Douglas fir?
134
for
are purlins?
Do you know another name

21
other characteristics approximately
beam
placement systems? Discuss each.
use with
is
14. Are glued laminated
Are posts and beams ever
as one unit? Explain.

8.
di-
largest?
components?
7.
7.
declking?
1
Which of
method of construction?
5. What is the main difference
in the ways it is now used as com-
13.
placed above the decking?
size?
port ceiling
struction?
3.
finished
Terms to Spell and
Know
joinery
planks
laminated
insulation
components
purlins
transverse
acoustic
longitudinal
rout
beveled
channels
As
stated in the
of Chapter
first
paragraph
building construc-
7.
tion has traditionally
been dune
framework,
skeleton
main
forming
These may
the job site to
structural panels.
be assembled
at
totally prefabricated structure
with mass-production volume did
not have a significant impact
There are
many reasons why buildings can
no longer be built entirely in this
manner. No doubt you have heard
form a building shell or they may

be purchased or constructed to
varying stages of completion. For
example, the panels might be
upon building construction until

immediately following World
the old saying.
"Time is money."
must do everything
within his power to complete a
structure in the most efficient and
economical manner possible. If
he does not have a highly organized and efficient operation, he
cannot survive in today's competi-
studding covered with sheathing,
line
or they might be completed wall
turers
one piece
at
time.
builder
tive market. Use of preassembled

components, prefabrication, and
modular coordination help him
meet today's competition. These
methods permit uniform sizes of
and
parts, close quality control,
sections ready for interior finish.
no one standard panel

organizations have
developed systems.
Large construction panels are
not confined to any one material.
Wood is most frequently used for
light construction but metal and
plastics work equally well. Plastics
There
is
system,
many
units.
aggregate
Components
are
large
window
framed panels
for floors, walls, or
The
latter
may
units,
be
or
con-
structed using a variety of materials
and
all
modular system of
different panel systems.
Large sheet materials (plywood,

drywall, fiberboard, hardboard, or
others) are glued
and nailed
to a
favor. Prejudice
attempts
demand
still
from these early

opinion of
affects
people. Yet the prefabri-
structure of today bears

resemblance to early attempts. For example, homes in
little
the $100,000.00 class are
or
tially
pre-
roof trusses,
roofs.
and
lend them-
panels,
left
became reversed and the consumer could bargain better, prefabricated structures had lost
cated
exposed
with
quently, after supply and
Curtain walls,
decorative
construction.
assembled building parts such as
the manufacpoor reputation.

Insufficient research, poor design,
and a "seller's market" made a
victim of the consumer. Conse-
building
many
selves to this
Components
II.
Early attempts at production-
are usually used as coverings or
other masonry units
rapid erection.
War
substantially
now
par-
prefabri-
cated before delivery.

Prefabrication
The
facture of
factory.
all
objection that
all
prefabri-
manu-
cated structures were similar in
building parts in a
appearance has been remedied.

Stock models are supplied in a
Prefabrication
is
the
These parts are usually
assembled into large panels beshipment to the building site.

Prefabrication is not new. Earliest
uses date to the latter part of the
nineteenth century. However, the
fore
135
wide variety of designs and variations
of architectural
details.
Many
large manufacturers maintain their
own
and permit extenfreedom to the buyer.
architects
sive design
'-%
Building
components
of this prefabricated
home
Designs are completed and the
buildings are quite popular with
building
amateur
is
fabricated
Prefabrication has
order.
to
including homes, commercial and

industrial
buildings.
struction labor, standardization of
recently of masonry.
For those who do not desire a

one
ready-cut
parts
and then have the individual parts

assembled at the building site.
The design is chosen from one of
a series of stock plans which may
be altered to meet any requirement, or some manufacturers will
cut a complete building from the
owner's plan. Each part is numits
location in the fin-
ished structure. Ready-cut buildings
may be purchased
in
any
stage of completion to suit the
wishes of the purchaser. These
is
necessary
volume and quality production

to
Manufacturers, suppliers, arand

tradesmen agree that standardizachitects, building contractors,
rock lath or plasterboard
Size of Building
sizes,
which would complicate studding

placement. There might be no
standard door thickness, which
136
if
is
be achieved.
and methods of construction

are necessary. If each manufacturer were to decide all the dimensions of his products and
manufacture them to any size he
desired, complete chaos would result. Lumber thickness from one
company would not match the
thickness from another. There
might not be a relationship between the size of concrete blocks
and brick. Plywood or fiberboard
sheathing sizes might differ from
sizes
totally prefabricated building,
would require door jambs to be

custom built. The list of possible
size variations would be infinite.
Standardization
make maximum
use of building materials and con-
more
bered as to
for Standardization
In order to
metal, or
may be of wood,
purchase
Need
Structural
parts
may
builders.
become widely
used for every type of structure,
ScM * Hom
are sized according to modular increments.
tion
is
sizes, compoand construction methods
of materials
nents,
the key to a better structure at
minimum
It is
cost.
very easy to say that stan-
dardization
difficult
is
necessary but very
to accomplish.
Each of
the groups of people mentioned
above has
little
influence on the
thinking of the others!
Modules
The novice soon becomes familiar with the 16" and 24" spacing of framing members. Which
2:
is
a step
sizes.
toward use of modular
Since dimensions between
ules
been accepted as standards, rea-
they are larger.
son says they should be a part of
be compared
modular
Also, since
sizes.
most large sheet materials are

already manufactured in 4'-0"
widths, this size
starting
sizes
point
considered the
is
for
standard
all
are
cube.
these toys except
like
This
One module may

to
a 4" block or
called
is
module.
Imagine a 4'-0" cube constructed

of 4" modules; this is called a
major module. A 16" or 24" cube
a minor module. Two
minor modules are sometimes combined to form a third
minor module of 32".
is
called
16"
of material.
Imagine a group of building

blocks (toys) that can be arranged
Sizes
mod-
plicated designs. Building
framing members have already
basic
lBuilding Material
an unlimited number of com-
into
Much work
building
being done by
is
material
manfacturers
change product sizes so they

conform or will fit into the modular plan. Even though great
strides have been made, at the
present time the change-over is
to
not complete. Materials used alone
as wall paneling, acoustic tile,

and sheathing materials are the
full modular size. Other materials
such as concrete block, brick, facing
Modular Coordination
The attempt
tile,
made
they will
knowing about modular construc-
and
batt insulation are
smaller than the module so

fit
into the finished prod-
ing industry with these three basic
mum
modules, and to persuade them
naturally leads to an attempt to
Even though smaller they

adjust to the modular layout because they fit into the completed
modular product without being
find full sizes that
cut or re-formed.
people
to
in
acquaint
to
all
every phase of the build-
incorporate
them
into
their
tion!
make maxi-
His efforts to
use of building materials
plans.
fit
modular coordination.
Efforts promoting the modular
Every good builder knows that

framing members are spaced on
16" and 24" centers, in light wood
concept of building are directed
frame construction. So he chooses
toward the following:

Acquainting individuals with
materials
products, designs, or construction

is
called
the concept, terms, sizes,
and uses
Urging
building
manufacturers
sizes,
and
floors
to
use
spacing.
the
fit
using small boards for sub-
and
wall, or roof sheathing,
framing members
of modules.
When
that
may
vary from
material
standard spacing without any se-
modular
rious consequences. But
when
are
used,
to coordinate sizes with
large
sheet
materials
other manufacturers.
uneven
Urging builders of conventional frame structures to follow

modular sizes.
Development and prefabrication of modular components.
Promoting modular drafting
and design.
sheets not ending on the framing.
It is
spacing
results
in
the
readily apparent that framing
spacing
is
maximum
important
for
use of materials.
The
very
big difference between this and
uct.
Building
the 4"
materials
module
of the following
4 'x8"
8
based on
be one
will usually
'xl6"
sizes:
16 'x96"
48' 'x48"
16 'xl6"
48' 'x96"
16 'x32"
48' 'xl20
16' 'x48"
48' 'x144
The 48"x96"
size is
most
fre-
quently used.
Some modular
materials are
based on a 3" module instead of

the standard 4". Kitchen cabi-
and floor coverThese use 3"

modules because their manufacnets, appliances,
ings are examples.
construction
turers standardized product sizes
Most construction makes some

use of modular materials and
one
constantly maintains an awareness of standard sizes and pre-
methods. Frequently
plans the work to
before the 4" module was adopted.

These have not changed. Problems involved can be solved.
These are not structural items;
this
is
with-
out the builder's being aware of

it,
or possibly without his even
using
all-modular
methods
as
many
is
that, in the latter,
full-sized
make
use of
materials as
they are installed after other

ular construction
possible.
137
is
mod-
complete.
Part One: Structure
An
24" MODULES FOR TRUSSED ROOF

48" MODULES FOR ROOF SHEATHING
STANDARD ROOF SLOPES
48" MODULES FOR TRUSS &

GABLE SPANS
16" MODULES FOR

& DOOR
LOCATION & STUDS
WINDOW
16"
MODULES FOR DOORS,
16"
WINDOWS &
STUDS
48" MODULES FOR OVE
HOUSE WIDTHS
16" MODULES FOR FLOOR JOISTS
48" MODULES FOR FLOOR SHEATHING
& DOOR
PANEL SIZES
48" MODULES FOR
OUTSIDE OVERALL
DIMENSIONS AND
FLOOR SHEATHING
MODULAR
MASONRY FOUNDATION
MODULAR COORDINATION OF HOUSE ELEMENTS

All structural
tural
elements,
in
and aesthetic elements of a house are related. Coordinated modular increments of the strucan example house on the 48-inch module, are shown in the diagrammatic drawings. Standard
fit the modular increments of the example shown.
sizes of various existing materials will easily
Modular coordination
MODULES FOR
WINDOW
of
house elements. Also see column
138
1,
page 139.
96"
96
?2:
CO
'
CO
0
INCH MODULE
ON
48-INCH
MODULAR GRID
-7
-O
INCH MODULE
ON
48-INCH
MODULAR GRID
a
GO
<3
O-
till
INCH MODULE
ON
48-INCH
MODULAR GRID
1TTTII++ r~ =2
mi:
Relationship of modular panels to grid

lines.
See
48"
illustration at right.
96"
48"
'
In any modular system (conventional framing or component

parts) sizes
or
vary
conform
only
to
to the
module
accommodate
other materials. Study the series

of illustrations showing how building materials
used
in
and components are

modular construction.
Observation
of
the
sample
floor plan shows panel widths

most frequently used. Framing
members of components may be
designed to conform to 16" or
24" spacing. (The panel spacing
illustrated is placed on 16" centers.)
Component panel widths of

139
most systems are 32", 48", 64",

80", 96", and 144", with 48" being
the basic major modular width.
Half panels 24" wide may be
purchased, or "filler" panels can
be made to order, to accom-
modate non-modular designs.

Wall components are S'-V/i" tall.
Blank wall panels on the 16-inch and

24-inch modules show their relationship. The
16-inch components increase design flexibility
by one third, and perhaps more, when multilevel structures are considered. In considering
both systems, the increased use factor must
be weighed against increased component

inventory.
24" MODULES
24
16"
MODULES
16
The
interior ceiling height will be
8'-0". Floor, roof,
and
truss
com-
ponents have modular lengths,

usually even numbered, as 24'-0"
or 26'-0".
Window and door components

are designed to
ular system.
are used
fit
into the
Note:
When
and placed edge
mod-
panels
codes
double studs
at sides
that
64-inch
panel
become
to edge,
is
part
modular door and
of
the
16-inch
are
shown mullioned
64-inch window unit to
fit
to
become
a 64-inch wall
nents. The pre-assembled unit with
dow panel combine with adjacent blank
built-in
header
fits
the
64-inch
wall
wall
studs
to
provide
framing at openings.
opening.
Window
of door and
also
that the studdings are continuous
from bottom
modular
Two standard 32-inch casement window

units
opening. The structural jambs of the win-
for wall, door
specify
window openings. Notice
side-
integrally designed to
and window compo-
system
double studs result at the edges.

When such a panel is used with
others, it fulfills the requirement
of building
The
light
to top.
Square-top high-wall and low-wall offsets,

standard height, 8-foot l'/i-inch
extend the use of the modular system.
Porch offsets, for sloping ceiling houses, often
parallel to the
wall,
require high-wall units. Continuous roof slopes,

on garages, may require low-wall offset storage
areas.
National lumber Mfg. Assoc
140
panel construction deta
required
double
2:
Notional Lumber
Mfg
Asioc
A series of blank wall areas and open areas form the walls of the house. The proportion of
blank walls and 'holes" is an important factor in the design of house exteriors and interiors. The
materials used on the blank areas and the window and door design in the "holes" completes the
exterior and interior wall composition. The illustration graphically shows the need for modular
coordination in these components.
fined to
struction.
is
Large components are not conany one material. Wood

most frequently used for light
concrete panels, exposed aggre-
module
construction but other materials
gate panels, and others are also
zontal
work equally well. Metal, glass,

and plastic, or curtain walls lend
used.
themselves to
this
system of con-
Masonry units such
When
as
individual materials,
as brick or stone, are laid to fol-
Laminated beams and building panels contribute
to the
low modular design, door and
window openings conform

in
to the
both vertical and hori-
directions. The masonry

bond (pattern) must also conform
to modular increments.
design of this modern
clinic.
141
Modular building materials permit new design concepts
for
home
Curtain walls of this school are designed

according to modular
buildin
12:
Modular Design and Drafting
The
or designer
architect
is
responsible for achieving maxi-
mum use of modular materials

and methods of construction, regardless of whether his planning
is on conventional construction or
components. He may promote
modular coordination in the following ways:
Select building materials that
modular
are
in size.
Specify exactly what materials
are to be used.
Design
all
major parts
in
mod-
ular increments, using materials

selected.
Have complete plans.

Use modular grid lines on
all
plans.
Show complete dimensioning,
and details.
Use modular dimensioning to
show modular and non-modular
notes,
sizes.
Artcrett Products
No doubt you
are familiar with
Some drawand tracing paper (descriptions in Chapter 32) use grid

lines. Most of these have the lines
spaced at Vs" or '/io". Grid lines
for modular construction are similar except module grids are
Modular sized building materials are used
Compony.
in this office interior.
ruled graph paper.

ing
spaced at 4" intervals

ever scale
is
(at
of outside walls, partitions, windows, doors, masonry units will
conform
one grid
to
if
ma-
ter 39.
module and
major module grid lines, while

small scale drawings omit the
What
are some of the fac-
which have brought about the
tors
need
What
every dimension, this complicates
components manufactured?
Some edges of
on the
For example, one edge
4.
quently
grid line.
nents?
what forms are building
What
material
is
most
prefabrication? Par-
Is
this
Is
it
new development?
true that only inexpen-
buildings
sive
are
prefabricated?
Explain.
fre-
used for modular compo-
8.
Are prefabricated structures
confined to
What
143
is
Explain.
7.
3. In
parts will not always be
is
What
total?
6.
a building compo-
nent?
2.
5.
tial,
modular construction?
for
module grid lines.

Because all building materials
do not fit into modular sizes in
the job somewhat.
but the
the
what-
being used). Large
scale details include
line,
opposite edge will not,
size is non-modular. This

must be shown on the plans. See
modular dimensioning in Chap-
terial
else?
wood framing systems?
9.
What
0.
Why
is
standardization
of
building materials sizes necessary?

1
12.
What
What
is
is
of the building
1
3.
14.
1
5.
6.
is
What
used panel size of modular building
the main difference
22.
What are
What measures may be
by the architect
modu-
to insure
Why
is
modular corrugated
26" wide instead of being

on a module of 24"?
27. What is the difference beroofing
component widths?
How are windows and doors
used with modular components or
tween
conventional modular framing?
lar
23.
modular
coordination
between making the best use of modular materials in standard construction

1
and actual modular construction?

7.
What
is
Terms to Spell and
being done by build-
Know
ing materials manufacturers to fur-
component
building shell
major module
Why
are some modular ma-
prefabrication
stock plans
minor module
terials not
based upon the 4"
modular coordination
plasterboard
facing
modular construction
module
ther
1
8.
module?
19. Are
modular
in
all
building
materials
size? Explain.
144
taken
adequate
use of modular construction?
26.
the standard
materials are used for
modular components?
25.
the most frequently
is
What
24.
building
sheet materials?
module?
module?
What
wood
members?
ings of framing
21.
the underlying idea
of
components usually have what spac-
a module?
What is a major module?

What is a minor module?
What is the smallest standard
building
20. Framing
a ready-cut building?
is
tile
and
Doors
are used to protect an opening from the ele-
ments, to separate rooms, areas or compartments, to
prevent or admit entrance or

architectural detail.
live
admit
and
light
and
exit,
In
ventilation or
expand
add decora-
to
addition,
a door
may
vision.

Classification of Doors
Doors
fall
two general
into
Panel doors
Flush doors
sheet
with
design categories:
grain lumber glued into a large
may have openings
plywood, or the core
may
when desired. Moldings

and panels may be applied to the
surfaces for added decoration.
These may be factory or job
Vt,"
wood
reconstructed
Panel doors. This door consists

of a heavy framework around the
bound
See two
Solid
into
core
and
flakes
sheets.
solid
illustrations,
is
page
146.
is
panel placed within this frame-
trance doors and for institutions.
work
Frame
They
are
vary slightly with dif-
much
abuse. Cost limits their use
to enclose the space.

will
ferent
size
manufacturers.
doors
Different
in
have different
will also
width frames.
The inside edges of the frame

and the panels are usually molded
sturdy
and
will
small homes.
same
flush
doors look
as solid ones. Their only
difference
is
the interior construc-
may be of wood,
metal or other material.
Panel doors are usually of wood
but other materials are gaining
rigid.
in popularity.
placed in the void. These
tern.
Panels
glass,
Flush doors. Flush (sometimes

called slab) doors are
Wood
smooth on
tion.
Additional
stifleners
are
may
be
bands of wood, expanded

paper (thin strips, on edge, glued
cross
the material
into a
honeycomb
shape), card-
most frequently used. There are

two types of flush doors, with
board
rings, circles
of wood shav-
both faces.
many
is
construction
variations
within each type. Solid core flush
doors are solid throughout (no

inner cavities).
They
made of narrow
are usually
strips
of edge
applied.
take
They have a light wood frame

around the perimeter, but the interior is hollow. Without additional stiffening,
plywood covering does not make the door
(shaped) into a decorative pat-
or panels
used primarily for front en-
Hollow core
the
cut for glass
construction
flush
outside and has a relatively thin
size
styles
face
be of particle board, which

resins
Both solid and hollow
and covered on each
ings, or plastic foam. Two methods of constructing hollow core

doors are shown. These doors are
inexpensive,
present a
fine
pearance, and serve for most

terior uses.
145
apin-
';--'.
Door Sizes
Because of the great variety,
lists of door sizes are
not possible. Consult manufac-
complete
when making
literature
turers'
door selections.
The two most widely used door
heights are 6'-8" and 7'-0". Both
are considered standard.
Personal preference dictates the
sizes
choice.
For homes and other small

structures most codes specify the
following
minimum
sizes:
Front entrance doors
1%"x3'-0"x6'-8"
Service entrance doors
Solid core doors: (left) with
edge grain lumber

board core.
core;
(right)
with
particle
1%"x2'-8"x6'-8"
doors to rooms
Interior
/8 "x2'-6"x6'-8"
Bathroom doors
1
/s"x2'-0"x6'-8"
Preferred bathroom doors
P/8 "x2'-4"x6'-8"
Single closet doors
P/8 "x2'-0"x6'-8"
Recommended minimum door sizes.
Although
sizes
of parts on a
panel door vary with style and

manufacturer, they approximate
those
shown below:
43/""
Stiles
Top
Cross
Lock
4% "
4%"
rail
rail
rail
Bottom
9 /s"
rail
"
3/*'
Raised panels
Approximate sizes
3/"
7/ ' 6
Sticking
146
"
Bars (muntins)
Hollow core doors.
/s
45/s
Mullion
of
door parts.
3:
Multiple Application of
There
is
minor confusion
re-
garding designation of door types.
Tradesmen and others sometimes

refer to the following as door
types:
Same
lloor Tvp
times have the knob at 40"
(Vi
door height) so they may be reversed up and down. Commercial and institutional doors are
mounted with the knob at 42"
Hinged doors
Bypass sliding
Pocket doors
from the floor.

Determining door swing. On a
closed door, with edges of hinges
Bi-fold or folding door units
exposed,
Double action hinged

These are not truly door types.
They are simply standard doors
using hardware designed for a
specific purpose.
Hinged doors. Hinged doors

are the most common. They must
be located so the door swing does
not
interfere
with
passage
furniture arrangement.
or
The door
usually folds against an adjoining

wall.
On
small structures such as
homes doors open toward

rooms.
On
the
larger public buildings
the doors open out. This
is
done
so they cannot be forced closed

if
the building must be evacuated
is
knob
the
face of a door
flush with the
is
knob is to the
hand door.
left,
it
door.
Bypass sliding doors for interior

Bypass sliding doors are oc-
Hinged flush door.
casionally used at openings be-
tween rooms. However, they are

much used with wide closets and
storage areas.
Any door
variety of materials used, styles,
and surface treatments.
type or
Since these doors are hung so
be used. Frames, doors,
they will slide past each other, one
and hardware may be purchased
edge of one door must be ex-
separately, or
posed.
style
may
all
necessary parts
may be purchased
down package, or
completely
sult
in a
knocked-
the unit
may be
preassembled.
Con-
manufacturers' literature to
Exterior doors and

Bypass sliding doors.
quire three hinges.

is
left-
use.
set
The third hinge

mounted midway between the
is
on the opening side. Interior doors

in a home have two hinges. The
top of the upper hinge is from
5" to 7" from the top of the door.
The bottom of the lower hinge
is 9" to 11" from the bottom of
the
your
and the
the hinges are exposed
edge of the jamb
others subject to heavy use re-
to
is
a right-hand door. If
become acquainted with
rapidly.
The
if
right, this
top and bottom hinges. Height of

door knobs and other controls is
optional. Residential construction
usually places their height at 36".
However, pre-hung doors some-
147
the wide
A clearance space (approx-
imately Va") between doors

visible.
is
also
This space and door edge
should not be visible as one enters,
or stands in the center of
the room.
When
two doors are
installed
as a unit, the finished
opening
width
is
1" less than
door widths.
When
the total
there are three
doors in the unit, the finished

opening is 2" less than the total
The "O" represents a

and the "X" a sliding
fixed unit
unit.
Pocket door units are used
when space is at
when door swing
premium
is
undesirable.
or
door widths. For example, two
However, they are more difficult

to operate than hinged doors and
2'-0"
are
doors
require
finished
Three 2'-0"
doors require a finished opening
3'- 11".
opening of
of 5'-10".
Bypass sliding doors for exterior use feature large glass areas
with narrow
stiles
and
rails.
This
permits a feeling of uninterrupted

space. Both
wood and aluminum
units are popular.
These units are
usually purchased preassembled.
They may be used
in
any climate.
In cold climates insulating glass

is
with
units
may be purchased
many combinations
of fixed
when
they
fre-
suitable
exterior doors.
as
The
door and pocket assembly is usually of wood with metal stiffeners

in the jambs as shown. The units
may be job built or prefabricated.
The prefabricated type

better
service
manufacture.
"O" and
There are two general types of

double-hinged doors. Light-duty
each section.
TYPE 3C
X
TYPE 3E
X
X
TYPE 40
X
TYPE 4E (WITH MUNTIN)
trations notice the small

in the center of
the close quality control during
Double-action hinged doors.
"X"
usually
because of
the illus-
sliding sections.
TYPE 2
from living rooms, or in compartmented bathrooms. They are not
On
and
ox
They are especially useful as a means of closing off dining rooms from kitchens, studies
quently.
gives
required.
The
not convenient
must be opened and closed
sliding glass doors for
exterior use.
148
TYPE 4E (WITHOUT MUNTIN)
Combinations
Bypass
of fixed
and
sliding doors.
Plan view of pocket door assembly
doors such as for cafes, as shown

the illustration, have spring
hinges that will operate in either
in
direction.
They
are
mounted at
and
the intersection of the door
jamb. Heavy-duty doors have

and bottom of the door. They also have
a spring or hydraulic arrangement
either in the bottom of the door
side
a pivot hinge at the top
or recessed in the floor to bring

the door back to a closed position.
A
ner
door mounted
may be
in this
man-
placed in the center
of the door frame or so one face

is flush with the edge of the jamb.
Most frequent use is between

and other rooms.
the kitchen
Double-action hinged door.
149
Pivot hinged glass door.
Wood
folding door.
Plastic folding or accordion door
Cafe doors (double action).
composed of
dion doors because they fold in
(about 3") of wood,
an accordion or bellows fashion.

Small sizes are made to fit standard or special openings. Large
sizes may be custom fabricated
for individual jobs. Large installations may be equipped with
motorized controls.
Folding doors are
narrow
strips
rigid
plastic,
Each
strip
is
or other material.
hinged to adjoining
ones. Folding doors
may also have
a metal skeleton which is covered

with cloth or pliable plastic. These
units are
sometimes called accor-
150
Bi-fold doors.
parts".
Bi
means "two
typical unit consists of
four doors, two of which are
mounted on each
mounted
in a similar
manner. In
any door of any material

may be mounted as a bi-
practice,
or style
Howmay be
side jamb.
ever, additional sections
and Door Framt
13: Doors
Door Jambs
A door jamb (buck) is the part

of the frame which fits inside the
masonry opening or rough frame
opening. Jambs may be of wood
or metal. Wood has been the traditional material but steel and
aluminum have gained much

popularity, especially in heavyduty installations. They are not
uncommon in homes.
A jamb
consists of three parts.
There are two side jambs and a

head jamb across the top. There
may be an additional head jamb
if
Wood
or metal
frame with panel
but are
fold door. The frame and hardware may be purchased as a unit

and the doors purchased separately, or the entire unit
completely
transom-which
is
a glass or
opening above a door

-is required. Transoms have lost
popularity in the immediate past
of wood,
plastic, or glass.
purchased
solid panel
Dutch door
may
now
enjoying a
new
transom so
it
extends to the
framing and
finishing over the door. This is
prefabri-
for non-
especially
These doors are very popular

for wide closets and are sometimes used as doors between
rooms or as room dividers.
Metal jambs are made

wide variety of shapes and
suitable
bearing walls.
page
mounted so they "fold" to enclose

any amount of space. When
doors
in
size.
152.
are illustrated on
Note: The stop-whkh
a part of the jamb.
manner, all
the group will be the
this
When
open,
all
doors
are stacked at right angles to the

wall with their faces against each
other.
Definition of
Door Frame
door frame is the finishing

materials surrounding a door to
conceal or beautify structural
is the protrusion the face of the

door closes against is an integral
part of the frame. Exterior wood
door jambs also have the stop as
between P-0" and 2'-0".

Using special folding hardware, any standard doors may be
ally
same
in
sizes,
some of which
Individual door widths are usu-
in
ceil-
ing, thus eliminating
be
cated and ready-hung.
mounted
flair.
Recent adaptations place the
Metal clad
fire
door.
Rabbeted
door
rlor
with
building parts.
exte
jamb
Interior and
exterior casing.
151
Thickness of exterior wood jambs

rabbet serving
is l'/s", with a
as a stop.
On
thickness
the
door jambs
approximately
interior
is
%"
(using nominal 1" material)

and the stop is applied to the
face of the jamb.
Wood jambs are manufactured
in two standard widths. Jambs for
lath
Plan view of exterior door
in
frame
wall.
and
plaster are 5V4" wide,
5
while those for drywall are 4 /8"
wide.
11-
fit
Jambs may
easily
be cut to
walls of less thickness. If walls
are slightly thicker than the jambs,

strips of wood are nailed on to
form an extension. Also, jambs

may be custom made to any desired size for a slight additional
cost.
Jambs may be purchased
knocked down (not assembled),

assembled with just exterior casing or brick mold applied, or assembled with the door pre-hung
in the opening.
Plan view of exterior door in solid
10.
Door (hollow core shown)

Threshold
Wall studs
Space
3.
Side jamb
12.
4.
Door stop
5.
Rabbeted stop
door jamb
6. Plaster or other interior wall finish
Sheathing
8. Exterior wall covering
with split jambs to

permit rapid installation and to
allow for any variation in wall
thickness.
Sill
3. Brick
Pre-hung door units are also

available
1.
2.
7.
wall
9. Interior casing
Parts identification
for leveling
masonry
mold
Metal door jamb shapes
14. Air space

15. Furring strips
A.
Jamb
'6- Master grounds
B.
Integral stop
17. Exterior trim (casing)
C.
Masonry wall
152
profile
'
and Door Frames
13: Doors
Modern use sometimes elimiwood casings around door

and window openings. Metal cornates
ners, as
shown, protect wall
finish
materials.
Exterior Trim
On
wood jambs the

mold or casing) is pura part of the jamb.
exterior
trim (brick
chased as
When
a
Interior
door jamb (1) with stop (2) and
used
wood frame
in a
may
drip cap
wall,
be placed over
the top of the trim.
Metal corners frequently replace
When ma-
wood
casing.
casings (3) installed.
sonry
-î
\/
l ->
lintels.
be placed over the
must be supported on
Jambs in masonry do not
it
On one-story
common practice
require a drip cap.

buildings,
it
is
Door Millwork
no marequired above open-
to design a building so
II
sonry
ings.
1
Wall studs
E.
Door stop
B.
Plaster on rock lath
F.
Door jamb
C.
Casing
G.
Plaster
D.
Space
for
leveling door
grounds
Plan view of door frame detail
in plas-
tered frame wall.
is
not a part of
jamb, so it is purchased
separately. Note: All parts may
sometimes be included in the
same package, but

rather
this is an exthan standard
practice. Illustrations of a variety
of casing and other

shapes are shown.
wood
trim
may
an
extends across the botBrick
mold
quently
is
doors do not usually have a
stead of
flat
sill
sill.
helps hold the lower part
of the side jambs

location.
in their
The top of
the
water away from the door.
proper
sill
is
If the
masonry building
sill
A drip cap is placed

above casings to
shed water away
from a door in a
wood wall.
re-
sill.
has considerable thick-
ness and extends below the top
This
edge of floor joists. The joists

must be notched or special framing may be required to accommodate the sill. Examples of framing
lar
when
serve
exterior
nects the two side jambs. Interior
used.
Interior trim
sill
quires a masonry
the door
as
Sills
door unit is to be installed in a

wood frame wall, a wood sill is
Interior Trim
casing.
sloped to provide a wash to drain
jamb
board
with pan-
filled
tom of an outside door and con-
A
A.
is
A rectangular
eling or molding.
k
lL
is
This space
Door
ception
to
is
opening,
-c
the
sill is
at right
and when
are shown on page
the joists,
153
it is
154.
is
a very popu-
casing shape.
angles to
parallel,
Door stops.
used
frein-
casing.
PERCENT
AVERAGE
MOISTURE CONTENT
11
Recommended average moisture content

for interior finish
woodwork
in
U. S
various parts
Weolher
Bu,
of the United States.
Thresholds
A
row
threshold (saddle)
strip
of
wood
to cover the joint
and
is
a nar-
or metal used
between a
a finished floor.
It
as a barrier for rain
sill
also serves
and wind.
Section views of typical thresholds are shown.

Framing
for a
wood door
angles to floor
Framing
for a
wood door
floor joists.
Exterior panel door with
frame
wood
sill
in
sill
at
right
joists.
wall.
154
sill
parallel to
Wood and
metal threshold shapes.
3:
Carpet
pile
weather
stripping.
Weatherproof ing
Flexible metal, pile (fiber, as
on a carpet), or
may
felt
be
tened around exterior doors to
make
permanent
seal in
Two
frequently used garage door styles.
fas-
lection
taining inside temperature.
Garage doors are usually the

overhead type. They may be
Entrance Door Details
spring operated.
Entrance doors are given special architectural emphasis to en-
radio or "electric-eye" operators.
hance their beauty and serve as

a focal point. They may be job
or purchased
built
When
cated units.
as
prefabri-
space permits,
door semade.
The most common residential
garage door sizes are shown
above. These are actual sizes;
framing around them is not
shown.
turers literature before
Garage Doors
main-
The
Some doors have
units
latter
add
slightly
to
the building cost but give a feel-
Single
ing of quality construction to the
Height
wide
6-6"
7-0"
6-6"
building.
Because of the
variety of materials used, differ-
double entry doors are frequently
ing
used.
sizes available, consult
construction
and
manufac-
of doors,
is
Double garage doors
garage doors
Width
x
Width
Height
8-0"
6'-6" x
15-0"
9'-0"
7'-0" x 15'-0"
6-6" x 16'-0"
7'-0" x 9'-0"
7'-0" x 16'-0"
x 8'-0"
x

Explain the construction of a
wood
What are the two

wood doors?
2.
flush
3.
Are
structed of
all
panel
wood?
4. Describe
kinds of
How
doors
con-
Explain.
the
doors fold
7.
ing
in
two types of
the
term
"folding
meant when one says

a stacking arrangement?
is
What
is
the largest size fold-
What
door heights?
determine
What
the thickness of most
is
tion,
12.
What
7.
From the panel door
explain,
illustra-
own words,
your
in
the following terms.
the thickness of most
is
doors?
What
minimum face
the
is
3.
What
door? What
14.
What
a service entrance
is
is
minimum size?
the minimum size
5.
What
are the two standard
16.
What
stile
top
cross
lock
mullion
muntin or bar
bottom
sticking
raised panel
rail
rail
rail
its
is
interior residential
1
doors?
is
of
doors?
the
minimum
size of
bathroom doors?
door?
8.
0.
size of front entrance

is
What
interior
door" sometimes misused?

6.
How does one
exterior doors?
folding doors.
5.
9.
which height to use?
panel door.
is
bathroom doors?
155
better
size
for
8.
19.
What
When
required?
is
rail
a hinged door?
are
two
hinges
20.
When
are
hinges
three
21.
more
Why
doors
are
What
36.
37.
the relationship of
is
the face of a door
and the edge of
38.
the knob on a residential door?
What
them?
40.
What
meant by the "hand"
is
how
of a door? Explain
is
it
closet doors?
are
Is
bypass
this actually
a kind
a transom?
How may
units for these
be
might you
building
of
kinds of doors
may be
is
it
is
is
jamb, and
split
used?
What
48.
what
a brick mold?
is
is
a door stop?
generally
What
is
tion of
50.
the thick-
wood jamb?
generally
is
interior trim
normally pur-
chased as a part of the door jamb?
What
the thick-
wood jamb?
construction might call for this?
51.
is
it
What
a door
is
sill
and why
used?
52.
and plaster?
What
threshold?
an
entrance
is
What generally is the width

wood jamb to be used with
53.
Why
is
given special design emphasis?
drywall?
29. Explain the finished opening
which
front
does
door
to
one
determine
toward
place
the
of the unit? (Closest to the
observer.)
Terms to Spell and
31.
How are bypass
sliding
doors
used at exterior openings?

32.
on a
What does
sliding
33.
"X" and "O"
door elevation represent?
What
Describe
the
the
a pocket door unit?
is
construction
of
the
cross
panel door
bar
transom
sticking
drywall
door
hinge
molding
bypass
slab
pocket door
solid core
particle
bi-fold
board
When
is
lath
sliding
door
jamb
side
stacking
head jamb
156
door
double action hinge
hollow core
a pocket door unit
buck
rail
folding door
pocket.
34.
Know
door frame
flush
De-
scribe four kinds.
44.
widths required for these units.
How
and
a drip cap.
Is
used for bypass sliding doors?
30.
What
the difference between this
an exterior casing?
find
What generally is the width

a wood jamb to be used with
of a
What
In
43.
lath
purchased?
28.
42.
sliding
of door? Explain.
27.
a door jamb?
ness of an exterior
What
why
is
What
47.
action
is
ness of an interior
de-
termined.
26.
What
What
What
41. What
buildings?
25.
double
is
purchased
is
"knocked down"?
a bi-fold door unit?
is
49. Describe the shape and func-
the normal height of
is
alter-
meant when one
is
says a door jamb
What
What
of
types
knob or panic bar on public
24.
the
39.
the normal height of
is
What
46.
their biggest disad-
is
hinge? Describe two kinds.
a jamb?
What
What
vantage?
ward the outside?
23.
45. Explain two methods of
hinged
ing these widths.
35.
public
in
buildings hinged so they swing to-
22.
than
satisfactory
door?
required?
plaster
knocked-down
brick
mold
sill
threshold
door
M
Windows and Glass
Each window manufacturing
and aluminum) and each individual
manufacturer make claims that
their material is best for windows.
Each material has advantages
and disadvantages. A material
may be more suitable for one installation, but under different con-
association (wood, steel,
ditions another material
more
practical.
be
made
its
of each
No
may
attempt
be
will
here to evaluate the mer-
window
windows, but they are not used

extensively
struction.
in
residential
con-
windows
lend
Steel
themselves to solid masonry construction. Since there are
in
side
masonry wall.
and head trim
No
is
interior
normally
used. Plaster or other interior
fin-
around
a corner bead (metal corner) and
ishes are usually returned
window
lightweight metal frame
are usually
extends around the entire win-
manufactured of white pine. This
dow, replacing the sill at the bottom. The bottom frame is usually
placed on a masonry sill and the
joint between the window and sill
wood
is
favored because of
its
abundance and the fact that it is

soft but still machines and sands
to a fine finish.
is
The
grain structure
which permits a wide vaof possible finishes. Hard-
in popularity.
is
filled
with caulking.
Plastics are
wood windows
are available, but
their high cost limits their use.

Steel
Windows
Steel
windows may be pur-
chased with a prime coat of paint

or they
pletely
tive
may be purchased comfinished in many decora-
colors.
Industrial,
commer-
and institutional construction

make widespread use of steel
cial,
construction commerical, industrial,
institutional,
and
residential.
Until recently residential use has
been limited primarily to warm

They do have some disadvantages for cold climates, because they conduct cold, but
climates.
157
in
win-
Sheet films and
spray-on coatings form protective
and decorative coverings on

wood, steel, and aluminum windows.
Some
use
is
being
molded or extruded
Much
greater use
is
made of
plastic parts.
expected in
the immediate future.
Window Types
To
acquaint yourself with the
various
Aluminum Windows
All types of windows are manufactured of aluminum. This
modern material lends itself to
many applications in all modern
being used
dow manufacture.
close,
riety
the
is
are usually set into a chase
walls.
Wood windows
ideas
Plastic
They
with the same material as inside
Wood Windows
tradi-
main reason
their use is limited. Each year
aluminum windows are gaining
tional
jambs, they take a shallow space.
finished to the face of the
material.
no wide
buyer resistance based on
window
types, study illus-
trations of each.
Only common,
frequently used types are shown.
The
illustrations are self-explana-
tory of the general shapes of each

type. Most types may be purchased of wood, steel, or
aluminum.
No two windows of the same
type, purchased from different
manufacturers, will be exactly the
same. The
size
and shape of
in-
dividual parts will vary slightly.
Hopper.
Clearstory
159
That
why
is
the illustrations rep-
resent general shapes
and do not
One must
refer to specific detail.
data to
refer to manufacturers'
obtain
exact
and shapes.
sizes
This information is then included

in the working drawings. It will
be shown as details and notes.
Window
and
Parts, Sizes,
Elevations
Window
size
usually (but
is
always) designated by the

glass size of the individual sash
not
of parts and typical

given in the illustrations.
Glass size is based on 4" increments in width and 2" in height.
12"
Typical glass sizes range from
12" to
to 48" in width and from
units.
Names
sizes are
The
large
window on this home

a bow window.
is
called
36"
is
Sash
in height.
the
glass,
wood frame
are based
accommodate
sizes.
Window
sizes,
which
enclosing the
on modules to
standard glass
stiles
are approxi-
mately 2" wide. This makes the

4"
horizontal window opening
BJ?
1
Air space
2.
Apron
Bottom
5. Brick
6. Interior casing
7.
Ground
8.
Header
9.
Head jamb
strip
10. Rigid insulating
3. Brick in section
Section
is
wood show-
sometimes
in-
19. Plaster
beted to accommodate the

Overall
strip
window
When
based on the 4" increment.
Rock
double hung windows are used

and each size is based on 2" increments, the combined units form
lath
sill
Stile or side rail
25. Stool
26. Stone
a modular
sill
2 8. Top
rail
view of double hung window

with parts identification.
Most manufacmore than the glass

window description,
size.
turers include
27. Stop
160
glass.
heights are also
compound
22. Side jamb
14. Double studs
Cutaway view of double hung window

and related parts.
size
20. Putty or glazing
Ground
24.
in
in
The
18. Parting strip
2 3. Wood
elevation
ing.
section
17.
Angle
iron lintel
gives a total of 6" of
creased so 7" of wood is showing.

This is not the size of the actual
parts; they are larger and are rab-
sheathing
12. Brick
16. Mortar joint
rail
mold
(casing)
in
elevation
3. Blind stop
4.
15. Mortar joint
wider than the glass size. Top

3",
rails are 2" wide, bottom rails
and meeting or lock rails 1". This
size in their
giving the glass

sash
size,
size,
opening or
masonry or rough open-
'
Fixed picture
window
with casement side lights
Double, double hung
Fixed picture
window
with double
hung
side lights
Double hung
structural unit
II
Double owning
1
Rail
and muntin
sizes.
/\
V
Triple
ing size, and the unit or overall

size.
This
latter size
is
Double, double hung structural unit
combination
shown from
outside edge to outside edge of

the casing. When two or more
windows
unit, the
are assembled
the overall length.
proximate
are
one
as
mullions are included in
shown
sizes
Names and
ap-
of window parts
in the illustrations
and on the following page.
Double
here
Double casement
161
Window
elevations.
sliding
Mullions
mullion
is
any post or
divi-
window
units. Size is variable. Side jambs
are %" thick; when two windows
sion between individual
are placed side by side the small-
\W
mullion is
wide.
Manufacturers combine individ-
est possible
ual
windows
groups, with
into
mullions between the windows.
Note; Most manufacturers
will
not permit these to be returned if
wrong
the
Window
size designations.
size
The
ordered.
is
manufacturer does not normally

arrange more than three windows
a group.
in
If
more
wood
side by side, a
are placed
stiffener ex-
tending from the bottom to the

top plate should be used between
each window. This
calls
larger mullion than
if
dows
are
other.
If
are
placed
together,
the
Window muntin
unit.
subsill
eners
a
Bars or muntins (different

for the
same
thing) some-
times divide the glass into smaller

panes.
When
the
window
entire
subsill
is
sub-
divided, the individual panes are
of
must be
Steel post encased by jombs
show
this.
Note that modern practice
not
manufacturer's
However,
as discussed here,
wide
large
mullions
extend
of a
construction
unit.
size
If individual units
standard
working drawings include
size,
window
trim
are to be job assembled, or are
tends to keep mullions narrow.

the
and
Mullion details.
stiff-
Draw
between windows.
separate detail to
is
sill,
length
notched to pass the vertical
designs.
Bars or Muntins
names
the
The
Double studs between windows
three units
added beneath the regular

extending
each
against
more than
used
for
the win-
scale
details
showing
and methods of
assembly.
not modular sizes since the

glass must be trimmed because
of the addition of the muntins.
Windows
windows used alone
The muntins may form vertical

or horizontal window panes, or
Picture
both vertical and horizontal bars
in
may
dows should be designed
divide a
number of
into a larger
panes. Early Ameri-
can designs
Modern
window
use many
panes.
design favors only hori-
zontal divisions.
Picture
or
combination with other winto use
Many
may be purchased in standard

width of stiles and rails. Sash with
wide stiles and rails may be made
for standard
glass
sizes.
This
if
makes the sash opening size nonmodular to accommodate custombuilt and oversize units. These
standard sizes are not used. Sash
parts are not constructed at the
standard glass
picture
sizes.
windows have
glass, so the cost
is
162
large
insulating
prohibitive
Windows and
14:
Glass
site, so it is important
complete details to be shown;
then they can be custom built.
building
so water will not drip on the ex-
for
terior covering.
Window
Exterior
Trim
Because exterior window trim

(finishing boards)
is
applied
when
windows are assembled, they are

a part of the window. Trim with
decorative molding on its face is
mold.
Flat
called casing. Brick
mold
called
brick
widely
that
name
Its
is
more
implies
used only with brick but

not a proper assumption.
it is
this is
It is
used.
trim
is
masonry
also used with other
and wood frame construction.

Size
is
slightly variable;
proximately
wide. Exterior casing
is
is
ap-
and 2V2"
thick
l'/g"
it
l'/s"
thick
and the width is variable. Casing

3" wide is most common. Note:
When drawing elevations, the cas-
drawn outside
window size.
ing
Drip
is
the actual
in the
modate
molding
sills
bottom
to
wood molding.
is
used beneath a
drip cap as illustrated in the

is
placed over
the top of the casing to prevent

water from standing on the flat
and
to prevent capillary
window.
a part of the
is
bent so
it
covers the
top of the drip cap.
When
combined
several
into
one
windows are
unit, the drip
cap should be continuous.

Sills
sill
is
a sloping surface at
the bottom of a
window
to drain
water away from the parts. Most

sills
are of wood.
It
is
de-
signed and purchased separately.
When
combined
windows are
one unit, the wood
several
into
should be continuous.
sill
They extend
window
past the front edge of the
Descriptions
Descriptions of
window
to the
windows
Windows may be purchased
(no
glass).
the glass
may
When
is
be unglazed
they are glazed,
purchased as a part
of the window.
refer
double hung,
type:
casement, awning, picture (fixed

sash), or other kinds.
to
number of windows
one window
may
in the
When
stalled alone
it
is
refer
group.
be
in-
is
not
in-
When
cluded).
two windows are

one unit it is called
included in
mullion
abbreviated
unit,
When
mull
to
called a single
is
word window
(the
It
combinations of window types.

Reference is also made to the
three
windows
to
are
in one unit, it is called

and when four windows
are combined it is called a quad-
included
a triple,
ruple, abbreviated to a quad.
Installation of Glass
When
they are
unglazed, of course, the glass
Window
window
There is
composing window descriptions. However, one
must be sure all necessary information is included. This informaa
no
set
tion
windows
types and number of

combined when stating
units are
is
purchased separately. Small units
hind the exterior covering. Metal
It
window
windows. Even though, in addition, most windows in masonry

walls have a stone sill, this is not
house)
siding.
Window
sill, it
As previously noted, wood

windows have sills but most metal
windows do not. However, wood
sills and casings or brick mold are
sometimes attached to aluminum
(as all but picture
from under the
installation.
flashing.
action from drawing moisture be-
flashing extends
If
placed on setting blocks, or

employ some other method of
kets,
helps block entrance of water and

serves as a cover over
stalled) or they
previous chapter
have a
accom-
glazed (with glass factory-in-
Cap
surface
groove
Some
description.
form
may
or
in
may
not be used dur-
ing construction, but
for a
it is
vital for
and purchase of maSample descriptions of
.stimating
are
usually
purchased
terials.
glazed. Larger ones are usually
The plans or specifications must state method of purchase and also state the method
unglazed.
of securing the glass
in the
sash
and the method and glazing material. This description must include whether the glass is to be
set in putty, whether it is to be
back puttied (putty placed between the face of the glass and
windows
follow:
A picture window with two double

hung
side lights, one on each

Each double hung sash is
have two bars or muntins:
Picture/w/DH. 2-bar Sd. Lts.
side.
to
triple
Mull, awning
corner
awning
unit:
picture
window with
face of rabbet on the sash), im-
casements on each side:

Corner picture/w/2 three-bar
bedded
casements
in
neoprene rubber gas-
163
Note:
It
and locking devices. Screen

and storm window combinations
on the window
are sometimes built as a part of
This
size description.
placed
usually
is
necessary to include
is
complete
schedule.
ing
window
the
unit. It is not possi-
ble to discuss all available hard-
Window Hardware
There
is
ware available
window more
to
One should
ware.
wide variety of hard-
make
the hardware includes sash bal-
manu-
Required window hardware

be listed on a schedule of the
modern
Some of
useful.
consult
facturers' literature for details.
may
plans or in the specifications.
ances and tension tracks to per-
For most building materials
mit sash removal. Hinged sup-
small measurements are given be-
port bars are designed to hold
fore large ones. This
is
awning and hopper windows
when specifying
The width
Hand crank and automatic

move and hold awning
open.
operators
and casement sash in selected poThere are also many lift-
sitions.
Window
dow
glass
glass.
means
the glass has
had no additional
cesses. It
Drawing
is
it
is
on
special
order only
vary
thick-
Approximate Oz. per

(Thickness
sq.ft.
Maximum
Photo
.58 to .68
remarkably
Single strength
free of dis-
tortion.
size
Glass edge for small units
no imper-
fections that cause noticeable distortion.
B Quality Has some

is
36x50"
16
36x50"
together to form a rolled edge.
19
40x50"
Insulating glass can be used on

all
distor-
suitable for usual small
window
Double strength
V>"
26
60x80"
Heavy sheet
40
120x84"
must be made
Heavy sheet
Vu"
Vn"
45
120x84"
additional glass thickness. Stan-
Heavy sheet
Vt"
52
120x84"
dard sizes are shown in the accompanying tables.

Be exact in ordering. Do not
specify the wrong trade name.
Insulating glass has two sheets
installations.
Sash
to provide for the
of glass separated by space. De-
hydrated
A Quality Has
Vu"-Vn"
12-14
Insulating Glass
Premium Best commercial
panes.
may
manfactur-
The more common
Picture
AA
tion but
glass. Sizes
Classification
and priced accordingly.
window
slightly with different
drawn.
window glass:
Quality This is the best
window glass obtainable, manu-
of
is
qualities of
less visual dis-
finishing pro-
used as
There are four widely used
quality,
they cause
it;
tortion if horizontal.
nesses are:
sheets.
factured
in
ers.
one of the methods of

manufacturing glass into large
always given before the height.

Ordinary glass has slight waves
There are several thicknesses
windows is
The term win-
window
not true
is
Glass
All glass used in
not
glass.
sure
is
air at
atmospheric pres-
sealed into the space. There
two methods of sealing the

edges. Large windows have a
steel frame with gaskets to form
a seal. Smaller panes have a glass
edge. The two sheets are melted
are
164
Grey Glass
When
one wishes
to
reduce
transmission of light or heat one
may
sion
use special greyed glass. Viis
only
obscured
slightly.
reminds one
of looking through sun glasses.
Looking through
it
'
Insulating
Glass standard
sizes
METAL EDGE
2 Pieces
UNIT SIZE
33"
UNIT SIZE
46%" x 56%"
47%" x 50%"
47%" x 66%"
76%"
35%" x 36"
35%" x 48%"
35'/j" x 60%"
36" x 44%"
36"
36"
36"
36"
42"
42"
42"
42"
55V4"
68%"
x
x
x
x
x
48%"
56%"
66"
72"
x 48'/s"
45"
60%"
76%"
45%"
52"
48"
48"
48"
75"
93"
44%"
44%"
46"
46"
46"
x 48'/2"
46%"
x 52'/2"
UNIT
56%" x
56%" x
56%" x
48"
60"
72"
x
x
x
48%" x
48%" x
48%" x
48%" x
48%" x
48%" x
55%"
68%"
50"
50"
50"
50"
50"
56%"
64%"
72%"
80%"
96%"
60%"
58%"
57"
58"
58"
58"
58"
58"
60"
75"
93"
50"
58"
x
x
x
x
50%" x
52%" x
52%" x 70V."
55%" x 60%"
x 64'/2"
GLASS EDGE
Polished Plate Glass '/>" Air Space
72%"
x
x
x
x
x
(DS premium)
2 Pieces
SIZE
66"
DOUBLE HUNG
70%"
76%"
64%"
72%"
80%"
96%"
6%"
66%"
68%"
66"
66"
66"
72"
72"
72%"
84"
96"
84"
96"
Width
Height
49% "
35 %"
'At"
49% 6"
48%" x
48%" x
48%" x
55%" x
55%" x
55%" x
56%" x
56%" x
56%" x
56%" x
36"
35'/2" x 48'/."
35%"
42"
42"
44%"
44%"
44%"
45%"
48"
48"
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
60%"
66"
72"
36"
48%"
60%"
x
x
52"
48"
60"
'"
2 Pieces
Wood
For
Width
55% 6"
60 7/is"
36 K"
48%"
36 Vie"
Spoce
'/."
or
"
Vi
Air
'%2"
-Vt"
'At",
V!)2"
Minimum
+ =/l6",
70
28
15"
53"
16"
20"
24"
32"
36"
48"
60"
x
x
x
x
x
x
*PP rox
28"
28"
28"
32"
32"
32"
24%"
Wx 36
/i
16"
20"
x 24"
x 32"
x 36"
x 48"
x 60"
x
24%"
27%"
27%"
27%"
27%"
21 Vie" x 30' % t"

"
,3
21
36V
Height
x
"
36 5/ "
36 5/. "
"
39% "
39% "
39% "
39% "
36V
16"
20"
x24"
x 14%"
x
x
x
18%"
22%"
30%"
14%"
18%"
22%"
30%"
15%"
14%"
8%"
22%"
30%"
40"
40"
40"
44"
16"
24"
44% "
44% "
44% "
44% "
45% "
16"
20"
14%"
18%"
22%"
30%"
25%"
x
x
x
x
x
x 16"
x
20"
24"
42% "
16"
x20"
x
24"
22%"
x
x
x
Net Weights
Space
Per Sq.
Ft.
'%."
lbs.
Glass
Air
Thick-
Space
ness
V4j"
"At"
'A
2"
s
<
At"
5%
lbs.
50
sq.
Dimensional
Unit
Area
Tolerances
Thick-
Average
ness
Net Weights
Ft.
6%
lbs.
Y\t"
24
Vi"
%2"
Vi"
10
<At"
Via"
'y."
"/,"
J4s"
%2"
-'/l t"
to practical
Approximate
Max.
Sq.
%"
ff.
fGlass thickness and
manufacturing tolerances.
'At"
Ft.
3%
lbs.
2%
lbs.
%i"
%"
'/3 2"
ocfua/ united inches. So/ex", SoJargray*
maximum
space are subject
9%"
20"
20"
20"
20"
20"
20"
20"
Over 48"
$ize,
So/orbronze
19"
"
36"
36"
36"
Per Sq.
To 48"
+ %",-'/. 6"
17
Vi"
or %"
,J/I4 "
"x 36 ,J/i"
x49"
21 'At" x
3%
%"
24"
24"
24"
24"
24"
24"
24"
24%"
Air Space
Width
To 48"
12
%"
%"
%"
Height
21'/i6"x6iyu"
22"
x 18"
22"
x 55'/. 6"
16'/i" x 61*1 4
25%"
22%"
Unit Thickness
'A" Mi
Tolerances
+ %",-'/."
or
21 Vie" x 49"
16'/.6"
Height
x
16/ie" x
Window Glass %" Air Space

For Window Walls
Over 48"
y.6"
24"
32"
36"
48"
60"
48%"
Space
%"
16"
16"
6"
Doors
Sq.ft.*
Window Glass Vi."

Width
Max.
Class
16"
6"
1
)4*"
Height
45%"
42%"
48%"
GLASS EDGE (SSA)
16'/."x 30
21%"x62%"
68' He" x
16'/. 4
25%" x 62%"
nessf
48%"
Width
.6"
55%"
68 'At"
48"
46"
50"
36"
Height
X 60'/l"
'/
36 % "
72%"
72%"
75"
75"
35
48%"
72"
58%"
48%"
48V."
36 Me"
42"
50"
35'/ is"
447i"
44'/u"
60%"
46%"
35 7/i 4 "
44'/ i"
46"
50"
58"
36"
Height
Widtt
49%"
49%"
49%"
50"
46"
50"
64%" x
64%" x
64%" x
68%" x
68%" x
x
x
x
75"
93"
66"
Air Space
42"
46"
50"
36"
Height
36%"
39%"
44%"
58"
CASEMENT
WINDOWS
57V. 6" x 46"
57% 4 "
65% t"
65% "
2 Pieces
Window Glass %"
Width
46"
49'At" x 50"
Width
2 Pieces
AWNING
WINDOWS
WINDOWS
60%" x
60%" x
60%" x
60%" x
64%" x
Air Space
Picture
72"
Window Glass l
window sizes
'/"
58%"
at
Pittsburgh Plate Glass
165
Co
This glass
is
recommended
not
much
stalled in
same manner
the
Space must be
between the
left
Large sheets may

require special metal anchors to
top of the blocks and lintels or
help secure them to the building.
Clearance should also be given
where high light transmittance is

desired for example, in merchandise display windows.
as ceramic
Polished Plate Glass
Patterned Glass
tile.
headers to allow for deflection.

of openings to allow
expansion and building settlement. This space should be
packed with oakum, which is a
at the sides
After glass
is
manufactured,
As
it
may
be ground and polished to
true
flat
the
name
for
implies, decora-
are three qualities of plate glass:
manufactured
on the face of glass. This decoration may be on one or both faces.
When one considers the number
of glass manufacturers and all
covered with caulking to give a
Silvering QuALiTY-This
is
the decorative glass patterns of
finished appearance.
is
each, the variety
surfaces of great bril-
and high reflectivity. Usual

thickness is from Va" to 1 Vi". There
liance
the best quality available;
seldom used
square
in
sizes
over 20
fects
limited.
For
concerning
feet.
Mirror Glazing Quality
There are some small
it
patterns
tive
but the quality
Glazing
is
are
is
QuALiTY-This
used when ordinary glazing
specific information
individual
patterns,
consult manufacturers' literature.
quired but not for mirrors.
re-
It is
sheets with tough, transpar-
bonded between them.

development has seen
ent plastic
Recent
very good quality.
foreign objects, such as leaves,
Tempered Glass
Most sheet
ber glass, butterflies, paper, cloth,
glass
is
quite brittle
or metal
but can be
The
sistant
be as
made more shock reby heat tempering. Tem-
pered glass
times
as
will
far
bend about four
as
ordinary glass
without breaking.
break
When
does
it
does not shatter;
it
dis-
it
integrates into small, blunt-edged
The
pieces.
practically
cost
is
many
fi-
uses of this glass are
unlimited.
more than
extra
Its
offset
by
its
imbedded
plastic
is
much
in the plastic.
so clear that
it
may
as V" thick for the
Very interesting patterns

may be achieved by "sandwiching" decorative inserts between
several sheets of glass. Standard
patterns may be purchased or
panels may be custom fabricated
inserts.
to
specifications.
Any
material
selected for use must be inert to
the plastic so as not to affect
advantages.
it
exterior of buildings
may be
with opaque colored glass.
and
faced
serves
are 6"x6", 8"x8",
Any
less for
then
is
units.
nominal 4" or
is
Nominal
3 5/s" actual.
face sizes
12"xl2", and
actual face size
is
both dimensions.
The units are laid in much

same manner as other ma-
the
sonry and should have reinforce-
ment between alternate courses.

They must be secured to other
masonry or frame with wall ties
or set in metal channels which
are secured to the structure.
Glass
blocks
are
frequently
combination with other

windows. Modular windows are
used
in
sometimes
set in the
center of the
glass block area.
Decorative
with
slightly
vary
patterns
individual
manu-
facturers. The faces may be

smooth, have a swirled effect, or
have wide or narrow flutes run-
Newer
Structural Glass
parts of the interior
joint
ning in one or both directions.
chemically.
Many
rope that
oil. It
Glass blocks are modular
%"
Safety glass consists of two or
more
The
Block thickness
4"xl2".
Safety Glass
is
is
as a cushion.
virtually un-
visible de-
exceptional.
fiber material similar to
has been soaked in
Glass Block
patterns
may have
a peb-
bled or textured surface, or sculp-
Structural glass blocks are not
tured designs
may be
portions
created by
and leaving
designed to be load supporting.
texturing
usually in square or rectangular
When masonry
other glass plain. Surfaces
shapes of varying size and thick-
them,
also be finished with colored ce-
ness.
The
face
may
It
is
be polished
or embossed. This material
is
in-
is placed above
must carry the load.
Wood framing above must be
supported by headers.
lintels
166
ramic enamel. They

rectional screens
may
may have
imbedded
di-
in the
14:
Windows and
Glass
center cavity to control light and
ter
heat transmission.
can use the exterior walls.
of the building so other rooms
Glass blocks are normally a
If
some compa-
light
very pale green but

nies
make them
in
variety of
colors.
windows
are to be used for
or ventilation, they should
be placed following the old
still
established rules.
Other Uses
There are many other kinds

and applications of glass that cannot be fully covered in a book of
this nature. Some of the more
common are mentioned to acquaint you with the need for
Knowledge
Glass block window
is
2. What species is usually used

wood windows? Why?
3. Do steel windows normally
for
have a
sill
and wide jambs?
Wired
Glass brick
quently used
Sculptured glass
struction?
Glass mirrors
5.
One way
6.
Bullet resisting
Bent glass
Sand blasted
Rolled edge fire polished
material
best?
further study.
Corrugated glass
What window
glass
4. Steel
glass
7.
What
What
What
windows are most

in
fre-
what kind of con-
is
a plaster return?
is
a corner bead?
window
types
are
manufactured from aluminum?
Heat grid
Glass lighting panels
8. What is the extent of aluminum window usage?

9. What role is plastics playing
in window manufacture?
glass
structural details.
Name and
0.
window
describe
common
types.
Are windows of the same

always exactly the same?
11.
Window Requirements
In the past, windows were
and provide ventilation. Every room was
required to have at least one window and preferably more. When
more than one window was used,
they were placed to provide adequate cross-ventilation. Mechanical light and ventilation have
changed this somewhat. Many
needed
codes
to
still
admit
state
light
minimum
glass
and ventilating areas for each

room; however, with electric
lighting and mechanical ventilation, windows may never be re-
quired
to
serve
original
their
purpose.
Explain.
Windows
still
remove the
feel-
ing of living in a cubicle by ex-
panding the
of vision, ap-
line
pearing to bring the outside to

the inside. This
is
usually their
most important function

present time. If a
used for
type
it
is
not
stile
some-
when
bathrooms and kitchens were always placed on outside walls, this

was done so the room could have
windows. Modern applications
may move these rooms to the cen-
What module
dow
is
used
for
and sash size?
3.
What
Is
is
a sash?
a 30"-wide glass size one
of the standard sizes?

1
is
2.
14.
the
times omitted. For example,
167
at
window
this reason,
glass
5.
What
is
Why?
the relationship of
width to glass width?

6. Describe the
following win-
sizes:
7.
8.
rough or masonry opening
opening
unit
What
What
opening
is
a muntin?
is
a bar?

9.
What
is
a lock or meeting
20.
21.
22.
23.
with a
24.
25.
What
What
What
How
39.
is
is
a top
is
a bottom
stile?
does
its
called
rail?
size
40.
rail?
compare
or top rail?
stile
What
What
and what
this
38.
What
window hardware?
is
47.
is
and a
a brick mold?
is
an exterior casing,
is
the difference between
brick
Is
glass
all
for
windows
48.
window glass?
What
are
the
49.
50.
of
qualities
window glass?
41.
What
42.
Why
51.
is
placed
insulating glass?
is
52.
important to select
it
43.
What
is
53.
between the panes
44. What are two methods of

What is a mullion? Are mulalways the same size? Explain? sealing the edges?
45. What is grey glass?
27. When is a vertical stiffener
54.
26.
28.
What
29.
Is
is
to
a part of a
sill
exterior
casing
How
in
tempered glass?
is
is
structural glass?
is
patterned glass?
are decorative objects
glass?
Do
glass
What
blocks
support
are the standard sizes
Is
it
necessary for
all
rooms
have windows? Explain.

55.
What
What is polished plate glass?

Does it come in more than one thick-
a window?
ness? Explain.
serve
46.
subsill?
a stone
What
What
What
of glass blocks?
lions
placed inside the mullion?
more than one qual-
there
weight of the structure?
standard sizes?
of insulating glass?
mold?
Is
ity? Explain.
Explain.
rail?
are three functions of
56. Does each window always

all
three functions?
window?
30.
Is
or
brick
Terms to Spell and
mold a part of the window?

31.
What
a drip cap and why
is
used?
is
it
window
32.
What
meant when one says
is
to
is
be purchased
unglazed?
33.
When
ordering
glass
are the dimensions listed?
how
Why?
How does one describe sevwindows made into one large
34.
eral
unit?
35.
36.
Does
it
What
What
have
unit
trim
muntin
mull.
caulking
mullion
quad.
opening
window
subsill
Sd.
double hung
top
window operator
meeting
flute
window
hopper
ceramic
insulating glass
sticking
stile
casing
rough
brick
3-bar case-
Lt.
awning
bay window
reasoning, describe
D.H.
casement
vertical stiffeners?
own
stiffener
rail
lock
window?
window?
Neoprene
plastic
bottom
cap
drip
extruded
bow window
a mull
Corner picture/w/
ment Sd.
chase
fixed sash
is
37. After studying the chapter,
from your
window opening
triple
is
Know
prime coat
opening
168
distortion
glass
grey glass
rail
rail
mold
pebbled
Lt.
rail
polished plate glass
tempered glass
patterned glass
sandwich glass
oakum
Stairs
and
Stair
Framing
no distinction
stairs and
an ordinary set of steps. The term
stairs will include any set of steps
mon. Heavy construction makes

steel and
concrete. Since this book deals
attached to a building.
greater emphasis will
be given
wood
However,
In this discussion
will
be
made between
Wood
in
light
steel
is most frequently used

frame construction, but
and concrete are not uncom-
Stringers
almost exclusive use of
primarily with light construction,
any
stair construction.
stair part
may
be constructed
of other materials.
Stringers
parts
are
(similar
notched floor
the
structural
and
inclined
to
joists) that
support
the stairs. Although minimum requirements permit only two stringers, one at each side of the stairs,
a
third
stringer
makes the
the
in
more
steps
middle
rigid
and
should be included except on very

inexpensive construction. There
are two general
many
methods of con-
wood
structing
stringers
(with
variations of each).
A plain
stringer
is
a 2"xl0" or
larger, with notches at
This
is
used
for
each step.
basements or
other very inexpensive construction.
The
nailed
and
treads
directly
These are sturdy
risers
are
the stringers.
to
stairs
but do not
give a finished appearance. Noise
(squeaking)
is
likely
when weight
on the treads.
Treads for basement stairs are
frequently made from 2" thick
dimension lumber, and risers are
sometimes omitted.
is
shifting
housed stringer
finished lumber; Vi"

first
Stairways
may be
Federal Sovir
the focal point of beauty for a room.
169
are routed into
and
it
made from
deep grooves
is
so the treads
risers slip into the stringers.
Stair Parts
Total Stair Rise
This
the distance from the
is
floor
of one finished
top
to
another.
Total Stair Run
This
the
is
total
horizontal
stair length.
Unit Structures,
Stairways
The grooves
are
may be
slightly
Stair parts.
F
behind the risers and below the

treads. This closes all joints so
they are tight from the finished
Riser
tread above.
Rise
shown. The method shown in the

third illustration is preferred by
The
the floor
is
This header
may
while they are on the
into place.
the
first
greater strength
method shown
is
desired.
in the
(top of
riser to
The
horizontal distance from
the face of one riser to the face
if
The
second
member
from the face of

the face of an ad-
Run
also be
used with the third method
is
one
and raised
shown in
may
horizontal
joining one, plus nosing.
ledger as
illustration
lustration
step) extending
be assembled
floor in a flat position,
from the
Tread
framed.
with the
vertical distance
top of one tread to the next.
author because the header

joists are doubled, which permits
the outside header to be left unthe
stairs
(back of
openings are
floor
when
member
from the bottom

of one tread to the bottom of the
Three methods of framing
attached
vertical
step) extending
side of the stairs.
at
Inc
larger
than tread and riser thickness, to

accommodate glued wood wedges
which are placed in the grooves
stringers
Koppers Company,
the focal point of beauty for a room.
of an adjoining one.
il-
Nosing
least satisfactory be-
cause the stringer has very little

surface bearing upon the header.
The
Joining
floor
portion of tread that over-
laps the riser below.
Stair
fair Rail
The
side
hand
rail
following
Straight stairs lead from one
he rake angle of the steps.
level to the next
These are the
without turns.
least
by a wall on both
stairs)
needed on both
stair
rail
sides, they are
L Stairs
An L
stairs
(sometimes called
a dogleg or platform stairs) has
are against a wall on one side,
one landing somewhere
but open on the other, they are

called open string stairs. When
flight
stairs
open
this
If
string stairs are used, a stair
required on the open side.
both sides are open (as for
of steps.
in
person using the

must make a 90 turn at
When
point.
the landing
flight,
it
is
called long
large post at the foot (bot-
3m) or head (top) of a stairs

'hich supports the ends of the
[air rail.
Typical baluster shapes.
II
ll
T~
r
PLAN
1
Small, evenly spaced posts to
upport the
stair rail.
PLAN
Straight stairs.
171
is
near the top or bottom of the
heights (banister).
Busters
the
lewel Post
The
is
sides.
called closed siring stairs. If they
rail is
rail
basement
expensive to
build. If the stairs are enclosed
Stair
Types
Straight Stairs
Long
L stairs
(bottom
L).
stairs.
'
Long L
When
ter
stairs (top.L).
the landing
of the
flight,
is
it
near the cencalled wide
is
stairs.
Double
L Stairs
L stairs have two turns,

one near the bottom and one near
Double
Wide
L stairs.
Double L
the top.
172
stairs.
5: Stairs
and
Stair
Framing
PLAN
Double
L stairs.
PLAN
"
Stairs
Narrow
flights
tween.
stairs
have two
of steps with a landing be-
The upper
flight reverses
and runs parallel to the

first flight. One must make a 180
turn on the landing. There is very
little space between the two
directions
flights.
Narrow U
173
stairs.
Obligation
Part One: Structure An Architectural
Winders
When
it
is
space
sometimes
room
at a
is
for landings.
winder steps
premium
difficult to
may
serve to turn a
'
corner.
difficult
and
ex-
pensive to build, and dangerous
These are
allow
Wedge shaped
PLAN
to use.
The narrow wedge
side
does not provide adequate footing surface.
Wide U
Wide
the narrow
are
moved
stairs
stairs
are similar to
except the flights

apart to form a well-
hole between. This wellhole must

be enclosed by a stair rail. A third
short flight
is
sometimes added,
as shown, at the landing.
When
forms two smaller

landings instead of one large one.
this is
done
it
Winding
174
stairs (winders).
5: Stairs
and
Framing
Stair
and Locations
Stair Uses
holes and have doors at the bot-
tom or
multi-story
Main stairs: well-constructed

and finished for constant use.
Service or basement stairs: de-
building, doors are
required at
signed for
cated near the kitchen or other
each
attached
stairs:
Main
stairs leading
main or
one should enter the

from a hall (preferably the
entry hall).
tice to
and go
to a basement without
walking through another room.
When
entrance.
possible,
stairs
should be able to enter a building
upper
be located near the
front
not good prac-
is
It
For most convenient use. service stairs

are in line with an entry door. Doors
should not interfere, but neither should

they open directly over a stairway.
stairs
are sometimes placed
side a
room
in-
an archi-
tectural effect. Additional service
are usually provided else-
stairs
open
Both
where.
and
door
string
closed string stairs without a
the stair well to upper levels, but

this
does not necessarily cause
discomfort to occupants. One

should carefully consider whether
the beauty of an open stairs warrants
and extra
discomfort
the
heating expense that will probably
Structural Details
Stair width for
stated by the
minimum,
stair rail.
main
FHA.
stairs,
2'-8"
is
this
is
hardly
Maximum
basement
minimum width, with

much better.
Minimum stair width for ser-
steps or stairs
vice
and basement
as stated by the
3'-0" is better.
Outside
stairs
is
2'-6",
FHA. However,
must be at least
as wide as the walk leading to
them and no less than 3'-0". Outside steps to a basement must be
stairs
at least 2'-6" wide.
stairs
for service or
rise
stairs
Maximum
3'-2" to 3'-6"
8V4".
is
rise
is
9" plus
stairs
nosing.
run for service or
basement stairs is the same as

above when closed risers are used.
With open risers, run is 9" plus
Vi" nosing.
Minimum
is
run for outside steps

10" plus 1" nosing. If
175
When
is
to a
inside ac-
not near
additional out-
used (as for concrete

vertical
is
in a flight
must be the same that
have the same
winder
rise
and
of
is.
run. This
exactly the same!

size.
the
is
When
The
same
any other step

not
the
risers)
1".
Note: Every step
means
IV2".
run for main
\W
Minimum
or stairs
is
with
steps
stairs
for exterior
They may
ground
side access should be provided.
Winder
Minimum
levels.
a service entry,
Run
is
upper
ing, or to
also lead from the
minimum
adequate. The author considers

3'-0"
main
is 8'/<".
plus the width of the
However,
rise for
items
lead from the ground to the build-
no nosing
Maximum
carrying
through other parts of a building.

Outside steps or stairs may
basement
Rise
as
eliminates
also
cess to a
required to be enclosed in well-
ascends through
carrying bulky objects to
hazard. Stairs
Warm
fire
is
the basement. This direct access
floor.
public buildings are frequently
It
necessary to turn a corner
not
basement
are a definite
in
in the illustra-
affords easiest access.
tion
drafts
Furthermore,
result.
at the bottom or top waste heat

and allow cold drafts to descend.
air also
The method used
when
be required to walk through
room to reach a stairs. Can you

see why? However, open string
a
to achieve
Basement stairs are

same general location. One
in the
to
usually lo-
service area.
stairs outside the building.
levels should
level.
Service stairs are
utility uses.
Outside steps or
In
top.
rise
of a
as the rise of
in the flight.
possible, winders should
come
to a point at the nar-
row end. An old rule says that

the narrow end of the tread
should be no less than % the
width of an ordinary tread, but
this rule
is
seldom observed.
width (from door to stairs) is 2'-6",

but when the door width is greater
than 2'-6", a landing at least as
recommended.
measured from
wide as the door
Headroom
is
is
the front corner of a tread (edge

of nosing) to the closest obstruction above. This obstruction
be a door opening, a
in this reference
ing over the
soffit
a sloped
is
may
(which
ceil-
or a framed
stairs),
opening in a floor or ceiling

above. FHA minimum headroom for a main stairs is 6'-8",
When
door opens toward the stairway
a landing should be provided.
but 7'-4" to 7'-7"
mum
headroom
service stairs
FHA
prescribes that tread

18" from
the converging end, should be
width,
the
when measured
same
as full treads.
A
is
landing at the top of stairs

desirable. A door should not
open over the
stairs.
swings toward the

ing
is
required.
If a door
stairs, a
Minimum
land-
landing
is
is
better.
for
Mini-
basement or
6'-4".
A stair rail should
be provided
on at least one side of a stairway.

Standard height of the stair rail
is 30" on the rake (angle following the steps) and 34" on the
landing. Three steps or fewer do
not require a stair
rail.
Wellholes
more than 30" deep require a
Number and Size
Calculating
fo owing proce dure
Jhe
Procedure for designing

WQuld be the same
tration
yQur
stairs
Yqu must knQW the distance

between finished floors. Detail
and overa dimensions for this
drawing are bot h given. Add all
dimens ons together to
detail
th(j ovrall dimensio n.
vefif
i
When nQ
ovefall floor t0 floor
dimension
given be sure you
is
include all sizes of all building

materials when com puting this
ht
For example on
A stairway must have a

proper slope if it is to be easy
to use. Steep stairs cause un-
to 11". Ideal rise
ease of use. Attic and basement
sometimes approach the

absolute maximum rise and
stairs
minimum
run, without regard
plan
lower floor to
F inished
finished ce
'
lin
Ceiling material th.ckness
0/2
between
Furring strips
and
joists
9'n
|oists
is
is
WA"
7" to 7V*".
(W
....
Thickness of subfloor
are designed for
this
sizes are inc luded:
thg foUowi
ceiling
(not including nosing)
stairs
treads and rJsers and thejr sizes

.
for {he staifs shown in the iUus
stair rail.
Special Note:
Main
was
determine the number
tQ
Height of floor
necessary difficulty for users.
of
Treads and Risers
Thickness of finished floor
0%"
.
9'-0'A"
Total rise
The proportion of tread
Since the size of each step is

in inches, the over-
width to rise (and riser height)

determines stair slope. Two
methods of establishing this
proportion are stated below.
computed
then
is
you add the proposed

rise to the proposed tread
width and the sum is between
ideal
step height, the total rise
the stair slope will
s j nce
If
and
dimension should also be

to inches. The total rise
all
changed
js
108%". Since 7"
divided by
[54/, r i se rs
an
This indicates
7.
are
is
required.
Then
each step must be
for easy use. Stairs that are too
17
low-angled are avoided be-
be satisfactory.
exactly the same, either 15 or 16
you multiply the proposed rise by the proposed

tread width and the product is
risers
cause they require too
much
space.
Page 175
maximum
and minimum
states
rise for a step
These do not represent

ideal sizes. Ideal tread width
run.
18,
2. If
70 to 75, the
stair slope will
Tise for
l08'/4"
height
will
is
is
be
7.22".
When
required.
divided
So
by
far,
15,
riser
this fig-
be satisfactory. The closer to
ure appears to be very satisfacso additional calculations

t ory,
75, the better the slope.
w jh
176
be based upon
it.
IS: Stairs
and
Framing
Siair
o
O
I
z
= o
O
flQ
6.47"
1
7.22"
i
O
I
Z
>
10'A"
00
IV.
STRINGER
1/1
OPTIONAL
<
~-^^/\
'
147"
OR
12 -3"
RUN
Stair calculations
The number of treads is always

less than the number of risers,
one
so 14 treads are required. This
ideal tread width,
number,
it
will
and
is
Using method
number
is
factory.
is
an
a whole
is
be used for pre-
liminary tread calculations. Using
slope
stair slope,
method number 1 of checking

add the rise (7.22) to
is
proposed tread width (11).

The sum of these two numbers
treads
To
the
is
18.22. This
number
18,
is
larger than the
which indicates the
2,
the size
Another
is
trial
stairs
give
number of
This gives a total stair
run of 147" or
-
12'-3".
Since these
adequate headroom,
they are satisfactory.
177
2.
What
3.
are
stair stringers?
Describe plain stringers, their
limitations
their
find the total stair run, 10'/2
14).
Know/edge
must be
satisfactory.
multiplied by the
(
also unsatis-
made, using another tread width.

For the second trial lOW is used.
If 10V4" is added to 7.22, the sum
is 17.72, which indicates that the
because the floor or landing serves

as the top tread. Since 11"
stairs are too flat.
and
uses.
housed
Describe
stringers,
advantages and uses.

4.
Draw
ods of joining
sketches showing methstairs to floor framing.
5. Describe total stair rise.

6. Describe total stair run.
7.
8.
What
What
is
is
rise of
riser?
a step?
Port
What
9.
include
a tread? Does
is
this
of the material forming
all
0.
1
12.
3.
14.
What
What
What
What
What
6.
7.
18.
is
a nosing?
is
why must
is
a newel post?
is
a baluster?
stair rail?
flight
between a long
9.
20.
21.
22.
23.
for
mum
double
narrow U
wide U
steps
in
Do maximum
rise
What
stairs?
stairs?
is
What
Why
37.
FHA minimum
are the
FHA minimum
standard
the
is
the stair
rail
height
is
the correct stair slope
so very important?
38. Describe ideal tread width.

size requirements for
winder treads?
39. Describe ideal
Is
it
permissible to have a
door open out over a

33.
When
stairs?
Why?
a door must open
How
40.
to-
stairs
riser height.
can one determine
winder?
Terms to Spell and
Know
dogleg
are
plain stringers
stair rail
ser-
housed stringers
newel post
total stair rise
baluster
wellhole
total stair run
straight stairs
winder
riser
have a door at the top or bottom of
rise (of step)
closed string stairs
service stairs
a stairs?
tread
open
headroom
run (of step)
landing
soffit
nosing
flight (of stairs)
rake
24.
When
in this
vice
stairs
main
the
location,
usually
stairs
why are
provided
else-
where?
25.
26.
Why
Why
basement
is
is
it
it
a good idea to
good
stairs directly
to
have a
across from
a service entry door?
178
Describe two methods of checking.
stairs?
the best location
if
has a proper rise-to-run ratio?
a main stairs?
placed
stair
on a landing?
resent ideal step sizes? Explain.
31.
the
height above the steps?
36.
mini-
and
is
What
35.
rail
and
provi-
stairs?
straight
run, as stated in the text, rep-
32.
What are
What are
What are
What is a
Where is
all
What
34.
special
be made?
requirement for headroom over a
be the same size?
30.
a wide L?
1
recommended as a
minimum main stair width?

29. From your own reasoning,
what
stairs,
sions should
run of a step?
What are open string stairs?

What are closed string stairs?
What are L stairs? What is
the difference
is
ward a
outside
be provided?
is
15. Describe a straight stairs.

1
an
should
stairs
What
28.
the horizontal part of a step?

1
When
27.
basement
stairs
string stairs
stairs
main
stairs
1M>
Insulation
As used
to
here, to insulate
means
hinder or stop the transfer of
heat,
from one
or sound
cold,
area to another. All building ma-
For convenience, the three

methods of heat transfer are reviewed, even though you have
studied them in other courses, be-
ducted
through
such as
floors, walls,
and the rays of the sun may
insulating
cause they are closely connected
The problem
with understanding the handling
transfer.
some
is
of insulation. While studying the

chapter remember that insulation
is
Methods
Heat
is
of
by convection.
Conduction
sage of energy,
the direct pas-
is
light,
or heat from
one object to another, through

contact. For example, you place
your hand on a cold windowpane,
the cold
is
conducted
hand, and heat to the
to
your
glass,
by
Radiation, in a simplified sense,
is
the passage of heat rays through

air.
An
object
the rays strike
For example,
and cooling
Chapter 19.
held near a lighted electric bulb

they are
warmed by
radiation.
Convection is the mass movement of heated air or other par
ticles either resistant to
or caused
by gravity or mechanical forces.

For example, in a two-story home,
heavier cool air descends along
the steps of a stairway while light
warm
air
moves toward the top of
the stair well. These are convec-
if
is
warmed
its
surface.
your hands are
Means
of Retarding Heat Transfer
Heat or cold may be convected

into a building through openings
such as windows, doors, or loose
construction.
It
may
179
also be con-
strike
Good
is
to
control
the
construction methods
and weather stripping at all doors

and windows help a great deal.
Usually more heat and cold are
transferred through windows than
any other building parts. Glass is
a very poor insulator. When
standing near a window one may
experience heat or cold transfer
through the glass and mistake
it
for outside air entering the build-
even
ing,
though
is
it
tightly
closed.
The addition of storm windows

or double glazing helps stop this
transfer. Air space
panes of glass
is
between the
the
actual
retardant.
As
ings
tion currents.
direct contact.
space or
in
Heat Transfer
transferred in one of
three ways. These are: (1) by conduction, (2) by radiation, and (3)
when
to work with heating
systems discussed
stated.
parts
or ceilings,
surfaces inside through windows.
never without insulation. However, the term

here refers to materials used exclusively for the purposes just
have
terials
value, so a structure
building
said, walls, floors,
act
as
and
conductors.
ceil-
The
amount of conduction depends

upon the materials used. When
the construction materials themselves
do not have
sufficient in-
sulation value, additional materials
must be used.
Classifications of
Insulation
There are many materials used
insulation. They may be
grouped into four general cateas
gories: (1) vegetable. (2) mineral.
and
(3) metal,
may
Each
(4) plastic.
many
be processed into
dif-
ferent forms for special uses.
Loose
Insulation
Fill
This insulation
not pressed
is
into a sheet or other solid unit
and must be placed loose between

framing members. It may be
poured or blown into position.
Loose fill insulation is usually of
Loose
fill
insulation may be poured or

blown between studs.
Rigid insulation placed toward the out-
side of a
frame
wall
may
also serve as
sheathing.
mineral composition, but occasionally vegetable material such

as granulated cork
is
be either fibrous
(like
used.
may
It
threads),
or granular (small particles). Ex-
amples of fibrous insulation are

rock wool, glass wool (spun glass
fibers),
table)
eral)
and slag wool. Cork (vegeand expanded mica (min-
may
It is
dle loose
it
be granular.
sometimes
must be
installed
construction
Packaged
is
it
is
most
Insulation
Fill
is
similar to
fi-
insulation except
fill
adhered
after
completed.
This material
brous loose
han-
difficult to
insulation because
fill
to,
Half thick batt insulation should be fas-
tened on the
warm
side of a wall to
Fiberboard
minimize condensation.
or contained be-
insulation
may
serve as a
plaster base.
tween, sheets of kraft paper for
more convenient
use.
The pack-
as
shown. Observe that some of
aging permits installation while
the insulations have paper on only
Pack-
one face while others are completely encased in it. Note also
that some have nailing flanges
while others do not. Those with-
construction
age width
tween
is
is
in progress.
designed to
fit
be-
normal stud spacings.
Thicknesses most frequently used.

are
1", 2", 4",
This
and
insulation
6".
may be
in-
stalled as batts. blankets, or rolls
Rigid Insulations
These may be of mineral, vegefoamed plastic, and are
table, or
available in
sheets,
purposes.
many
different sized
many
specific
One should
consult
used
for
out provisions for fastening are
manufacturers' literature to be-
held in place by forcing them be-
come acquainted with the many

forms and uses. Typical rigid
tween the framing members.
180
16: Insulation
insulations are manufactured of

grass-type vegetable fiber that has
been broken down from its living

and reprocessed by pressure,
heat, and the addition of resins.
state
Some
rials
are fibrous mineral matesuch as spun glass or rock
Foamed
wool.
contains
plastic
cells that insulate.
These are frequently dual purpose products that serve as insulation but also as wall sheathing,
soffit coverings, plaster base,
roof
sheathing, acoustic wall or ceiling
materials such as panels or tile,
and similar
items. See three illus-
trations, top left,
on page
Insulation (pressed) board wall

is widely used. Its standard thickness is -A:" but Vi"
meets most code requirements.
Standard widths are 24" and 48".
Standard lengths are 8'-0" and

9'-0".
Board surfaces may be untreated and have the fibers exin
may
waterproof
solid
furring
Foil
reflector
insulation
is
masonry
walls,
may
strips
spaces between
be filled with
insulation.
nailed or
stapled to studs.
182.
sheathing
posed, or they
On
flat or have folded or stamped

designs to add to rigidity and in-
crease
reflective
backing
the
is
foil to
turn,
Paper
sometimes added to
increase
aluminum
added
to
quality.
its
strength. In
foil is
frequently
one face of packaged
sulation
for
in-
increased effective-
ness.
As
a backing of drywall or
rock lath,
it
also serves as a fire
retardant.
Reflective insulation
may have
a sandwich construction, consisting of two layers of foil with space
and
stiffeners
between them as
shown.
be encased
bituminous
coating.
Slab insulation
backed plaster board
Foil
similar in ap-
is
serves as a fire retardant.
pearance to insulation board with

a coated surface, except the sheets
are not pressed into a rigid form.
Even though the

the
interior
quite soft.
exterior
material
They are
mineral or foamed
is
rigid
usually
is
usually of
plastic.
Loose
fill
leveled
is
poured and
between joists.
Reflective Insulation
Thin sheets of high gloss metal,

aluminum, may be used
usually
to reflect heat or cold.
may
The
sheets
be used alone or combined
with other materials. When used

alone they are usually secured to
framing members. They
Batts
or
blankets
may be
stapled from above.
may be
181
Port One: Structure An Architectural Obligation
and
Sound Control
Ordinary sand plaster has very
Plaster as Insulation
Batts or blankets
may
also
be fastened from below.
little
When
insulating value.
sulating
are
qualities
lightweight
plasters
in-
desired,
made from
minerals such as expanded mica,

vermiculite, or perlite are effective.
Rigid
fiberboard
may be
placed
Insulating
plaster
fre-
is
insulation
quently used for sound control.
between a
Greater insulating value as well
subfloor and finished floor to
as
reduce sound transmission.
sound control can be obtained
with a sprayed plaster, texture

finished.
Sprayed plaster
cur-
is
rently very popular because large
areas can be applied quite rap-
Fiberboard
insulation
may
serve as a celling base.
idly. It is most widely used on

commercial structures. Sprayed
plaster gives a beautiful and in-
teresting appearance. Its greatest
disadvantage
causes
it
to
is its
softness
which
become damaged
easily.
Sound Conditioning
Special effort to sound condition
homes and apartments

recent
relatively
is
development.
waves as much as is possible, to

prevent them from passing to
other areas. Hard, smooth surfaces reflect more sound than
porous textured ones. This

a
or
is
room with an
tile
ceiling
is
why
acoustic plaster
and carpeted
floor
quieter than one with a smooth
Livability can
hanced
if
be greatly ensound conditioning is
carefully planned.
Some
surfaces
absorb, while
others reflect sound waves.
conditioning
means
Sound
absorbing
Stud arrangement for sound control

wall.
A metal channel system
182
is
used to support suspended acoustic
ceilings.
16: Insulation
much sound
to pass
other living areas.
through
When
to
As
between them, as shown, helps
floor should not be nailed
reduce
through
An
acoustic ceiling on the ad-
level will also improve

sound conditioning. A drop ceiling, as shown on the bottom of
page 182, not directly attached to
jacent
provides even
the joists,
better
sound control.
and
hard surface
provide
not
floor.
Wood
and
joists
permit
floors
control,
sufficient
be used.
rooms allow
two independent
walls with space and insulation
sound
transfer,
this.
Special metal and rubber clips

also be used to hold wallboard and other sheet materials
away from framing members to
reduce sound transmission.
Wood
other construction methods, such
paneling similar to the
one shown may be fastened
to a
wall, acting as a trap to prevent
sound
methods discussed do
If the
floors,
walls between
may
cause nails transfer sound.
plaster ceiling
may
sound deadening
insulation, as shown, can be cemented between the subfloor and
finished floor. Note: The finished
the insulation to the subfloor be-
wood panel wa
poured concrete or concrete
plank
objectionable,
Acoustic
as
is
this
reflection.
Although the
absorb
paneling
does
sound,
turns waves into each
it
not
the
other.

As used here, what
is
meant
by the term insulation?
What
What is conduction? From

your own reasoning give an example
12.
13.
What
What
other than the one
14.
In
2.
3.
What
in
the book.
radiation? Give an
is
example other than the one
in
the
book.
What
is
convection? Give an
example other than the one
in
the
book.
5.
What
6.
is
it
weather
is
stripping
used?
How do
7.
double glazing help stop heat trans-
batt insulation?
is
blanket insulation?
What
What
in
is
in
questions
What
in-
7.
is
From what four basic mateinsulation
usually manufac-
8.
9.
What
What
is
is
loose
fill
insulation?
meant by the term
fibrous insulation?
10.
What
is
meant by the term
granular insulation?
plaster.
from
regular
24.
Why
is
What
it
is
sound conditioning?
important?
25. Describe some of the meth-
ods used to improve sound condi-
rigid insulation?
tioning.
are three types of rigid
Terms to Spell and

insulation
is
Know
board wall
heat transfer
What
is
its
standard
thick-
ness?
conduction
radiation
19.
Name two
surface treat-
sheathing.
20.
How
tured?
insulating
differ
it
place?
ments for insulating board wall
fer?
does
plaster?
sheathing?
18.
storm windows or
is
mentioned
23. Describe
How
insulation?
what two ways are the
3 held
6.
fill
insulation?
1
and why
rials
sulations
and
15.
4.
are two disadvantages
of using loose
is
21.
is
reflective insulation?
used?
Why
How
fill
insulation
batt insulation
blanket insulation
sometimes paper
is
it
is
reflective
backed?
22.
weather stripping
loose
What
it
convection
rigid insulation
slab insulation
insulation
sometimes used with other

ing materials?
183
insulat-
reflective insulation
sound conditioning
w
Requirements
Electrical
Each year many new
electrical
through wires to a building. This
devices are placed on the market
source usually (but not always)
make
and more enand other

buildings are equipped with as
ing
many
usually provided by the owner.
to
joyable.
life
easier
New homes
of these
devices
as
the
provides the lines only to a building.
The entrance
service
throughout a
and wir-
building
are
conductors up to the service entrance panel are No. 6 or heavier.
Most codes require
even greater amperage.
ning
items.
were formerly very luxurious or

even non-existent. The number of
building or from the power plant

is by overhead service, which
ments
electrical items
is
increasing,
to
do so.
If one
The conventional way of runentrance
conductors
to
included in homes
means wires on
and
continue
source to the building. Another
of today's
method is underground wiring.

The first method is most often
tries to
will
use
all
conveniences with wiring designed

for the past, the results
can be
used because
However,
it
least expensive.
it is
has serious draw-
disastrous. Inadequate wiring
backs. Wires strung from pole to
cause
pole are unsightly.
can
which
may result in fires. Overloads
cause fuses to burn out, which is
very inconvenient. Wires that are
which can cause interruptions in

service. The underground method
too small create excessive resis-
is
tance which in turn increases the
but
lines
electricity
to
overheat,
used. This causes an
increase in the electric
necessary
to
plan
bill.
electrical features so they
the anticipated
tric
It is
building's
demand
exceed
are also
damaged during
storms,
much more expensive

is
more
to install
desirable because
is
supplied by
removes these objections. Many

newly planned communities have
complete underground service.
Kind of Service
owned
organi-
zations that deliver current
small
buildings
usually
electric
service.
184
is
covered here.
Units of Measure
Ampere. Amperage is the
strength of an electric current.
is
It
the quantity that can be trans-
mitted through a wire at a given
The larger the wire the more

amperage it can transmit.
Ohm. The unit of electrical retime.
sistance in a circuit.
Volt.
Voltage
that
forces
wire.
It
is
the pressure
is
current
through
the force that causes
require
one ampere to flow through a

wire whose resistance is one ohm.
Watt. A watt is one ampere
under one volt of pressure.
Watt hour. A watt hour is one
watt used for a period of one
hour.
Kilowatt.
Entrance
kilowatt
is
1,000
watts.
three-wire, single-phase, 120-240

volt
all electrical
A sketch of general require-
it
For the architectural draftsman, a course in electrical circuitry is valuable. Homes and other
Electric Service
private or publicly
They
for elec-
current.
Electric service
easily
meet the demand of
from a
poles
Of course
the system must be designed to
will permit. Even modest

homes include many devices that
budget
amp.
some require
that 100
service be used, but
Kilowatt hour.
is
kilowatt hour
1.000 watts used for one hour.
17: Electrical Requirements
Abbreviations for Units
An example
Measure
of
of the electric requirements for a small
ampere
Amp., amp.,
General illumination
4.0
KW =
volt
V, v
Dishwasher
1.0
KW
watt
W, w
Electric
9.8
KW
watt hour
watt-hr., wh., whr.
Automatic clothes washer
0.6
kilowatt
KW,
Automotic clothes dryer.
kilowatt hour
kw.
K.W.H., kwh.,
Heating system
Central air conditioning.
W
V=
A
W = Ax V
If
trical
amounts of current
different
is
the\
re-
only a partial
list.
items or ones with
power
ratings are to be
used, their requirements must be
secured from manufacturer's data.
Electrical
Equipment Demand
Diversified
demand
(KW)
General illumination
4.0
Automatic clothes washer
.6
Dishwasher
.9
Electric
range
Electric
oven,
Electric
cooking top,
8.0
3.6
built-in
4.5
built-in (4 units)
Electric clothes dryer:
.5.0
KW
8.0
KW
35.2
KW
to use all the elec-
the entrance service

to carry
9,800
600
6,300
500
5,000
8,000
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
120 V
240 V
240 V
120 V
240 V
120 V
240 V
120 V
33.30 omps.
4.15 amps.
40.83 amps.
5.00 amps.
26.25 amps.
4.17 omps.
20.83 amps.
66.66 omps.
201.19 amps.
in
a home; the
specific
125 amp.
one may be used.
Entrance service panels may be
equipped with fuses, as described
is
listed
as providing
service, so this
containing a limited conmelts
when
excess
water heater:
current
1
is
passed
3.4
.6
Food waste disposer
.4
Water pump
.4
Attic fan
.4
bathroom heater (each)
Central heating system'
.3
.5
air conditioner (each)
Central air conditioner
.5
1.0
2
panels
Only the larger of the heating or cooling load

need be considered.
Rated wattage.
H. A.
185
may
equipped with
can be reset
overload is removed.
be
circuit breakers that
after
an
202 amperes.
panel designed for this

amperage. However, one
service
ductor that
High recovery
F.
KW
However, one may safely assume

no more than Vs of the items
will be in use at the same time.
To arrive at a realistic amperage
then, one would provide approximately Vs the computed amount,
or 121 amps. A search of manufacturer's data reveals no entrance
6.3
Room
0.5
.
1,000
Distribution
From
that
High speed
Food freezer
same time
would need
earlier,
Electric
KW
KW
items listed above at the
3.4
Normal recovery
one were
Normal
Electric
.6.3
4,000
The above list does not include all items normally found
ones given are for illustrative purposes only.
table shows
If different
Future appliances
A= W
V
items of electrical equipment and

the
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Demand
The following
quire. This
stove
kw-h, kw-hr
Formulas for Units of Measure
Calculating
home might
be as follows:
through,
'
or
the electrical center,
and
passing through individual fuses

or circuit
breakers,
branch
cir-
run to equipment and

lighting. Branch circuits are usual-
cuits are
ly
designed to carry
15
or 20
amps., depending upon the con-
For many years

was considered adequate but, with toductor wire
No.
size.
14 conductor wire
day's increased
is
demand. No.
12
desirable. If circuits are to carry
heavy loads as
for electric stoves,
air conditioners,
motors, they
may
or heavy duty
require No. 10
or larger conductor wires.
Part One: Structure
may be
direction they
placed in
unnecessary
to have separate conduits for each
a single conduit;
it is
Conduit
categorized into two
may
of wires.
set
illustration,
duit
classifica-
On
rigid or flexible.
tions:
is
how
observe
be
the
the con-
bent so wires can turn
corners.
run without conduit

considered
fire safe.
wires to be
they are
if
Two
or
be encased
in flexible cable
conduit, or two or
more wires may
built-in protection, such as
strands of wire inside a waterRigid conduit
and receptacle boxes back

to back.
There are several methods of

code requirements and per-
local
sonal preference.
mon
tic
proof covering, or wires

encased in plastic. The
frequently
protecting circuits, determined by
The most com-
uses wires in metal or plas-
pipe sizes permit any
used
underground
for
may
be
outside
circuits. It
or
must be
which can cause short circuits,

and does not deteriorate from
Any
of the protective methods
same
tems, which are discussed later.
mentioned above can be used
identification.
Number
uninsulated.
wires
Each of the black
supplies
120 volts, while
the white one serves as a neutral
be strung. In addition to these

wires a green one is sometimes
included to serve as a secondary
ground. This wire
is
not connected
to the electrical system.

is
One end
fastened to a water pipe or
metal stake outside the building
or ground wire. If branch circuits
and the other end
require only 120 volts, just one
the case of the appliance or
black wire and one white wire
ture.
are needed. If a circuit requires
electricity into the
240
event of a short circuit, and to
volts,
all
three wires
must
of Circuits Required
As discussed
cuit
This wire
is
186
is
fastened to
cir-
15 or
20 amps; so individual
cir-
must be calculated and
cuit loads
distributed throughout the system
accomplish
to
bution
is
this.
Proper
distri-
very important for
effi-
cient operation.
Stoves, air conditioners, water

heaters, furnaces, freezers, large
motors, or any other device that

requires large
amperage should
be placed alone on a
ceptacle outlets in
utility
circuit.
the
Re-
kitchen,
room should be
more
distributed between two or
and should not be on ones
used for illumination. All receptacle outlets in a
room should not
be placed on the same
may
circuit.
overlap into two or
more rooms.
In rooms other than the
ser-
vice
and
area,
lighting
receptacle outlets
fixtures
may
be placed
on the same circuit. However,

no room should have all equipment on the same circuit. The
load can be too heavy and if service is disrupted the entire room
is
without
electricity.
fix-
used to siphon
ground
each
earlier,
should carry no more than
in
Wires and Circuits Required

brought from the source to the
entrance panel. Two of them are
black and one is either white or
new con-
manner.
Wires running from an appliance or fixture to a switch are
Circuits
Three wires are normally
building codes
struction to be installed in this
circuits
conjunction with low voltage sys-
wires are to be run in the
wiring in
all
laundry, or
exposure.
number of
many
wires to be placed inside. If
Many
require
latter is
of a grade that seals out water,
pipe, called conduit. Different
to the user.
depending upon the num-
similar in appearance to flexible
have
conduct static charges, thereby

reducing danger and annoyance
more
ber needed for the circuit run,
may
frequently colored red for easy
Some codes permit
wires,
An
Outlet Boxes
Except for low voltage systems,
in the
all
wire connections, fixtures, re-
some models have

removable sides so several can be
joined together to form gang boxes
individuals, or
to
accommodate
several switches
may
or receptacle outlets. Boxes
be fastened directly
to structural
members, or they may be secured

by a variety of fastening devices.
When installed, the open side
of a box is placed flush with the
finished wall.
Every room except the bath

at least three duplex
(double) receptacle outlets. They

are installed a
maximum
of 12
more deEvery wall large enough

but 8 feet
is
for placing furniture should
have
electrical
system
in
outlet
and
octagonal boxes are shown. The
first two are used primarily for
switches and receptacle outlets.
boxes. Rectangular, square,
Octagonal boxes are used for

stalling light fixtures
in-
and making
wire connections. Octagonal boxes

are
used
alone,
rectangular ones
but
square or
may be used
as
must have
controlled,
For best
ture.
The dining room
one switchpermanent light fixat
least
results this fixture
table.
The kitchen should

have a permanent light fixture
mounted in or near the center of
the ceiling. This light should be
controlled by switches near the
doors. A permanent fixture should
also be installed
The
above the
switch for this light
sink.
may be
rooms should
nent,
tures controlled by switches. Fix-
coincide with furniture placement.
tures
is,
if
device
lamp or other
is
likely to
elec-
be used
should
it.
Special outlet requirements.
the
are provided.
Dining room.
windows, or by fireplaces. Outlet

location should be planned to
be a receptacle outlet near
other devices should be joined to
lets
wall spaces between doors, below
at a certain location, there
and
if
switch-controlled receptacle out-
on the wall adjacent to the sink.

Utility or laundry rooms. These
trical
switches,
permanent
usually required
a receptacle outlet; this includes
That
outlets,
is
Kitchen.
should have
ceptacle
No
room.
Living
light fixture
room
Required Lighting
and Switches
sirable.
proof.
should be near or over the dining
Outlets
feet apart,
weather, they should be water-
also have
must also be provided near
laundry tubs or sink and

other work areas.
Bedrooms. Bedrooms do not
always have permanent ceilingmounted fixtures. These may be

omitted
tion to regular kitchen or utility
the client so desires.
each
outlets,
permanent
appliance should have a separate
There should be two or

above each counter
top. (3) An outlet must be provided above or close to the lavaoutlet.
more
outlets
tory mirror. (4)
When
outlets are
placed in basements, garages, outdoors, or any other place
where
dampness is likely to occur, they

must be of the grounding type.
(5)
If outlets are
187
exposed to the
fix-
the
Every hall should have at least

one receptacle outlet. (2) In addi-
room
perma-
ceiling-mounted light
if
switch-controlled
re-
ceptacle outlets are provided and
Activity
room (with any name).
This room should be equipped

with permanent switch-controlled
They may be simple ceilmounts or very elaborate in-
fixtures.
ing
stallations featuring light troughs,
indirect
lighting,
dimming
accent
lights,
or
other
devices,
specialties.
Halls.
all halls
The
entry or foyer and
should have permanent
switch-controlled fixtures.
closets,
convenience.
light
fixture.
These are usually
at least one permanent fixmounted above the lavatory
descent or fluorescent bulbs. All
mirror.
Its
switch should be near
However,
if this
the only fixture in the
room
the point of use.
the switch should be near the door.

If the
-S-
should have a permanent
units,
very simple with exposed incan-
ture
is
8'-0",
room
is
larger than 5'-0"x
an additional
ceiling fixture
closet lights
controlled.
The
must be switchswitch may have a
simple pull chain attached to the

fixture, or it may be mechanical,
to turn the light
as the
door
is
on automatically
opened. When
closets are filled with shelves, as
should be provided. Note: One

should be unable to reach any
a linen cupboard,
switch or receptacle outlet from
fixture so
the bathtub because of the elec-
area.
trical
danger to the
Light outlet with pull switch
B.
One
lighting outlet controlled by a
it is
it
will
Two
lighting outlets controlled by
a single pole switch

D.
One
Stairways. Permanent fixtures
should be provided to illuminate

all stairways. They may be at a
point along the stair well or near
E.
Two
lighting outlets controlled by
three-way switches
Switching diagram.
ceilings with
nating basement
When
luminous panels are decorative as
well as functional.
Artcresr Products Co., Inc
stairs, if
illumi-
the light
is
placed at the foot of the
it
may
lighting outlet controlled by
three-way switches
good idea
illuminate the
the top or bottom.

C.
to place a simple ceiling-mounted
user.
A.
single pole switch
Suspended
All
except very small shelving
Bathroom. The bathroom must
have
S-
cupboards.
or
Closets
Three-way switches are recomfor a long hall. These

are operated at two points, for
mended
basement.
cess
stairs
also illuminate part of the
to
If there
no other ac-
is
the basement this light
may have
a single-pole switch. If
the basement has another door
providing access, a three-way

switch should be provided so the
light can be controlled from both
and foot of the stairs.

Even though a single-pole switch
the head
minimum
fulfills
the
ments,
three-way
strongly
require-
switches
recommended
for
are
all
stairs.
Basement
lights.
There are no
special lighting requirements for
However, proper
must be provided
the basement.
illumination
for safety
and the
formed. Lights
tasks to be per-
may
be controlled
by switches or pull chains as

desired.
188
""
AJS
-iiUlL
Scholz Hornet
Exterior lighting
Lighting for this family
makes
this
home an
after-dark showplace.
room and kitchen adds
to both function
and beauty.
Scho'z
Homes
Inc.
189
>
>
Lighting fixture types.
190
7: Electrical
Requirements
Garage. Permanent switchcontrolled fixtures are to be in-
cluded
be
in the garage.
able
to
control
One
should
them from
either the house or garage.
Outside
illumination.
Special Lighting Requirements

In addition to the general
lumination just discussed,

sirable to
have additional
cooking, or other uses.
writing,
One may
to illuminate the entrance outside
beauty or psychological
each door. These are controlled
by switches inside the building

but next to the door opening. Adexterior lighting
sirable but
fulfill
is
de-
must be designed
specific
de-
light in
most rooms for reading, sewing,
Perma-
nent fixtures must be provided
ditional
it is
il-
to
needs or desires.
also desire light for
There are so many

available that
fixtures
possible to discuss or
them.
Only general
its
electrical
it
is
not
all
types
can be divided into two parts.

The main system supplies 120
volts to fixtures
of
are
and
is
very simi-
conventional wiring. Conventional switch wires leading

lar to
from
effect.
show
The accompanying diagram

shows how the electrical system
have been elimi-
fixtures
They
nated.
are replaced by elec-
tromagnet switches actuated by

the low-voltage circuit.
At the
of the diagram ob-
left
Switch
represented to convey an idea of
serve
the possibilities.
wires leading from the transformer
the
transformer.
supply 12 or 24 volts (depending
upon
the system). Observe also
that after the switch wires leave
the transformer the two sets of
wiring
are
where
in
they
not
the
connected any-
building;
operate
that
is,
independently
of
each other. Since they supply

voltage they
duty
may be of very
bell wire.
There
is
little
light-
no danger
of a hazardous short circuit in the

switching system; wires need not
be run
in
conduit nor installed in
metal switch boxes.

Low voltage wiring diagram.
Electrical Plans
Electrical plans for light con-
struction are
drawn
to
show the
approximate location of the entrance service panel,
all
switches,
and fixtures.
Exact locations are seldom di-
receptacle
outlets,
mensioned, thus permitting
slight
variations to expedite installation.
Except for very large buildings

Switch locations for interior and exterior fixtures.
with complicated electrical systems, conductor wires are not in-
Low Voltage Systems
When
electrical
must control
devices from a great
switches
number of
tion
locations, the installa-
becomes very complex and
the cost
may be
prohibitive.
Low
voltage wiring and switching de-
dicated on electrical plans.
When
cause they are designed for these
one observes electrical floor plans

and sees lines connecting switches
and fixtures, these may be mis-
installations.
interpreted
vices are a practical solution be-
191
as
wire
locations.
These
only
lines
the
indicate
Symbols
proper switch to control a specific

they do not indicate the
fixture;
exact location of conductor wires.
space permits, electrical
If
formation
may be
in-
included on a
floor plan. If the plan
too com-
is
may be
one
plex,
separate
drawn
to
show wiring and fixtures.
Electrical information
may also
run to a building? Explain the use
drawn
Electrical items are
as
frequently used are included in
Chapter
38, rather
Of
electrical information.
course,
symbols replace specific items. If

such items must be identified,
code numbers or manufacturers'
model numbers may be added
the plan at a location near the
ample, typical and special switch
symbol.
outlet heights
need
27.
What
28.
Why
to
When drawing symbols

on your plan be sure to check the
examples mentioned earlier.
is
a secondary ground?
are switch wires some-
times colored red?
than with other
be required on elevation, detail,

and section drawings. For ex-
and receptacle
to be shown.
of each.
symbols on building plans. For

convenient reference those most
29. From
own
your
reasoning,
from the preceding question, why

are several colors used on the
in-
sulation of electric wires?
What
30.
amperage
recommended
the
is
for
typical
electrical
circuit?
31.
Is
permissible to place an
it
and an
electric stove
air condition-
on the same
circuit?
why or why not.

32. What is a receptacle
outlet?
ing compressor
Explain
33. Should

in
Why
does
found
electrical items
number of
the
in
homes today
exceed the number used
in
What
How
does
this affect
wiring
is
4.
supplies
5.
likely to
is
happen
if
electric service?
is
Who
What
8.
culations,
panel?
building? Explain the advantages and
22.
disadvantages of each.
23.
7.
8.
9.
10.
1
2.
3.
14.
is
What
What
determine this?
a kilowatt?
is
a kilowatt hour?
most
for
heavier wire
or
What is conduit? Describe two
not.
How do
26.
building
or
why
41.
42.
codes help
wires are usually
192
any room on the same
What
kinds of items require
Why?
in
ques-
circuit? Explain
why
not.
What are outlet boxes? What
What
What
are gang boxes?

is
a duplex receptacle
outlet?
lets
How many
Why?
why
40.
why
advise
receptacles and
all
shapes?
25. Are conductor wires always

conduit? Explain
re-
are the three most frequently used
kinds.
in
in
permis-
and
37, must each room be placed
39.
circuits?
recommended?
it
circuit?
How would you
on a separate
is
is
38. Excluding the items
an entrance service
What is a branch circuit?

What conductor wire size
recommended
run
same
individual circuits?
tion
is
not?
other rooms
on having
37.
be used at the
will
Explain.
When
is
client
fixtures
home? Amperage?
What is an ohm?
What is an ampere?
What is a volt?
What is a watt?
What is a watt hour?
24.
36.
determine
to
circuit?
How much voltage is normally
supplied to a
why
In
sible to place light fixtures
electrical cal-
What
21.
to
how
be on
fixtures
as receptacle out-
ceptacles on the
equipment
are two methods of
conductors
the formula for find-
light
circuit
a kitchen or laundry room?
or
does one presume that
same time?
entrance
is
When making
20.
pays the cost for en-
all
running
Why
9. Explain
Explain.
What
in
35.
trance conductors up to a building?
6.
lets
is
the electric requirements of a home.
it?
Who
same
amperes?
ing
inadequate?
What
the
room be on
utility
circuit?
34. Should
ing volts?
building wiring?
What
What
7.
same
is
ing watts?
the anticipated trend
is
for the future?
3.
What
6.
a kitchen or
the
9 through 14.
the im-
mediate past?
2.
15. Give abbreviations for items
receptacle outlets
all
the
How
should receptacle out-
be spaced
in
a room?
minimum number
for
What
is
each room?
43.
What
walls
have
should
receptacle outlets?
44.
If
a room does not require a
permanent
light fixture,
provision must be
what special
made?
utility
re-
room,
why low-voltage
wire size can be less than
with conventional wiring.
On
46. Describe the possible lighting

requirements of bathrooms.
electric plans,
a floor plan, what do the
does one
56.
Is
electrical
information
this
information? Explain.
57. Explain
how code numbers
or letter symbols can be used with
Why
electrical symbols.
or
why not?
ns to Spell and
all
closet
be
lights
switches? Explain.
49. Describe locations of fixtures

to illuminate a stairway.
What kind of switch

ommended for stairways?
is
rec-
51. Describe lighting require-
in-
cluded on the regular floor plan or

is a separate one drawn to include
kinds of closets require
operated from wall mounted
50.
On
connecting switches and fixtures
receptacle outlets or light fixtures?
light fixtures?
48. Must
lines
show?
53. Explain
54.
55.
wir-
normally dimension the location of
or laundry room.
What
does a low-voltage
one?
tional
switch
45. Describe possible lighting

quirements of a kitchen,
47.
How
52.
ing system differ from the conven-
Know
electric service
watt
entrance service
watt hour
secondary ground
entrance conductors
kilowatt
receptacle outlet
overhead service
kilowatt hour
switch
underground service
entrance service panel
low-voltage plan
ohm
fuse
fixture
ampere
circuit
breaker
volt
branch
circuit
ments at exterior doors. Where are
flexible conduit
rigid conduit
switches for these lights located?
193
single-pole switch
three-way switch
m
Plumbing
Elsewhere
book
this
in
it
is
pointed out that one cannot be-
new
lieve that everything
is
nec-
good and that everything

old is no longer applicable. If this
were true plumbing would have
been discarded a long time ago.
essarily
So-called
modern
history indi-
many
of our immediate
forebears had no plumbing con-
cates that
veniences.
that
if
It is
Study of the
leads from the city main, well, or
other source to a location just in-
by stone, brick,
or concrete. Per capita water consumption was greater than that
of
many
cities
today.
re-
vealed interior plumbing fixtures
and supply systems
rise,
decline,
that are
still
Great aqueducts transported
which permitted
size
of
this
is
code
requirements.
FHA
minimum requirements specify at

least a %" supply line. However,
a larger size
is
more
is
desirable.
usually of galvanized
iron or copper, but brass alloy or
Today's Water Supply
cast iron pipe are also frequently
Availability of a suitable
abundant water supply

often taken for granted.
that
water from distant mountains for

use in the cities. Some of these
were open channels built with a
The
determined by the amount

of water to be supplied and by
pipe
This line
virtually intact.
important part
in their daily lives.
side the building.
local
Excavations of ruins also
that water
slope
its
com-
pletely enclosed
and fall of the Roman Empire

shows that plumbing played an
gradual
were
Others
destination.
easy to rationalize
they had none, plumbing
had not been invented prior to

this time. This is a false assumption.
gravity to carry the water to
is
is
used, with infrequent or experi-
too
mental use of other materials.

This main line may be located
in the same trench with the waste
We know
taken from lakes,
reservoirs, rivers,
some
is
and
deep
wells,
and
being converted from
from the building to

Note: Back fill covering water lines must not contain
line leading
the sewer.
make it suitable for

human consumption. Because of
cinders or other debris that could
waste, neglect, and increased us-
have a corrosive action on the
sea water to
an adequate water supply

becoming difficult to maintain.
age,
is
pipe.
The water supply
line usually
connects to a meter and/or shutoff valve. In
Water Distribution System

People are familiar with
plumbing fixtures because they
see and use them. Almost every
home has at least one kitchen
sink,
water
tub,
and
closet, lavatory, bath-
either a laundry tub or
connections
for
an
automatic
washer. Also, each house usually
has either a gas or electric water
Each of these fixtures

must be connected to a water supply source and drain. (Except that
some water heaters do not connect to the house drainage system.) Plumbing fixtures and their
arrangement into rooms are discussed in Chapter 27.
heater.
One
large water supply line
194
meter
may be
warm
climates the
installed either in-
side or outside the building, but

in cold climates
installed inside.
it
is
most often
A water
line
may
pass through a foundation wall

or beneath a footing.
When
the
pipe passes through a foundation

wall
it
should be encased in a
short length of larger diameter
pipe to permit building settlement
?8:
Plumbing
Pipes must either be placed below
and pipe movement. The void

between pipes should be filled
the joists
with a pliable waterproofing.
down
If city
mains supply more than
joists
in the
main before
house
lines. If
it
too
connects to
little
edge and the

no more than A
width to avoid weakening.
also a good idea to place
cut should be
COMPRESSION
CHAMBER
joist
pressure
It
is
one may install a

booster pump and storage tank
joist
to increase pressure.
end.
is
be notched to receive
close to their top
re-
ducing valve should be installed
may
the pipe. Joists should be notched
80 pounds of water pressure per

square inch, then a pressure
and the ceiling furred

accommodate them, or
to
the notch in the
supplied,
first
from
length
of the
supported
no city
mains are present, the owner
must connect a pump and storage
The tap fixture location is

shown on floor plans and no fur-
tank to a well or other supply
quired to show where pipes extend
In
where
localities
ther dimensioning
Pipe noises are reduced by using com-
source.
pression chambers.
Inside the building the water
branch
lines.
two pipes called
One
pipe supplies
cold water and the other
is
con-
nected to a hot water heater. Both
through a floor or into a wall.
Naturally there are ex-
use. The compression chambers

shown in the illustration are con-
ceptions
structed of short pipe risers with
pipe locations are necessary be-
closed ends.
All water lines should be in-
cause of other construction fea-
an orderly manner but
required. In addition to the water
on toward each
tap. These pipes are called
primary branch lines, which frequently have %" inside diameter.
A smaller diameter (usually W)
secondary branch line is used to
stalled in
connect each tap with both hot
6" apart. Closer spacing permits
and cold primary branch lines.

Each branch line should have
transfer of heat
one pipe to the other.
a shut-off valve before
spacing
lines then contine
should use a
minimum amount
of
pipe. Pipes are usually installed

parallel
building edges with
to
hot and cold lines running parallel to
each other approximately
and cold from

If closer
tractor.
to
have
(also called
bib),
may
can be isolated from the system

without shutting off all water to
fer.
Water pipes
cally
to
that extend verti-
each fixture are called
Many
sion
codes require compres-
chambers
to
lines with faucets.
join
branch
These serve as
cushioning devices to help reduce pipe noises during faucet

air
sill
cock or hose
also
cli-
anticipated freestanding
lawn. These
be
installed
may
in
the
protrude above
lated hot water pipes conserve hot

water and reduce water heating
the lawn level or be recessed so
costs.
lawn sprinkling systems with pipes

and sprinklers throughout the
lawn may be installed if desired
When
between
risers.
mates these should be of the

frost-free type. When lawn sprinis
the building.
should
frequently installed. In cold
types
finances permit, insu-
home
one outside faucet
and additional ones are
kling
When
dimensions are
Every
at least
be insulated to prevent heat trans-
is
specific
lines for fixtures, others are also
desirable.
to a faucet so individual fixtures
connects
when
this;
tures, then exact
required, pipes must
it
usually re-
Their exact positions are usually

determined by the plumbing con-
Branch Water Lines
line divides into
is
pipes must be installed
and a ceiling they

between joists,
when both pipes and joist run the
a floor
may
be
same
direction.
placed
they are not visible. Permanent
right angles to the joists their in-
and finances permit. It is also a

good idea to have a faucet in or
near the garage. Note: Some
heating and air conditioning
more complicated.
units also require a water supply.
stallation
is
When
195
pipes are at
Waste Removal
Used water and wastes must
be drained from the building
through sewage disposal pipes.
Those inside the
building
are
frequently called drains. Sewage

pipes or drains are
many
W=
composed of
individual parts.
Traps. Connecting directly to
each
fixture
called a trap.
the trap
is
is
sharp bend in
it.
with
This bend
is
pipe
For most
All
plumbing fixtures require traps before emptying into house drams.
fixtures
of a small diameter,
except for the water closet, which

requires a 4" one. Other drain trap
determined by the fixopening to which they are

connected. Traps are very necessary to a plumbing system.
They remain full of water at all
times to prevent sewer gas from
sizes are
ture
backing up into the building. In

addition to
this
gas
is
fined in
its
objectionable odor,
poisonous and,
a
if
con-
closed space,
is
explosive.
Traps empty into the main

house drainage system. Horizontal drains then slope gently toward
the city sewer or other drainage
system. Drains should slope ap-
proximately lA" per
foot.
A steeper
slope causes water to drain from

the building sewer too rapidly,
thus leaving waste materials in

the pipe. If drains in the house or
those connecting to a city sewer
must change
levels rapidly,
it
is
best to continue the gentle slope
as described
and then drop them
vertically to their
new
level.
When
drains change direction of flow, as
when
they turn a corner, a clean-
out opening must be provided.
Have you ever poured

from a container with one
Vents.
liquid
196
A properly designed water supply and

waste removal system.
American Brass Compa.
Plumbing
18:
small opening in the top? If not,
obtain
container with
metal
such an opening.
Fill
it
with water
and then pour the contents out.

liquid will not pour smoothly
from the container because there
is no air inlet. Now, puncture a
small hole in the top on an edge
The
The
opposite the original opening.
small air hole permits the liquid

to flow freely.
This same principle
applied
is
ing these large vents are usually
framed with 2"x6" studs instead

of 2x4's.
Like water supply
are
many
lines, there
different kinds of pipe
used for removing wastes. Cast

iron pipe is widely used. This is
good material because it

its
permanently sealed bell joints seldom if
ever need repairs. Copper and
a very
is
long lasting and
brass
alloy
pipes
are
also
quently used. These are not only
always contain water; therefore
but do not
long lasting and easy to

rust.
Wood
Products Assooot.on
leaks.
by additional support. Fiber,

bituminous coated, and plastic
level
fre-
house drainage system. It

was mentioned earlier that traps
a
to
Western
Vent stacks require flashing to prevent
pipe
install
Four-inch diame-
are
also
used,
most
fre-
quently outside a building.
most frequently used
Before selecting a kind of pipe
from the traps. Drains

must have ventilation to empty
for
main lines. Vitreous clay bell

is sometimes used to connect
for drains or specific sizes to drain
Observe the cutaway

photograph showing a house
plumbing system. Note the large
pipe extending vertically through
from a building to the city sewer

or other drainage system. With
this material a 6" diameter pipe
codes because some codes specify
it is
not possible for air to enter the
drains
properly.
the roof. This

stack.
carries
From
from
stack.
second
the
point below the
floor; this part

soil
and vent
a soil
the bathroom, pipe
waste
floor to a
is
of the pipe
The
first
is
the
vertical riser ex-
ter pipes are
tile
one
fixtures
the exact kind

for
is recommended. Note: Bell tile

should not be used in areas
where tree roots are present because they penetrate cemented
joints between tiles and clog the
system. Neither should it be used
on unstable soils unless it is held
must
and
is
the vent stack.
home
comes from
large
vent
first
Of
course, in a
the
vent stack
floor level.
usually
the water closet
After
merge
all
to
On
from the
city
main. This trap
should be placed at a point just

before the sewer leaves the house.
HOUSE DRAIN
This
the
widely
separated, as those for bathrooms
and the kitchen, additional soil

and vent stacks are required.
When only one fixture is to be
vented (excluding water closets)
some codes permit 2" vent stacks.
Otherwise, they are 4" inside di-
ameter and
will
not
fit
inside
regular stud walls. Walls contain-
SUMP
Sump pumps
197
lift
a final
vent gas and wastes backing up
other fixtures are vented into this

If fixtures are
line,
trap should be installed to pre-
cutaway photograph observe how
main one.
required
interior drainage lines
form one
connects to
drain.
size
local
each application.
tending up from the second floor

one-story
check
PIT
& PUMP
water to overhead sewers.
vent should be installed on the
FROM
house side of the trap to permit
BUILDING
gas not exhausted by other vents
TO INLET
COMPARTMENT
FROM OUTLET
COMPARTMENT
TO ABSORPTION
to escape.
FIELD
Main sewers
as
deep
frequently are not
House
basements.
as
drains leading from living levels
then cannot be concealed beneath
basement floors. Attach them to

basement walls or suspend them
from joists in order to maintain
a suitable sewer depth and slope
Septic tanks are used in localities not served by city sewers.
in
basement
sewer
is
floors but
when
the
higher than floor level
a gravity type drain cannot be
used.
is
used
concrete pit with a cover
located
in
is favored because
house wastes rather
than contaminating the immediit
water
fills
House sewers empty
turns
pump
on automatically and
lifts
the water to the drain.
Recommended Minimum Standards

(To be supplemented by local
Table
into the
upper part of an air-tight underground container called a septic

tank. The tank has two compartments. The compartment closest
the pit to
a predetermined level, the
purifies
ate vicinity.
has a pipe connected to the house
When
a septic system. This re-
moval method
an inconspicuous
and the floor sloped

slightly toward it. The pit is
equipped with a sump pump that
location
drain.
is
the
to
As stated earlier, when there

is no sewage system, it is necessary to provide other means of
waste removal. The most widely
customary to locate drains
It is
Systems
Septic
for joining outside sewers.
building
and permits
collects
Bacterial action then
tle.
wastes
solid materials to set-
decom-
poses the solid wastes. Near the
top of the tank an opening
is
second compartment. Clear water drains from
joined
to
the
Another
compartment
permits water to overflow and
drain into a septic field. The field
is a series of open jointed pipes
the
first
into the second.
outlet in the second
laid in gravel or
it
crushed stone;
allows drainage water to seep
into surrounding earth.
System
for Individual Sewage-Disposal
code requirements)
Table 2
REQUIRED CAPACITIES AND SUGGESTED DIMENSIONS
FOR SEPTIC TANKS

(Minimum
size
Locations of Systems
tank 750-gallons liquid capacity)
Minimum
Suggested Dimensions for
Max. No
Normal
Na. al
of
Liquid Cap.
Bedrooms
Persons
in
Dwelling
2 or
less
Served
10
12
Tank
Inside
Inside
Liquid
Total
Gallons
Width
length
Depth
Depth
of
in
Safe Distances in Feet
Rectangular Tanks
From
7'-6"
4'-0"
4'-9"
3'-6"
8'-6"
4'-0"
4'- 10'
Foundation Wall
4'-0"
8'-6"
4'-6"
5'-5"
4'-0"
9'-6"
4'-6"
5'-5"
Water Lines
Seepage Pit
O'-O"
4'-6"
5 '-6"
Drywell
4'-6"
198
tion Field
Pit
50
100
100
10
20
100
10
3'-6"
Absorp-
Absorp-
Tank
Property Line
750
900
1,000
1,250
1,500
Seepage
Septic
Well
tion
Bed
10
5
10
10
6
10
10
20
20
20
6
6
Plumbing
8:
Absorption Trench
6.
tank.
In
live in
is
the effluent
it
soil.
area needed
is
See "Percolation
determined by percolation
Record
level.
Allow the water
7.
to
away
seep
completely.
Again record the exact time and compute the
tests.
dis-
tance the water has dropped.
Test Instructions," below.
Convert the time interval to minutes and divide
8.
by the number of inches of water which

has seeped away to obtain the average time for
one inch of water to seep away.
this figure
After a tentative
site
for the absorption
trench
has been selected, at least two percolation tests

should be made. The percolation test determines
the absorption rate of the soil. Knowing the absorption rate of the soil, the absorption
area needed per
bedroom can be taken from Table
3.
9.
Determine from Table 3 the square feet
of
trench bottom area needed for each bedroom. See
Table 4 for width and spacing of absorption trenches.

10. Multiply the square feet of trench
ber of bedrooms
Percolation Test Instructions
in
bottom ab-
bedroom by
sorption area needed for each
the num-
the house to get the total trench
bottom area needed.
The procedure for conducting the percolation
test
as follows:
Dig or bore holes with horizontal dimensions
1.
of from 4 to
and
2 inches
Table 3
vertical sides to the esti-
mated depth
of the bottom of the
tion trench.
On
DATA FOR DETERMINING SQUARE
proposed absorplevel ground this depth is usually
a knife blade or sharp pointed instrument
remove any smeared
a natural
soil
all
loose
soil
filling
if
at least
most
fill
ample time
order
the year. Thus the test
perco-
in
to swell
will
and approach
sq.
per bedroom
ft.
sq.
ft.
per
5 sq.
ft.
per
sq.
ft.
per
sq.
ft.
per
ft.
per
5 minutes per inch
sq.
sq.
ft.
sq.
ft.
per
sq.
ft.
per
25
65
190
250
300
330
per
bedroom
bedroom
bedroom
bedroom
bedroom
bedroom
bedroom
bedroom
Unsuitable for absorption
field
give
the
will
Table 4
SIZE
give comparable results
Effective
Width of Trench
at Bottom
in
Remove that portion of the sand or

become coated with soil particles.
Pour about 12" of water into the hole and
about 6" of
this
AND SPACING REQUIREMENTS FOR
ABSORPTION TRENCHES
12-hour saturation period allow the
Inches
12-18
18-24
24-30
30-36
water remains.
199
Depth of
Trench
in
in
trench
the hole for
gravel which has
until
85
00
3 minutes per inch
4 minutes per inch
hole to empty.
wait
in
bottom per bedroom
30 minutes per inch

45 minutes per inch
60 minutes per inch
Over 60 minutes
whether made during a wet or dry season.
5.
square feet needed
for
10 minutes per inch

15 minutes per inch
conditions that prevail during the wettest season of
4. After the
minutes
one inch
the hole with clear water. By re-
2 hours. This saturation procedure
soils
in
fall
2 minutes or less per inch
fine gravel in the
necessary keep some water

1
water to
from the hole. Place
about 2 inches of coarse sand or

bottom of the hole.
3. Carefully
may
area
Effective absorption
Average time
surface and to provide
interface into which water
Remove
late.
soil
in
FEET OF
ABSORPTION AREA NEEDED PER BEDROOM
about 30 inches. In order to save time, labor and

volume of water required per test, the holes can be
bored with a 4-inch auger.
2. Scratch the bottom and sides of the hole with
to
the
in
the measurement and the exact time.
Percolation Test
is
the hole,
in
point obtain
this
a measurement to the top of the water
Final disposal
accomplished by ground absorption. The absorp-
tion
From
side near the top of the hole.
treated by bacteria that
is
the upper reaches of the
With about 6" of water remaining
establish a reference point such as a nail stuck
The absorption trench gives needed

additional treatment to the sewage from the septic
Function:
Inches
tion
Absorp-
Area
in
Minimum
Spacing
Square Feet per
of Lines C to C
linear Foot
in Feet
8 to
30
1.5
6.0
8 to 30
2.0
6.5
36
36
2.5
7.0
3.0
7.5
18
to
24
to
c
Material
Absorption
inch field
tile
lines
may be
constructed with four-
or properly perforated
sewer
tile.
of building paper or similar material

over the open joints of the field tile. Surround the
pipe completely with coarse gravel or stone.
Place
strips
Septic
Distribution
Absorption
Tank
Box
*
Field
r^
t.:-----d
Details of Absorption Trench
and
Line, for
1
Non-Perforated Sewer Pipe
ABSORPTION TRENCHES
On
rolling
IN HILLY
LAND
or
land each
line
absorption
should follow approximately the
hilly
land surface contour.
Absorption Trench
for
Absorption Field Patterns for Reasonably Level Land
Rolling or Hilly Land.
Slope
Slope the absorption
TOO
feet. Progressive
lines
may develop
if
lines two to four inches per

clogging of the absorption
the slope of the lines
is
flatter
or steeper.
Plumbing-Healing-Cooling Information Bureau
200
Plumbing
?8:
Other Plumbing Lines
of and installed
Foundation drain tiles were

discussed in Chapter 3, Footings
and Foundations, but are again
mentioned here as a reminder
that they are a part of the plumb-
as other plumbing.
ing system.
Gas
may
lines
also be a part
Garage
at the
same time
drains are fre-
floor
why
From your own reasoning,
when
are cleanouts necessary
sewer drains change directions?
quently included as a part of the
why
22. Describe
plumbing system.
necessary
Drainage for gutters and

downspouts should be installed
along with the plumbing system.
system.
part
What
23.
tween a
When may
and a vent stack?
same pipe be used?
the
24. Describe which plumbing

use
the
Is
plumbing
of
modern development?
Explain.
Name four sources frequently
2.
used as a water supply.
from
the
rec-
con-
main to a
city
home?
4.
most
What
two
materials
used
frequently
for
are
water
Why
kept
must cinders and debris
back
from
covering
fill
water lines?
water meter loca-
tions in relationship to
a home?
Why
sometimes
located
one
are
they
place and sometimes another?

7.
Why
pipes
Why do
when they pass through a
col-
foun-
2"x6"
usually
the
special
when
between
and
floors
Why
sewer pipe
name
another
is
for
to
vented?
water
and
by what names?
it
in
it
side
of this
trap
8.
What
What
a sump pump?
is
Why
used?
Why
What
is
it
is
septic
system?
used?
32. Describe the operation of a
Why
are
33.
What
size
pipe
usually
is
used for septic absorption fields?
traps used?
What
recommended
the
is
amount of slope
for
a sewer?
Why?
34.
How does
this size
compare
with foundation perimeter drain tile?
9.
pipe
a branch water line?
is
are required?
What
is
Why?
the smallest diameter
recommended
for
branch water
lines?
0.
tween
What
a
is
the difference be-
primary
and
secondary
branch line?
1
cal
is
given to
verti-
water and drain pipes?

12.
What
Terms to Spell and
is
the purpose of com-
Know
aqueduct
compression chamber
soil
plumbing
pipe riser
vent stack
water main
sill
water meter
hose bib
sump pump
pressure reducing
trap
septic system
valve
What name
booster
is
Why?
dation wall?
How many
the
leaves a
septic tank.
a trap?
is
is
31.
drain
before
building?
30.
wastes from a building are called
What
dif-
determine
a trap placed
is
just
29. Which
18. Pipes
20.
How does one
28.
provi-
pipes must be
Describe two types and rea-
7.
have
studs?
27.
outside water faucets?

1
containing
always
which one to use?
ceilings.
What
fix-
why.
ferent pipes available for waste lines.
to
parallel
installed
15. Describe
concealed
walls
almost
stacks
tell
26. Describe the variety of
are water and sewer
building walls?
19.
should water pipes or
sewers be placed inside a pipe

lar
Why
sons for their use.
6. Describe
vent
cold water pipes?
16.
5.
the
is
sions necessary
lines?
be
3.
14.
3. What is the minimum

ommended size for water lines
necting
What
recommended
spacing between parallel hot and
1
and
tures require vents
25.
1.
plumbing
the difference be-
is
stack
soil
are
vents
of
pump
branch water
line
cock
pression chambers at faucets?
201
bell tile
sewer
percolation test
sewage
absorption trench
drain
cleanout
shutoff
stack
or field
distribution
box
m>
Climate Control
Man's
physical
environment
plays an important part in
how
he feels and reacts to situations.

This chapter discusses ways of
altering building temperature, air
circulation,
and
humidity
for
lation
is
gredients
control.
one of the necessary infor adequate climate

The three methods of
efficient.
fire to
are
well
designed,
Heat Distribution Methods
Heating progress evolved from
an open
They
the fireplace, then
There are three widely used

methods of heat distribution:
warm
not be pleasant or work at maxi-
to
Ducts for
mum
is
heating stove the next great step
2.
Pipes for carrying steam or hot
directly related
forward was the invention of a

furnace capable of heating an
entire building. Early models were
3.
when
efficiency
he
uncomfortable.
Chapter 16
is
to this discussion
because insu-
202
humidifying buildings automati-
equipment transfers heat, cold,

and humidity from one location
to another.
can-
capable of heating, cooling, and
require less space, and are very
just to survive, but at the present
One
but recent
sophisticated,
cussed earlier are ways mechanical
not enough.
highly
are
cally.
Man's primary concern in the

past was to change temperature
is
inefficient,
ones
heat transfer (1) conduction, (2)

radiation, and (3) convection dis-
healthful, comfortable living.
time this
crude and
the heating stove. After the
light-colored roof reflects the sun's rays and
makes
home
air.
water.
Surfaces for distributing radiant heat.
easier to cool.
Climafe Control
9:
Gravity Warm Air

Warm air gravity heating systems were formerly widely used.
Early warm air furnaces were
merely large round stoves with
an outer jacket
to lead
air into
round ducts radiating in all

directions from the furnace top.
These ducts supplied warm air to
heat outlets in each room. There
were no mechanical devices to
move air through the ducts, hence
large
the
name
gravity flow.
Warm
air
ducts in both early and current
furnaces usually terminate at inlets
with
level,
ducts
below
floors,
require the latter type.
Appearance and operation of

newer forced warm air furnaces
are much improved over earlier
models. Whereas early models
were large, round, and had
sprawling round ducts occupying
much space, newer models are
compactly designed, rectangular
units
with
shallow,
ducts
that
occupy
When
ducts run the
tion
as joists
rectangular
little
same
may
they
space.
direc-
be
re-
cessed between them.
near outside walls. Inlets are
windows
more heat is radiated
through them than at any other
point. Cold air outlets near inusually located beneath
because
side
walls
with
connect
ducts
The plenum chamber
that return cold air to the furnace
warming and
for
ducts
recirculation.
is
for
connecting heat
placed below this counterflow,
forced warm-air furnace.
Forced
Warm
Air
Fuel
gravity system loses consid-
Early
erable heat during transfer

through ducts because air movement is slow. A more rapid movement could minimize heat loss.
When
is
installed
a forced
warm
The plenum
is
matically
then called
the air
It
is
warm
air for distribution.
warm
some
reversed flow
the
plenum
Homes
furnaces
How-
have
(counterflow)
is
first
ob-
methods
Advantages and Disadvantages
Forced
and
warm
air furnaces
have
both advantages and disadvan-
on the bottom.
with basements use the
type, but no-basement homes

having the furnace on the main
first
removed the
air rises
naturally to this location.

ever,
of
were sought. Oil and gas replaced

coal as the most widely used
fuels. Furnaces using oil or gas
are fed automatically. These fuels
also burn with a cleaner flame.
chamber
usually on the top of the
furnace because
Introduction
jection but even better
or bonnet of the furnace used to

collect
flame.
stokers to feed the furnace auto-
air furnace.
is
clean
the
in
furnace plenum chamber to speed

air transfer, the unit
used
air furnaces
shoveling and was both dirty to

handle and did not burn with
a
a fan
warm
coal as their fuel. This required
be installed with 0" clearance at sides
when compared with other

They are inexpensive to
purchase and easy to install. They
and back.
provide an adequate heat supply.
tages
Mueller Climotrot
This upflow, forced warm-air furnace
203
may
types.
Honeywell
A thermostat
device
to
is
be
Inc.
an automatic sensing
preset
desired
at
temperature.
Mueller Climafrol
may be equipped
This low forced-air furnace

at
with air conditioning evaporator coils
any time, thus simplifying any future
air
conditioning installation.
Hone/well
Controlled
Heat ducts
may
air
air
for
warm
air furnaces
also be utilized for central
making
thus
conditioning,
conditioning installation less
expensive
than
when
installed
Heat
is
may
supplied
almost in-
when automatic
denote a need.
When
devices
the temper-
ature reaches the prescribed level
Conswitching from heat to no
furnace air
filters
thermostats
Inc.
automaticlly
change desired temperature
at
pre-
scribed time.
help remedy
this.
Four common ducting methods

shown in the illustrations.
You should use the one that fits
best with your construction.
Heat ducts are not always below
floors.
attic
tinual
joists.
between
in
ceiling
Registers then are either
upper walls. Some
authorities feel this location gives
movement through
more uniform heat distribution.

However, ceilings and walls tend
to become soiled around registers,
ducts. Since the air
moves
transmitted from
room. Rapid
or
are related
Most disadvantages
to the rapid air
They may be placed
space
in the ceiling or
heat can be objectionable.
is
in the air
be moved with the flow but
the furnace ceases operation.
noise
Note: Dust
are
separately.
stantly
registers.
air
rapidly,
room
to
flow can also
create drafts in the vicinity of heat
thus
nance
requiring
greater
effort.
204
mainte-
i.
Honeywell
Inc.
Deluxe thermostat for automatic temperature change of both heat and air
conditioning.
19: Climate Control
Honeywell
Inc
Deluxe multistage thermostat for automatic changeover of heating and airconditioning systems. This thermostat
raises
and
lowers
temperature auto-
Perimeter loop duct system.
matically as desired.
Extended plenum duct system.
205
Cutaway view
of hot water boiler.
Mueller Climatrot
Hot water
boiler.
Hot Water
and Steam Heat
Furnaces supplying hot water
and steam heat are very
When
hot water
circulates in pipes
but
similar.
used, the water
is
when steam
and
radiators;
only
used,
is
steam passes through pipes and

radiators. Since the operation
similar
and steam heat
is
most
is
frequently used for large buildings but
seldom
method
will
for
not
homes,
this
be
discussed
air
furnaces,
further.
As with warm
models were large and unsightly. Coal was the most widely
used fuel and gravity carried
water through pipes and radiators. Well designed, compact, current models are most often fired
by oil or gas. Pumps circulate
water through pipes and radiators.
early
The
water
process of circulating hot
from
furnace
boiler
through pipes and radiators

called hydremic heating.
is
In
following
the
paragraphs
you learned
that the large pipe
two-pipe and one-pipe distribution
supplying water to a building
systems for supplying radiators
called a main. Likewise, the large
hot water and returning

cooled water to the furnace
supply pipe distributing hot water
This does
main. This pipe leads past each
with
boiler
are
discussed.
from the furnace
is
is
also called a
not imply that only one or two
radiator so
pipes are actually required. Each
The two-pipe system requires a

second main to return cooled
system
is
composed of many
in-
water to the furnace boiler for
dividual pipes.
Two-pipe
pipe system
system.
is
The two-
the oldest but least
frequently used. In Chapter
206
can be supplied.
all
18
reheating.
lines
Two
connect
smaller
each
branch
radiator
supply and return mains.
to
?9: Climafe Control
Automatic
each.
may
controls
supply different zones with vary-|
RADIATOR
-j
RADIATOR
A bedroom
amounts of heat
ing
'
BOILER
as desired.
may
zone
require
heat than a living area.
less
Radiators are usually located
RETURN
on outside
Reverse return two pipe hot water system.
tion
is
walls.
The
best loca-
beneath windows.
Room
and the amount of heat
size
loss
through building parts determines

the
-
RADIATOR
radiation
surface
Radiation surface
RADIATOR
|--
'
a radiator,
is
such as
required.
that part of
or tubes,
fins
that actually emits heat.
RETURN
For maximum comfort heat

must be distributed uniformly
throughout a room. Long, low
Direct return two-pipe hot water system.
radiators spread heat
L RADIATOR^
L RADIATOR^
j
Radiators
RADIATOR
may be open
They may protrude

be
recessed
their face
is
into
view
into
rooms or
walls
so only
exposed. Baseboard
radiators are favored for
CIRCUIT
to
or encased by decorative covers.
One-pipe hot water system.
f=^\
uni-
narrow ones.
tall
WATER MAIN
L RADIATOR^
more
formly over a wider area than
homes
because of their long, low radiation
surface and
their
pleasing
appearance.
WATER MAIN
>
Advantages and Disadvantages
Hot water
t^ t^
For
more uniform heat
distribution, a
home may
be zoned into separate heating
is
widely used.
leads past
all
radiators
One main
and then
returns cooled water to the fur-
Circuits
If
It
gives
amounts of heat to different

rooms or zones. There is no rapid
air
system
one of the best
uniform spread without sudden

temperature changes. It is easily
controlled
to
supply varying
circuits.
One-pipe system. The one-pipe
is
heat distribution methods.
one main serves an entire
building,
distant
radiators
may
not receive sufficient hot water.
movement near
radiators.
However, hot water heating

equipment is more expensive to
purchase and installation costs
are greater than forced
warm
air.
nace boiler for reheating.
Two
building
branch
lines
each
zones (areas) with piping layout
should be designed and installed
radiator
and the main.
subdivided into circuits to supply
by experienced personnel.
connect
to
may
be
207
divided
into
For best
results hot
water systems
Hot water furnaces

to changing needs.
react slowly
continues mounting for awhile.
When radiators
Note: Adjustment of the thermo-
and heat
are cold
demanded,
is
water must be heated

nace boiler and
radiator
the
warmed.
in the fur-
pumped through
until
also
it
is
stat
allows for
this,
but in ex-
tremely cold weather only efficient

insulation
can
hold
an
even
temperature.
Central air conditioning units
no longer required, the

water and the radiator still must
cannot be built into hot water
room temperature
quired for heating but ducts are
heat
is
is
cool, so that
heating
greater than
ing
is
Pipes
systems.
are
re-
when
air condition-
installed to use forced
warm
air ducts.
It
hot and
If a radiator
needed for air conditioning. This

makes combined installation costs
is
possible to air condition
with cold water
if
radiators are
equipped with fans, but

tem is not economically
this sys-
installed
or maintained.
Radiant Heating
Another
excellent
heating
method is called radiant heating,
which gives a more uniform distribution than any other. With
radiant heat an entire surface
such as a
floor, wall, ceiling,
large panel
warmed
is
radiate heat to
all
so
or
(
it
will
parts of a room.
There are several radiant systems, but two have proved most
effective and widely used.
)
L
(
RETURN
Radiant hot-water heat. This
system requires a conventional
BOILER
Radiant hot water coils are most often imbedded
in
concrete floors.
Hot water
distributes heat to rooms. There
are no radiators, which are replaced by pipe coils imbedded in
and
furnace
boiler.
the floor, to spread heat through-
out
its
The
area.
floor thus acts as
a large radiator to heat the room.
This system
is
used almost ex-
clusively in buildings with con-
because
crete
floors
easily
imbedded
Concrete
is
pipes
are
in the material.
a poor insulator so
heat spreads uniformly over the

surface.
When
on-grade
slabs
are used, insulation beneath the

floor
minimizes heat
ground.
Any suitable
loss to the
material can
then be laid over the concrete to
form a finished
floor;
however,
Heat distribution
is
most uniform when
208
a radiant system
is
divided into circuits.
19: Climate Control
wood
or other insulative materials
partially restrict heat transfer.
radiant hot water coil
may
be installed so an entire building

is
on
a single circuit.
That
one
is,
^^^/T
an entire building. Using a single coil may permit the

water to cool before the entire
coil serves
building
is
warmed.
It
is
*,
^J
*v
vs,
best to
have a home zoned into separate

circuits so water does not travel
r -*-
long distances. Separate circuits

also permit individual tempera-
TT"Tl~'7~7
ture controls for different zones.
may
Radiant heat
be supple-
mented by
auxiliary units such
as radiators
when
radiation. Auxiliary units are not
part of the radiant system.
As
said, radiant hot
water heat
ri
Commonwealth Edison Co.
Plastic spacer strips fastened to this concrete ceiling with a strong adhesive assure
very good; but it has two disadvantages over other methods:

(1) It is expensive to install beis
cause
much
pipe
(2) pipes are
is
required and
imbedded
proper cable spacing.
Application of plaster completes this radiant electric cable installation.
in floors,
wealth Edison
so are difficult to service or modify.

Electric
Radiant Heat
Heating by electricity has traditionally been more expensive

than using other
fuels.
Many
util-
companies now give special

rates for total electric homes. In
ity
some
is more
becoming
localities this fuel
costly than others but
is
competitive.
Electric radiant heat
installed
ceilings
in
use
coils
is
but
usually
it
may
Most
in-
similar
to
also be located in walls.

stallations
those for hot water radiant heat-
of wire and
imbedded in the ceiling. Each
room has an independent heating
ing, except coils are
are
element with
its
windows
large
or other areas require additional
own temperature
controls.
209
Co
There are several prefabricated

elements designed for rapid, eco-
nomical
single
during use but never hot,
this
very
is
heating
safe
method. Wires extend room

and successive
length
coils
are
approximately Yh" apart. Exact

spacing
determined
is
amount of
by
the
by
to
specialists.
Many
utility
com-
it.
and
thickness
signed to heat individual rooms.
nailed to ceiling
is
resistance wire
The outer
fastened
the
to
first
stapled
is
to avoid
damage
Other Heating Equipment
to wires.
Radiant electric heat is very

clean because no combustible
materials are used. Heating elements have no moving parts, so
maintenance costs are virtually
eliminated. Radiation from the
ceiling distributes heat uniformly.
Electric heat
warm
is
widely used
regions but
efficient in
is
almost any climate
in
proper
if
in-
Minimum
panies calculate heating require-
sulation
ments and design installations
recommendations specify 6" in

ceilings, 4" in walls, and 2" be-
free of charge.
radiant heat can be
Electric
neath
used with both plaster and drywall, but
it
does not work well
with insulating ceiling

ceilings should
because
Plaster
have a sand base
this plaster
to spread
tile.
permits heat
uniformly and makes a
is
provided.
floors.
just
heating equipment
described.
principles from
Some combine
two systems. For
example, conventional or baseboard hot water radiators may be

heated by self-contained electric
units. Specialized
equipment may
be designed to heat an entire

building or it may be capable of
heating only small areas. Because
of the scope of the subject
it
is
not possible for a book of this
nature
to
present
an
in-depth
radiant heat has weakThere are no ducts or
of furnaces and heating systems
electric
nesses.
fans for air exchange, so exhaust
fans
are
necessary.
humidity control
for
Equipment
may
be
re-
quired. Air conditioning installation costs are greater than with
surface.
all
study. For a better understanding
Newer
radiation
Almost
operates by one of the methods
As with other heating methods,
lightweight plasters should not be
good
with
with adhesive rather than nails
radiation needed. In-
stallations should be designed
thickness
first
because
heat
layer should be
is
two thicknesses are required. The

joists
air
There are other ways of heating

electricity. Forced warm air
furnaces may be equipped with
electric heating elements. Radiant
baseboard heat may use electricity. Small electric units are de-
conventional drywall
backing, or panels that
form a continuous resistance element and operate in the same

manner. One small wire is coiled
back and forth across the ceiling
and is stapled to cover the surface. The resistance wire becomes
so
When
used with electric radiant heat,
together. After installation all
warm
ducts must serve only a single use.
wire grids fastened to a
flexible
fit
forced
not give proper radiation.
They may be
installation.
warm
used because they insulate and do
you may study detailed

tions of
many
specifica-
manufacturers, or
books devoted exclusively to this

subject. Many large heating
equipment manufacturers publish
engineering manuals.
Determining Heating Requirements

To
calculate a building's exact
the calculations to be included as
working drawings
heating (or cooling) requirements
a part of the
and then
or specifications.
to design a
system to
the need is very technical

and should be done by an engifulfill
neer
specializing
in
this
work.
However, preliminary design data

must be calculated by the architect.
Many
building codes require
The
subject can-
not be discussed fully in a book
of
this nature;
ing
heating engineer-
manuals may be consulted
additional information
is
if
needed.
Necessary information includes

an understanding
210
of:
British thermal units.
Heat
loss
and heat gain.

or thermal
Conductance
resistance.
"U"
factors.
Building surfaces transmitting

heat
loss.
Infiltration.
Design temperature.
Climate Control
19.
Formulas
for calculating heat
Compilation of heat
Equipment selection based upon compiled data.
British
loss data.
some construction maheat more readily
have been completed by others

and the information recorded for
use. There are slight variations in
the ways that heat transfer takes
British
to
thermal unit (abbre-
BTU)
is
balance
help
heat
and
loss
heat gain.
place, so information recorded
Conductance
the quantity of
heat needed to increase the tem-
pound of water 1.
room temperature is approxi-
perature of
than others, insulators are used
charts or tables
Thermal Unit
viated to
If
cold. Since
terials transfer
loss.
conductance,
Most individuals cannot
each building ma-
entifically test
terial
mine
or
sci-
component
or
sis,
part to deter-
conductance.
Such
tests
resistivity.
each has
may be
thermal
on
called
resistance,
For, in depth analyits
own code
desig-
nations. In this discussion all are

identified by the
code
letter
"C."
Heat Loss Data
mately 70, one cubic foot of air

can be warmed 1 by .018 BTU.
Heating and cooling needs are
computed by the number of BTU
Approximole resistances of one
sq.
ft.
sf
building material of stated thickness
"C"
"C"
Resistivity
Resistivity
required to maintain a selected
temperature within a building.

Furnaces are rated by their BTU
input and output. Furnace BTU
output per hour (BTU/H) is used
when
4'
concrete or stone
.32
Vi" fiberboard sheathing
1.45
6'
concrete or stone
.48
%"
fiberboard sheathing
2.18
8'
concrete or stone
.64
plywood
.65
2'
concrete or stone
.96
Vt" plywood
.80
Vt" plywood
BTU heat
sizing a furnace to
loss calculations.
Air conditioners
concrete block
.70
are rated by the
number of BTU
8'
concrete block
1.10
12'
concrete block
1.25
roll
roofing
.15
.16
they remove per hour. Air con-
.95
Va" softwood sheathing or
sidi ig
.85
ditioners were formerly rated in
measurement
tons but this
is
not
as exact.
Heat Loss and Heat Gain

Every object conducts heat or
some permit more transfer than others. As you know,
cold, but
materials that allow
much
are called conductors,

that
permit
little
4'
It.
wt. concrete block
1.40
asphalt shingles
8'
It.
wt. concrete block
1.70
wood
12'
It.
wt. concrete block
1.88
metal roofing
4'
common
4'
face brick
4'
structural clay
tile
8'
structural clay
tile
1.90
2" mineral batt insulation
12'
structural clay
tile
3.00
4" mineral
transfer
and those
transfer
are
shingles
brick
.82
tile
.45
composition floor covering
1.10
or slate
1" mineral batt insulation
batt insulation
.86
.00
.08
.08
3.50
7.00
14.00
called insulators. Presence of heat
does not insure warmth or comfort. To be comfortable a person
plastic
must gain the exact amount of
When
warm
heat he loses.
doors
but
transfers
through
outside.
Your body
it is
cold out-
inside,
walls
to
heat
the
radiates heat
toward the cold wall. If the body

loses more heat than it gains, regardless of temperature, you feel
stucco
w
w
w
vapor barrier
.20
2" gloss
fiber insulation
7.00
.00
4" glass
fiber insulation
14.00
building paper
.06
1" loose
rock lath or plasterboard
.33
1"
sand plaster
.15
2" wall
air
space
.50
insulating plaster
.75
4" wall
air
space
1.00
wall air space
1.50
fiberboard ceiling
tile
1.20
6"
air
Heat loss data.
211
fill
insulation
space for brick veneer
3.00
.00
Charts and tables giving

thermal
by number
which materials have the most
materials
designate
resistance.
The
or adjoining spaces with different
building
of
resistance
number
larger the
temperatures, transmit heat loss
Reciprocals
or heat gain. Inside walls, floors,

"C"
U"
Resistivity
Factors
.,
..
Resistivity
"U"
Factors
resis-
ceilings
spaces do
between
heated
transfer
heat to
not
the outdoors, so they are not used
the greater the thermal resistance.
For example, the thermal
and
100.00
.01
2.44
.41
Note:
and
for heat loss calculations.
50.00
.02
2.38
.42
is
33.33
.03
2.33
.43
but 4" of glass fiber insulation
25.00
.04
2.77
.44
floors
has a thermal resistance of 14.00.
20.00
.05
2.22
.45
often considered as outside sur-
16.67
.06
2.17
.46
14.29
.07
2.13
.47
12.50
.08
2.08
.48
tures than outdoors but to con-
11.11
.09
2.04
.49
sider
10.00
.10
2.00
.50
requires additional test data. At-
9.09
.11
1.96
.51
8.35
.12
1.92
.52
7.69
.13
1.89
.53
because doors are frequently
7.15
.14
1.85
.54
open.
6.67
.15
1.82
.55
common
tance of a 4"
.82,
Thermal
brick
"C" cannot
resistance
be used directly for heat loss calculations, but must be converted

to a
"U" factor which
is
used for
calculations.
"U"
A "U" factor, ab"U" in actual comthe number of BTU
putations,
is
transmitted in
hour through
square foot of a building material

(or
faces.
combined materials)
each
for
have
above crawl spaces, are
them
considered
.16
1.79
.17
1.76
.57
.18
1.72
.58
As with "C," "U"
factors
5.26
.19
1.69
.59
building heat
have been
predetermined and recorded on
5.00
.20
1.66
.60
calculate
4.76
.21
1.64
.61
4.55
.22
1.61
.62
4.35
.23
1.59
.63
4.17
.24
.56
.64
4.00
.25
1.53
.65
and
tables for convenient
reference.
"C" to "U." As
"C" cannot be used in
Converting
stated,
final heat loss calculations, but
.56
entire buildings.
Room
plained
loss.
heat
step
be
to
ex-
by step following
and de-
sign temperatures.
Infiltration
In addition to heat loss through

1.50
.66
3.70
.27
1.49
.67
factor, deter-
3.57
.28
1.47
.68
mine the reciprocal of "C." That

is, divide
by "C." To calculate
3.45
.29
1.45
.69
ing through spaces
3.34
.30
1.43
.70
dows and
a building's heat loss
3.23
.31
1.40
.71
factors for all
3.13
.32
1.39
com-
3.03
.33
1.37
.73
2.94
.34
1.35
.74
2.86
.35
1.33
.75
"U"
How
will
discussions of infiltration
.26
conversion to a
losses are
Note:
loss
3.85
to
in-
for
then combined to determine total
"U." For
must be converted
left
loss
5.55
charts
spaces
is computed for
rooms rather than
Heat
dividual
5.88
for building materials
unheated
as
6.25
doors.
tempera-
partially heated spaces
differ-
temperature
air
and crawl spaces
Attics
slightly different
ence between indoors and out-
degree of
attics,
tached garages are also usually
factor.
breviated to
adjoining
Ceilings
construction materials, wind pressure causes air to enter a build-
around win-
doors. Such air entry
sary to obtain
construction
"U"
is
neces-
it is
materials (or
bined materials) that
will transfer
called infiltration.
.72
heat to the outdoors.
"U" Factors
for
Windows and Doors

1.13
Single thickness glass
Glassweld insulating glass
2.78
.36
1.32
.76
Single glass with storm
Building Surfaces Transmitting
2.70
.37
1.30
.77
Metal edge insulating glass
Heat Loss
2.63
.38
1.28
.78
2.56
.39
1.27
.79
2.50
.40
1.25
.80
All
building
surfaces
(entire
walls, floors, ceilings, doors,
windows) exposed
to
and
Nominal 4"
1
/s
V*
212
60
.54
.47
thick glass block
54
with storm door
.34
wood door
Above but
Reciprocals.
window
wood door
Above but
1
outdoors.
.60
with storm door
50
.
. .
.32
19: Climate Control
An
the
the
exact way of determining

amount of infiltration is called
crack method.
method
it
is
To
use
this
know
necessary to
quirements one must know the

room temperature level to be
maintained. A 70 room tempera-
may
ture for your locality consult the

weather bureau or other reliable
can be maintained. Desired
source and ask for the coldest
level
To
use this method, consult
prepared tables or charts. (Such

tables
room temperature
It
permits estimation
infiltration.
To prepare
heat loss data for a home, infiltra-
may be assumed to equal

one air exchange per hour. For
example, if a room is 10'-0"xl2'-0"
and has an 8'-0" ceiling, its volume is 960 cu. ft. Therefore air
infiltration per hour can be assumed to equal 960 cu. ft. Note:
Infiltration rate must be comtion
a"
total loss.
calculating heating re-
Heat
loss calculations are
It
One must
relating to the
in
the
know facts
specific room for
also
following
the
because extreme weather condi-
seldom occur.
tions
It
would be
peratures for November,
for use at
ture
likely to
is
30
every
20
if this
tempera-
occur only once
years.
Averages
are
sought rather than coldest
your
temperature for
(To simplify later
design
outside
locality.
calculations round off your aver-
age to the nearest
Heat
5.)
loss calculations use the
design temperature difference be-
tween indoors and outdoors. For

if the inside design tem-
example,
perature
is
75
and the outside
design temperature
temperatures.
Decem-
January, February, and

March. The median of these is the
ber,
almost useless to size a furnace
is
10, then
the design temperature difference
The average outdoor minimum

is
during
the
winter
called an outside design
is
The design temperature
85.
for a given locality
One must
stant.
remains con-
secure this infor-
temperature which has been pre-
mation only once for permanent
determined for many
use on
The heat
based
which losses are to be computed.

Data assembly and heat loss computations for one room are presented
know
unnecessary to
is
temperature ever recorded during

October; also secure coldest tem-
cities
and
is
all
jobs.
al*ulalin Ituilding IInii Losn
upon the terms, definitions, and

data discussed on preceding
pages.
know
temperatures
coldest temperature ever recorded
months
When
minimum
temperature
Design Temperatures
called
during the heating season. Note:
bined with other room heat losses

to arrive at
is
necessary to
also
is
outdoor
FHA
The
of air
level
inside design temperature.
and charts arc not included
in this text.)
data cannot be ob-
in calculations so a higher heat
of air that will enter a given size

crack.
If
can compile your own. To establish an outside design tempera-
be considered suitable
most activities in the home.

However, 75 is frequently used
all
manuals.
tained for your community, you
for
ture
windows
and doors. A locality's wind pressure helps determine the volume
the size crack around
available in heating engineering
loss calculations
explanations
shown
in
are
for
the
and
room
the floor plan illustra-
tion.
Additional construction data
will
be
found on wall section
"A," wall section "B," and the

section through the ceiling. See
drawings on the next page.
long. Multiply height
by length
determine gross (total) wall

area; so 8'-0"X 12'-0" = 96 sq. ft.
to
of area.
The window
is
3'-0"x5'-0"
and
has an area of 15 sq. ft.
From the 96 sq. ft. of gross

wall area subtract the 15 sq.
ft.
of window area to determine the
logical
order.
Wall "A"
(net) wall area; so the net wall
For an understanding of heat

loss calculations be sure each
point is understood as it is
Wall "A" is an outside wall

and must be used for heat loss
calculations.
building
presented.
This wall
is
8'-0" tall
213
by 12'-0"
area
is
81 sq.
ft.
Wall section "A" names each

material
frame wall.
used
in
this

20'-0"
INSIDE
WAIL "D"
Vi" LT. WT.

PLASTER .75
LATH .33
4" BATT
INSULATION 14.00
1.
1
%" ROCK
_/
INSIDE DESIGN
13?z
TEMPERATURE 75
Section through ceiling.
1
V 9
BTU/H. Change
the decimal to
the closest whole
number which
12'
INSIDE
5' x 8'
is
To determine BTU/H of window "A", multiply the window

area of '15 sq. ft. by the glass "U"
WITH METAL EDGE

INSULATING GLASS
/////////l
\l>
// A
/ f / /!/ / /
BTU/H.
592
factor of 1.13
OUTSIDE DESIGN
perature
TEMPERATURE -10
by the design temof 85
difference
as
15X1.13X85=1,440.75, which
rounded off to 1,441 BTU/H.
Example room
is
floor plan.
Wall "B"
WOOD
%/.,,
SIDING .85
on page 212 and placed adjoining

each identifying name.
loss calculations.
7.00
long;
LATH
.33
LT.
together equal
1.61
total wall resistivity.
WT.
PLASTER .75
Individual material resistances
when added
to
must be converted
a "U" factor by dividing
by
Resistivity
11.61 to find the reciprocal.
Wall Section "A.
FACE BRICK .45
FIBERBOARD
SHEATHING .218
BAH INSULATION
2" AIR SPACE .50

/a"
ROCK LATH
.33
so
ft.
of gross wall area.
The window
From
window
and give
is
1.13.
shows an inside
design temperature of 75 and an
outside
design
temperature
10, so the design

is
of
temperature
To determine BTU loss per

hour of net wall "A", multiply the
net wall area of 8 sq. ft. by the
wall "U" factor of .086 by the
design temperature difference of
as
81 X. 086x85 = 592. 11
85;
Wall Section "B.'
214
120 sq.
ft.
ft.
of gross
ft.
area,
ft.
which leaves
of net wall area.
Note on wall section "B"
also
building material used
resistivities
of each.
Individual material resistances,
when added
together, equal
1.21
total wall resistivity.
Convert
"U"
85.
sq.
the 160 sq.
page 212)
floor plan
and
5'-0"x8'-0"
wall area subtract the 40 sq.
name each
The
is
has an area of 40
(from the table on the bottom of
WT.
PLASTER .75
LT.
is 8'-0" high by 20'-0"

8'-0"x20'-0"=160 sq.
This wall
of
difference
The
"U" factor of 11.61 is .086.

The window in wall "A" has
no storm sash, so its "U" factor
1" AIR SPACE .00
2"
an outside
also
is
BAH INSULATION
%" ROCK
Wall "B"
wall and must be used for heat
2" AIR SPACE .50
Vi"
material were taken from the table
FIBERBOARD
SHEATHING 2.18
2"
of each building
Resistivities
resistivity
11.21
to a
by finding its reciprocal, which is .089 "U."

The window in wall "B" is
double insulation glass with a
factor
metal edge.
From
the table
page 212 the "U" factor for

glass
is
.54.
on
this
Climate Control
9:
The design temperature difference of 85 is the same for wall
"B"
as
it
was
for wall
To determine
BTU/H, multiply
area of 120 sq.
"U"
net
the
"A."
"B"
net
wall
.066 by the design temperature
heat
calculations
loss
This ceiling
healed
attic,
heat loss to
its
outside must be calculated.
The
ceiling
to 908 BTU/H.
To determine window "B"
BTU/H, multiply the window
and has an area of 240
area of 40 sq.
terial
sq.
ft.
The drawing of the ceiling

section names each building ma-
by the glass
by the design
used and gives
resistivities
Individual ceiling material re-
sistances
equal
Walls "C" and "D"
when added
together
5.08 total ceiling resistivity.
The
reciprocal of 15.08
is
.066
exposed to outdoors; therefore neither is used
"U."
for heat loss calculations.
The design temperature difference of 85 is also used for ceil-
Floor
ing computations.
This floor is above a heated

basement and does not transmit
is
change per hour;

1,920 cu.
Since
air
is
cu.
ft.
"U" value of
Design
temperature
infiltration calculation
ume
losses,
of 1,920 cu.
BTU/H
ceiling
Difference
8'0"xl2'-0"
3'0"x5'-0"
Net wall area "A"

8'-0"x2Cy-0"
96
sq.
ft.
15
sq.
ft.
81 sq.
ft.
40
20
sq.
ft.
.54
sq.
ft.
.089
FORCED
is
no
B.T.U./H.
input
output
75,000
00,000
1 20,000
60,000
80,000
00,000
50,000
20,000
75,000
35,000
1,836
908
loss.
240
sq.
ft.
.066
1,346
cu.
ft.
.018
2,938
loss in
BTU per hour
9,061
B.T.U./H. Furnace Capacities
WARM AIR
B.T.U./H.
592
1,920
12'-0"x20'-0"
Approximate
to
1,441
ft.
Heated basement below so there
room heat
off
.086
sq.
Total
by the "U"
1.13
160
5'0"x8'-0"
Net wall area "B"
2'-0"20'-O"x8'-0"
ft.
Loss Schedule
Design Temp.
this
85.
infiltration
X 85 = 2,937.6, rounded
BTU/H.
"U"
Infiltration
for
2,938
factor
Ceiling
upon
multiply the vol-
volunw
Floor
is
To determine room
BTU/H
to
1, infiltra-
.018.
Area or
Gross wall "B"

Window "6"
BTU/H
of air
or number
Window "A"
be warmed
to
tion calculations are based

a
ex-
equals
ft.
room
Room name
Gross wall "A"
12'-0"
factor .018 by 85; as l,920x.018
multiply the ceiling area of 240
Room Heat
off
ft.
equals
this also
requires .018
it
warm
To determine
1,920 cu.
If air infiltration
rounded
is
The room dimensions of
x20'-0"x8'-0"=
and
of each.
temperature difference of 85; as

40 X. 54x85 =1,836 BTU/H.
which
BTU/H.
Infiltration
12'-0"x20'-0"
is
rounded off
Neither wall
1,346.4,
below an un-
is
so
factor of .54
to 1,346
temperature difference of 85, as

120 X. 089X85 =907.80, which is
"U"
ft.
difference of 85, as 240 X.066
85
factor of .089 by the design
ft.
are
Ceiling
by the wall
ft.
sq.
no
required.
wall
by ceiling "U" factor of
heat loss to outdoors; therefore
and Sizes
HOT WATER BOILER

Approx. size
20"x28"x58"
24"x28"x58"
28"x28"x58"
32"x28"x58"
36"x28"x58"
For detailed specifications consult manufacturer's literature.
B.T.U./H.
input
B.T.U./H.
100,000
60,000
30,000
160,000
80,000
1
00,000
200,000
20,000
240,000
35,000
Approx.
size
output
6"x22"x32"
6"x25"x32"
1 6"x28"x32"
1 8"x28"x32"
20"x28"x32"
1
term window
air
plies that this
is
where such
conditioner im-
the only location
units
Many window
may be
air
used.
conditioners
are mounted permanently through
outside walls so they do not oc-
cupy window space.

Central air conditioning cools
entire buildings.
As stated
earlier,
there are two distribution meth-
ods. (1)
central air conditioner has a condenser

outdoors and an evaporator indoors.
Cold water
may
be
cir-
culated through pipes to fan-
Mueller Oimalrol
equipped radiators that spread

cooled air throughout each room.
This is not found generally in
homes. (2) Refrigeration units
equipped with blowers to force
cooled air through ducts are most
widely used. Central air conditioners
may be compact
units
serving only a single function, or
they
may be combined
air furnaces
so that
warm
with
one
circuit
air
condi-
both heats and cools.
As
stated
tioners are
the
Air Conditioning
As with
air
heating,
some form of
conditioning has been in exis-
tence for a long time.
Roman
ing the
built
Homes
dur-
period were often
around a courtyard having
large
fountain
in
center.
its
are computed in much the same

manner as heat loss calculations.
helped make
quirements are based upon heat
is
most
all
it
widely
medium
used. Al-
priced and
some
tioned,
and use continues
which helped cool the home.

Mechanical air conditioning is
a relatively recent development.
Early models relied on air movement through water for cooling.
Later equipment employs refrigeration
units
to
manufacture
expand.
cooled
small
air.
In the immediate past only ex-
pensive
homes were
air
condi-
they extract
it was truly a luxury. This

no longer so. Improved equipment design, mass production,
and resultant lower costs have
costs
caused
currents
BTU
per hour. Air conditioning needs
inexpensive homes are air condi-
convection
number of
tioned. Because of early high
Falling water from the fountain

air
earlier,
most often rated by
to
Instead of doing computations for
heat
loss,
air
conditioning
re-
of using the coldest

days in each month to determine
design temperature difference, the
mean of warmest recorded days
gain. Instead
There are two main ways

homes are air conditioned. For
of the six
small spaces such as individual
summer cooling is normally 75.

The direction a wall faces, amount
rooms, or homes formerly without

air conditioning,
window
refrigeration
equipped
rectly
to
into
used.
con-
of roof overhang, sunlight exposure, shade trees or other ob-
units
are
blow cooled air dirooms. Note: The
216
is
These
air
ditioners are widely used.
summer months
Inside design temperature for
structions in the
immediate area,
number of occupants, and other

considerations are necessary be-
19: Climate Control
one can complete heat gain
fore
calculations. Because of the sub-
complexity, this chapter

does not attempt to present an
in-depth study. For additional in-
ject's
formation,
consult
engineering
manuals or other books devoted

to air conditioning.
Humidity Control
In addition to temperature, the
amount of moisture
fects physical
is
in the air af-
comfort. Indeed,
it
a serious part of air condition-
ing.
The amount of moisture
the air
is
in
called relative humidity.
Under normal circumstances

FHA recommends a relative
door humidity
of 50%.
the
in-
When
Mueller Cl.molrol
Electronic dust filters
make
home
practically dust free.
moisture
it
is
moisture
air,
added
is
to inside air,
called humidification.
is
When
extracted from inside
the process
is
called dehu-
Equipment may be
purchased to do either or both
midification.
operations. Units
or
permanently
some
may be portable
installed,
with
that are automatically con-
by sensing devices that

humidity level and are
switched on or off as a need
trolled
register
arises.
Ventilation
Ventilation for rooms,
attics,
crawl spaces, basements, garages,
and spaces between walls
is
es-
sential to a building to insure oc-
cupants' comfort and safety.

These areas are mentioned in this
chapter only as a reminder that
each must be considered during
Mueller Cl.mofrol
An
air
conditioner
may be designed
furnace so one unit takes care of both

heating and cooling needs.
building planning. Specific refer-
into. a
217
ences for each are found in appropriate chapters.

1
control
2.
What does the

mean to you?
From
name and
this
describe the three heat-
What
widely used methods of distributing
4.
5.
its
operation.
7.
What
8.
Name
What name
is
reversed flow
When
is
it
used?
two combustible
What
heating.
Why
What
is
is
29.
disadvantages
11. From the illustrations,
name
and describe four ducting methods

2.
3.
What
What
What
is
30. Describe
31.
than
is
"U" factor?
how "C" is
is
duct
each.
gravity
two systems, which
the
most widely used?

1
5.
When
6.
What
Why?
referring to a hydronic
heating system, what

1
is
is
circuit?
meant by the term
7.
What
radiator shape
Why?
Name three
is
most
effective?
1
8.
advantages of
using hot-water heating.

1
9.
Name
three
disadvantages
to using hot-water heating.
20.
What
building
applications
forced
warm air
warm air
is
a radiant heating
mounting
install.
"window"
What
40.
is
air
condi-
central air condition-
two
Describe
ing?
methods. Which
How
is
distribution
preferred?
are
Why?
conditioning
air
units sized?
42. Explain what
con-
is
meant by the
term humidity control.
43. Under normal circumstances
what indoor relative humidity

recommended?
Know
one-pipe hot water
pipe
inside design
baseboard radiator
outlet
electric radiant
plenum
resistance element
reversed flow
British
temperature
heat outside design
temperature
Thermal Unit design temperature
(BTU)
BTU/H
factor
infiltration
circuit
zoned heating
hot water heat
"U"
reciprocal
inlet
difference
gross wall area
steam heat
conductance
net wall area
hydronic heating
heat loss
window
radiator
heat gain
central air conditioner
boiler
thermal resistance
refrigeration unit
two-pipe hot water
resistivity
relative indoor humidity
"C" number
humidity control
system
system?
218
of
as the best
air conditioners
system
stoker
zone control?
1
how
39. Explain another method of
Terms to Spell and
the difference be-
hot-water heating system? Describe
is
detail
in
hydronic heating?
is
in
determined.
Name two
41.
infiltration?
hot-water radiant heat
Of
use
Explain.
system to
"C" number?
tween a two-pipe and a one-pipe
14.
building
"U" factor.
What building materials ad-
What
its
is
tioner.
jacent to outdoors transmit heat loss?
32.
for forced warm-air furnaces.
closely
verted to a
of using warm-air furnaces.
heat?
number "C" have more
resistivity
less
What
the idea of air condition-
Is
38.
28. Does a building material hav-
material with a low
three
names
are two other
three advantages of
Name
little
is
new?
window
thermal resistance?
is
are these
using warm-air furnaces.

10.
much heat?
given to build-
fuels
or
Name
given to building
favored?
9.
heat loss
associated with this?
ing a high
a design tempera-
ft.
a furnace rated?
What name
have practically replaced coal
home
for
25.
is
ing materials that transfer
warm-air furnace?
that
How
27.
is
36. Explain
24.
26.
a plenum chamber?
is
What
heat loss calculations?
cu.
an outside design
ture difference?
37.
Describe a forced warm-air
What
temperature of
ing materials that transfer
heating system.
6.
are required
is
temperature?
of air 1F.?
Describe a gravity warm-
furnace and
What
34.
Thermal
35.
to raise the
heat to rooms?
air
British
How many BTU
23.
are the three most
is
Unit?
transfer principles.
3.
What
22.
design
inside
temperature?
ods of distributing radiant heat.
and other chapters
What
33.
21. Describe two different meth-
term climate
air conditioner
is
Chimneys and Fireplaces

Chimneys
The main purpose of
ney
is
chim-
to provide a draft so fuel
mum space between them, usually

with insulation added. Some
good product many codes do not
codes require
In most instances the chimney

round and does not present a
finished appearance from the exterior. This is because we do not
identify the round shape as proper
for a chimney. Therefore many
companies supply covers that
resemble a conventional chimney.
in a furnace or fireplace will burn.
Of course, fumes and smoke
also
Combustion
cannot be sustained without an
oxygen supply. There are three
common methods of constructing
conducted
are
off.
chimneys, with
and
many
variations
(1) Solid
is
masonry.
inclusion.
Masonry with clay flue

Mortar joints deteriorate
(2)
lining.
from heat; clay
flue liners
vide
fire
protection.
they are used,
some codes
additional
When
pro-
permit only one masonry wythe

instead of two. Except for the in-
permit their use.
is
clusion of the liner, construction
sizes for each.
masonry
its
When
solid
is
same
the
as for solid masonry.
Flue Liners
chimneys
The three most common shapes
be of masonry similar to
for flue liners are (1) round, (2)
(3) Prefabricated
used there should be
two wythes of masonry

surrounding the flue to minimize
fire danger. If one wythe fails
may
the other will contain the
are double walled with insulation
should
the cavity. These chimneys

have advantages over convention-
when
at least
heat.
solid
fire
or
masonry chimney
for either a furnace or fireplace

It should extend at least 12" past the sides in
requires a footing.
all
directions
least
and should be
12" thick.
liners
metal.
or
they
may
Most prefabricated
be pf
units
in
al
ones.
They do not require a
footing because
they are light-
at
weight and are designed so they
Large footings,
can be suspended from framing

members. They are safe because
as for fireplaces, should include
reinforcing rod or wire
mesh
for
additional strength.
be
flue
Chimney masonry should not

in contact with any wood fram-
ing material. Leave a 2" mini-
they are fully insulated.
They
are
easy to install and do not require

as
much
space as conventional
square, and (3) rectangular. There

are
An
many
different sizes, so
consult
technical
selecting the
you
data
to use.
size
adequate for most

furnaces, and 8"xl2" or 12"xl2"
is suitable for most fireplaces.
These are nominal modular
8"x8"
is
sizes.
Actual sizes are
they
can
be
fitted
masonry modular
When
first
less
with
so
other
sizes.
flue liners are used, the
section of liner at the
bottom
of the flue should be supported by
chimneys.
Note: Even though they are a
219
other masonry.
SchoJz
Prefabricated chimneys blend well with this traditional style home.
Fire-clay flue
2" Min. clearance
for
Homes
Inc
wood
trimmer at chimney breast.
Wood
trimmer
bm
V2"
Chimney 4"
(min)
if
solid
flue liner
Support
is
masonry
used.
flue-liner.
Parge smoke chamber with

fire-c'ay mortar {refractory
mortar).
Parging
if
may be
wall thickness
solid
omitted
is
8"
masonry.
Adjustable damper.
Lining of fire-brick
may be
shall
laid
extend
2" way)
full
width
of throat.
8" Min.
total thickness.
8" Min. foundation
Provide not less than

indicated between
breast
inches
of
masonry as
of chimney
solid
smoke chamber and face
when wood trimmer
is
used.
Masonry
220
fireplace design data.
wall
20: Chimneys and Fireplaces
Chimney Cover
Rain or snow can enter the
in the chimney top and
opening
cause dampness inside the build-
may
ing.
Covers
the
chimney
be placed above
prevent
to
this.
Chimney Height
The
Clay flue liners
may be
FHA
codes.
local
highest
the
duces efficiency of
chimney must
requirements
specify that the top of a chimney

must be at least 2'-0" higher than
lO'-O" MIN.
Improper chimney height
height
extend above a roof varies with
round, square, or rectangular.
roof
within
point
lO'-O".
re-
a fireplace
Flashing
or flue.
Where
chimney passes
through a roof the joint must be

sealed with flashing and counter
when
flashing as shown, except
built-up roofing
lapped
The liner usually extends about

4" above the top of a masonry
chimney.
chimney
When
height,
determining
continuously
onto
solid
down
cover the edge of the
to
must be bent
flashing
roofing. See roof construction
Chapter
lustrations in
il-
9.
Saddle
If a
away.
masonry cap should be

above brick or stone
chimneys to prevent deterioration

of the mortar joints. This cap
should have a wash, or angle, so
water cannot stand on it and
chimney can be located on
When
the
through
surface,
water
is
shed
chimney passes
inclined roof
can accumulate
and back up beneath the roofing,
causing leaks. This is especially
true if the roof slope is low or
single
material.
chimney is wide. If the chimis more

than 30" wide, a
small protector with the same
pitch as the main roof should be
thickness for
built
speed deterioration. Stone or concrete
the most frequently used
is
There is no standard
chimney caps, but
they should not be less than 2"
thick.
.
the
to replace the flashing.
use the top of
Chimney Cap
can be
It
a roof ridge, rain water
installed
A chimney cover is frequently used in

areas with abundant snow or rainfall.
used.
chimney
Counter
the liner as the terminus.
A properly designed chimney cap can be

both decorative and functional.
is
The proper
dictated
,
by
local
,.
personal preference
221
thickness
custom
is
and
the
ney
is
is
behind the chimney. This
called a saddle. If the saddle
quite small,
it
may be
with sheet metal. If
it
covered
is
large,
regular roofing should be used.
Fireplaces
Fireplaces were formerly used
exclusively for heating but they
are now used primarily for appearance and enjoyment.

Many fireplaces are con-
of solid
structed
other
materials
masonry, but
are
also
Double-walled sheet metal

that
warm and
room
used.
liners
circulate air into
are widely used. These
units require less
One
face open
masonry than
Two
conventional fireplaces, are easy

to install,
insure
and
faces adjacent.
their design helps
proper functioning. Pre-
fabricated freestanding fireplaces
and unusual shaped custom
built
units are also quite popular.
The
desired finished appearance and
whether or not it is to be used

for heating purposes helps determine which kind to use.
Metal
is
a widely used fireplace material.

Kopperi Company,
Inc.
Two
faces opposite
Three faces open.
Hearth
An open
unless
it
is
fire is
quite dangerous
properly shielded.
hearth
may be
floor or
can be raised as desired.
When
is
available befloor,
an ash
side of the opening. Stone, brick,
and
with a metal clean-out door.
tile
are most frequently used,
dump
but other suitable materials are

available. The hearth is extended
rectangular ash
beneath the fireplace to form an

inner hearth. This may be the
is
same material
as the outer hearth,
small rectangular recess can be
recommended
anticipated. The
built into the inner hearth floor
if
fire
bricks are
frequent use
is
222
-
space
neath the finished
chamber is recommended. Any

such chamber must be equipped
but
the
Ash Chamber
non-combustible
hearth should
extend at least 16" in front of a
fireplace and at least 8" past each
with
flush
in the inner
is
located
hearth so ash removal
simplified.
When no
space
is
available for an ash chamber, a
to contain the ashes.
20: Chimneys and Fireplaces
Opening and Liner Dimensions
Fireplace
1
OPEN
FACf
2 FACES ADJACENT
FlUI
so-
SO-
30"
12". 16"
20"
20"
SO"
34"
16". 16
20"
so-
20"
36"
42"
16"20"
24"
42"
3 FACES OPEN
F1U!
16"16"
28"
30"
34"
16".20'
34"
12".16"
28"
36"
38"
42"
16"20"
30"
38"
42"
30"
20"
2 FACES OPPOSITE
FlUI
FlUI
24"
24"
34"
16".I6"
16"I6"
28"
30"
38"
I6"x20"
16"20"
28"
36"
38"
20"24"
Fireplace opening and liner dimensions.
Damper
Position of Fireplace Face
Every fireplace should have a

damper to regulate the flow of air
and
when
to
it
block
is
the
ofl"
chimney
not in use.
flush with a wall, or

ject into a
has
Masonry
above a fireplaceopening must be supported. A

3"x3"x'/4" lintel extending 4" on
side
of
the
opening
is
recommended.
it
room. Since a fireplace
considerable
the space
a
Fireplace Finish
may be
may pro-
face of a fireplace
consideration
Lintel
each
The
it
depth,
occupies.
It
to
could give
appearance
beautiful
special
must be given
in
the
designs
Fireplace
are
only by the imagination.
limited
The
surrounding the opening to entire

walls of stone or brick.
Some
the
period
addition
of
settings
wood
require
mantels,
room it occupies but protrude

into and spoil the use of another
nate them. Simplicity rather than
room.
ornateness
FIRE
but current design tends to elimi-
BRICK
OR
is
usually
preferred.
LINER
FRONT ELEVATION
Fireplace
Stone fireplace
in
ex-
posed masonry can vary from 8"
in
interior
exterior frame wall.
frame wa
3rick fireplace in brick
t-FIRE BRICK OR LINER
-FIRE BRICK
veneer wall.
OR LINER
8"MIN.
223
Scholl Horn**
Stone
A double-faced
wide mortar |oints plus a stone mantel gives

this fireplace a rugged appearance.
laid with
This prefabricated barbecuing fireplace helps give the
fireplace serves as a
home
a feeling of country charm.

Morgan Company
Offset fireplace flues

,
permit one fireplace

to
be installed be
neath another.
224
DAMPER
ASH
CHUTE
room
divider.
Inc.
20: Chimneys
and
Fireplaces
Large areas of stone or brick are
When
very popular.
mits, fuel storage
compartments
may
be built into the
wall.
Book
What
3.
Why
cap?
space per-
14.
is
is
a wash on a chimney
it
What
used?
minimum
the
is
thick-
ness of a chimney cap?
fireplace-
shelves, storage spaces.
15.
What keeps
or
rain
snow
or built-in entertainment equip-
from entering the top of a chimney?
ment are frequently incorporated
Explain.
16.
into the fireplace wall.
What
the
is
recommended
chimney height?
Two
More
or
Fireplaces
1
two or more fireplaces are
If
to be included, considerable sav-
ings result
into
one masonry
fireplaces
tional
18.
they can be designed
if
unit. The addima) be on the
When
they are on different

sometimes possible to
Is
flashing always used be-
What
Why
a saddle?
is
is
it
used?
1
Brickwork
may be
9. Explain
the variety of
fire-
corbeled to change
chimney
same or different living levels.

Each one should have a separateflue.
7.
tween the chimney and roof? Explain.
place shapes?
size.
20. Give three reasons
why
fire-
place liners are frequently used.
Corbel
What
is
a prefabricated
fire-
place? Describe the variety available.
offset the flues, as
chimney area is small

and you desire it to appear larger
serve space.
from outside the building, or
if
every fireplace have one?
you wish
levels
it
is
shown, to conObserve the angle

of the inclined flue on the illus-
the
II
TOO sharp an angle is

hazardous and also prevents
chimney
proper functioning.
shown.
tration.
it
be located
to
different position
on the
may be
in
roof, the
corbeled,
22.
is it
very important that
24.
2.
Why
should a solid masonry
chimney have at
3.
What
least
two wythes?
9.
What chimneys do
masonry?
What
is
re-
Why?
meant when one
says that most prefabricated chim-
Why
are
are imitation brick shells
three
the best material for

if
the fireplace
25.
What
26.
Why
is
an ash chamber?
must a fireplace have a
damper?
27. Describe a corbeled chimney.
is
it
Know
hearth
flue
fireplace
inner hearth
flue liner
ash chamber
About how much does a
When
determining total chimIs
the measure-
ment taken?
1
Terms to Spell and

chimney
be supported?
protrude above other chimney
0.
2.
What
is
a chimney cap?
used?
225
is
be used frequently?
shapes of
should the bottom sec-
ney height, where
neys are double walled?

7.
Why
liner
not
is
flue liners?
What chimneys require a

How large should they be?
quire a footing?
6.
What
tion of flue liner
footing?
5.
8.
using clay flue liners?

4.
to cover the chim-
ney on the building exterior?
a chimney have proper draft?
What
an inner hearth
sometimes used
hearth? Should
23. Describe the minimum dimen-
as
Why
is
sions of a hearth.
to
What
Why
chimney cap
ash
chimney cover
cleanout door
flashing
damper
saddle
corbel
dump

Cornice.
The word cornice, from

means a horizon-
ancient Greek,
molding along the top of a

molding when viewed
tal
to
mount conventional
gutters
on
surface unless the surface
is
perpendicular to the ground.
Open
wall. This
in profile
is
cornice.
An open
cornice
is
the simplest kind.
exterior finishing material.
is
A sim-
usually, but not al-
The term
book
this style
The back
of roof sheathing serves as the
Notional Lumber Monuracfui
ways, curved or sculptured.

this
On
rafter tails are exposed.
cornice as used in
more
inclusive than
the above definition.
includes
It
building materials necessary
all
to join a wall
and
roof.
pose of a cornice
is
to
The purmake a
beautiful finished intersection to

join the two parts,
and
to protect
other building materials from the
weather.
Rafter tails and fascia are usually per-
pendicular to the ground
There are many different

methods of enclosing a cornice,
so they must be designed to suit
when attached
gutters are to be installed.
Short overhangs and vertical fascia are

often used with traditional designs.
regional or personal preferences.

Rafter
As
tails.
stated earlier
the part of a rafter extending past
an outside wall
tail.
Its
is
called a rafter
outside end
may be
per-
pendicular to the ground or at
The
normally used
right angles to rafter edges.

first
method
is
when metal gutters are desired.

The second method permits a
wider variety of
styles
and
is
nor-
mally used when built-in gutters

are desired.
Note:
Flat
no gutters are required, or if they are

to be the built-in type, rafter ends and
fascia may be square with joist edges.
If
roof overhangs
parallel to the
is
difficult
226
soffits
may be
tapered toward rafter ends. The fascia
may be
at
right angles
edges or
It
may have
ground, or they
at
to
joist-rafter
any desired angle.
pie
molding covers the joint where
the wall and sheathing meet. Rafter
may
ends
be
left
exposed or
a board called a fascia

tially
cia
may
or fully cover them.
may be
parfas-
or of elaborate,
flat
molded shapes. However, simple

shapes are more practical
when
gutters are to be installed.
Economy construction using

conventional framing, with rafters
spaced 16" or 24" o.c, some-
times employs this open cornice
method. Post and beam construction with structural parts exposed

is
also a popular
Western
and widely used
application of an open cornice.
Wood
Products Assoc
This open cornice has false rafter tails with finished lumber exposed to view on
the under side.
This open cornice has brick veneer extending up to the roof
When planks form the finished overhang the

may conform to spacing requirements for plank
and beam systems shown in Chapter 11.
sheathing.
rafter tails
Rafter
tails
shown on
roof planks
this wall section are
above the exposed
notched to receive
rafters.
227
Closed Cornice
Rafters are encased not
visi-
blein a closed or box cornice.

Variations
used
are
much
for
light construction.
A closed cornice may
have
fin-
ishing materials attached to rafters so the
overhang follows the
may
roof slope; or an overhang
be finished so
its
lower surface
is
Soffit
a covering for the
soffit is
rafters. It
may
be
of wood, metal, fiberboard, dryplastic,
or others.
The proper material

pends upon personal
or regional
wall,
plaster,
to use de-
preference.
Nailers for Soffit Materials
Most
soffit
and
shown
soffit,
The
illustrations.
first
the
fascia.
This
method because
poorest
the
is
it
leaves an un-
finished exposed edge.
only unsightly but
It
may
is
not
permit
soffit edge is undersirable

because water may enter between it and
An exposed
soffit maand cause deterioration.

The second illustration shows
the fascia extending below the
rafter ends the same amount as
the soffit thickness. The edge of
the fascia.
moisture to enter the
the fascia
is
rabbeted to permit
and to form a tight joint

between the two materials.
The third illustration shows the
fascia protruding below the soffit
any desired amount within limits.
The back of the fascia is grooved
nailing
soffit joined to a
quires
perfect
rabbeted fascia
alignment to
close fitting joint.
BUItDING PAPER
should be
Materials
installed according to the
manu-
facturer's directions.
The lower edges of
rafters are
below the top edge of

wall sheathing and there are no
exposed structural parts that permit nailing the back edge of a
usually
soffit.
nailer strip
must be
fas-
tened to the sheathing, flush with

the lower edge of rafters, so the
can be nailed securely.
soffit
Fascia
A
one
closed cornice has at least
board
finishing
nailed
to
cover rafter ends. This board

called a fascia.
fascia
is
is
also
used as a nailer for the front edge

of the
soffit.
Study the four com-
mon methods
insure
materials are only
and must be nailed or

fastened to each rafter and along
edges.
the
shows a butt joint with the soffit

fastened to the bottom edge of
semi-rigid
all
in
illustration
terial
parallel to the ground.
lower edge of
fascia
of joining a
wood
FIBERBOARD SHEATHING
A grooved
228
AIR
SPACE
fascia helps conceal alignment irregularities.
re-
J:
A double
fascia increases nailing surface

at the soffit edge.
to receive the soffit. This

is
method
very desirable because
per-
it
To
mits slight discrepancies but the
The
overhang
increase
rafters
joint appears closed.
may be
height,
secured to a top
plate above celling joists.
fourth illustration shows a
double
Naturally only the
fascia.
exposed one on the outside needs

be of fine quality materials.
Although the double fascia re-
to
more material than
quires
first
three,
cause
is
it
the
frequently used be-
is
it
easy to construct and
The small mold-
looks very good.
ing covering the joint can be any
shape.
desired
without
them,
If
materials
fit
open spaces between

this
molding may be
omitted.
Relationship of Ceiling
and Fascia
Joists
One cannot assume

fascias are
on the same
ceiling joists.
When
that
all
level as
rafter
ends
protrude beyond a wall as continuations of the rafters, the fascia

is
lower than the ceiling
joists.
Also,
Roof slope and amount of overhang determine how much the

fascia
line.
the
is
below the
Of course,
same
ceiling joist
level as joists, but special
then required. The
is
illustrations
show two ways
increase
ceiling
joists
as shown.
a fascia can be at
construction
to
overhang
may be
extended past building edges
and rafters notched to a plate
height,
the
problem may be solved.
229
Molding
for Soffit
A small molding of your choice

used to conceal the joint between a soffit and exterior wall
is
covering. Study the illustrations
and observe
that the soffit
in-
is
stalled before exterior wall

coverings.
frieze board
used to join
sometimes
and a
is
wood
siding
This is flat with the lower

edge rabbeted to receive the sid-
soffit.
The wood molding described
ing.
earlier
joint
and
is
then placed to cover the
between the
frieze
board
A rabbeted
frieze
board
is
sometimes used
to
cover the joint between a wall and the under
soffit.
side of a roof.
Lookout
When
a soffit
additional
lookout,
is
is
to
framing
level
an
member,
be
required. Fastened be-
may be
attached to the end
fly rafter.
The home on page
turn
tween the rafter ends and wall
or
sheathing as shown in the
2 has cornice returns.
trations, the
nailer for the
illus-
the rake, gives outside finish at a
lookout serves as a
A
Cornice Return
so
sometimes returned around the end of a building. This is done for improved
visual effect. When a box cornice
is used, the entire box may be
returned. When an open cornice
is
cornice
gable end. This rafter
Gable End Overhang
soffit.
is
used, a simple single-piece re-
it
it
gable end
has
little
may be
finished
or no overhang, or
may extend any desired amount.
When
designing an overhang it
must be appropriate to the rest
of the building
Molding
style.
for Fly Rafter
fly rafter,
sometimes called
is
fastened
lower face of roof sheath-
to the
and sheathing ends are exposed unless covered with a molding,
The molding can be
a l"x2"
board or a more
elaborate molding of your choosing. The same molding shape as
used between the wall and soffit
ing.
rectangular
is
frequently chosen.
Attic Ventilation
Insulation applied between
tempera-
beneath the roof overhang,
in the
ceiling joists causes a
gable ends, in the roof ridge, or
between the attic

and rooms below. This results
on the roof
ture difference
in
condensation;
therefore
the
must be ventilated so air

can circulate and remove moisattic
ture. Ventilators
may be provided
surface.
They may
For
specific ventilation
ments,
and
consult
their
the
require-
illustrations
accompanying data.
be pre-manufactured or custom
built units. All ventilators
must
be equipped with screens. Screens

with 8 squares per running inch
are
recommended by
230
the
FHA.
Louvers
A
fins
louver
is
a ventilator with
or slats to allow air to pass
through. Fins
may
be fixed
(sta-
21: Roof
Overhang and
Exterior Trim
NET VENT AREA

CEILING AREA
900
^r
I*
T-
Fs
f\
'X
250
National Lumber Manufacturers Assoc.
Methods
of ventilating roof spaces
and amount
of ventilation required.
tionary) or adjustable so they can
be opened or closed. Expansible

metal ventilators are available so
they can be adjusted to
fit
varying
roof slopes.
The amount of
lating area
is
net free venti-
usually stamped or
printed on a purchased ventilator.
One must
calculated
secure sizes to meet

ventilating
require-
ments, as discussed earlier. For

Gable end louvers
job or custom
built units one

must measure and calculate the
net ventilating area.
To determine
actual ventilating area one must
deduct the amount of space occupied by wires in the screen.
231
may be
of
wood
or metal.
Gutters
Gutters are troughs attached to

the edge of a roof to carry water
away. They may be of metal,
wood
a
in
sizes.
or plastic, and are available

wide variety of styles and
Metal is most frequently
commonly galvanized iron

because it is less expensive.
Molded wood gutters are not as
popular as formerly. Most wood
used,
gutters are of the
built-in
type
and may be custom designed for

each specific application. These
are lined with sheet metal or
make them
other material to
waterproof.
Some
more common
of the
shapes
gutter
are
shown. The
proper one to use depends upon

building style and amount of
4"
water to be drained away. A
or 5" gutter is usually adequate
small
for
structures
such
homes. For most beautiful
as
results
simple styles are recommended.

The FHA permits gutters to
be installed perfectly level if the

material is rigid and pockets or
low spots do not develop. However, for best results they should
slope slightly toward downspouts.
Leaders or Downspouts
Leaders
pipes that
or
downspouts are
water from a
carry
gutter to the ground.
They should
be of the same material and

as
the gutter.
fabricated to
your specifications.
gutter
ter
4"
hangers should be installed

roofing to prevent nail
holes from causing leaks.
232
size
its
before
y^-
is
downspout should be 4"

across. Hangers must be used to
secure both the gutter and downspout to the building. Note: Gut-
wide
Built-in gutters are often
If a
21: Roof
Overhang and
Exterior Trim
Coarse screens over all gutters,

and basket strainers at downspout
heads where they join the gutter,
catch and help prevent clogging
splash block and then onto the

yard.
In localities with
and only
rainfall
little
traces of snow, as Ari-
by leaves or other foreign matter
zona or northern desert regions,
is washed down.
Water must be drained away
from the bottom of downspouts.
They may empty into a sanitary
water
sewer when building codes per-
New
that
mit, but preferably a storm sewer,

a drain
dry well, or for
tile field,
an economical installation onto a
25.
Why
attic ventilation nec-
is
essary?
may be trapped for special

Drainage is generally not a
uses.
problem.
Heavy
precipitation
areas such as the Northwest Coast.
England, the Great Lakes
and
region,
Gulf
of the
parts
Coast maj have

age codes.
rigid
water drain-
26.
How does one
number,
determine the
and location of
size,
attic
ventilators?
27.
Why
must
be
ventilators
equipped with screens?

28. Describe a louver.
29.
Why do
have movable
30.
What
louvers
sometimes
fins?
is
a gutter? From what
materials are they frequently

3
What
is
How
does
made?
a leader or down-
spout?
32.
downspout

As used
in
book, what
this
does the word cornice mean?

does
this
compare with
the
How
older
What
the purpose of a
is
How
Why
3.
What
14.
does one determine ex-
act cornice style

4.
What
5.
Why
and construction?
are fascias?
a rafter
is
are
some
tail?
rafter
tails
perpendicular to the ground while
Why
6.
four
and
are
7.
Describe
applications of
What
an open cornice?
is
two
open
is
widely
used
cornices.
a closed cornice?
box cornice?
10.
What
What
23.
24.
Why
20.
a soffit?
is
a nailer strip?
11. Describe
22.
materials
suitable
How
does one
for soffit construction.
determine the proper one to use?
are
soffit joins
What
What
What
What
What
21.
is
Why
where a
19.
of
moldings
used
it
level as ceiling joists.
18.
34. Describe a built-in gutter.

35. Describe
water
think
a wall?
Terms to Spell and
rafter tail
louver
gutter
closed or box leader
fascia
is
a cornice return?
frieze
is
lookout
fly
cornice
rafter?
a gable rake?
downspout
gutter hangers
board
basket strainer
downspout head
cornice return storm sewer
a molding frequently
applied along the top edge of a
Know
rake
open cornice
a lookout?
233
for different regions?
cornice
is
rafter?
Why do
codes must be designed
and enforced
a frieze board?
is
ways of draining
downspouts.
from
is
is
and
usually
on the
same
What
of
is
edges?
6.
gutters
joist line?
methods
constructing a cornice so
9.
are
methods
others are at right angles to rafter
8.
Why
fascias
two
Describe
7.
should
fascia.
placed below the ceiling

1
Why
downspout heads be equipped with
you
15. Describe
joining a soffit
determine
screens?
frequently
are nailers
they necessary?
cornice?
3.
slope?
soffits to roof
1
33.
Describe two relationships of
2.
installed before soffits are applied?
definition?
2.
one
size?
fly
fly rafter
drain
dry well
tile
Exterior Wall Coverings

Exterior coverings are used to
buildings from the ele-
protect
are available, no lengthy discus-
When
sion of any will be given.
made, one
ability
and beauty. This
make
will
overall cost greater than an-
its
which
ments, afford a degree of perma-
selections are being
nence, and to add architectural
must refer
lit-
greater initial cost but requires
beauty. Use should conform to
erature, specifications, or samples
no maintenance. For example, a
elements of good design,
for best results.
painted
form,
texture,
color,
Chapter
"line,
etc.,"
materials
suitable
for
Cost of materials often has

an influence on those selected.
But you must consider more than
Permanence
exterior wall coverings are dis-
the
cussed in other chapters because
should be given careful consid-
cost.
initial
they are also structural materials.
eration.
These
signed to require a
be mentioned briefly
will
here so as to give a complete pic-
because
ture.
Actually,
large
number of
of the
materials that
other
material
wood
repainting
see
25.
Some
to manufacturers'
good building
maintenance.
material
may
maintenance
may
wall
every
has
three
require
to
five
years, while a brick wall will re-
quire virtually no maintenance.
Ease and speed of installation

also affects the choice,
is
factor.
when
cost
Materials requiring
inexpensive
maintenance often keep a

good appearance longer. Many
factors must be considered when
require continual
selecting exterior building mate-
An
de-
is
minimum
to retain
its
of
service-
little
rials.
Wall Sheathing
Wall sheathing
is
placed be-
tween a building frame and exterior covering. It adds rigidity,

serves as a backing for exterior
coverings,
and may
also serve as
insulation.
Lumber
is
the
traditional
sheathing material. Traditionally,

this
may be one of
three selec-
tions S4S, tongue and groove, or

ship lap.
There are two methods
of installation.
may be
at a
45 angle to the studs.
latter is preferred
because
more
rigidity
When
diagonal sheathing
to
the
it
The
gives
building.
is
used,
codes permit
corners as discussed in Chapter
this
note on the plans or specifica-
tions
to
7.
must
state the size
of lumber
be used and the method of
fiberboard are also suitable for
may
be applied diagonally
walls.
plywood
is
Large plywood panels per-
234
When
adequate.
16"
used,
is
Some
less thickness,
but
should be avoided on quality
construction.
Fiberboard wall sheathing
may
be purchased with the faces untreated, or the sheets
installation.
horizontally across the studding,

it
strength.
or 24" studding spacing
most codes permit elimination of
Sheathing grade plywood and
or
with the face grain vertical
maximum
for
the "let-in" diagonal bracing at
placed
It
mit rapid erection. Panels are applied
a bituminous coating.
when
the latter
is
may have
Of course,
used
it
is
not
necessary to cover the sheathing
with building paper because the

surface is already protected.
Treated
fiberboard
resistant
but does not act as a
vapor
barrier.
allow the
will
It
moisture
is
wall to "breath" (permit transfer
of vapor). Therefore sheathing

should not be covered on the outside with a vapor barrier because
this will trap
condensation within
the wall.
Most common fiberboard sheet

are 24"x96" and 48"x96".
However, a wide variety of sizes
is available. The 24"x96" sheet is
installed with the long dimension
sizes
across the studding.
Sheets are
staggered so adjoining ones do

not end on the same stud. The
48"x96" sheets are installed with
the long dimension vertical.
The two most frequently used
thicknesses are
and Vr.". The
thickness meets most minimum code requirements but 25/m"
W
is
preferred because of
strength
and
added
its
Weitern
greater
solid
insulation
lumber
Omission of Wall Sheathing
warm
frame buildings are
is
most
climates, or
when
Horizontal Siding
in
is made of
narrow, uniform-width strips
Horizontal siding
they are
of material.
omitted.
sheathing
If
wall
It is
usually installed
sheathing
is
not required, build-
produces
interesting
ing paper
is
applied to the walls
shadows
at
and the exterior covering
is
Wall sheathing and exterior

covering are frequently incorporated into a single prefabri-
may be
tural or non-structural.
struc-
is
the
horizontal
intersections.
the traditional material
When
solid
wood
is
used,
boards taper in a wedge,

angled down from top to bottom.
the
It is
some
cated product.
Wall coverings
Wood
used.
applied.
when
specifying thickness.
will
other
utility structures,
used
with the strips overlapping. This
thin,
sometimes
is
Nominal thicknesses are Vi", W,

and %". Nominal widths are 4",
6", 8", 10", and 12". Bevel siding
used for unheated garages and

is
Products Associorion, Arl Commercial Srudios
satisfactory.
value.
When
Wood
used as wall sheathing a diagonal installation
is
called "bevel siding," or in
cover
much
less surface
areas of the country "lap
siding will cover
or "weather boarding."
than the nominal
siding"
The first is more descriptive.

The thick bottom edge "butt"
235
than
one might anticipate from the

nominal size. Regular bevel siding
will cover Vh" less height than
its
nominal size. For example,
the exposed face of 10" bevel
siding is 8V2". Rabbeted bevel
1"
less
width
size; therefore
the exposed face of 10" rabbeted
bevel siding
is
9".
|p!;;|î$^;
Bevel siding can be incorporated into beautiful designs.
Bevel siding.
Tongue and groove.
Shiplap.
(A) Rabbeted
(B) Plain
Vertical
Methods
board and batten siding.
of |oinery.
[1
Vertical
236
board on board siding.
22: Exterior Wall Coverings
"^
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r^S
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Lru
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Lrv
r\
z~^s
p.
|
4j
~v
Lumber
Redwood
should
is
be
used.
considered
best.
common
There are two
wood
~L
patterns
bevel siding plain and
rabbeted. Cross-sections of each

are shown.
The
s_
^~gr-
may
be
sulation.
Pre-finished
siding
is
teners to avoid face nailing.

patterns.
siding
Two
methods of edge joining lumber

siding are shown shiplap and
tongue and groove. Cove and
smooth or saw textured.
drop siding are designed to be

used horizontally. The other patterns
are
Other Horizontal Siding
cally.
Examples of exterior siding
finished surface
may
Horizontal siding
also be
usually
applied verti-
patterns include only those most
of plywood, hardboard, or recon-
frequently selected.
wood. The latter is made

of small sections which have been
jointed and glued to form large
may
joints
boards.
with narrow strips of
structed
The above
may
Boards and battens. S4S boards

be applied vertically and the
between
boards
covered
wood
called
be
battens. In the illustrations, notice
purchased with unfinished sur-
the spaces between each board.

These spaces permit expansion
and contraction. Notice also that
wide boards are nailed in the
faces,
or
finishes
materials
variety
applied.
of surface
They may be
overlaid with resinous paper, prefinished
with
paint,
or covered
manu-
minimizes warping. Narrow

boards may be nailed along one
pre-finished
steel,
edge, with the other edge "float-
Horizontal siding
factured
of
is
aluminum, and plastic. These may

have rigid backing panels or the
backs
center, but not at the edges. This
also
with colored plastic film.
may be
covered with
in-
7"
Plank patterns.
usually applied with special fas-
Wood
^r-^r^r-v-^-nr^r-^r-^
siding patterns; shiplap siding patterns.
with good weathering
characteristics
of
17
~L>
Tongue and groove
C3f
ing" free.
Board-on-board. Board-onboard installations are very simi-
237
to boards and battens. The

main differences are 'that the first
boards applied have much more
space between them, and the
board replacing the batten is
lar
much
Edges
wider.
of this
tongue and groove siding
are beveled to form a "V" which conceals |oints and produces

for vertical
shadow
emphasis.
lines
Plywood
Large sheets
siding.
may be
used as a finished covering, or
of exterior grade plywood

vertical
wood
strips
to simulate battens.
may be added
Plywood may
be purchased with saw-textured

or other decoration cut into the
Some
outer surface.
common
When
of the more
are shown.
large sheets are used the
face grain
is
vertical.
Shingles or shakes.
Wood
gles or shakes, described in

ter
10,
may
shin-
Chap-
also be used as ex-
terior wall covering.
Because wood
shingles are quite narrow, they

are sometimes manufactured in
assembled widths on a solid backing board. Coverings simulating
wood
shingles are also manufac-
of
tured
United Slates Plywood Corp.
Early
American
style
bituminous
asbestos,
composition, hardboard, or alu-
minum. Their surface is machined

sawed or hand split
cedar plywood siding.
to resemble
shingles.
'Planktex" siding.
United States P/ywood Corp.
great
many
sizes,
shapes, and colors are manufactured, so
it
is
necessary to con-
manufacturers' literature
when making selections.
sult
Stucco
Stucco
is
a thin plaster used
primarily on the outside.
be waterproof. Stucco
It
must
may
be
similar to interior plaster in that

it
takes a three-coat application-
brown scratch coat, one

brown coat, and one lime finish
coat. Or it may be made entirely
of cement plaster. However, this
one
is
quite brittle;
it
may
crack be-
cause of expansion and contraction
of base
materials,
control joints are used.
co
is less brittle,
face
238
is
although
not as hard.
unless
Lime
its
stuc-
sur-
pane,s between vertical

Curtain wa,,s with sandw,c h
members have
no maintenance.
239
,on g ,astin g beauty
and require
11
.1
13^3
^;.
^-n*^.. z
mm
HI
H"
1
':_
zr**
Si JPT-1
ns-
3J
HBHHrrij
as&v ji 21
III VUS^
til
'
nwwak
mi'
The modern design of this brick apartment complex
this
JCT
III
The beauty of
apartment structure
is
is
aesthetically pleasing.
enhanced by
its
stucco
finish.
<AV
4&f
f7
Wi ''!'J&
may have
Stucco
textured surface.
brilliant
white and
may
be
left this
Pigments or decorative ag-
color.
may be added
gregates
to the fin-
coat for a built-in permanent
ish
finish.
is
a smooth or
Most stucco is a
Stucco also paints well and
Stucco
masonry surfaces.
However, wire reinforcing (frequently with paper backing) is
secured to the building
usually
and then the stucco
first
is
plas-
Minimum recommended
tered.
thickness
easy to maintain.
sometimes plastered
is
on
directly
3A".
is
Questions fo Reinforce Knowledge
What
do
functions
How does
2.
maintenance affect
15.
Why
might one choose to
covering are frequently incorporated

into a single
sheets instead of boards?
5.
What
What
wall sheathing?
is
materials are used for
in
What
which
are the two directions
wood
solid
sheathing
may
7.
8.
tion of
9.
the
two methods
31.
does
its
tion of
is
48"x96"
What
24"x96"
What
of
ing
is
an advantage of
bituminous-coated
12.
film
is
likely
to
happen
if
and
the
exterior
wall
13.
What
What
is
Is
applied
27.
thicknesses?
fre-
it
the normal color of
What may be done
to
change
What
are the two
common
types of stucco?
34.
may be
What
is
35. Which
is
a control joint?
more
brittle,
lime or
cement stucco?
shiplop siding?
vertically
or
What
What
is
drop siding?
board and batten
is
Terms To Spell And
Know
are wide boards only
the center on this siding?
in
What
What
of using
fiberboard sheathing
29.
ing
wall sheathing
tongue and groove

shiplap
Why
is
board-on-board
siding?
28.
are the two most
siding?
other materials
23.
nailed
covering?
quently used
wood
siding?
placed between the
is
What
stucco?
is
the color?
33.
are three methods of
22.
26.
What
sheathing
25.
sheathing?
plastic
24.
us-
fiberboard
What
is
stucco?
32.
are the nominal widths
What
What
horizontally?
fiberboard sheathing?
is
its
used as horizontal siding?
fiberboard
the sheet direction
from
other joints?
in
What
pre-finishing
sheathing?
10.
differ
for
of bevel siding?
the correct applica-
is
meaning
meaning
plywood sheathing?
What
name
material for commercial installations.
30.
20.
the face-grain direc-
is
bevel siding?
the
Why?
What
is
edge of bevel siding? How
18.
19.
Which of
better?
horizontal siding?
the
Rohm and Hoot Co
panels are a popular covering
Plastic
is
thick
be applied?
is
7.
product"?
What
What
What
16.
wall sheathing?
6.
state-
ment, "Wall sheathing and exterior
cover a building with large plywood
4.
be omit-
wood frame walls?

What is meant by the
ted from
selection?
3.
When may sheathing
14.
exterior
coverings perform?
are some advantages
plywood
What
is
for exterior walls?
the purpose of back-
boards?
241
taper
bevel siding
rabbeted bevel siding
boards and battens

board-onboard siding
stucco
lime
Part
FUNCTION
AND BEAUTYESSENTIALS OF
PLANNING
23.
The Architect
24.
The
25.
Design
26.
Determining Needs and Wishes
27.
Room
Drafter
for
Today's Living
of the Client
by
Room
Planning
28. Furniture List

29.
Community Factors
30. Site
to
be Considered
Planning
243
Two
The Architect
An
architect
builder
of
is
a designer or
anything,
including
golf courses, but the term
is
most
ings such as garages or other util-
structures unless they are
ity
part of a large project. For per-
frequently used to describe a per-
sonal
who designs, draws plans for,

and supervises building construc-
complex
son
tion.
The term comes from
ancient
Greek, meaning "master builder."
As
is
specialized.
buildings
satisfaction
homes
as
or
as
larger
should be designed by an archi-
This
tect.
not to imply that
is
one should not
avail
oneself of
In addi-
It
is
sometimes
for
difficult
people to realize that they need

the services of an architect.
They
know
may
think that they
actly
what they want and how the
and naval
Architects engaged
architecture,
designing buildings frequently
for this specialization
the building industry
one cannot hope

at
to
designing
is
is
must meet
may
This
usually
it
be constructed.
may
or
not.
is
not be true;
They may not
To
register as
an architect
general
education,
with
limited
may
allow completion
years.
However most
One may
ing an architect
relates to design, or a
building
vices
the
Architects usually do not design very small or simple build-
much. However,
fee
is
often less
than the amount saved by the

architect's efficient use of building
space
an Architect
cost too
architect's
that their ser-
is
and
good
utilization
of
building materials and construction methods.
An
individual
not keep abreast of
244
may
new products
in
three
accredited
colleges will require at least four
and many
Two
most frequently
to-
lege degree. Accelerated courses,
used excuses for not commission-
the
local
day, one almost must have a col-
so large
of
this
build-
Architect's Training
offered (not
encountered.
and
state
may be
One
Thus the architect concentrates on one kind of design to

become more expert.
for
Of course any
because
become proall
building should
ex-
areas,
residential
true.
uation.
types.
Need
in
even be aware of many design

and construction problems which
designing one kind
homes, churches, schools, hospitals, or others. The main reason
ficient
Even
can be
utility structures.
usually designed by professionals.
tectural professions include such
in
except for
Individual architects
field.
an archi-
that practically require

tect,
code requirements.
specialties as city planning, land-
in
and communities
ing
tion to designing buildings, archi-
specialize
states
a plan service or prefabricated
becoming
small areas of the
architecture.
Many
have building standards and laws
structures, because these are
is
usually confine their activities to
scape
and building trends but the competent architect must always do so.
very
true in other professions,
architecture
years
five
types of curricula
all
grad-
for
may be
schools offer both).
study architecture as
nical course
is
more
it
tech-
offered in archi-
tectural engineering.
Most
colleges require a
broad
liberal education, as well as pro-
fessional
study.
The reason
for
must be
flu-
this is that architects
ently
aware of the cultural aspects
of society.
23: The Architect
Graduation from a four or
five
year course earns the student a

bachelor's
degree.
desired, he
is
may do advanced
or she
In
addition
must
wishes of the
prospective designer
also serve under the guid-
manner
much
same
the
as a doctor serves an in-
The
ternship.
must serve
length of time one
same
not exactly the
is
everywhere but
it
usually about
is
After the training period one

take examinations to qualify
and become a registered architect

in the state of residence. It
possible
secure
to
is
then
license
in
is
still
stances
to
possible in
become
without
architect
some
in-
registered
attending col-
However, because one must

have so much more knowledge
than was formerly necessary, it is
becoming increasingly more diffilege.
cult.
After serving under an archi-
tect for
is
within rea-
Draw
one
suitable
Draw
achieved.
is
working plans for the

no matter how compli-
cated.
materials to be
all
contract documents
and
architect,
client
and con-
client
and also between

tractors.
Write
specifications
a period, one must take
and pass the same qualifying
tests
the
for
estimates
cost
so
the
An
and
Know
responsibility
of
ability
and finan-
building industry.
individual
con-
in
much
discuss
all
result
repetition of information
presented elsewhere in the book;
dur-
than
less
may be
many persons in
paid
glamorous
An
a percentage of the total building
This fee
The
receipts
architect
and
state-
must be cerand
plans
variable but
is
5%
frequently between
is
8%
and
of the building cost. This seems

large
like
upkeep,
office
ment of
not
is
and
plus
pay-
and supervisory
consume
all
architect's
clear
all
relations
taxes,
drafters
of
through
but one must
fee,
it
maintenance
a large per-
fee.
Expensive
must
continue
the
seasons.
Much
success
depends
of the
on
good business management.
are
to contractors.
followed
rately. In cases of errors or
on
works on
architect usually
and analyze
sions
less
lines.
centage
Make payments
would
first
fact,
Audit the contractors' accounts
Supervise construction and see
To
year of employment. In
personnel,
that
person.
any other work, one
tractors.
of the specific duties
professional
in
Business
total
other
Again, as
profit.
duties
thorough familiarity with the
or
Supervise the letting of bids.
labor are paid.
many
is about the same

good doctor, lawyer,
that
which require
architect has
responsibilities
Average income
realize
tain that all bills for material
The Architect's Duties
well
reason.
ments.
as those with college training.
become very expert or

known and earn large sums
money while others do not.
architects
cost.
Make
cial
It
a commission basis, the fee being
owner will know approximate cost

and whether or not bids are within
is
any other profession. Some
like
ing early years one
Draw up
between the
it
does not become rich the
Determine
well
are
how much one may
say
as that of a
all
building,
architects
be expected to earn per year.

is
of
preliminary plans until a
building.
other states.
It
of
used.
three years.
may
amount
sonable bounds.
Successful
paid for their services, but

difficult to
the client desires to spend
so the building plan
ance and supervision of a competent architect in
client.
Determine the financial status
money
The Architect's Fee
the
all
of the client and the
formal educa-
to
study for
a master's or doctor's degree.
tion, the
work or not:
Determine the needs and
or she docs
additional
If
formal education
ble for the following, whether he
accu-
omis-
the plans, or misinterpre-
tation by contractors, the architect corrects or explains
and
them.
If
an architect has a flourishing
business
possible
work
at
sites.
several commissame time, it is not

do all supervisory
with
sions at the
to
each of the construction
Most
large
construction
projects require that the architect
quality
upon
and
the
are listed to suggest the extent of
of
at
the work.
labor performed, and secure
all
the architect's representative has
therefore
The
only
architect
broad categories
must be responsi-
Inspect
of
all
pass
material
guarantees.
have
the
full-time
site.
When
representative
this
is
true,
direct authority over construction.
245
Port Two: Function
and Beauty Essentials of Planning

1.
Who may
be called an
2.
Name
four different kinds of
Why
specialize
do
in
architects frequently
designing predomi-
nately one kind of building?

4.
Why
vices of
5.
ser-
Are
buildings
always
what way
is
de-
is
it
necessary
an
archi-
are the normal educa-
tional requirements for
What
2. After
is
3.
completed,
Is it
and
informal
how may one
always necessary
familiar with
an
must an architect be
phases of the build-
all
ing industry?
tect
What
4 major items
does the archi-
perform for the client? There
to
more. They need not be
10 or
list
in
any given
order.
How
does the architect's
come compare with earnings

well known professions?
On what
basis
tectural firm paid for

1
8.
What
is
services?
required of the suc-
to attract clients? Discuss.

9.
What
are
responsibilities
the
of an
duties
9.
Why
representative?
an architect?
are the two different
have a
0.
offered
architect's
What advanced degrees

in
Know
liberal
education?
1
Terms to Spell and
do colleges also require
are
commission
registered architect
the field of architecture?
246
and
architect's
curricula offered?
the architect to
in-
other
the archi-
is
its
in
cessful architect besides the ability
services
listed in the text.
You should be able
17.
for
architect to attend college? Explain.
Why
are
16.
formal
secure an architect's license?
15.
tect? Explain.
What
petent architect?
14.
one required
to obtain the services of
8.
why
a prospective architect to serve
for
signed by architects? Explain.
7.
From your reading and your
reasoning,
training
does one need the
an architect?
6. In
a period of time working for a com-
architects.
3.
own
architect?
architectural engineering
architect's representative
The Draftsman
Very
briefly, this
of the
chapter mere-
work
drafter. As
the particular
identifies
ly
architectural
methods of joining them. After

becoming a master drafter, he or
she can become responsible for
work of other
impossible to say exactly
is
It
how much
a drafter can be ex-
pected to earn per year.
Wages
you know, a drafter is a person

who draws pictorial and working
the
plans for any structure buildings,
and talented, the drafting position
drafters
may
wage. Beginning salaries are not
equipment
for
other items.
He
and
buildings,
or she works for
and under the supervision and
di-
one
If
is
drafters as well.
extremely ambitious
be used as a stepping stone to
other positions.
One may through
work and study become
further
rection of an architect. Duties and
an estimator, specifications writer,
responsibilities vary with experi-
architect's
ence and
architect.
ability.
Beginning duties frequently
There
in-
representative,
no prescribed amount
clude distribution of supplies to
of
drafters,
have to become a
prints
from
routine
tracings,
assignments.
of
The
pletion of high school, but
of copying or tracing small
details
from other drawings.
working drawings from information supplied
him or
firms require at least
Many young
upon completion
Later, the drafter will develop
handle
of structural
in a position the
than
office
the
average
of
other
workers. After several years
of experience, a
reasonably
much
as
good drafter can
expect
an
office
to
earn
as
manager or
service department head in other
types of business.
architects,
flair
sales
One may have
for advertising layout or
work
that will lead to
work
product promotion not con-
drafters.
nected with architecture.
much
parts
and
community for the drafter
be-
in
your
tween an architect and an architec-
in
architecture,
tural drafter.
city
size
one remains
as
salary increases are usually bet-
two years
of their formal
to
her. After
of the detailed planning, such as

the
many
They may be compared
in
methods used by the employ-
er, the drafter will
high.
other types of office work, but
education, begin their careers as
more experience, when he or she

knows the materials and construction
upon com-
secure a position
of college.
One
drafter.
may
first
must
one
education
and other
actual drawing will probably consist
formal
Even in the same city, all

do not earn the same
try.
ter
is
other
reproduction
or an
are variable throughout the coun-
2.
Explain
the
Investigate
difference
the
247
opportunities
manufacturing firms,
planning departments, and legal
work such as producing
site
drawings.
Design for Today's Living

Architecture, in
may
its
truest sense,
from the elements.
shelter
is
It
many purposes. It may

home or permanent shelter.
may be a place to work, play,
serve
be a
It
or worship. All great architecture

is
impression that every-
the
gets
thing
old
new
good and everything

poor. Nothing could be
is
farther
is
from the
continued
use,
must
fulfill
function
Progress cannot be constant.
(2)
structure
progress
(3)
beauty
than at others.
The three are interdependent.

The function is the reason for
a building's existence. The strucand methods of
construction must enhance the
materials
tural
When
function.
structural systems
the
selection
is,
can the building best be

its
the
how
built to
function? For example,
at the present
dome
crete
of
must be made,
main consideration
fulfill
latest
set-
More
some times
(1)
time thin-shell con-
structures
represent
building fashion. Yet
As
is
made
is
we regard
as great
built using the best materials
unless this represents
the
best solution to the problem.
ing
technology,
one
sometimes
materials are readily available,
tion costs
add
must
be given consideration.
still
to the building cost
book
this
is
primarily
concerned with drafting, rather

than a course in architecture, no
lengthy
discussion of individual
sented. It
this great architecture
Roman
drals, classic
is
Greek
that architecture of today should
not be copies of building styles
homes, and the fore-
from the
past.
runners of modern skyscrapers.
straightforward
Each
advantage
of these represents an ex-
pression of their times and the
way
of
life
of the people.
of
They should have

designs
today's
and construction methods.
Beauty pleases or
During each period of

has evolved
when
construction
in their
own
own
history,
individual
needs, using
materials
locality.
248
taking
materials
Beauty
Style
style
be pre-
the author's opinion
works, Gothic cathe-
are the Egyptian pyramids,
and
at
although the fact that transporta-
examples of
ture to suit their
In this period of rapidly chang-
all
styles or their merits will
groups developed basic architecArchitectural Merit
materials
and methods of the time. Some
one does not build a concrete
dome
took
hand and used them to solve

building problems. However, with
today's
modern transportation,
Since
true today, buildings of
the past which
were
at
use of stone, and available
Architecture
been
have
there
exten-
clay resulted in brick structures.
backs and periods of regression.
three obligations:
made
regions
acceptance
recorded history to the present;
however,
in volcanic
and
can determine true worth.

evolution from the beginning of
available. Architecture
regions
forest
in
sive
ma-
and construction methods
living
mostly of timber, while those
Only time,
Building has seen a continual
lem, using the best building
built
truth.
a solution to a building prob-
terials
people
available
For example,
may
satisfies.
It
give the beholder a feeling of
awe and
inspiration. It
is
impor-
tant for one's inner enrichment.
This
may
be stated as an esthetic
quality or feeling.
Beauty
is
not
a simple thing. Total architectural
25: Design for Today's Living
beauty
lines,
upon building
rely
will
form, proportion, harmony.
Beauty
If
tecture
work
rials.
building of unusual form (but of
the
related
may
sidered
same
unknown.
or
It is
easier to rely
upon
the security of the past (the
and true) than to explore the
drab.
The
building
beauty.
The designer must
rely
on
functional design and an honest
tried
disgust
unknown.
desired artistic effect.
Pseudo Beauty
When one observes the shiny
should not rely upon gimmicks or
embellishments of an
industrial
the
structure.
This false idea
one sometimes confuses
the
basis for
much
No
in
two people have the
feeling of beauty for a given
may
like a great,
is
com-
composition;
musical
this
An untrained
doubtful because
not within his or her realm of
experience. This person will probably gain greater
pleasure
from
the music of the street because
The same
familiar.
it
true of
is
society,
gaudiness with design and beauty,

especially
I
his
is
tion
is
ration
judging
in
buildings.
not to say that no decorato be used,
because deco-
plays a very strong role.
use of materials to support the
unusual uses
is
all
poor,
it
or she
to bring attention to
of the
architecture one sees.

ply that
He
Not
is
poor
to im-
of today's architecture
is
not;
much
very
is
good. In most of today's good dethe
sign
architect
employs
an
Applied or "stuck on" decoration
honest use of materials and sim-
without a purpose
plicity as
is
to be avoided.
EI k iiM k nls of ltaiily himI
primary guides.
Design
Form
Line
The
Building lines (do not confuse

with earlier definition of building
meaning
the building
resent the
the location
is
to
where
be placed) rep-
border, boundary, or
outline of the building or
They may he described
its
parts.
as a con-
nected series following each other

in
and
some may
however,
line,
nous
should express one's feeling for
of
plicated
is
iar
disliked only
represents the unfamil-
it
The designer does not want
building to appear monoto-
by
individual
is
because
logi-
feelings
object or experience.
it
should be, a
good design) may be
and
go with the building mate-
beautiful
provoke
others.
think
beautiful! Archi-
The deco-
also dates a building.
gard for other merits. Likewise, a
familiar,
Yet a building con-
of art.
It
ration should naturally
to
at least
or
is,
is
the
one has seen
only ugly things, one

the least ugly
like a building
represents
it
cally
directly
is
because
having complete disre-
balance, color, and texture.
past experience.
One may
buildings.
style
time or space. For example,
building with horizontal lines
one that
profile
is
closely
follows
shadow
lines
ing. Vertical lines
of bevel sid-
may
the points of emphasis.
also
lines,
when
building form.
Form may be
de-
scribed as the solid mass of the

building.
by
Form was
best analyzed
America's great architect.

Lloyd Wright, when he
tangle
is
approximately
ratio
of 5 to
8.
This rectangle
portion
obtainable.
stated the principle that form fol-
sizes
It
is
and building shapes.
Proportion
make
the relationship
of one part, item, or area to another.
All
structural
visual spaces,
a
feeling
unitv.
units,
must contribute
of total
or
to
architectural
The Greek Golden Rec249
used
when designing room
lows function.
is
is
considered the most pleasing proextensively
Proportion
units
wide and S units long, or has a

width to length proportion or
Frank
the
ground plane. Or the building

lines may be emphasized by horizontal
all
or enclosed, creates the
is
usually low and has a
that
of
total
combined
Greek golden rectangle.
'
mm\
SS\
,JL.
Hff'
Scho/z
Homes
Inc.
Horizontal line emphasis.
Vertical line
emphasis.
National Homes
I
laiillillibl
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MHT#
Massive structure contributes to the beauty of
Windows
of the
second story balance with those on the lower
and Colonial
styles.
this luxury
level.
home.
"Borrows" from both Georgian

Na)lona/ Homes
251
Part Two: Function
Balance
Balance
mass or area
another
act
of balance
first
the ability of
is
one
to equal or counter-
visually.
large
is
and second
An example
windows on
story placed di-
each other, or
a 2-story unit balanced with a
long, low extension, such as a
rectly in line with
to unite
visually.
esthetic appeal.
Color or patterns of color

and texture, which is the degree
or pattern of roughness of a material,
Rhythm
the visual artistic
is
can be used to emphasize
all
plane) surface
(also
can be made interesting by their

use. Since color is part of the
and texture
surface finish
surface of the material, these are
the total building pattern.
It
enhanced by a visual flow or
movement of
regularly recurring
elements or features such as placing tops of

at the
all
same
windows and doors
height, or repetition
broad
For those with spe-
topic.
study
further
interest,
cial
is
recommended.
Choosing the Form
plain
ing parts and their arrangement
is
discussion of the
elements of beauty and design only

serves as an introduction to a
of the elements of design and
relationship of individual build-
in
into a structure of
The previous
Color and Texture
Rhythm
them
of parts to unite the structure
beauty.
garage.
is
in the
form
not applied decoration.
Good
architecture incorporates
these elements of design into an
An
whole.
integrated
As mentioned, the building

form should follow the function.
Quite frequently a building could
take any one of a number of
forms and still adequately per-
adequate
designer has a knowledge of
all
how
design principles and knows
its
When
function.
this
is
must choose
the most satisfactory form to ful-
and
of function
obligations
the
fill
designer
the
true
structure,
and
still
create a
pleasing and beautiful building.
Application of Design
After the needs and wishes of
areas.
From
the
wishes of the
Golden Rectangle previously de-
the client have been determined
client,
and using
details learned
scribed.
and recorded see Chapter 26

actual design is begun. The discussion of planning problems and
concerning
solutions will be confined to house
entire
construction because this
client
cal
is
of all light construction.
typi-
When
planning
individual
rooms, tentative room and area

sizes
may
be determined for the
plan.
For example,
may have
the
previously de-
cided that lO'-O" x 12'-0"
the
is
other structures are to be designed
minimum
the principles are the same.
rooms and the master bedroom

must be at least 14'-0" x 20'-0".
The plan must contain and conform to these requirements.
Since a building
the function
suggests the
it
is
is
planned for
to perform, this
interior
should be
planned first. Still, the exterior

must contribute to a harmonious
and unified structure. A home
may follow any of a variety of
forms. Therefore the designer
must choose one that is suitable.
Chapter 27 discusses elements

of planning individual rooms and
size
of children's bed-
Cutouts
and
its
may
use light-
W=
'-0"
then cut rectangles repre-
senting tentative
sizes.
The
The room
should be labeled on
size
each cutout. The cutouts may be

arranged and rearranged until the
most suitable room arrangement

is
achieved.
It
all
will not
be possible to make
the cardboard
gether perfectly.
lap
slightly,
rooms
to-
fit
Some may
over-
plan
may
much
or
the
insufficient
or
too
area allowed for halls and closets.
beginner
weight cardboard and a

scale,
or three alternate
gested for each room.
have
Room
Two
shapes and sizes should be sug-
room and area
cutouts might well fol-
low the 5 to 8 proportion of the
252
Minor adjustments
have
to
be made.
tentative
will naturally
When
good
room arrangement
is
achieved, a quick sketch of the

floor plan
should be
made
drawn with instruments).
(not
STEPS IN THE
DEVELOPMENT
OF A FLOOR
PLAN
DINING
DINING
ROOM
ROOM
ROOM
UTILITY
BED-
ROOM
LIVING
LIVING
ROOM
BED-
ROOM
MASTER
BEDROOM
BED-
BED-
ROOM
ROOM
KITCHEN
1
MASTER
*.
BEDROOM
v.
Room
templates arranged into a tentative floor plan.
-I
LIVING
UTILITY
ROOM
KITCHEN
+-t*i
MASTER
BEDROOM
Single line floor plan adapted from template arrangement.
253
Part Two: Function
Presentation floor plan.
Before an originally styled

building takes
its final
tentative plans are
many
made and
the
taken from the
final selection is
best one.
form,
The cardboard
cutouts
should be saved for future use.
Requirements of a Good
A
way
of
of
its
occupants.
provide for
still
activities.
orderly manner.
many
of rooms and location of walls,
A de-
sign for an active family will be
This has led to the in-
many names) and
the
living
room was
point of activity, but
good music. This

problem for the
development home because
it
is
not designed for specific individuals.
An
attempt
is
made
to de-
the
is
focal
gaining
all
building
best use of
all
be economical to build. One

house (or any building) which is
almost identical to another may
will
hundreds of dollars more
cost
mum
to the turn-of-
make
building materials so the house
pany room similar
and
it
parts should
because
Well-planned Details
creates
has con-
doors, windows, and
popularity as a retreat or com-
the-century parlor.
listening to
rooms
tributed a tendency to the isola-
from one for a family

which spends much time reading
different
fact
physical
clusion of multi-purpose
(with
The arrangement
atmosphere but
tion of living rooms. In the past
Home
good home expresses the

life
sign for a relaxed
it
use
does not
make maxi-
of building material
One method of framing may

more than another, when the
sizes.
cost
expensive one might actually

perform the job better.
less
The home and each room

it
in
should be well planned includ-
ing
all
necessary features in each
room, arranged
in a logical
254
and
Flexibility
The house should be
flexible.
The
windows
use of certain rooms might

change in the future and this
must not restrict the use of other
rooms. If the house is expansible,
provide for additions which do
not interfere with present rooms
or look as though they were stuck
on when viewed from the inside
or outside. A well planned addi-
sion of
tion blends so well with the rest
gaining privacy.
all
across
the
Omission of windows on
any wall where complete privacy
is desired is becoming accepted
front.
The
rebirth of the atrium,

an enclosed garden, or
inner court, and the division of
practice.
which
is
tion has
an addi-
tell
been made.
Privacy
good house should afford
privacy for the occupants. This
means privacy for the individual

family members or visitors, and
must have
also those within
vacy from those outside.

things are
One of the
to
place
done
pri-
Many
to afford privacy.
recent trends has been

the
kitchen
near
the
and place the living room

the rear. This arrangement also
front
in
gives the living
room
access to
which contribrelaxed outdoor living.
to
Even more recent
is
the use of
high privacy walls across the front

enclosing open courts, or omis-
or belongs
Another of the
truths expressed by Frank Lloyd
Wright is that architecture should
be organic.
beautiful
He
believed nature
is
and one should use as
many native materials as possible.

One should make maximum use
popular means of
of the natural terrain and the
tural units are
home should approximately

low
fol-
Naturally this
contour.
its
Limiting Influences
does not imply that floors slope
As population increases, as
cities grow in size, as land becomes scarce, as labor costs rise
and the value of money goes
down, average size homes have
become smaller. It is necessary
to follow the ground. Floor levels
for planning to be
than
was
it
in
much
better
the past. This
smaller size has also contributed

to
the
popularity
rooms. (For
of multi-use
minimum
housing,
still small. Middle and

upper income housing is begin-
sizes are
ning to feature
more and
larger
may be
and Type Home To Be
Considered
A home
with
its
must be compatible
surroundings.
Solid walls facing a street, separated living areas,
It
should
in
Area
Besides blending harmoniously
with
its
surroundings, the
home
must look well with other homes

in the area. If all the
other
homes
are large one should not build
a small home, or
if all
homes
area contains
large
one.
older
homes of questionable
ue,
are
one should not build a
small
it
is
If the
in
val-
usually poor economics
construct
home
Size
stepped so they conform.
Other Homes
to
rooms.)
patios in the rear,

utes
fits
it
location.
its
living areas into separate struc-
of the building that an observer
should not be able to
look as though
in
large
their midst.
expensive
person
must carefully study an area's

property values to see whether
they are increasing or decreasing
before deciding to build.
and an atrium give privacy
to this
home's occupants.
P.M Boffon Assoc.
255
-**'
Part Two: Function
Practical Considerations
Client's Financial Ability
been
The home designer must know

the financial status of the client.
Many
have
people
wants
that
most
are completely out of proportion
properly
house
decide what
luxury
is
recent
in
homes
have become known as ranchhouse style. This label is not
to their ability to finance them.
One must
popular
years. All low, sprawling
The true ranch

an outgrowth of the
used.
is
warm
climate southwest.
pre-
It
Rule-of-thumb estimates say

a home should not cost more
wide overhangs to keep out the sun, and

large sliding glass areas which
open so the evening breeze will
enter. Extensive use is made of
outdoor living areas and patios.
Post and beam construction lends
than
itself to this design.
and what
of the prospective
home owner's
may determine whether
credit
not
Sound use
necessity.
is
the
proposed
building
or
is
constructed.
2'/2
to 3 times the individual's
annual salary. Such a rough
mate
is
stances.
not
reliable
One must
individual's
in
in-
for
the
The
esti-
all
consider the
prospects
sents
low
profile,
single story
expensive to
More
foot.
home
footing
most
is
per square
build,
and foundaand
tion length, outside wall area,
future.
The amount of current

outstanding debt and how obli-
roof materials are required than
gations are fulfilled must be con-
area.
sidered.
luxury,
The amount spent on

travel,
social
for other classifications
One and One-half
of equal
Stories
activities,
and family education
also affect
one's ability to pay.
Of
One and
one-half story houses
it
not as widely used as the
is
one story designs.

Split
Level
split level home has been

much abused and misused. The
The
purpose of a
split level is to per-
mit the floors to follow the natural

split
ground contour. Thus the

level can be placed on ir-
regular lots totally unsuitable for
homes with one or two
stories.
Portions of the garage, basement,

or recreation
room may be placed
below the ground. When the

ground slopes from the front of
the lot toward the back, it is com-
mon practice for the house to

appear as a single story dwelling
from the front and a full two
stories from the rear.
Rows of suburban split levels
placed on level ground are an
unrealistic use.
Other designs
would afford more house for less
course,
usually have a steep roof slope
money and would be more
only the family head can decide,
so the attic space can be utilized.
monious with
but
the
designer
ways of
adjusting.
Number
may
suggest
Whether a home
one, two, or possibly
is
to
more
have
stories
changes with current fashion and

from locality to locality.
classifications
mers admit light and air. Shed

dormers are frequently placed on
the back of the house to give
additional
style
is
flat
ceiling area.
prevalent in
Cape Cod
and other early American
Two
The
designs.
Story
are:
Single story
One and
Two
Split level
Two
one-half story
story
story
homes make maxi-
Single Story
single
home
has
floor area
tangular building
also
square or recis
less
expen-
one of an irregular
shape. However, if finances will
permit, homes have two or more
sive
than
rectangles
adjoining each other
to relieve
monotony of appear-
ance. These rectangles
may form
use of limited ground area.
L,
They
are less expensive to build
finances permit, and one desires
than single story homes of an
still more irreguand unusual designs may be

adopted. Unusual designs take
care and expert knowledge.
is
story
Shape of the
affects the cost.
mum
equal area. The two story
The
Floor Plan Shapes
slope over part of a room. Dor-
of Stories
Four general
Ceilings usually follow the roof
har-
their surroundings.
enjoying a
many
new
home
popularity in
parts of the country, but
256
U, or
shapes. Again,
nonconformity,
lar
when
Home
Areas of a
A home
divided into three
is
areas (groups of rooms).

visions are based
tions
The
di-
the func-
These
performed.
be
to
upon
areas are:
Living
Public:
rooms, dining
rooms, front entry, or any other

place entertaining
is
be done.
to
Bedrooms, den or
any room used as a retreat.
Private:
study,
ROOM
LIVING
Work: Kitchens, utility rooms,

laundries or any room where the
business of running the house-
hold
is
performed.
Baths or powder rooms
be
placed
any
in
area.
may
Some
rooms are designed with overlapping functions. For example,

a master
bedroom may
also be
used as the owner's sitting room

or retreat (same area).
The three areas
of a
home
(1) Public. (2) Private,
and
(3)
Work.
kitchen
may
also be used as the only

planned dining area in the home,
or a family room may be used for
informal
entertaining
Family room of a prefabricated home, adjoining a kitchen and patio, contributes
(different
to gracious informal living.
areas).
Schofz
Traffic Pattern
As
stated
earlier,
privacy
is
important to the individual. Each
room
or area should allow pri-
vacy when
One
is
it
desired.
should be able to walk
from one room or area
to another,
without passing through a third

one.
and dining rooms
Living
are considered the same,

fulfilling
permissible
dining
room
room
when
requirement.
this
to
to
It
is
walk through a
go from a living
to a kitchen.
One may
also
pass through a kitchen to reach

a utility
room
or laundry.
One
should not pass through a bed-
room
to reach
any other room.
257
Homes
Inc
ond Beauty Essentials of Planning
Port Two: Function
Halls
front entry space.
Front entry and bedroom halls
One must
similar to the ones in the floor
from the outside into the

living room, bringing the rain,
snow, dust, and wind with them.
The living room must also serve
plan
as a corridor to reach other rooms.
are necessary to
requirements.
layouts
the
fulfill
central
illustrated
permits greatest design
Many
above
entry,
earlier,
flexibility.
inexpensive or poorly
should have at least two entries.
step
Besides
directly
If
space and finances permit,
is
to
arranged homes do not have a
homes
and
front
most
entry,
ser-
vice entry. In addition to provid-
ing for service deliveries, the additional
entry
apartments
an alternate
gives
means of leaving
convenience and
this
be avoided.
All
the
codes require a side or rear
the building for

in
case of
fire
or other disasters.
Planning the Exterior

"Organic" architecture has led
materials are used they must have
oddly constructed and thinks
to a reduction in building height.
a look of belonging together. For
is
Heat and cold may be controlled
example,
better than in the days of high
tice to
ceilings
and big
attics.
Not
all
buildings emphasize low horizontal lines,
Building cost
is
cause a thing
is
does not make
it
then insert a few stones at ran-
dom, or
build of brick and
to
so.
then place a triangular section of
another factor
stone at each of the lower out-
but they tend to do
One does
side corners.
material
on ornamentation such as
required
height
if
is
reduced.
just to
make
ent or eye
Combination of Wall Materials
As
stated
earlier,
simplicity
catching.
parts of the
When
to
believe.
Economically used brick and vertical siding
One
is
very
sees
skillfully
same
on
different
building.
Roof Slope
good deit. For
Roof
sign to bring attention to
the beginner this
not use different
styles
One must
building's
should be the designer's guide.
combinations of building
One should
architectural
this
the building differ-
upon the
rely
Mixing Architectural Styles
not put
leading to height reduction. Less

is
done by some
good or acceptable. It is not being done by leading architects and designers.
generally poor prac-
build a brick structure and
it is
should
difficult
buildings
combined
to
all
slopes
pitch does not
complement the
on
building
be the same. Changing
add
to the design
total design.
Schoiz
Homes
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-'3m
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i/*trr.'
258
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it
acceptable and good. Just be-
_3i^5"^!liBPi^Si^^
fflHi fli
'
..
^""N,
1r 1
^ "^^^^1
_.
Inc
and
also require additional
will
Shed dormers were mentioned earlier as a means of gaining added flat ceiling area; these
roofs do have a roof slope that
is different from the rest of the
labor.
When
building.
these
used
are
brick covers
of the exterior
all
or only the lower part, rowlock
9.
brick sills*may be used. If materials
other than masonry are used
on the lower
be wood.
part, the
10.
in
may
Coverings
made
materials are usu-
in
with the lower

edge of windows, or at least are
kept at a uniform height. When
changes in height are desired,
Wall
in Exterior
Coverings To Reduce Height

Visually
in line
common
change
this
usually
is
made
at
covering materials, divided hori-
door or window openings.

Stone and brick can be combined if it is done with care, adds
zontally to visually reduce build-
to
ing height by adding horizontal
signer can justify
ally
emphasized,
tice
calls
for
prac-
two exterior wall
When
lines.
portion
is
this
is
done, the lower
of one material,
built
and another material is added

above. If masonry is to be used,
it is placed on the lower portion
because it must be supported by
the foundation and footing. If
other masonry, or a dissimilar
material
is
used, a stone
sill
serves
cap (water table) and a divibetween materials. The sill

be of stone similar to ones
as a
sion
may
practice.
15.
it
more desirable to use dissimilar materials when more than one
6.
Aluminum
siding goes very
well with light-colored limestone,

especially
Red
remodeling jobs.
on
brick does not go well with
yellow brick. Upper wall covering

is
building, or cut stone of a con-
one, to keep the building from
may
be used.
If
a "gimmick"; what
is
when used on a
it
If
something
modern, does
is
bare of
is
it
all
decora-
of
design,
tion? Explain.
7.
When
speaking
what are the

18.
in
lines of
What
a building?
are emphasized
lines
ranch-house design?
1
9.
what
When
20.
21.
referring to a building,
form?
is
What
What
proportion?
is
22.
23.
24.
What
What
What
its
proportions?
balance?
is
25. Which
Greek Golden
the
is
Rectangle; what are
generally lighter than the lower

26.
color
applied decoration?
is
is
rhythm?
is
texture?
planned
is
first,
building interior or exterior?
used on the lower part of the

trasting
meant when one
is
What
What
meon
that
exterior covering
tion.
What
wrong with
is
is planned. For
example, brick and redwood can
be a very harmonious combina-
meant by the term
is
building?
The combination must improve

the design. Generally speaking
4.
this
beauty important?
is
What
rials?
and the de-
the appearance,
Why
speaks of an honest use of mate-
is
Since horizontal lines are usu-
3.
Changes
ally
Changes
beauty? What de-
is
it?
pseudo-beauty?
they must not have a stuck-on
appearance.
be the basis
should
What
termines
12.
Changes
Location of
sill
What
for planning today's buildings?
How may
cardboard cutouts
be used as an aid
looking top-heavy.
27.
planning?
in
What problems
of
design
does the development house present

that a custom house
28.
What
is
does not?
multi-purpose
room?
1
2.
What
What
is
architecture?
are the three obliga-
tions of architecture?
3.
What
is
the primary purpose
tural
What
determines the struc-
system one should use?

5.
If
it
is
mean
that
good?
it
is
If
it
is
old,
does
no longer usable?
Explain.
6.
What makes
great architec-
an idea
is
new, does that
7.
what
is
8.
In some homes, why has the

room been placed away from
other rooms and out of the traffic
29.
living
pattern?
30.
ture great?
of a building?
4.
mean

a period of architecture?
How does
style
259
evolve?
mum
Why
must one make maxi-
use of building material sizes?
31.
What
is
meant when one
speaks of a flexible house?
Part Two: Function
What
32.
How
house?
an expansible
is
does one provide for
this?
What does
33.
mean
it
to
say
that additions should not look stuck
A home
34.
Why
become
37.
How do
is
Do
38.
in
ability?
organic architecture?
homes
other
is
to
be
always
people
keeping with
What
in
an
must be taken
to
into
buy a house worth
40.
What
41.
When considering the amount
is
ranch-house design?
a single story home eco-
nomical to build?
42.
What
43.
How do
is
'A story
if
a build-
a building? Explain.
interest to
54.
How may
changes
in
exterior
wall coverings visually reduce building height?
55.
Where are
these changes
made?
usually
their financial
three times one's annual income?
is
50.
Why is traffic flow important?

How do halls aid this?
reasoning,
built?
absolutely safe to say
one can afford
of area,
49.
own
happen
desire
consideration?
it
add
to build?
your
likely to
is
53. Does a variety of roof slopes
floor plan shapes are
Terms To Spell and
are some of the finan-
cial factors that
Is
What
What are the three areas of

a home?
48. What area is a bathroom in?
area affect one that
39.
ing has several architectural styles?
52. From
what
47.
are they?
are two reasons why

homes has decreased?
What
levels?
What
smaller?
What
51.
height of
most economical
have average homes
36.
a two
must provide two
kinds of privacy.
35.
is
home economical to build?

45. What is a split level home?
What should determine the floor
story
46.
on?
homes
44. For area received,
home?
Know
timber
interior
overhang
form (building)
sketch
patio
proportion
multi-purpose
dormer
rhythm
retreat
attic
harmony
parlor
areas of the
balance
flexibility
public
applied decoration
atrium
private
building lines
organic
"form follows function"
profile
corridor
Greek Golden Rectangle
rowlock
ornamentation
shed dormers make
such a house more usable?
260
home
work
Determining Needs and Wishes

of the Client
There are
of
ideas
Any one
building.
Therefore
not
if
can
cause
misunderstandings.
or
errors
item,
resolved,
it
necessary to keep
is
a written record of
all
Necessities vs. Luxuries
be given
to
when planning
consideration
properly
thousands
literally
items and
planning.
Most
idea of the
the
combined
items
beautiful
no
real
cost of
they
all
desire
incorporate into their home.
to
They
usually
visualize
rosy
keep the budget
these are included.
all
Many
here
items mentioned briefly
discussed
are
length
in
greater
This
chapters.
other
chapter only
at
indicates
the important items that
begun,
is
so
in
mind during
The client,
architect's
help,
discussion
is
limited.
the
must know the financial

status and ability of the client.
He or she must know exactly how
much can be spent on the total
building project. People have a
Adapting
Client's
Ideas
costly,
it
may work
is
home (or other structure) has

many ideas he or she wishes to ina
should be. However,
if
is
as
the ideas
are so inflexible that the architect

is
allowed no design freedom, a

designed
poorly
probably
desires; for instance,
two
He
is
it
client
to
be a
story, split level,
or she should also
building
will
a large area.
The
client's prefer-
ence as to construction methods
should also be sought. For ex-
does
ample,
wood
sonry veneer,
The
the
client
prefer
frame, solid masonry,
architect
client's
steel,
ma-
or some other?
must also know the
preference
of
exterior
result.
covering materials. The roof
General Appearance of
shape and degree of slope should

also be discussed.
One
too
hardships on
mine the type home the
compact homes or ones that use
Every person desiring to build
tendency to overstate their finanbuilding
must also deter-
inquire whether the client prefers
architect
cial ability. If the
to be used.
presentation
done.
is
architect
or tri-level?
it
begins,
ideas
must reach an agree-
planning
The
and what ones are luxuries.
corporate into the plan. This
planning
tailed
single story,
Financial Ability of Client
Before
must
some of
must be
However people's
vary, so they
decide what items are necessities
given consideration before the design
the
impressed with previous
drawings are submitted before de-
planning stages.
with
is
structures.
furniture,
and lovely accessories. One must
compiled on charts. Samples of
client
is
commissioned because the
fine
venient
gadgets,
usually
certain
or she
ment as to the style

Note: This is why
nized notes, check
or data
He
with con-
This can be in the form of orgalists,
have
to
identifying features.
filled
picture of a spacious, near-perfect
home completely
tend
architect
individuals have
tect
of the
should
first
things an archi-
know about
the client
the family for a long period of
is
time, perhaps over several years.
Buildings designed by the same
the architectural style preferred.
261
The Lot
The
architect should
the lot before planning
examine
is
begun.
Part Two: Function
map
If a large scale
is
of the plot
not available a survey
made
The
at this time.
may
shape,
size,
Orientation
be

harmonious
it is
Preliminary examination of the

help determine prob-
lot will also
to the
permanent
features of the terrain.
The
relationship of the front
and terrain must be known. Con-
lems and solutions of orientation.
elevation
sultation with the client will de-
Major problems
How
Orienting the structure to take
termine
what
existing
such as
trees,
shrubs, boulders,
features
be given con-
to
sideration at this time are:
Location of other structures
earth, or others are to be retained
the immediate vicinity.
or removed.
How
in
Specific Information the Architect
Number
Is
ily:
for a
of people
young family
to increase or
is
the
permanent? Will
to
in the
fam-
home being designed
the
is
likely
number rather
it
accommodate
that
be necessary
the client's par-
What
the age of each
is
phy, sewing, reading, woodwork,

music, or others,
mem-
when
these rep-
Storage
the
List
facilities:
all
What
family
the
is
the family's living pat-
home
have a
ber of the family: Are children
tern?
each to have separate bedrooms
mal or informal atmosphere?
more boys or girls

room? If rooms are to
to share a
rooms
be shared, are separate storage

facilities to
be provided for each
Number
number
to accomplish
Approximate
size
How much
can these
What are
maximums
the
desired-
Functions each room must per-
formhow
of rooms
required.
Special
and
for
of rooms:
sizes
vary?
minimums and
each room?
interests:
facilities
them?
or
to be
to
closed
open
to
for-
Are
plan:
each other?
are
to
all
be
separate rooms?
Number and
client's
floor,
finishes:
What
preferences
and
are the
as
wall,
to
Is
the
home
to
activi-
be provided by
room, laundry, or other?
262
a garage or carport
Is
if so, for how

cars? Is the garage or car-
be included;
for storage?
be used
to
Equipment
desired:
mechanical items
there
Is
brand or
to
List
What
have
utility
all
be included.
preference
for
any
models?
specific
Color:
are
the client's
and
dislikes in colors?
What kind
ing
is
of heating and cool-
desired?
Special
features
for
interior:
What
special features are desired
such
as
bookcases,
fireplaces,
planters, dividers, or others?
Special features for exterior:
What
special features are desired
such
as
pools,
outdoor
ceiling finishes?
Basement:
vices
each.
Room
Garage:
many
location of bath-
rooms, half baths, or powder

rooms. Equipment desired in
to
(entire family's) preferences
a basement, or shall utility ser-
Are space
provided for
the
Which ones? Or
person?
Is
Open
or are two or
of
needs to
Categorize according to use.
items
advantage of the sun.
port
resent the client's interests?
Orienting the structure to take
best
Must Know
such as painting, photogra-
store.
ents at a later date?
ties
entries to the street.
advantage of prevailing winds.
to design the structure so
and
to secure the best view.
terraces,
fireplaces,
patios,
fences,
gar-
dens, or others?
Can
tures
all
be
of the proposed feaincorporated
client's actual
budget?
into
the
Room-by-Room Planning
Entries
and Halls
Additional
Most buildings should have at

least one entry hall. However,
they are sometimes omitted because of space and cost limitaEntry size should
tions.
be
in
protection
from the
elements can be gained by recessing the doors into an alcove as
shown.
The
given
front entry hall
special
The
is
tion
ing,
mood
or feeling of the entire building.

It
being designed, a spa-
cious entry should be included.
building serves only
If the
basic-
entry sets the
extends an invitation to enter.

Halls should be located so they
give access to
all
rooms.
should have hard-surfaced floors

that are easy to clean. Composi-
em-
building
is
To give maximum service with

minimum of care, entry halls
usually
architectural
proportion to the scale of other

rooms. For example, if a spacious
phasis.
and
plastic tile or roll floor-
ceramic
tile,
or
flagstone
lend themselves to contemporary
Carpet and exposed

be avoided
entries because they are more
installations.
hardwood
in
difficult to
floors are to
maintain.
needs, then the entry would be
minimum
mum
The
size.
width of
FHA
all halls in
mini-
homes
Inclusion of furniture
makes
this spacious, luxurious tiled entry
even more
inviting.
The Mosaic
3'-0".
measured from the

face of walls and not from framing members. Note: This width
is too narrow for convenient use
and beauty, and should be used
is
It
minimum installations.
much more de-
only for
Wider
halls are
sirable, if
Entry
central
by a
is
space and cost permit.
doors
hall
porch
IL
A recessed
leading
should
or
to
the
be covered
roof overhang.
Jl
entry gives the door protection
from the weather.
263
Tile
Co.
Contemporary design makes

frequent use of large glass areas
in a spacious entry.
uninterrupted space
may be
feeling of
fur-
enhanced by adding small
ther
gardens, rocks, plants, small trees,
Any
pools, or fountains.
of the
above may be further emphasized by mood lighting. A variety

of wall treatments, if combined
with good taste, can also create
interest. Another trend is to make
the entry spacious vertically
by having
story
it
height.
extend
(tall)
to
a two-
However,
ceiling
height in entries or other halls
may be
lower than in other rooms
so one has a feeling of greater
space
when he
from the
steps
Hall use can be improved

is
large
enough
to
hall.
if
it
accommodate
The Mosoic
some furniture.
Doors leading from an entry
hall (foyer) to other rooms tend
to conserve heat, but are
some-
times eliminated in the interest
of beauty. Recent trends sometimes omit a solid wall between
an entry and an adjoining room
and replace
it
with dividers,
planters, screens, or free-standing
divider
closets.
serve as
room
not
When
closets
dividers they are
always built with conven-
tional framing. Closets with thin
walls are frequently constructed
of hardwood plywood or of less
expensive plywood and covered

with decorative materials such as
hardwood paneling,
plastic lami-
nate, fiber glass, vinyl, or resinous
coated fabric.
FHA
regulations state that a
home must have
a closet to serve
the front entry. Minimum inside

size is 2'-0" x 3'-0". If possible
264
Large glass areas appear to increase entry
loggia
is
an outside entry used primarily
in
Tile
Co.
size.
warm
climates.
P.M. Bolfon Assoc.
closet near the

closet
rear entry. This
frequently designed with
is
special storage places for outdoor

wearing apparel and equipment.
Rooms
Living
living
room
usually has di-
When
rect access to the entry hall.
the living
room
is
used as a focal
point of family activity
it should
be quite large. The author's mini-
mum
recommended size
room
x20'-0", but if the
12'-0"
is
to be
used only as a retreat it is frequently no larger than 12'-0"x
is
14'-0".
Each
living
room should have
a special center of interest such

as a fireplace, lighted mural, or
entertainment center around
Two-story height adds to the impressiveness of a foyer.
Schofx
Homes
Inc.
which furniture may be grouped.

There is no required equipment
for this room; however, fireplaces,
bookcases, planters, built-in stor-
this closet
should open into the
hall.
possible.
As mentioned
vice entry hall
is
near the kitchen;

is
earlier,
a ser-
usually placed
if
basement
required, frequently the hall
is
used for entering the basement.
included,
service entry hall
is
not always
finances
but
should
be
when
Available space and

do not usually permit
a spacious service entry.
signed to be utilitarian.
de-
It is
The
ser-
sometimes enlarged
and called a mud room.
It is very desirable to have a
vice entry
is
age areas, special window emphasis or high ribbon windows,
and
built-in
beauty and
grilles
may
serve as open dividers between an entry and living room.

Scho/z
Homes
Living
add to
rooms
may be given an added feeling

of spaciousness by designing them
sunken two or three steps, or by
having the ceiling a different
height from that of other rooms.
Interior
Metal
furniture
use.
quite
masonry walls are
popular.
Floor
also
surfacing
Inc
materials are influenced by regional
preference.
posed hardwood,
razzo are
all
illustrations
Dining
If a
Carpet,
ex-
and
ter-
tile,
very popular. See
on the next page.
Rooms
dining
room
is
the only
eating area in a home, the
room
and surface treatments are

different from those of homes
size
with other eating areas provided.
265
Part Two: Function
Scholz
Homes
Scnolz Horn
Inc.
A dining room may be open
Large glass areas and a massive fireplace wall add to the

interest of a living
A sunken
living
to the kitchen.
room.
room and an open stairway
in
the entry
One end
give a feeling of luxury.

Scholz
Homes
Inc.
266
of a living
room may be
set aside for formal dining.

Scholz
Homes
Inc.
27:
For example,
if
room
the
is
used
you
might want to carpet and equip
only
room with
the
used
occasions
special
for
by
daily
fine furniture.
the
If
the
family,
room might have hard surfaced

floors and durable, plasticsurfaced furniture. China,
and
linen storage
tirely different to
silver,
would be enmeet the needs
Room
of the two uses mentioned.
would probably be about

the same for either use. Size is
size
determined
number
no
by
anticipated
the
to use the
room. There
minimum
established
is
size,
but ll'-0"xl3'-0"or 12'-0"xl4'-0"

is
If
possible, avoid living
Den
dwellings.
room
dining
separated
not always
is
and closed
other rooms.
It
from
off
may be
partially
open to a living room, family

room, or kitchen. When the dining room is open to another room,
both rooms will appear larger.
Walls between the dining room
and one of the other rooms are
frequently
omitted,
or
may
replaced with partial walls,
or Study
Such
small.
It
a
is
room
is
used as a specialized
for
an auxiliary guest room.
equipped with
course,
is
the
A living room
a hall.
very
when you need
the extra space rather than uniting
everyone. Also
it
divides the
home
into cells, losing a sense of

spaciousness.
dining
in the
bedroom
area.
may
When
in
the latter, they are usually close
such rooms
bedrooms they
to the entry hall. Since
serve
as
guest
should have a closet.
Knope & Vogf Mfg. Co
This tends to separate people
into small groups
be
This study provides an individualized learning center that can be easily changed by
readjusting movable shelves.
poor practice to have the two

rooms separated by a foyer or
hall.
may
adjoin a living room, or they
be
and dining room

is
be
bed or
have a desk or bookcases. These

rooms may be located so they
fire-
view into other
It
may
couch. Both dens and studies
limited by these devices.
should be adjoining.
It
a fold-out
or cabinets to define the areas.
rooms
usually quite
work or relaxation.
Small homes frequently use it as
retreat
places, planters, screens, counters,
Of
and dining rooms separated by
satisfactory for modest
room and
kitchen should be adjoining for
convenience of use
267
Part Two: Function
They may convey

for
is
a masculine
by using deep wood tones
feeling
room
finishes.
Wood
and Beauty Essentials o( Planning
i^-'W^
paneling
frequently used for walls. Ceil-
ings
&?
frequently of acoustic
are
Any
may be
material for sound control.

floor surfacing material
used,
with
personal
B.
RM.
preference
CD
dictating choice.
o[
Bedrooms
The number of bedrooms

quired
is
re-
determined by the needs
homes
three.
include
usually
It is
customary
least
at
have all
a separate wing or
to
'i
in!
bedrooms in
on a separate living level to insure privacy. They should be near
the front entry and connected by
iplliPf^
r\
a hall so occupants are not re-
quired
to
rooms
walk
to reach
may be
through
/- r
other
them. Bedrooms
separated and placed in
other locations
reason for
it.
if there is a good
For example, the
may be separated
from children's bedrooms so all
will have maximum privacy.
master bedroom
FHA minimum
sq.
ft.
but 120 sq.
sirable.
M.B. RM.
of the occupants. Moderate sized
The
ft.
area
100
more de-
is
author's
is
-2/
minimum
recommendation for children's

and guest bedrooms is 10'-0"x
12'-0". The master bedroom is
usually larger; if space and finances permit, 12'-0"xl6'-0"
is
'->%.
'^%
desirable size.
Every bedroom must have
at
one closet, and master bedrooms frequently have two. Size

is determined by the items to be
Closet and storage space locations.
least
stored but a
minimum
of 8
sq.
recommended. Minimum depth is 2'-0". Combination

chest, drawer, and wardrobe units
ft.
of area
is
bedroom.
Size and location of doors and

windows determine where furni-
private baths the closets should
ture
are a
welcome addition to any

When bedrooms have
be close
dressing
to the bath. If a separate
area
is
provided,
closets are in this area.
268
the
may be placed in a room.

Remember that bedrooms are
designed for convenient use. See

the drawing above.
27:
Bathrooms
number, and location of
bathrooms. The minimum 5'x8'
Size,
bathroom is rapidly disappearing.

In both moderate priced and luxury homes, bathrooms are be-
coming quite
uncommon
or larger.
large.
It
is
not
them to be 10'xlO'
Both custom and manufor
ms must
factured
i
homes
are including
spacious baths and feature

A
half-bath frequently occupies a small
space
and
does
have
not
all
major
fixtures.
built-ins.
many
Buyers are no longer
content with the

in a simple,
r\
be beautiful as well as
minimum
fixtures
rectangular room.
The number of bathrooms per

home is also increasing. Every
home is required to have at least
one, but most have a minimum
of one and one-half or two.
not
.0^
uncommon
for
It
home
It
is
utilitarian.
very appropriate to have
bathroom near the main entry

and living room for convenience
a
of guests. If a bath
in this loca-
tion
must also serve bedrooms,
is
placed so that occupants of
it
bedrooms can reach
it
without
being visible from other areas.
is
to
have three or more. Each does

not have to include all major
fixtures but
may
serve only spe-
The term half-bath

denotes rooms that do not include
cialized needs.
Typical
fixture
placement
bathroom with
for
smal
a bathtub.
all
three major fixtures.
home has only one bath,

must be entered from a hall. It
is not permissible or convenient
to walk through a bedroom to
If a
it
reach this bath. Full baths are

frequently located between bed-
rooms and doors lead to the bath

from each room. This is permissible if the
Typical
fixture
placement
bathroom with
for
a shower.
small
home
has other bath-
rooms for general use. Additional

bedrooms cannot use this bath.
They must have their own or use
a bath in an adjoining hall.
269
Bathroom
fixtures placed back to back

conserve space and money.
Part Two: Function

It
have
and rear
homes also have
also very desirable to
is
a bath near the kitchen
Many
entry.

be placed inside a closely adjoining wall
half-baths in finished basements.
Bathroom
CCI
doors
are
may
built-in units.
or they
powder
room.
facilities.
cated so they are not directly in
occupy an entire
wall.
with the door. They are usu-
by other
fix-
Water
cines
orate
They may be
door.
the
placed
alcoves, or separated
in
from the
of the room by di-
rest
Original water closet styles had
Many
are
still
and water tank.

manufactured as
Newer designs
The tank on two-
two-piece models.
are one-piece.
piece models
is
quite
tall.
piece units have low tanks.
OneCon-
storage,
It
and toilet supplies, and elabmake-up areas.

not
is
uncommon
cabinets
lavatory bowls.
Double
be one single
arate fixtures
lavatories
fixture, or sep-
may be mounted
the counter top.
frequently
for long
have two
to
The
lavatory
located close
to
in
is
the
bathroom door for convenient

use, on the wall opposite the direction of door swing.
Lavatory units can
be pur-
standard manufactured
chased
mounted. Some
sizes or, at slight additional cost,
hung
later designs are
for ease of cleaning.
Minimum wall
area for a water

must be 15" from
they
for
in
may
any
be custom fabricated
style or
requirement.
When
ply pipes frequently go straight
custom made, recommended door

width should not exceed 18".
Drawers on rollers are included
on quality installations.
Lavatory cabinets are manu-
from the tank, through the
factured in
closet
is
30".
It
an adjoining wall or object to the

center of the fixture. However,
36"
L_L
clothing
ventional water closets are floor

wall
from
soiled
lavatory
may
a separate base
visible
include
Many
They may
space for linens, space for medi-
closets are usually placed farthest
from
for
elaborate stor-
age and dressing
vider screens.
Water closets should not be

other rooms.
may have
closets are usually lo-
tures or partial walls.
also serves as a guest
is
These may be sim-
containing only the lavatory,
ple,
fixtures or their use.
ally partly shielded
This bathroom arrangement for a master
preference
general
mits,
doors should not interfere with
line
many
are
However, when space per-
ries.
be installed. Swing of hinged
There
Lavatories.
beautiful wall-mounted lavato-
when space is at a
premium pocket or sliding doors
hinged, but
Water
bedroom
usually
permissible to place
is
it
the fixture on an outside wall.
is
more
desirable.
Water supfloor.
many depths (distance
Quality installations should have
from wall
to cabinet front).
a shut-off valve on this supply
frequent
is
usually project 1"
line.
Most
Counter tops
22".
more than
the
Early rules implied that a water
be against an
closet should not

15
Space must be provided
at
a water closet.
both sides of
cabinet.
mum
and
is
need
for space in-
side the wall for a vent or soil

stack.
However,
if
270
the vent can
standard
counter top depth of 23". Mini-
outside wall because of freezing,

also the
This gives
depth for special lavatories

Custom-built counter tops
16".
may vary between
these two sizes.
Lavatory height
is
also vari-
'
27:
able, but 32"
is
most frequently
used.
Lavatory cabinets
may be
cov-
ered with fine hardwoods, plastic

laminates, ceramic
îx
T
metal, or
tile,
translucent plastic panels. Design

is
limited only by the imagina-
tion,
VARIES
but you must remember the
function
the
is
most important
consideration.
Common
Bathtubs.
shapes and
installations of bathtubs
typical
are shown.
They may be of enam-
eled cast iron or pressed steel, or
They may
plastic.
of
built
also be
marble
tile,
custom
or
23"
other
or terrazzo. Cast iron
stone,
o
CO
Blocking beneath a bathtub helps mini-
is
most frequently used.

Standard length of rectangular
still
-*
.
mize cracking.
-A!
Showers
in
large
bathrooms
tubs
ly
5'-0". but 5'-6"
is
is
used. Lengths of 4'-6"
frequent-
5;
are usually given separate enclo-
and 6'-0"
Bathtubs or showers are
sures.
can be obtained on special order.
frequently built into alcoves.
Tub
ceiling
and design
are not standardized. Specific
sizes and styles must be determined from manufacturers' literature. Later design makes extensive use of sunken tubs. Most
width,
height,
manufacturers offer tubs for
soffit
CN
"11
building
total
contribute
definite
They
luxury.
are
cost,
19"
feeling
used
in
joint
22"
cabinet
of
both
sliding type.
of,
Note:
makes
rooms seem even
the
smaller.
can be
Shower curtains, which

open when not in use,
do not give
additional support.
of expansion and contraction

not the same. This
cult to
makes
avoid cracking
it
is
diffi-
at this line.
Pliable caulking which adheres to
both materials reduces the prob-
small bathrooms
left
for
of dissimilar materials their rate
bathtub-
in
Blocking, as shown, should be

provided under the back edge of
Because the bathtub and walls are
the folding or
shower door
sizes.
the tub
curtains or doors. Glass or plastic
may be
must be given the

between the tub and wall
material.
I
lavatory
modest and luxury homes.

Tub and shower. Combination
tub and shower installations are
common. These require shower
doors
step
cial attention
Recommended
when you
Walls extending up from a

bathtub must be waterproof. Spe-
re-
they
used so the enclosure ap-
inside.
custom-built tubs add only slightto
The
be lowered and a
pears as a unit
cessed installations. Although

ly
may
lem.
is
STD. SIZES
Rectangular bathtub sizes.
this feeling.
The only permanent
the enclosure itself built
as
an
integral part. This eliminates the

joint or line.
271
solution
the fiber glass tub which has
D
?
I
,
A long
lavatory
cabinet
is
frequently
placed on a wall opposite other fixtures.
D]
P.M. Bolfon Assoc
To create
a feeling of
spaciousness bathrooms
Bathtubs are frequently placed
13
on walls opposite the
Plumbing materials cost is reduced

fixtures are located on a common
if
all
wall.
The
place
least
all
lavatory,
expensive installations
three
fixtures
(water
and the head of

the bathtub) and their plumbing
along the same wall. This may
cause the tub to be under the
closet, lavatory,
lI
Luminous
u
A compartmented bathroom places each
main fixture in a separate room.
272
ceilings
and
soffits
may have an
window.
When
It is
be
should
enclosed garden.
a poor location and
avoided
possible.
if
must be under a
aluminum framed or
the tub
window,
glass block units are

recommended,
Prefabricated
may
showers
metal
are sometimes used for
minimum
replace bathroom windows.

Artcres! Products Co., Inc.
27:
Luxurious showers
installations.
are usually built on the job. Mini-
mum
size
30"x36"
is
30"x30"; however,
is
better.
Luxury
may be 36"x48"
tions
drafts.
Modern design sometimes
laundry facilities in a
bathroom. Washers and dryers
includes
installa-
may
or even
hind
be placed in alcoves or bedoors. Occasionally these
larger.
appliances are installed free-
more desirable to have the

shower and tub separated than to
have them together because foot-
standing.
It is
ing
better in a regular shower.
is
When
the tub
home has two bathrooms,

and shower are frequently
placed in different rooms.

fixture in a sepa-
room are very popular.

Bathroom floors may be of any
rate
durable material; most frequently

used
is
is
com-
ceramic
tile,
terrazzo,
or
roll
goods. Carpet
position
tile,
sometimes used. Exposed wood
recommended
floors are not
be-
cause of moisture.
Suspended and luminous ceilings are very attractive in

bathrooms.
Combination bathrooms and

dressing rooms, with built-in
tures,
used.
fix-
vanity units, closets, and
storage drawers,
When
are
frequently
placed so they are
entered from a master bedroom,
sometimes is
not closed off from the bedroom.
As mentioned earlier, some
provision should be made for
soiled clothing and clothes bins
may be incorporated into lavatory
the
dressing
area
or other cabinets.
partment
may
several small
One
large
improve both appearance

and function of any bathroom.
Medicine cabinets above a lavatory were once standard.
com-
be included, or
compartments may
provide for clothing sorts as
it
is
still
may
Many
available, but current design
replace
them with
large mir-
sometimes covering
entire walls. Medicines formerly
stored in a cabinet above a lavatory may be stored in a locked
drawer. All medicine should be
locked away from children. Cosror
areas,
metics
formerly
stored
in
the
medicine cabinet are easier to use

if space is designed for them in
make-up unit.
The following common accessories, and others, may be in-
This
common
ment adjoins
bathtub alcove arrangea closet of
another room.
cluded
in
bathrooms.
cluded, they should be

the plans,
When
in-
shown on
Combination bath-dressing rooms are

very popular.
Scholz
Homes
Inc.
and additional descrip-
tions given in the specifications.
Towel bars
Soap and grab
Soap dishes
Toilet tissue holders
Toothbrush and glass holders

Clothes hooks
Facial tissue holders
Magazine racks or book shelves

Retractable clotheslines
Telephones
Divider screens
used. Inclosed clothes chutes for
Intercommunication systems
storage on other levels are con-
Auxiliary heaters
Doors to clothes chutes

should be self closing to prevent
Exhaust fans
venient.
A bathroom serving two areas may be

partially compartmented.
medicine cabinets are
beautiful
Compartmented bathrooms
which have each
Imaginative use of accessories
can
Built-in scales
273
r
;
Part Two: Function
Kitchens
Since the kitchen
is
the most
used room in a home, not only by

the housewife but others as well,
demand inmany labor-saving deThese may be arranged in
prospective owners
L _
clusion of
vices.
"U" shaped kitchen
layout.
convenient and pleasing patterns.

Items that were luxuries a very
short time ago are
now demanded
even in very inexpensive homes.
More
r-\
must be given to
planning the kitchen than any
other room.
There are five basic kitchen
attention
layouts:
x>
"U" shaped
"L" shaped
Corridor
Straight line
Island
An example
layouts
to use
of each of these
shown. The proper one

determined by the room
is
is
and arrangement of doors

and windows, and by personal
preference. A "U" layout is best
size
because
it
permits efficient use of
equipment with a minimum of

steps or movements. An "L" layall
out
is
the second choice.
Food enters home
2.
Storage for future use
3. Preparation
corri-
4.
dor layout can be very satisfactory
begun
Washing and adding water
5. Additional preparation
6.
Cooking
7.
Removal
for serving
8. Serving
*
[X
><
7---
(8
>o
"L" shaped kitchen layout!
Corridor kitchen layout.
MBQk-^
IZZCJ
274
27:
E3Q
X4
iX
Straight line kitchen layout.
if
adequate room
people
minimum
is
provided for
Recommended
pass.
to
corridor width
4'-0".
is
EE
For most convenient use a corridor should not exceed 5'-0" in
width.
least
straight line kitchen
~1
is
much
because
convenient
_L
walking must be done during use.

An island layout is an adaptation
of any of the above, with some
IS
of the equipment placed
in
the
center of the room.
J-
After the basic layout
termined,
cabinets,
is
~A
Si
deIsland kitchen layout.
appliances,
and the sink are arranged
for
convenient use. Adequate planning includes counter space near
each
item
The
of equipment.
basic items are arranged accord-
ing to their order of use during
This built-in kitchen features concealed laundry equipment behind large folding doors.
General
food preparation. For example,

the refrigerator
is
usually placed
near the service entry so food can

be stored without walking across
the room. (Note: All equipment
is
not always furnished as a part
of the building; stoves and

frigerators
When
may be added
re-
later.
they are not included, space
must be provided
lation.)
for their instal-
Kitchens in the accom-
panying drawings are arranged

for efficient use.
The plan
for the
numbered, indicating logical order of use. The

numbered circles on the drawing,
page 274, show the orderly use of
"L" layout
is
space allowed by this arrangement.
275
Efeclrtc
Co.
*.">
This kitchen features an island for equipment storage and food preparation.
276
Note the corner sink
in
this L-shaped kitchen.
built-in
planning area
is
welcome addition
to
any kitchen.
1*0
Jffl
Generol
This kitchen design
When basic items are drawn

on a plan, their size and shape
must conform to the general
shape of the item. Most are drawn
as symbols but, when no standardized symbol is available, they
are drawn to conform to the shape
of the object. When you draw
your plan you should (1) consult
the sample floor plans, (2) study
sizes and shapes from manufacturers' literature or actual objects,
and
(3)
sample working
in the text and
study
drawings
elsewhere.
After
preliminary
design
is
complete, specific conveniences or
found
is
an adaptation
Electric
Co
of a corridor layout.
near the stove and also near the
pearance because of smooth tranbetween objects.

Traditional kitchen appliance
eating area.
color
are placed near the sink or dish-
washer;
seasonings
are
placed
All appliances and equipment
should be selected before the

kitchen layout
is
final
determined.
sitions
was formerly white. Today,

may be almost any
appliances
may be of brushed
chrome, copper, or stainless steel.
color, or they
Because of the extreme variety
sizes
styles and
some
change slightly each year.
(This may be planned obsoles-
of appliances available, only the
cence.) Nevertheless, specific se-
when
Appliance
lections
must be made so they
more common are shown.
Later,
large scale plans are drawn,
you must include exact
sizes,
so
with the cabinet arrange-
consult manufacturers' specifica-
ment.
For example, you must
tions.
know
the exact size of a built-in
will
fit
Modern
kitchen cabinets look
They appear
an open plan.
fine furniture.
oven before an oven cabinet can
like
be selected.
best as part of
Many
every
Built-in appliances are favored
kitchen storage cabinets, racks,
over free-standing models. Cur-
materials are available as cabinet
appliances
not
in
choices
of decorative
drawers,
rent designs feature square cor-
facings. Inexpensive cabinets
etc. are located for best use. For
ners which eliminate spaces be-
built
example, refrigerator containers
fir
close to the re-
tween appliances and other items

such as cabinets. Square designs
dishwashing supplies
also help avoid a cluttered ap-
cabinets.
holders,
trays,
special
would be located
frigerator;
277
on the job are sometimes of

plywood. Birch plywood is
most frequently used for standard
This material has a close

grain structure, beautiful pattern,
and lends
methods;
itself to
it
Oak
priced.
is
many
also
is
finishing
reasonably
also quite popular
but slightly higher priced. Other
hardwoods are sometimes used

for custom installations, as are
laminates, but they cost
plastic
mounted doors without exposed
Flush
more than wood. Thin
slightly
face frames.
Rabbeted doors
laminate for vertical surfaces only

makes the price about the same
wood. Plastic laminate may be

used as an exterior covering only
or, on luxury installations, cabias
nets
may
be surfaced throughout.
board is being used

extensively for cabinet parts.
Particle
When
used,
ered) with
it may be faced (covwood veneer, plastic
laminate, or plastic film.
On
in-
Flush
interiors are
mounted doors with exposed face
Surface mounted doors.
expensive cabinets, particle board
frames.
sometimes painted.
Metal cabinets are used ex-
Designing the Kitchen
tensively in commercial, institutional,

ects,
and
but
large apartment proj-
less in
homes
Most cabinets
today.
are prefinished
with lacquer, plastic, or baked-on

finishes.
However, some are
fin-
ished after cabinets have been in-
To
know
design kitchens you must
Observe the assortment of
and equipment
The accompanying small
strips for joining cabinets at cor-
drawings of kitchen cabinets

show standard sizes of individual
cabinets and end walls. Kitchens
sizes.
cabinet
scale
ners
and
to
fill
filler
space between
should be designed with a minimum of filler strips because the
finishes can
These represent selections

from only one manufacturer, but
others are similar. Study these
strips may appear to be added on.

They may be eliminated by de-
is
sizes
carefully. Also, study the

code system for designating cabi-
to
on the job. Brush-applied

be satisfactory but it
difficult and costly to duplicate
stalled
the quality of factory applications.
units.
signing the kitchen so
modular cabinet
When
it
conforms
sizes.
There are three general ways of

mounting cabinet doors, (with
many variations of each). They
are: (1) rabbeted (sometimes
wall cabinet (upper); the 39
called inset or offset doors), (2)
cabinet length; the 30 indicates
individual units which must be
surface mounted,
flush
height. Notice also that there are
combined
mounted. Study the illustrations

to determine the relationship of
each door type to cabinet face
frames and other necessary struc-
two additional codes on the cabi-
while others manufacture large
net; this indicates that the cabinet
sizes. Identification
containing more sections.

The large scale cabinet detail
on page 282 shows additional
tural parts.
is
and
(3)
net selections. See page 279.

find
the
cabinet
W-3930. The
is
available
that
W indicates
in
two
Now
coded
is
this
is
is
the
additional
of other codes
given in accompanying notes.
278
made
for
several cabinets are

combining, unlimited
may be ordered.
Some manufacturers offer only
arrangements
at the construction site,
units
structural parts
and
typical sizes.
27:
WALL UNITS
LED
13"
END
END
END
30"
W3615
W-3915 & W-4215
4-
33"
W-3321
W-3021
W-2721
W-2421
W-3315
27"
24"
(1)
36"
__J
W-3612
C-l
13"
= 12"
SCALE 'A"
36"
39", 42"
W-3621
& 48"
W-3921 & W-4221
cs
48'
J3'J_||1)
"&24'
|15"&I8J
|J_2^J
|21
W1230 W-1530
END
& 48"
24"
33
|(2)(3)
(2)(3)
-
W-3930 W-4230
W-2530-CR
Also W-2530-CL
o
en
24"
W-3630-CR
Also W-3630CL
-----
27" & 30'

;
33" & 36"
W-3330
W-3630
W3030
30" & 36"

W-3030-GG
W-3630-GG
I
|
W-2730
W-1830
39", 42"
;|
W-2 30
W-2430
|(4)
30" & 36"

t
|(5)
WP3030-GG
WP-3630-GG
o
m
24"
(1)
WCR-2430
REVOLVING SHELVES
COOKING TOP OR SINK UNITS

...
...
30"
R-30
(4)
24"
30"33"36"
30"
SF-24
SF-30 SF-33
SF-36
R-30-400
R-40-400
Standard cabinet
279
8.
40"
(3)
sizes.
24"
R-24-C
"
'
jjs
zo
24"
(7)
END
'.
-J
27"
(8)
RM-27
Part Two: Function
BASE UNITS
r
24"
15"&18"
21"&24"
27" & 30"
36" & 42"
B-15
B-21
B-l 8
B-24
B-27
B-30
B-36
B-42
5 "8.18"
18"&24'_'
_30"
BD-418
BD-424
BD-315
BD-318
36'^
*~
S.
BC-30
BC-36
I~ZH
OD
r-T
18"
15"
42"
24"
is'^
18"
|
B-46-50-CR
Also B-46-50-CL
END
3D-31.
(2)
FRONT
(3)
"1
y\
_i
l_
42"
REAR
BP-18-L
Also BP-18-R
42"
24"
30"
30"
BA-3
w/
BA-3
30"
BA-30
w/
(4
BP-46-50-CR
Also BP-46-50-CL
|i
tTTTI
,~r
24"
36"
BAPL-36
(5)
END
"-i
12
_18"_
18"
BA-18
BA-18
BA-18
BV-12 BV-12 BV-12
w/3-V-12 w/T-12CA-18-30 w/NT-18 w/BEV-18
(6)
B-18
\1^\
END
1=3
12"
18"
18"
W/2-ST-18 w/BTA-18
Standard cabinet
280
sizes.
w/T-18
27:
BASE UNITS (continued)
12",
BOES-12
MAX.
r>
<
22%"
MAX
29"
33"
n
UTILITY
AND PANTRY UNITS
CO
cz:
__ cz:
-^. .^_
cz:
cz
i
r
;::-
:3
oo
1
24"
21"
END
U-2 1-D
21"
U-2
42"
36"
24'
ID
PFS-42
Standard cabinet
281
sizes.
END
(l)
The Kitchen
Maid Corp.
Part Two: Function
Kitchen
cabinet
elevation
detail
with
W18/30 W36/15
W18/30
W36/30
code designations.
/.;.,.
/?///
rr
55
t~
BA 18
8-36
SF-42
B-18
II
'
I
|
III!
FHA Minimum
Kitchen Standards
The following minimum standards, as established by the
FHA,
sidered as twice
should be included
in
any
kitchen planning.
Minimum
shall
Shelf
less
than 20 square feet
in either
Minimum
square
counter top area
Drawer area may be substimore than 25% of
tuted for not
required base shelf area.
area
minimum
counter top
area.
Storage space in ranges,
provided
in the
when
form of drawers
may be included
minimum shelf area.
or shelving
the
Wall shelving above 74" can-
not be included in required area.
Maximum
top
is
height of counter
38". (Standard 36")
Counter top space below 30"

above floor shall not be included
feet.
Area occupied by sink basin

and by cooking units shall not be
included in
Height of Shelving and

Counter Top
feet.
Minimum drawer
square
Approximate kitchen cabinet dimensions.
at least 8V4".
wall or base cabinets.
be con-
Total shelving in wall and base
cabinets, 50 square feet, with not
may
actual area in
If a range is not provided, provide at least a 40" space for range.
and
Counter Top Area
its
determining required shelf area

provided clear width of opening is
have accessible storage space for food and

utensils, and space for such activities and equipment as needed to
perform the intended functions.
Each kitchen
Shelf area of revolving base
shelves (lazy susan)
282
in
in
required area.
Height between counter top

and wall cabinets shall be at least
the following:
Over range and sink
cabinets,
24".
Over other base
cabinets, 15".
27:
Depth of Shelving and

Counter Top
That portion of shelving and
counter top space
less
than or ex-
ceeding the following dimensions

shall not
be included
in
the re-
quired area:
Min. Max.
4" 18"
12" 24"
15" 30"
Wall shelving
Base shelving
Counter top
Spacing of Shelving
Clearance between shelving

comply with the following
shall
to be included in required area.
Minimum
Depth of Shelf
Spacing
6"
5"
to 10"
6"
10" to 15"
15" to 24"
10"
4"
6"
to
This kitchen-family
room features
barbecuing
Cores for counter tops are usu-
Mechanical Ventilation
Air shall be exhausted from
made
of plywood or particle
board.
They may be covered with
plastic
laminate, vinyl (or other
ceramic tile, or stainless

Stone or manufactured stone
kitchens in a range hood, or by
plastic),
a wall or ceiling fan through a
steel.
sometimes
grilled
opening located
(a) in the
is
ceiling
above the range,
(b) in the
grain maple or birch
also
for
the range, or (c) in the wall im-
boards.
mediately above the range.
When
located in the wall immediately
above the range, the wall fan shall

be located approximately at the
of the
range
and
used.
is
Edge-
suitable
chopping tops and cutting
wall close to the ceiling above
Methods of construction and
with exhaust hood for
flush with the face
molding can be applied over the

joint between cabinets and the
extend
in front
recessed lighting.
Upper cabinets are not usually

placed closer than 6" to a win-
wood
is
subfloors. a
valance usually extends beIt is placed

flush with the face of the cabinets,
tween the cabinets.

with
able for easy cleaning.
it
hood rim shall be not more than

30" above the range top.
kitchen cabinets to enclose the
at least as
may
of the cabinets to accommodate
long as range, shall be at least

17" wide, and the bottom of the
be
or they
soffit;
plywood, particle board, or hardboard underlay is required.

Wall surfacing should be wash-
air.
extend slightly so a wood
nets;
the cabinet structure.
Wood
specified over
shall
finished
of upper cabi-
recommended. When ceramic or
surfaced for easy cleaning.
above the
charge to outdoor
They may be
ceiling.
surface floors for kitchens are not
Floor coverings should be hard
plastic tile or roll flooring
fan. All fans shall dis-
space between the top and the
dow. When they are required on

both sides of a window, the soffit
is usually continued across, above
the window. This visually unites
standard sizes are shown.
metal hood of the size and height

shown below shall be installed
Range hood
grill
7"
ally
centerline
a built-in
all-weather use.
Soffits are usually
283
placed above
its
is
upper edge against the
When
soffit.
a valance
as the
design.
is
required
same material
cabinets and in the same
built of the
Part Two: Function

placed near the kitchen, some-
'Multi-purpose
times with no wall between. In-
Rooms"
dividual needs of the client deter-
Family rooms, recreation

rooms, activity rooms, rumpus
have a retreat while others are entertaining or perhaps watching a
rooms, play rooms, learning cen-
different
and others with similar names,

have much in common. They
ing room.
give the family a place for infor-
may
ters
mal
is
living without disrupting
TV
program
The
extra
not be closed
Activity
are designed to serve the specific
size
needs of occupants. Such rooms
is
There are two approaches

locating activity rooms.
to
They may
be (1) close to or opening from

the living room, to give addiarea for entertaining; or
tional
may be
their own
they
area of
this
way
ties
is
improvements have been made

on equipment, the areas are frequently given a glamour treatment and finished in the same
no minimum
but for modest homes 12'x20'
popular.
They
are
designed
for
style as kitchens.
easy
To
you must analyze

to be performed
and the order in which they are
the
or suspended ceilings,
and specialized built-in storage.
Equipment sometimes includes
done.
acoustic
design,
functions
surfaced floors, washable walls,
hi-fi,
facili-
did not have unified design or
pleasing appearance. Since design
off.
maintenance, usually with hard-
or in a basement.
(2)
water heater, and laundry
usually
rooms are usually
quite large. There
or upper levels,
sightly catch-alls because furnace,
in the liv-
room
placed close to the kitchen and
other parts of the home. These
may be on main
mine equipment to be included.

Utility rooms were formerly un-
All
equipment,
cabinets,
and appliances are then arranged

in their
stereo, television, intercom-
It
order of use.
permissible to walk
rooms from the
is
an
munication, refrigerators, bars, or
for privacy. In
a small food center. Fireplaces
through
may
kitchen to reach the rear door.
isolated in
parents and children can
be included for atmosphere.
The
utility
services
may be
located
elsewhere as said. For example,

Utility
Rooms
it
or Laundries
rooms and
homes
do not have basements. There
Main-floor
utility
are exceptions of course, as
individual functions such as heat-
and laundries are included
laundries are required in
ing
that
parts of other rooms.
Hard surfaced materials make
when
this utility
room easy
They
as
are
to maintain.
The Moiaic
Tr/e
Co.
was mentioned
laundry
facilities
earlier that
are sometimes
placed in a bathroom. They may

be located at the end of an allpurpose kitchen of the proper size
and arrangement. They may
also
be placed in a closet off a

Furnaces and water heaters
hall.
may
also be placed in closets if proper
ventilation
is
provided. Combusti-
ble fuels require oxygen. Local
codes must be consulted to deter-
mine
fire
wall requirements for
furnace rooms. Specific directions

for designing firewalls are provided
by Underwriters' Laboratories.
There is no minimum size for
utility rooms or laundries, but
ample work space must be provided. Storage for supplies must
be included.
284
27:
Basements
Many homes,
Garage or Carport
A
is
an enclosed unit
another building.
carport
is
an open shelter (on at least one

side) which also may be either
free-standing or attached.
Both garages and carports pro-
inconvenient to connect only from

the outside,
pose of the idea.
Garage
larger size
addition to automobiles. This
mended
should
make maximum
able space.
designed
be
use of
to
may be
storage in a garage
or wall shelves and hooks

utilized.
may
be
Storage areas in carports
are usually enclosed
units with
doors extending across one

to a
home
are preferred over free-
standing units. However, this usuinsurance rates slightly.
ally raises
When attached, provide a

between the two
fire
structures.
in
wall
Many-
Chapter
damp
in a
or
may
be
the interiors frequently

finished.
left
When attached to a home
their construction
the
is
same
for the rest of the building.
footing
un-
is
needed
for
as
No
strength
across the garage door opening;
however, in cold climates, a frost

must extend as deep as the
wall
rest
of the building foundation.
When
home,
it
the unit
is
attached to a
should have a direct con-
many
more
cars,
congested urban or suburban
basements
two
families have
provide
inexpensive
additional living and utility space.
Basements may be unfinished,

or finished into auxiliary living
areas. Note, however, that
will
some
not permit permanent
habitable rooms in basements

is
if
more than half the
total ceiling height
below grade.
As stated and illustrated in

Chapter 3, FHA minimum ceiling height in basements is 6'-10",
but 7'-6" or 8'-0" is more desirable, if finances permit.
double-car garages
It
is
not permissible to place
wood columns
all
contact with the basement floor.
that exceed a basic, low-cost plan.
Many
garages are designed so
They must be
(posts)
raised
in
direct
on a concrete
base as shown.
they can be heated to provide a
area
children,
for
and
to
the car easier to start dur-
ing cold weather.
An
additional outside door
(besides ones for cars) should be
provided.
It should be located for

most convenient use. A 2'-8"x
6'-8" or 7'-0" size
A window
or
satisfactory.
windows- con-
included, a concrete apron

in
Section through a
wood post and

footing.
is
forming to the style used in the

house should be provided.
Driveways should be at least
as wide as the garage door. When
a hard-surfaced driveway is not
rage doors.
not only
cars are to
recommended for
new construction of homes
ment or
is
if
physi-
or carports are
be provided
It
as con-
the garage, floor
in
nection, preferably to the base-
kitchen.
floors,
when
areas where land values are high,
the floor
region, or
Since
make
unattached they
13.
be washed
play
When
given
do not have
cal conditions are favorable, or
codes
are
drains should be provided.
hour
of lightweight construction, with
12'-0"x
is
sizes
Hard-surfaced
codes permit a wall with a onefire rating.
size
Recom-
crete or asphalt, are required. If
side.
Garages and carports attached
inside
Garage door
in
separate compartments, as closets,
preferred.
is
24'-0" for each.
all avail-
Equipment and supply
or
terrain,
basements. However,
if in
carport design
should harmonize with the house.
Minimum inside size for each
car is 10'-0"x20'-0". However, a
vide storage space for items in

storage
defeats the pur-
it
especially in
climates, or areas with un-
favorable
garage
which may be separate or attached

to
warm
is
to
front of the ga-
285
its
Part Two: Function
Concrete floors must be at least

3" thick, with wire mesh as described in Chapter 5. Under-floor
and waterproofing are
fill
ommended. Drain
tile,
rec-
used
as
around the outside perimeter of
may
the footing,
also be placed
around the inside under the

if
surface water
is
floor
problem.
If
sewers in the area are deeper
than
basement
the
drains
may be
shallow
floor
floor,
used. If sewers are
(overhead
pumps as shown in Chapter 18

may be required. If floor drains
or sumps are installed, the floor
should be sloped slightly toward
them.
should a
front entry?
Is
it
home have a
always possible?
good
14.
What
determines the size of
What
4.
minimum width
What
a
interest for
to the front entry?
a special center of
is
room?
living
Explain.
adequate? Explain.
pear more spacious and beautiful?
halls?
Is
this
are entry doors some-
6.
7.
What
are two major factors
covered by a wide roof overhang or
which help determine dining room
porch? Explain the desirability of this.
size?
Why
5.
should a front entry
be decorated and furnished
Why
6.
hall
artfully?
should entry halls have
hard-surfaced
floors?
What mate-
Why?
are not?
terials
7.
What
which can be done to give an entry

architectural
8.
What
an entry
9.
is
emphasis?
is
meant when one says
should
all
minimum
0.
Why
is
What
it
is
What
size?
2.
a service entry hall?
usually placed near the
What
Why
is
is it
3.
mud room?
is
living
room and dining
room?
20.
22.
this
Why should they not be sepaWhat
is
and your own reasoning, why
is
it
room and kitchen?
it
How
33.
size
little
space as pos-
in
does today's bathroom
compare with
the past?
the
common
Do new homes tend
34.
size
Why?
to
have
one or more than one bathroom?
What is a half-bath?
If a home has only one bathroom, why must it be located in a
35.
36.
central hall?
When
is
it
permissible to at-
tach a bathroom to a
38. From
your
bedroom?
own
reasoning,
what are the most frequent bathroom
Why
39.
are pocket doors some-
times used on bathrooms?
If
space
Why should they not be sepaWhy
is
If
Why
times placed
are water closets somein
What
41.
alcoves or separated
rest of the
is
the
room?
minimum wall
area at the back of a water closet?
a den or study
fre-
such a room must serve
made?
25. Are dens or studies usually
26. Moderate sized homes usu-
have how many bedrooms?
286
mended? Why?
from the
quently a multi-purpose room?
ally
Is
40.
the relationship of a
designed as quiet places? Explain.
chapter
minimum number
bedroom?
true that bathrooms
the
is
permits other types, are they recom-
rated by a hall?
24.
recommended
locations?
the desired relation-
provision should be
desirable to have a
From study of
in
as a guest bedroom, what special
closet near the service entry?

1
furni-
be included
built-ins to
What
of a
23.
basement or kitchen?
1
19.
dining
homes have
a closet near the front door?

its
be used, and type of
rated by an entry or other hall?
spacious vertically?
Why
room
the
a dining room?
ship
are some of the things
What determines
and
ture
the
is
should occupy as
37.
8.
finish to
are recommended; what ma-
rials
is
minimum area
master bedroom?
What
the
is
sible? Explain.
Why
and other
recessed into an alcove, or
times
5.
in
bedrooms?
What
30.
size for a
the relationship of
is
room
What
29.
for children's
32.
have a half-bath
What special features can be

included to make a living room ap-
of entries
usually
the
is
What
the living
an entry hall?
3.
to
near the service entry?
Why?
2.
idea
they be placed
of closets for a
Why
When may
28.
another location?
31
are bedrooms normally
a separate area from other
in
rooms?
sump
type)
Why
27.
placed
What amount
42.
Is
it
of wall area
is
better?
permissible to place a
water closet on an outside wall?

43.
What
jections
to
are the possible obthis?
How
are
they
overcome?
44.
what
is
the difference
lavatory and a sink?
between a
27:
45. Which
most popular today,
is
cabinet be omitted above a lavatory?
What
wall hung or built-in lavatories?
46. Describe the variety of lava-
replaces
63. From
own
your
tory cabinet designs (items of equip-
why are bathroom
ment frequently included
portant?
in
lavatory
47. Describe
three
methods of
mounting lavatories or kitchen
What
48.
sinks.
are the most frequently
used materials for counter tops?
What
49.
of
cabinets?
lavatory
Why
tops?
What
50.
height?
Is
Of counter
are they different?
standard
is
lavatory
51. Describe the different mate-
What
the standard length
is
What
common?
bathtubs?
rectangular
other stock sizes are
What
53.
a sunken or recessed
is
bathtub?
are shower doors not
recommended
for bathtubs in small
Why
fit
a drop ceiling or sof-
is
sometimes
built
over a bathtub
or shower stall?
Why
56.
is
difficult to
avoid a
crack where the bathtub joins a wall?
Why
57.
room
are
fixtures
all
three main bath-
frequently
placed
along the same wall?
What
58.
is
What
recommended
for
bathroom floors?
Why?
combination
bathroom
and dressing rooms very popular?
what
meant by
is
What
is
the major disadvan-
tage of clothes chutes?
How
is
this
disadvantage remedied?
When may
a typical medicine
What
is
a toe board? Kick
What
is
the standard depth
What
the standard height
is
85.
What
the standard height
is
from the floor to the top of the
should one not place a
and oven next
there
If
counter top?
each
to
86.
no conventional
is
an appliance, what de-
for
termines
how
it
What
is
88.
fore or after kitchen planning
What
is
standard backsplash
Why
89.
must one select specific
90.
91.
standing or built-in appliances?

true that
it
What wood
it
or
is
materials
What
is
and with what
Why
What other
are
particle
also
stan-
94.
How
board?
may
factory
or
What
top
a range hood?
What
and capacity?
size
the standard kitchen
is
width
(distance
from
it
be
What
type of floor surfacing

the kitchen?
in
How
is
Why?
used
soffit
in
Why
is
kitchen?
fre-
What
is
a valance?
used?
95.
What
are two different ideas
concerning the location of activity
rooms?
96.
shopsatis-
net doors.
Why
are activity rooms de-
sired?
97.
77. Describe three kinds of cabi-
When
are
utility
rooms or
laundries usually placed on the main

living level? Explain.
When
98. Are these rooms ever open to
referring to a kitchen
what do the
in
the greatest standard
is
its
preferred
93.
it
finishes
are
92.
is
most frequently
applied finishes usually more
numbers
variable?
wall to front of counter)?
quently used? Explain.
cabinet,
this
more than one
is
What
counter
difficult to
is
used for kitchen cabinets?
woods
Why
determines
general size and shape?
Is
is
is
dard upper cabinet height necessary?
equipment rather than relying upon
73.
What
an up-
the depth of
Why
height of an upper cabinet?
is
completed?
.
87.
per cabinet?
drawn?
is
70. Are appliances selected be-
76.
for kitchen
height?
69.
78.
Explain.
62.
84.
factory than job-applied ones?
60. Are
61.
Why
refrigerator
74.
module
of a base cabinet?
used as a cabinet exterior?
kinds of materials are
83.
most
is
Why?
67. Explain
75.
compartmented
bathroom? Explain.
59.
these five, which
obtain colored kitchen appliances?
it
From previous reading, what
the size of a
82.
kitchen
72. Which are most popular, free
bathrooms?
55.
Of
convenient?
71
Why
54.
re-
of a lower base cabinet?
symbol
used for bathtubs.
52.
for
basic
five
other?
Explain.
rials
65. Describe
layouts.
68.
number of
be reduced?
board?
logical order of use.
the only height used?
this
must kitchens be more
functional? Explain.
just
66.
the standard depth
is
than
is
the
filler strips
cabinets?
Why
64.
cabinets).
reasoning,
accessories im-
How may
80.
quired
Explain.
it?
letters
and
or part of a kitchen? Explain.
99.
the following code repre-
sent-W-3930?
79. What is a
is
filler
287
strip?
If
no basement or
included,
how may
services of these
utility
the
room
normal
rooms be provided?
Part Two: Function
What equipment
100.
cluded
in
tween
in-
car garage?
differ
will
their
construction
107. From
are attached units pre-
why
ferred?
104. Except
why
in
basic, low-cost
What
is
the
minimum
it
in
sired,
the
minimum
Is
ceiling
ade-
this
own
your
reasoning,
inadvisable to have
a basement?
If
wood
they are de-
what precautions should be
taken?
should one try to avoid
108.
Is
quired
in
a single-car garage or carport?

105.
is
walls
housing
is
quate? Explain.
tached from a house?
Why
garage? Two-car
height for a basement?
they are attached or unat-
if
103.
What
106.
How
a more suitable
is
garage?
carport?
Explain.
102.
What
size for a single-car
the difference be-
is
garage and
usually
these rooms?
What
101.
is
a single-car garage or carport? Two-
size for
a sump
pump always
a basement? Explain.
Terms to Spell and Know

porch
shower enclosure
filler strip
alcove
shower
utensil
flagstone
caulking
foyer
bathtub
range
hardwood
plumbing
grill
plastic laminate
compartmented
chopping top
fiber glass
stall
lazy susan
bathroom
board
cutting
luminous ceiling
soffit
focal point
suspended
valance
fireplace
vanity
intercommunication
terrazzo
kitchen
utility
built-in
cabinet
laundry
half-bath
appliance
water heater
water closet
refrigerator
garage
lavatory
planned obsolescence
carport
self-rimming
brushed chrome
frost wall
fabricated
stainless steel
urban
translucent plastic
veneer
suburban
cast iron
lacquer
sump pump
vinyl
ceiling
288
room
re-
To
or
function adequately a
any
home
building must
other
have furnishings that contribute

to
its
our
total efficiency
Many
taste.
and please
periods in history
if
rooms are small, furniture
should
seem
less
appearance.
lightweight
in
rooms are
large,
massive furni-
and
time. Personal preference deter-
sketches
mines whether an individual selects

French Provincial, Early
as actual furniture styles.
American, Contemporary, or
some other furniture style. Natu-
drawings
form
one selected should con-
to or
collection
shown
is
3.
furniture
The
stated dimensions accompanying each sketch represent

standard or frequently used
sizes.
4.
The plan view drawings may

be used as guides for drawing
and plan view
templates to be cut out and
serve you in five
arranged and re-arranged to
determine furniture placement
ways:
1
show gen-
How-
ever, the sketches
may
of
not intended
sketches
eral furniture shapes.
dignity.
The
The sketches
within rooms.
represent furni-
ture items most often used in
well with the build-
fit
styles, the
If
ture can give a feeling of strength
have given us furniture styles that

remain popular to the present
rally, the
do not represent furniture
and
massive
5.
The plan view drawings may

also be used as guides when
homes. They
will serve as re-
and
minders
plan for their
furniture outlines are re-
mass) should be compatible with
inclusion.
Even though individual items
quired on presentation or
working drawings.
ing in which
it
is
to be used.
Furniture scale
(its
size
the building's size. For example,
2.
to
Studio couch
length
depth
height
88"
32"
29"
2.
Occasional chair
width 28"
depth
as fold out bed

length
height
60"
289
32"
29"
Ottoman
length
24"
width 19"
height
16"
Part Two: Function
CD
9. Step table
1
length
5.
"Mrs." chair
28"
depth 32"
height 30"
width
height
21"
10. Corner table
30"
depth 30"
height 15"
length
6. Cocktail table
48"-60"
length
width 16"-22"
height
3.
27"-30'
width 15"-19"
Hi-ti
or stereo
length
48"-60'
depth
20"
30"
height
14.
Organ
or piano
variable sizes
approx. 48"x26'
15"
or diameter
34"-48'
15. Buffet
length
height
7.
Lamp
table or night stand
width
21"
30"
11. Desk
length 36"-55'
depth 17"
height
48"-60"
depth 18"-20"
depth 20"
22"
height
29"
a
8.
Lamp
table or night stand
width
12. Television
24"
24"-60"
depth 20"
height 30"
length
depth 18"
height
22"
290
16. China cabinet

length
56"
depth 18"-20'
height
70"
28: Furniture
r^
k Pî ^< 0\
;
cz
24. Triple dresser
17. Rectangular dining table
60"-72"
width 40"-42"
height 29"
length
length
60"-72'
depth
20"
30"
height
Beds mattress sizes

twin 39"x75"
long twin 39"x80"
double 54"x75"
long double 54"x80"
Queen 60"x80"
King 75"x80"
18. Round dining or breakfast table
25. Refrigerator or freezer
diameter 36"-44"
height
30"-36"
26"
height 60"-72"
width
29"
depth
O O
Chest
length
width
19. High back chair

seat
height
38"
19"
46"-50"
17"xl7"
seat height
height
26. Single oven range

width 24" or 30'
depth
7"-l
height
25"
36"
34"
o
23. Double dresser
20. Chair
seat
sa
'US
17"xl7"
seat height
height
7'
30"
length
48"-62'
depth
20"
30"
height
291
27. Double oven range

length
40"-42"
depth 25"
height
36"
Part Two: Function
33. Dishwasher
(built-in)
width 24",
Drop
in
range
24" or 30"
depth 23"-25"
fits with 36" counter
30. Drawer range with oven above
length
length
depth
height
height
25"
height
34'h"
Portable dishwasher
width 24"
depth 25"
30"-40"
25"
30"-34"
height
Li
36"
34. Automatic washer

width 27"
depth
height
31
length
Built-in
25"
36"
Surface unit
width
29.
30"
depth
24" 30", 36", 40'

20"
oven
24"-34"
fit 25" oven
height 24"-42"
32. Range hood
width
depth to
cabinet
27"
25"
height 36"
width
depth
height
292
35. Clothes dryer
length 24"-42'
depth 18"
6"
Community Factors To Be Considered

When
it is
necessary to change
munity
is
a smaller one on the
whether
you rent, buy, or build, examine
the new community to determine
if it fulfills your specific needs.
Sometimes a job or position
may dictate where one lives, with-
community with
out regard for likes or dislikes.
ness center,
of
location
However,
if
residence,
community
is
com-
one may be
required to seek another job
pletely unfavorable,
majority of the people
now
near a large
This
live in or
city.
concentration of population
around major cities is increasing,
while
is
it
It is
frequently primarily residen-
tial,
and owes
its
existence to the
town. This
Small
decreasing in small,
isolated or poorly
developed com-
is
small
a distinct busi-
independent of an
indicate this trend will
continue.
Urban.
An urban community
Private
corporations
("public
service" companies) operate un-
with
them
agreement
which gives
or
franchise,
government,
sole permission or authority
to operate in a
community with-
out competition from similar com-
the city.
have close governmental control

and supervision federal, state,
and local. Even though rates are
regulated by government, cost of
services rendered vary widely
from community to community.
is
no organized, built-up community of homes; each one is separated from others. Rural areas
are usually associated with agri-
and present
culture,
a quiet, iso-
lated atmosphere.
panies.
These
not available in
If services are
vide
monopolies
legal
rural areas, the
Utility Services
Utility
Four Kinds of Communities
ernment agencies.
urban area. Most residents work

here rather than commuting to
munities and rural areas. All predictions
sidewalks are provided by gov-
der
large city.
Rural. In a rural area there
elsewhere.
fringes or outskirts of a large city.
owner may pro-
them himself or
as part of
a cooperative system. If one
services
may be
pro-
not
provided,
vided by public or private cor-
services
porations, or by government
extra cost of obtaining
agencies. Services in most
com-
is
contemplating living where some

are
the
them must
be considered.
perhaps with a
population of 100,000 or more.
This is an arbitrary figure; an
corporations and government.
ment. Even though government
Telephone service
agencies furnish
urban area may have fewer or
private corporations. Water, gas,
is
a large city,
munities are provided by both
numbers of people. The
and
highly congested central city or
vate
inner city
vices.
greater
is
usually considered
the urban area.
Suburban.
electricity
or
streets
suburban com-
is
supplied by
may be
either pri-
community-owned
ser-
Sewers, garbage removal,
and roads,
curbs, gutters,
storm sewers, street
293
lights,
and
Utilities
supplied
by govern-
some
utility ser-
must be paid for by

the property owner through taxes
or special assessments. These
charges must be taken into consideration when selecting a comvices, they
munity.
Part Two: Function
For example,
mains,
water
sewers,
streets,
sidewalks,
curbs,
and others,
many suburban
as
residential,
areas,
usually have a high real
Taxes

frequently to other
fly
son says
as
estate
tax.
mentioned earlier, must be paid

for by property owners. Some-
lished
areas
times real estate taxes cover the
areas.
and maintenance. Individuals may also be assessed for
to
determine the exact amount of

tax to be paid, but a close esti-
country
improvements which adjoin
their
mate can be made. Personal
ever,
street lighting,
costs
When
property.
the latter
lower than
It
is
old estab-
in
may be
higher or
in recently
developed
his
cities,
rea-
home should be
con-
venient to the airport.
and Shopping Centers
Stores
not always possible
beautiful
little
may be
home
just
in the
what a per-
How-
son would like to have.
may be
it
very inconvenient
true,
property tax should also be in-
when shopping must be done.
the charges are usually paid as
vestigated because this can affect
You
time payments, due annually or
cost
is
semi-annually until the debt
However,
retired.
in
some
is
in-
of
Some communi-
living.
have none, while others have
ties
quite a severe tax.
upon completion of
the improve-
Transportation
Transportation
is
interested in
it
buying
in a
new development
the
to
charges for existing and future
or services must be
utilities
checked carefully.
It
is
not un-
common
for property to be ad-
vertised
at
low
very
selling
owner
discovers several assessments
price; then the prospective
that
plays
an im-
modern life. If
be necessary to commute
portant part in
were not included
in the
pur-
chase price.
will
work, available transportation
will help determine

where you live.
If an automobile is the only
means of transportation, you
must be concerned with the streets
and roads. Road improvements
and how well they handle traffic
facilities
are very important.
of expressways,
The
how
location
close
they
Real Estate Taxes
pass to your place of employment,
Real estate taxes may be a

determining factor in selecting a
their accessibility to
building
location.
Comparisons
of taxes in neighboring
nities
and
city
commu-
areas should be
your home,
and exits,
and how well they handle traffic
at peak rush hours may be delocation of entrances
termining factors. Parking
your place of employment
evaluated prior to purchase. Both
ties at
and anticipated future

values should be considered.
and
Generally
portant considerations.
present
speaking,
estate taxes are less in

ties
with
many
local
real
communi-
large industries.
Real estate taxes of large industries
usually relieve the burden
of the individual tax payer and
make
the overall tax rate
much
lower. Areas that are primarily
as
in
facili-
downtown
their
cost,
areas, as well
also
become im-
When selecting a community

you should inquire about fire protection. In large cities this service
is
taken for granted. Most
No
cies.
made
mum
transportation, then an available

airport
is
a necessity. If one must
294
only mini-
who
volunteer firemen
either do-
nate their services or receive a
nominal
fee
each
for
rural areas
nearby
as
usually
equipment, manned by
for
hobby or
is
Small com-
may have
munities
and
in flying, either as a
direct charge
for this service.
Many
interested
cities
adequate equipment and

personnel to meet most emergen-
have
must
is
are important.
Fire Protection
nized
one
them
to reach
public transportation
their cost. If
to
whether one can

walk to them or whether other
transportation must be used. Adequate parking facilities should be
present. You may also want to
consider availability of shopping
areas in larger nearby cities. If
so, their location and time needed
them,
must be used, check the availability of rail and bus services,
If local
from the home,
amount of time required
reach
ment, or within a short time limit

afterward.
When a person
distance
their
the
stances the costs must be paid
should consider the location
of stores and shopping centers,
fire
rely
help,
protection.
upon
or call
cities.
men must
fire
call.
have no orgaResidents
their neighbors
firemen from
When
outside
fire-
be called, individual
property owners pay for the

service.
ohm m^mimi
A good community must have adequate shopping
Rohm & Haoj
Co.
When one
is
facilities.
There are usually no water

mains in rural areas. It is neces-
tion provided. If there are high
major consideration.
school or college students
a long-time resident of a locality
sary to rely on wells and pumps,
family, one will be interested in
he frequently takes his church for
transportation
granted. But
or water
may
be conducted or
even trucked from central sources.

Insurance rates are usually
greater in areas with
fire
little
or no
protection.
to
in
the
these schools.
Unless private or parochial schools

are available, a small
community
may have
only one high school.

Large consolidated schools can
when moving, you
should check to see
if your spedenomination is represented.

Note the distance of the church
from your home.
cific
usually offer a wider variety of
Schools
courses. Teachers arc better paid.
Parks, Recreation,
There are several important

factors you must consider when
Many
Cultural Opportunity
checking the schools
in
com-
large
communities
also
offer local or area junior college
programs.
The
munity. The quality of education
direct
and
indirect costs
most important. Educasame everywhere.

Some schools are very good while
others have lower standards. You
can at least check the facilities-
of attending each school must be
buildings and equipment.
other single factor.
The distance of
home is also very
tuition,
offered
tion
is
is
not the
schools from
important. If
one has small children he will be

interested in elementary schools
that are within walking distance
of home or have bus transporta-
the nation
in
becomes more
character
it
is
increas-
ingly difficult for the individual

to "feel" the beauty, solitude,
and
amount of
community on
comfort once achieved by spend-
schools has a greater influence
dor of undisturbed natural surroundings. The serene landscape

has given way to commercializa-
considered. Also the
money spent by
its
As
urban
and
on the
local tax
rate than
any
Amount of
book purchase or rental,

and other charges vary widely.
ing a quiet
tion
moment
in the splen-
and "progress." In many

is no undisturbed
localities there
countryside to enjoy. Fortunately,
Churches
The
spiritual life of the in-
dividual and a
community
295
is
new
interest in preserving
and
re-establishing natural beauty
emerging.
is
Conveniently located schools that are both beautiful and offer a fine education are an asset to a
296
community.
Community
29:
We
Factors To Be Considered
have had national,
state,
local parks for a long time,
and
surrounding area.
Make
it
a point
to notice these things.
Many communities provide ad-
but a new emphasis is being

placed on their creation and use.
Some projects are primarily con-
ditional facilities, for
servation measures, while others
golf, baseball,
are devoted to beauty.
to see if
where poorly planned

development has marred a river-
included. In addition to the public
In areas
swimming,
shuffleboard, tennis, ice skating,
and bowling. Check

your specific interest is
programs, the
YMCA
and many
front or hillside, steps are being
business establishments or other
taken for renewal. This need for
private organizations provide cen-
natural beauty is expressed in

other ways. Many residential
areas have restrictions which are
designed to preserve natural
beauty by requiring existing trees
and terrain to be left undisturbed
and
when new
in larger
This need
building
is
being done.
and open areas when
plantings,
new
You may desire cultural enrichcenters,
art
galleries,
sports are usually available
the kind of building that
erected
If
and the
may
be
total cost.
zoning regulations or build-
ing codes are unrealistic a hin-
drance
ing design, or are not compatible
wish to choose another building
Zoning Regulations and

Building
location. This
Codes
all
As mentioned
earlier,
you must
zoning ordinances
and recreation
facilities
and building codes. Prior discussion was directed toward design-
locality or
be avoided. Check the requirements before a location is chosen,

because they greatly affect both
to
with your ideas, then you will
communities.
check
own
if
is
other accepted ones, dictate build-
expensive.
aware of
available in their
an absolute necessity
is
difficulty with local authorities
museums,
is
citizens are not
the parks
or conform
requirements.
ment. Libraries, theaters, music
projects are planned.
Many
your enjoyment. Of
This
fulfill
established
all
to good construction, or
good land use or if they discriminate in favor of certain
building materials and against
ters for
course, a private club
also expressed by the
is
inclusion of trees, shrubs, other
ing a building to
to
all local
not to imply that
is
codes and regulations are bad,
because they are not. The
pri-
mary purpose of codes and zoning

regulations
to protect the rights
is
of individuals.

1
Name some
reasons for ex-
amining a community before moving
of organizations that supply
there.
What
2.
are
population
the
Describe the four basic kinds
3.
of
communities
small town,
rural.
are some of the ser-
provided by govern-
5.
companies?
Are the same services
in all
6.
utility
avail-
communities? Explain.
Are
utility
costs constant
throughout the country?
ity
Why
or
why
not?
What
What
is
are two different kinds
0.
How do
industries
Why do
2.
local-
fre-
cilities
affect your choice of building
3.
Why
should
you
be
con-
cerned with location of stores and
shopping centers?
4.
How
area affect
Is
it
true that
does
fire
in
protection?
297
rural
Why?
all
schools
in
7.
Why
does one usually want
to live close to elementary schools
bus service
if
is
provided?
18.
Why
is
this
affect
not so important
and
junior colleges?
How and when may
9.
where you
20.
living
firemen
Explain.
for high schools
location?
1
6.
or determine
transportation fa-
fulltime
communities are equally good?
suburban areas
How may
all
in
communities
small
hire
solve the problem?
a real estate tax?
quently have a high tax rate?
7.
9.
affect the tax rates?

1
What
ment or private
able
suburban,
usually
4.
vices
and
urban,
Who pays for utility services?
Personal property tax?
trends at the present time?
cannot
that
8.
How do
15.
utility
services?
building
churches
live?
Do zoning ordinances and

codes always
fulfill
intended purpose? Explain.
their
Site Planning
As emphasized
Chapter
25,
be analyzed. Actually the prob-
clude space for gardening and
a building should be related to
lems and striving for solutions to
play.
its site
in
so the two appear to belong
them may
result in better design,
together and to the neighborhood.
construction,
For
cause of conveniences overlooked
reason a plot should be
this
before
selected
designed.
Of
building
the
is
signments
it is
necessary to assume
a hypothetical or imaginary
terrain,
site,
and related conveniences.

people feel that an ideal
Many
building
level.
lot
on
imagination.
flat
ground
When
it
building
large cities
desirable
flat
land
much
is
of the
already oc-
To find an ideal, level

may be necessary to look
farther out. Some clients may
cupied.
plot
it
prefer to use less desirable land

closer in.
is
The
available city land
already
"built
in."
or irregular terrain can
be offset by clever design
Most important,
fit
two-
in
the site should
the client's needs best.
A lot is divided
The approach,
into three areas
(2) service area,
this
area
is
and must be designed
to present
a pleasing appearance.
It
is
the
building's "showcase."
The Service Area
may be quite small, may

need clearing and filling, or the
terrain may have undesirable fea-
way and parking
tures such as irregularity.
plan.
they
The
seems to
present serious problems should
fact that a plot
This area includes the drivefacilities,
when
they are to be included in the
Of
swimming
or
court.
rate
may
It
game
or a
pool,
also contain elabo-
food service
signed
facilities.
The
to
fulfill
the
individual
is
frequently
family's
needs.
shielded
from the public by a
It
in a closely settled
and
vacy
dry,
is
warm
neighborhood
climate where pri-
needed because of regular

living.
course, the area should
adjoin the service door for con-
venience of deliveries.
298
It
One must
most
noticeable to the general public
odd shaped,
are frequently
and
shrubs
flowers,
Formal vs. Informal
The Approach
generally in congested areas,
lots
for
trees, terraces, a patio, reflecting
outdoor
(3) living area.
Remember,
spaces
screen, wall, or fence, especially
according to their use. These are:
and
may
living area
outdoor living area should be de-
Site Divisions
( 1 )
ing plan with the terrain.
site
of
story or split level style.
not usually
is
necessary to coordinate the build-
Near
small
almost
ground does
and requires
flat
help reduce costs

little
be
should
Building on
many advantages because
services
The outdoor
include not only the lawn but
A fully developed housing area

has
The Living Area
be-
use,
at first glance.
when doing
course,
classroom problems or other as-
and land
may
in-
building and
decide whether the
surroundings are
its
be formal or informal in character. In the past much emphasis

was placed on formality, which
to
was often achieved by symmetrical balance of the building and

its landscape. For instance, if one
is designing a duplicate of a
stately colonial mansion both the
structure and its surroundings
should
way
be
very
formal,
is
the
the originals were designed.
!&,:'-
JU
lr
ii
ii
JPC\
"""-'**-
>.
The driveway
of this
home
leads to both the living and service entries.
Scholz
This
home
is
w
f
4%'
ir
f
,T
>>-
Inc
299
especially designed for outdoor living.
i
-
Homes
:,'^.V-
^~._
Iwi
lal
FWt;
**a
1*
toj
1
in
i
Ti'.tf
br ill''
m_
Window and door arrangements
Generally, current design
fa-
of this
Landscaping,
like
home
building
de-
be restrained and
should
vors relaxed informality but with
sign,
an interesting, livable atmosphere.

Lack of formality does not mean
a hodgepodge of outdoor features.
simple. For smaller

lots, this
present a formal balance.
homes and
means making use of the
same area
for different occasions.
information in a drawing, place a

small scale plan in the center
draw
cir-
from the center

perpendicular to each wall, and
extend each line beyond the cir-
cle,
a line
cumference of the circle, as in the

example. Read about the recom-
mended
Orientation
shading
To
to
properly orient a building
the
many
site,
one must consider

terrain has been
other chapters, as was
things.
discussed in
The
location of other buildings. Plan-
ning must also consider prevail-
wall treatment and sunin the
quadrant that each
wide
wall faces. Naturally, these sug-
overhangs, and shading devices.
gested sunshading devices apply

whether or not you plan to install
proper placement of
When
properly
trees,
wide
designed,
overhangs or shading devices take

advantage of the low winter sun
and admit its warming rays, but
summer
air
conditioning (cooling) equip-
ment. (See caption.)

Determining Landscape
ing wind direction. Large glass
they block out hot
should be avoided on a
side exposed to a cold north wind,
or wind blowing in from a lake
when
or bay.
cludes pertinent data and the table
As with some building designs,

developments frequently just seem to happen. For
The sun can be made to work

for you. Both wind and sun can
accompanying it shows how
maximum
areas
be
partially
controlled
by the
and
the sun
its
heat
is
is
near
its
rays
zenith
most intense.
The illustration which
in-
Requirements
landscape
beauty and use, the
building can be oriented to take
designer's job
advantage of the sun. To use
happen
300
this
in
is
to
make them
an organized manner.
30: Site Planning
Orientation*
1.
Sun exposure
relieved by cool
2.
1
Sun
3.
exposure
is
short but
in-
intensity
is
partly
Overhang and reflective screens ineffective.

Low trees or hill give valuable shade.
Solutions
order of effectiveness)
(in
A. Sunshading by walls,
tensified by high
trellis,
lattice,
high
fences, low trees, etc.
temperature and
air
and
short
is
air.
low angle.
Solutions (in order of
effectiveness)
1
A. Sunshading by walls,
lattice,
exposure
C. Attached carport or garage.
2.
D. Awnings.
needed
Minimum Glass Area
E.
is
sustained and
ntense.
Porch or veranda.
B.
Sun
trellis,
high fences, low trees, etc
Both
tall
and medium
trees ore
for shade.
Solutions
(in
A. Porch or veranda.
B.
Awnings.
C. Reflective screens.
D.
1.
Sun exposure
is
Recommended overhang.
sustained and
intensified by day's hottest air.

2.
Both
tall
and medium
needed
trees
shade
for
Solutions (in order of effectiveness)
Solutions
A. Attached carport or garage.
A.
Recommended overhang.
B.
Reflective screens.
B.
Porch or veranda.
(in
C. Glass area fully shaded.
C. Large glass area
D. Storage cabinets
recommended overhang.
in
wall.
E.
Awnings or
F.
Avoid slab reflecting heat against wall.
reflective screening.
(if
used) under
D. Awnings.
Avoid slabs reflecting heat against
E.
Recommended Roof Overhang*

Height of Eaves
25
30"
36"
42"
48"
54"
60"
66"
72"
78"
84"
90"
96"
102"
12
14
16
18
21
23
30
36
43
25
27
30
32
42
34
37
48
58
69
39
15
18
21
24
35
14
18
25
29
40
17
22
22
26
45.
20
25
25
31
41
31
37
30
36
43
35
50
'Dimensions below staggered
line
27
32
39
46
56
51
62
33
40
37
56
68
36
43
52
61
74
Differences
latitude
in
the overhang required
to minimize heat gain. For that
12
NOTE:
affect
Sill
24"
30..
50
Above Window
wall.
39
47
56
66
80
50
60
71
87
45
54
65
76
93
82
99
reason a house having an over-
hang designed
will
51
61
73
porch due to added cost and structural problems. Figures apply to wall facing south.
one area
in
another.
To give you some idea of approximate locations ot various

latitudes,
Florida
87 New
105 N. C.
generally not practical as an overhang unless used as
for
not be effective
the
southern
and Texas are
tip
of
at 25,
Orleans 30, Charlotte,
and Santa Maria,
Calif.
35, Philadelphia and Denver
40,
Bangor,
Me. and Portand the
land, Ore. are at 45,

"Reprinted from National Association of
A Summary Report
Home
Bui/ders
Rese
tilted
of the Austin Air-Conditioned Village Projei
301
RESIDENTIAL AIR
CONDITIONING-
50
line
crosses lower Canada.
Part Two: Function
As
stated earlier,
idea to retain as
it
is
many
good
natural
features such as earth contour,
and native top soilas possible. The method of landscaping by removing all natural
features and replacing them with
symmetrically clipped shrubs was
once the fashion, but is no longer
so popular. This method of landtrees, shrubs,
scaping requires very

nation but a
lack of variety
nous. This
is
little
imagi-
of work, and the
lot
may be monoto-
not to imply that
one cannot use foundation and

other plantings;
is
it
only urging
imaginative use.
If plantings are
used near a
building they should complement

it.
For example,
tion
is
if
the founda-
high, strategically located
shrubs can help hide
it;
they
may
also help visually tie the building
Plot plan
ground. Tall plants help

if
a client has greater inter-
emphasize vertical lines, while

low spreading plants help accent
ests in
other activities, he should
horizontal lines. Therefore,
plan will require
to the
building
rather
is
tall,
if
as a two-
but
be warned that
If
lawn mowing
any elaborate
much
is
attention.
a chore,
ground
com-
covers such as pebbles, crushed
plement it, or if the building has

long, low horizontal lines, spread-
stone, or a leafy spread such as
ers are preferred.
intervals
story house, tall shrubs will
When
one
selecting plantings,
should express his individuality.

One does not have to be a con-
have
formist
and
like
others
all
in
landscaping
the
Choose
flowers, shrubs,
that are
your
vicinity.
and
trees
favorites, regardless
myrtle
may be used
at selected
Slow
growing plants or ones that look
best without trimming can also
reduce care. Remember that most
small plants grow: a yard may
be beautiful now but one must
consider how it will look in a few
years.
with
plantings.
Many new
buildings look
of what others are using. Note:
barren for
Harmony
ing economical selections one
'scapes
is
with neighboring
appropriate, especially
on an inside lot. A corner

more freedom.
An
avid gardener
may
lot
years.
By mak-
may
obtain partially grown trees and
lot
shrubs so the yard can be enjoyed
choose
soon rather than late. Two or

three broad leaf trees are better
gives
items that require a
many
of care,
than none at
showing building outlines plus approximate planting locations.
all.
30: Site Planning
PLOT PLANS
Preliminary
landscape
plan-
ning should be done on paper

so changes can be
made
at little
cost until the desired results are

in
mind. These can be
in
form of rough sketches. The

layout
Plot
the
final
drawn on a plot plan.

plans, as shown earlier in
is
Rendered
plot plan
may
the text,
contain technical
ent
methods of drawing and
data such as building location,
labeling
contour lines, and ground heights.

Information concerning the land-
Observe that some plans give the
scape
may
technical
plans
plans,
may
panying
also be included
or
other
on
plot
be drawn. The accom-
illustrations
show
differ-
showing roof outlines. Identification may be labeled

shrubs.
mm?"
items
to
be
included.
names of each item while other

drawings are for illustrative purposes only. These drawings are
rendered in color but may bo
done
in
directly
black and white.
on the trees and
303
Plot plan
showing building outlines. Code numbers refer to a schedule of plant species. You may
when you draw your plans. They may identify any planting that
you desire.
decide what the numbers represent
304
Rendered
plot plan
showing roof outlines and approximate planting locations.
305
Port Two: Function

1
Why
should a
before a building
2.
Having
no
may you proceed

3. What are
a
be selected
lot
designed?
is
actual
how
lot
with your design?
built-up city neigh-
borhoods affect land availability?

5.
What
sults that
6.
some
are
are
Do
7.
What
of the re-
Why?
are the three divisions
three
home?
divisions of a
What
the
What
the
is
service
area?
What
is
the
living
area?
How does one
determine
whether a landscape plan

or informal
in
is
formal
character? Describe
why
is
13.
What
in
9.
in
the text,
latitude affect the width
Is it
Why?
wrong
to use foundation
why
Explain
why
or
When
20.
is
it
not.
best to use
tall
Low ones?
plants?
Why
ommend
does the author
individuality
rec-
when planning
22.
How
might the landscape of
fessional golfer differ?
What
Why?
grown or partially grown

and shrubs? What are the
planting
trees
disadvantages?
Why
are
preliminary
land-
scape plans done as sketches?
Terms to Spell and

is
meant by the
state-
ment that the building and the
ter-
must have proper orientation?
14.
From the table
8.
a simple, unified landscape
best?
rain
how does
24.
each.
12.
shown
the text?
23.
Describe.
11.
use the circu-
a home for a botanist and a pro-
Describe.
10.
How does one
7.
orientation illustration
the landscape?
scribe.
9.
21.
the approach? De-
is
are four items used to
plantings as your only landscaping?
From previous reading, how
do these compare with

8.
good
have
lots
What
6.
of an overhang?
develop?
likely to
small
landscape possibilities?
of a lot?
lar
How do
sun affect
the
block the sun's rays?
the advantages of
level lot?
4.
How does
15.
orientation?
How do
prevailing
winds
orientation
quadrant
plot plan
affect orientation?
306
Know
Part Three
FROM
IDEAS
TO REALITY
31
Drafting Tools and Techniques

Developing Skill
32.
Drafting
for
Mediums
33. Architectural Lettering

34.
Orthographic Projection and the

Architectural Drawing
35.
Sections
36.
37.
Pictorial Drawings
Sketches and Renderings
38.
Architectural
39.
Dimensioning and Notes
Symbols
40. Organization of Building Plans

41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
Drawing Plot Plans

Drawing Floor Plans
Drawing Basement or Footing and
Foundation Plans
Drawing Exterior Elevations
Drawing Building Sections
Drawing Elevation Details
Drawing Framing Plans
Drawing Mechanical Plans
Working Plans for a Contemporary
Reproduction of Drawings
51. Specifications
52.
Estimating
53. Architectural
Models
307
Home
Quality of work produced
when you use
is improved
good drafting table.
Drafting Tools and Techniques

for Developing Skill
Drafting skill is dependent
the mastery of many small
details, any of which when con-
upon
sidered alone
may seem
relatively
drawings
present
an
unsightly
appearance, emphasize erasures

and changes, and cause poor reproduction. Since working draw-
unimportant but, when combined

into a finished drawing, can make
the difference between an aver-
ings are
age or a superior
job or into a shop, the quality of

the reproduction is very impor-
result.
Before you can draw a plan

you must have a knowledge of
the materials to be used and how
they
fit
into the total building.
You must
of the
understand something
manipulative
skills
quired in construction work.
re-
You
must also know how parts are

represented (shown) on a working drawing (plan), and then you
must develop skill and techniques
for communicating these ideas
through drafting.
This chapter discusses the tools
of drafting and offers guides on

developing skill in using them.
Since a draftsman spends quite
on each individual
drawing (some large drawings
may take several days to complete), great care must be taken
to keep the drawing clean. Dirty
a long time
made to be used, but

an original drawing would soon
be spoiled if it were taken on the
shows how to build

the actual object. Sloppy drawing
usually produces a poor print,
but a neat, beautiful drawing
tant because
it
The desk top and items to be

handled while you are drawing
must also be kept clean.
The drawing board must be
clean before the paper or other
drawing medium
it.
to
remove
is
placed upon
brush is needed
loose particles of
dusting
dust, eraser
crumbs, or
lint,
but
the surface should also be rubbed
thoroughly with a clean cloth.

All drafting instruments must be
clean.
Even
if
they appear clean,
with improper line weights also
they should be wiped vigorously
makes
with a clean cloth. If they appear
poor reproduction.
soiled before use,
it
may
be nec-
Cleanliness
essary to
To keep your drawing clean

you must first keep yourself clean!
If you are neat and orderly in
they should be dried with a clean
your appearance, this will reflect

itself in your drawing. Your hands
must be clean at all times. Even
if no dirt is visible, your hands
should be washed frequently. Oil
or perspiration will cause a draw-
ing to collect
cially true
dirt;
when you
this
is
espe-
are working
wash them with a mild

solution of soap and water. Then
cloth to prevent water
Do
damage.
not submerge the instruments
Use a cloth that is only

damp.
During use, all tools and
equipment should be wiped off
frequently to remove any new
accumulation of dirt and perin water.
slightly
spiration.
Particles
of graphite
on a very complicated plan and

if you have a high degree of
and eraser should be constantly

removed, by brushing, from your
nervous tension.
drawing.
308
31: Drafting Tools and Techniques for Developing
Skill
Drawing Tables and

Boards
Since architectural plans
be quite large,
may
necessary to
is
it
have large tables and boards

accommodate them.
to
drafting table should have
make
a slanted top to
it
easier
reach the work. Large firms,
to
with adequate finances, may

equip you with combination
tables
and boards,
that are
power-
operated to change table height

or angle. However,
limited, height
and only
if
finances are
be stationary
the angle adjustable
by
usually
may
mechanical
means.
rooms frequently use

custom-made tables. An inexpenDrafting
can
type
sive
be
provided
by
Drafting table with attached work surface and storage space.
mounting a flush door or heavy

plywood on a simple framework.
It
is
vide a
common
flat
practice to profor the drafts-
table
man's books, papers,
tools,
and
other supplies.
Gum,
Wood crossbands.
birch,
or basswood
Metal crossbands.
is
preferred for drawing board surfaces because of their close grain
and smooth surface.

Unattached drawing boards
structure
are
usually
much
smaller than
table models, for easy handling.
They
are generally constructed of

basswood. Two methods of crossbanding on the ends to minimize
warping are shown. See the drawing, center of this page.
drawing board should be

handled with care; true lines cannot be drawn if the face or edges
are damaged.
and a pad
is
wood board
is
used.
not, the pencil tends
making
Drav and soft
to follow the grain, thus
the lines slightly irregular.
ing
across
the
hard
grain structure also keeps lines
from being uniform. If a hard

is used (such as
surfaced board
a plastic laminate table top), a
pad prevents the pencil point

from wearing as rapidly as it
would otherwise. Any clean,

heavyweight paper
may
serve as
a pad.
Drawing Pad
It is
well to place padding be-
tween the drawing board and the
Board cover with printed grid nes elimmuch measuring on the drawing.
li
paper. If a
Plastic-coated, paper or vinyl

board covers make a pad un-
necessary.
309
inates
Part Three:
From Ideas
to Reality
Instruments
T Square
For architectural drafting a T

measuring from 36" to
42" in length is recommended.
square
The beginner
all-wood
T square with
plastic
edged blade.
frequently uses an
square, but
not
is
it
suitable for professional quality
work. A clear plastic edge is

needed so adjacent work is visible.
Also, the plastic edge is smoother
than wood. The blade may be of
hardwood with
both edges, or
of
plastic.
on
clear plastic
may be
it
The blade
is
entirely
fastened
which is used to guide

the blade on the drawing board.
The head may be mounted permanently at right angles to the
to a head,
it may be adjustable as
shown. Good quality T squares
have the plastic along the blade
blade, or
recessed to prevent ink
slightly
from running under
A T
it.
square with the head secured to

the
blade
with
is
more
one secured
bolts
satisfactory than
with glue and small
Note: The
wood
screws.
square should
not be longer than the drawing
board
because
this
causes
the
blade to arch ofT the paper in

the center of the drawing.
Triangles
Large 30 -60
and 45
tri-
or improper use may cause ink

under the blade.
A poorly designed T square
angles are needed for architectural
large
drawing. They should be
enough
that
vertical
all
lines
can be continuous.
only
small
lines
must be
very
difficult
triangles
spliced,
to
to run
When
are
and
keep the
used,
it
is
splice
from showing. A 12" triangle is

most work but the
suitable for
18" size
is
recommended.
On
the better T squares the head and blade are held together by bolts.
310
31: Drafting Tools
and Techniques
for
Developing
Skill
Drafting machine.
30 -60 triangle.
Since
large
triangles
convenient for short
draftsmen
sets.
prefer
The second
or 6"
is
in-
many
have
to
set
are
lines,
two
usually 4"
size.
An
shown,
adjustable triangle,
is
very convenient
architectural drawing.
be marked
divided
should
degrees and also
in
for
It
as
for
rise,
run.
and roof
pitch.
The
quality of plastic
important.
Inferior
become very
is
very
plastic
will
and the edge

will chip and wear easily. A good
triangle, even though more expensive,
and
will
brittle
give
much
longer
better service.
Drafting Machines
Drafting machines, as shown,
have become widely used. Their

chief advantage is the combining
of
and
311
square, triangles, protractor,

scales into
one
unit.
Part Three:
From Ideas
to Reality
and graphite from the

extreme pencil wear can cause a
drawing to become smudged and
to break,
dirty.
Parallel Ruling Straightedges
Parallel
ruling
straightedges,
shown, are very convenient

for
drawing long, continuous
lines. However, it is difficult to
keep the edges of the paper from
as
being torn unless
it
is
taped
around the entire perimeter.

These devices also rub continuously on the drawing paper, so
the work is more difficult to keep
clean.
Automatic Drafting Machines
Computer operated machines
Parallel ruling straightedge.
are a very valuable aid for varia-
This eliminates most of the tools
chine are not rigid and the line
tions in production drawing, but
must be kept on or
near the drawing table.
Drafting machines have two
disadvantages: (1) Since the pen
or pencil is guided by the scale
tends to drop or be forced out
are not as well suited to custom
of the desired position.
architectural
that normally
edge,
when
long, continuous lines
are desired they must be spliced.
When
drawing near the end

of the scale, the arms of the ma(2)
Scales with transparent edges
allow the draftsman to observe
work
it
is done, and a
can be drawn along
this kind of scale. Metal scales
are not so smooth, tend to wear
the pencil lead causing the point
the
smoother
as
line
drafting which re-
quires individual work.
chines
may be
The macom-
controlled by
mands placed on magnetic

punched
paper
tape,
mands may be read
or
or
com-
directly
from punched cards through a

computer.
Handling Paper and Pencil

Placing Paper on Drawing Board
The
size
triangles
of your
or your
square and
drafting
ma-
drawing board. If the bottom

edge of the paper is closer than
this
it
is difficult
to hold the in-
lo-
struments and draw accurately.
(Note: All directions are
for right-handed draftsmen; if you

are left handed, you will reverse
T square the left

edge of the paper should be 3"
or 4" from the left edge of the
procedures.) If the sheet size per-
board. This
paper should be placed

about 6" from the bottom of the
but you do not want to draw too
chine helps determine paper

cation.
mits, the
In using the
is
variable, of course,
near the right (free) end of the
312
T square because
it
tends to
"give" near the unsupported end.
Drawing near the free end also

makes the instruments hard to
hold in place while working. With
a drafting
usually
machine the paper
is
placed near the center
of the board.
To
position the drawing paper,
place the head of the
square
edge of
and slide it
the bottom of the
against
firmly
Skill
the
left
the drawing board
down
to locate
drawing paper. Place the paper

so
square.
the paper to the right or
as desired.
left
the
against
is
it
Slide
paper
Then when
parallel to the
is
the
square
(or straightedge of the drafting
machine) it is fastened
drawing board.
to
the
Fastening the Paper to the
Drawing Board
Thumbtacks were formerly

used
they
secure
to
made
the
paper,
but
holes in the drawing
board which interfered with accurate drawing. Drafting tape
to
hold a drawing
approximately
diagonally
Tape
Note:
pressed
across
be
and
roll
removed
the drawing board and paper so

as not to interfere with instrument
use or mar the paper

when removed.
If a
drawing
work
There
They range from a plain H, which

is quite soft and makes a dark
This can be placed between
surface
will take several
days to complete, some draftsmen
line, to a
series.
9H, which
and makes a very
is
very hard
drawing with one

this
series
recommended
sharpening is done on a
draftsman's pencil sharpener.
best
The wood on
this pencil
is
cut
to the proper shape.
their
all
How-
pencil.
At least two pencils are required,

one a fine grade, such as for construction lines, guide lines, exten-
and
equipment lines. Either a 3H or
4H is recommended, although
sion lines, dimension lines,
some draftsmen
entire
hard pencil such as a
prefer
guide and construction
2H
or
heavy
H
lines.
is
very
6H
lines.
recommended
for
A
for
third softer pencil,
The wood on
this pencil
is
im-
properly shaped. Irregular cuts

in
the lead
will
cause
easily.
313
for
If wood pencils are used the

wood should be sharpened to a
long conical point as shown. The
not recommended.
is
prefer
to put tape around the

drawing sheet to prevent
damaged edges by the instruments. Beginning students should
check with their instructor to see
working drawings.
light line.
Some draftsmen do
ever,
frequently
pencils of the
ing but are not
pencils for line
up when
available with adhesive on both
sides.
Drawing
are nine gradations in this series.
to prevent tear-
is
are used for architectural render-
and
are usually of the
ing the paper. (2) Drafting tape

is
Drawing
Pencils
has a
it.
such as an F or HB,
used for lettering.
firmly
it
Caution must be observed when

is
drawing board with drafting or masking tape.
necessary for a specific
is
Lead Holders
corner.
instruments are rubbed over

tape
if this
x 1" are placed
each
to a
drawing.
Drawing
should
to curl
most frequently fastened
is
in place. Strips
down because
tendency
Paper
is
much preferred. There are two

kinds: (1) Conventional drafting
tape has adhesive on only one
side. A small amount is needed
it
to
break
Port Three:
From Ideas
fo Reality
ers are also easier to use in auto-
matic pointers.
Regardless of which
wood
with a knife
no sharpener is
must be taken
if
available, but care
to prevent nicking or cutting the
because
lead
point and
it
weakens the
this
likely
is
to
The wood should be

from the lead
exposed.
until
Pencil
break.
cut
pointers,
is
fine
or fine sandpaper can then
files,
Lead holders are preferred by
similar to a regular one
wood
while the lead
may
pencils
is left
also
is
removed
intact.
Wood
be sharpened
use.
It
is
A T
Holding the T square.

is
used to draw
zontal lines.
all hori-
Lay the blade across

you have attached,
the paper that
so the head
is
against the
left
edge of the drawing board. Remove both your hands from the
drawing area. Lay the heel of
your
left
hand on
the blade of
about a 45 angle
and exert slight pressure toward
the
square
the right.
at
The
fingers of the left
hand are not placed on
the
not necessary to take
the pencil so the point will be
to
Then
wood away,
it
toward the
is,
drawing board
to the left of the triangle.
of the
heel
firm
on the
makes the point
pressure
it
is
will not
break
placed
on
it.
Holding the pencil. The pencil
should be held firmly as for writ-
be
the
It
Draw-
ing,
hand
left
it
is
With
but the fingers should not
cramped.
Stand
the
pencil
perpendicular to the paper.
still
square blade, hold
the triangle with your fingers of

the
hand so they
left
fingers
Do
triangle
is
it.
not
let
Now, using
move the tri-
cut away.
your fingers,
back and forth without
moving the heel of your left hand.
just
the
base of the triangle
firmly against the
square. Left-
handed procedures are reversed

of course.
314
Line Weights
are over the
your
touch the paper where the
center of
Keep
places the trademark so
when
places the vertical edge so
triangle.
tion
of the
uniform.
slightly blunt so
with the words facing you. This
angle
Holding the triangle right
can always be
readable; that
square because they must be free

to hold and manipulate your
handed. Standard triangle posi-
re-
small cloth or facial tissue serves
a constant
and lead can be extended quickly

to any desired length. Lead hold-
bottom
is
position during
time to sharpen the
is
point
used; otherwise the particles will
draftsmen.
llogiiuiiiig fo
square
the
it
held in the
is
Every time
shaped the excess graphite must

be removed before the pencil is
same
lead length so
except only the
more frequent sharpen-
ing.
wipe off and burnish the point.

it is a good idea to condition the point by drawing a few
lines on a scrap of paper. Rotate
experienced
The holder maintains
This
require
be deposited on the drawing.
be used to shape the point.
many
holders, the lead should be sharp-
ened to a long conical point as

shown. Short tapers on the cone
away
to Vi"
used,
is
pencils or automatic lead
Lines to represent different details are drawn to different widths.

The widths for each kind of line
are to be the same on each drawing you do. Sample sets of lines
are
shown,
identified,
and de-
They are drawn in ink;

the same thickness as you are
to draw them on your drawings.
scribed.
Skill
Construction lines
Break
line for
Break
line for small parts
large parts
i
I
Object
lines
Omitted
Guide
detail
on same part
lines for lettering
-r
Center
lines
Alternate position lines
nn
L
Equipment
lines
J
Cutting plane line
i 1
Kinds of lines inked
315
in
with India ink.
Ditto lines for repeated detail
From Ideas
Part Three:
to Reality
Tilt the top about 30 in the
direction the line
The
to be drawn.
is
should be held rigid
wrist
and the entire arm moved when

drawing lines. Your work will
not be smooth if you use only
your ringers or
wrist.
Line direction. Horizontal lines
are
drawn from
to top
square.
drawn from
Vertical lines are
bottom
along
left to right
the top edge of the
along the
edge
left
of the triangle.
Inclined
along the
lines
left
edge of the triangle are drawn

from bottom to top.
Inclined lines along the right
edge of the triangle are drawn

from top to bottom.
All lines are drawn by pulling
Right-handed
the
Pushing
pencil.
may
cause
a line to be uneven or skip. Also,

the sharp point may injure the
paper, tear or punch holes in
These
difficulties are
it.
emphasized
more when drawing with ink.

Note that even if you see no apparent objection to pushing the
pencil you should use the proper
technique to avoid problems and
good drafting
to develop
Guide
cil
lines
habits.
very light pen-
lines are
(barely visible)
drawn
hard pencil. They are

drawn for the bottom and top of
with
-{-
all
lettering
and
figures
(num-
bers). Since these lines are very

light,
do
they
therefore
it
is
not
reproduce;
not necessary to
remove them from the finished

drawing. The lines are drawn by
"floating"
the pencil along the
square or triangle without
pressure. Practice
Left-handed
Triangle positions and line directions, using 42" T square.
316
making many
which you can barely see.

They should appear shadow-like.
lines
31: Drafting Tools
Construction
in the
and Techniques
weight as guide
lines.
between
difference
drawn
same
The only
are
lines
same manner and
the
two
the
is
that construction lines are used

for laying out the drawing.
These
for
Developing
Skill
by professionals. Time
riedly
is
time to form
without overruns or spaces between. Practice making each kind
It
all
corners precisely.
drawing an artisfreedom which can make a
also gives the
tic
pleasing appearance,
if
expertly
done. As a beginner, you should
represented with them and then.
look
when everything
"come
off." As your speed increases you
will do this naturally.
are
all
correct, they
redrawn, using the proper
line weights. Since these lines are
not do
remove
also unnecessary to
is
Your drawing
this.
though you are trying
as
Practice for
techniques
set
Following the
skill.
down on
previous
them.
pages, practice line work.
As mentioned earlier, you may

have noticed that corners on arch-
cal
drawings do not always
itectural
meet
the
perfectly.
lines
are
This
is
because
drawn quite hur-
will
for an effect that doesn't
shadow-like and do not reproduce

it
and horizon-
vertical
tal lines
might be described as "insurance

lines," because the object is first
is
Try joining
very valuable. They cannot take
horizontal lines
first,
After
lines.
Draw
then verti-
horizontal
and
have been mastered,

draw inclined lines on both the
vertical lines
right
and
left
sides of the triangle.
so the corners are square
of
line, such as construction

dimension lines, equipment
and object
all
lines,
lines,
Remember
lines.
that
except construction and guide
lines are to
be solid so no
light
through when they are

reproduced. Examine the lines
will pass
carefully;
they are fuzzy on
if
the edges they are not suitable.
Hold the paper

to get
to a strong light
a better idea of opacity.
Your teacher may have you draw

on a scrap of tracmay be repro-
practice lines
ing paper so they
duced to help determine the quality of your work.
Architect's Scales
Building parts tend to be large.
rally
the scales are
those
most
may
they
not be accurate near
Since they must be represented
frequently used in architectural
the ends, so divisions are placed
on a
drawing.
back,
all
set
of plans
it is
obvious that
drawn their
must be shown
parts cannot be
true size.
reduced.
Sizes
An
be used to
ordinary ruler could
make
reductions but
It
is
necessary to learn
and use the scales.

An architect or draftsman does
not think of the divisions on his
to read
scale as representing fractions or
away from points of wear.

Turn vour scale so the # at the
end of the scale is in reading
1
position.
Compare yours with the

on page 318.
means the divisions for
first illustration
an inch; they are con-
The
and
this
scale are
would be very time consuming

and mathematically involved. For
sidered
example,
inches, at a reduction suitable for
division represents
drawing.
Notice that the scale
it
if
duced from
a part needs to be refull size to
A"=
l'-O",
then each A" on the ruler would

equal 12" or l'-O"; if a wall is
l
parts of
as
lengths
in
feet
Examine a
Note that mea-
Reading a scale.
scale
carefully.
easily
surements do not begin at the

end. This space is reserved for
identifying each scale; also, as
the
scales
lO'-O" long, then

Va"
it
spaces or 2Vi".
requires ten
One
could
become overwhelmed by
number of calculations. An
and
rules
become worn
architect's scale has the reductions
already calculated.
triangular
Architect's triangular scale.
scale has regular dimensions with
each inch divided into 16ths, plus

ten (10) additional scales. Natu-
317
right to
left.
1" long.
Now
1"
is
read from
look immedi-
ately to the left of the
you
Each
12" or l'-O".
#1; here
find a 1" space divided into
48 equal parts. Imagine the 1" as

being a foot ruler that has been
reduced to
this size.
From Ideas
Part Three:
The
3", 6",
and 9"
to Reality
divisions
have been marked so the scale
is
easier to read. Notice the smaller
divisions for 1", Vi",
The
and A".
l
scale in the illustration
is
"open divided." This means the

small divisions are not continued
the full length of the scale; the
remainder of the divisions are

open, or free of measurements.
Flat architect's scales.
Other scales may be "full divided,"

which means the small divisions,
is
8;
as those to the right of the 0, are
is
part of the scale
marked the
length
full
of the
scale.
this
number, it
measuring
from the other end. The next

to the left is a #1. This
is 1" (actual size) from the 0, so
number
Notice the
at the left
the small divisions. This
end of
is
the
starting point for measuring.
The
first
disregard
number
to the left of the
it
represents l'-0". Likewise
2" from the

represents
#2
it
is
to the 0, so this
These
2'-0".
ratios
continue the length of the

a
The
left
#'/i
in
end of the
the space before the
graduations. This
a foot must
it
is
means the
represent
divisions
scale.
scale has
l'-0".
into a
fit
Vi"
Since
space,
not possible to divide the
scale into as
many
subdivisions
or fractions as the one just discussed. However, except for the

size reduction
sions,
all
and
fraction divi-
architect's
scales
are
read exactly the same.

Triangular architect's scales are
TWflWTW
manufactured of boxwood, other

hardwoods, and high impact plastic.
Plastic has the hardest surface
and the
Study the measurements on
the sample scales until you can
do the readings as shown above.
tinct
vertical
lines
above,
determine full-scale measurements between lines which you

select. For example, using a
scale, the distance from 3 to 9 is
5'-8'/2".
Do
several practice measure-
ments so you
will
Some
Practice
Problems
more
dis-
scales.
Graduations are placed on the

by two different manufacturing methods. On inexpensive
scales they are printed or stamped
all at one time into the surface.
Better scales have the graduations
engine divided. This is done by
a machine that makes each division
Scale
Vi"
wood
scale
Using different scales and the
numbered
divisions are
than
=?
7=?
2 to 8
Va"
5 to
3"
4 to
\W
%"
1=?
to6 = ?
to4 = ?
master use of
mark
individually in exact
steps.
Flat scales.
and number of
is the same as
Except for shape

scales, a flat scale
a triangular one.
Many
draftsmen prefer them because of their handy shape and

ease of locating measurements.
the scale.
318
3?: Drafting Tools
and Techniques
for
Developing
Skill
Tools for Curved and

Irregular Forms
Protractor
Horizontal and vertical lines

and lines at 15 increments are
drawn using a T square and triangles, as shown on page 316.
When
<#<*"*
^V"
other angles are required
they are laid out with a protractor.
It
may be a simple one

it may be included
shown or
"*
1531
*&%.
as
as
a part of a template, adjustable

triangle, or drafting
machine.
Compasses
A bow
or small,
holds
compass, either large

is
compass
one and
and
drop
easiest to adjust
position
its
best.
used for a radius of
is
a fraction inches or less.
A beam compass is
used for larger
diameters. Compasses are avail-
able to do either pencil or ink
Combination compasses
lines.
have interchangeable ruling pens
and lead
holders.
The stem of a compass is held

between the thumb and forefinger;
and
inclined slightly to
is
and
drawn clockwise with
the
Circles
right.
continuous motion.
arcs
are
a steady,
When
draw-
ing with a pencil, use a slightly

softer lead than for straight lines
because
pressure
less
is
exerted.
bow compass.
Big
For Expert
1
Drop
compass
Work
When
a circle
is
completed,
points
of the compass are ex-
causes
tended approximately the same
the splice to show. Instead, gently
distance so the compass can be
do not stop abruptly;

lift
is
this
the pen or pencil as the circle
2.
Do
not
around the
continue
circle, as this
vertically.
When
the
legs
tracing
be extended, or when a lengthen-
widens
ing bar
the line.
3.
held
of an adjustable compass must
continued.
Both the lead and needle
4.
The compass
lead
is
sharp-
ened to a long, chisel point as

shown.
several
5. If
common
drills a
center,
circles
have
the point soon
hole in the paper.
com-
attached, as shown, the
pass horn can be placed over the
lead or ruling pen and the needle
center and the point placed on
point should be vertical.
the plastic or metal.
is
319
6.
When
the
or
arcs
drawn
or
arcs
drawn tangent
circles
to straight
should
circles
and then the
first
much
is
straight line
than
cle
it
is
to
easier
be
straight
lines constructed tangent to

It
are
lines,
them.
impose a
to
on an arc or circle
impose an arc or cir-
on a straight
line.
Dividers
Dividers are very similar to the
compass except they have two

needle points and no marking
They
lead or pen.
quick,
pass
true
may be
are used for
measuring.
com-
converted to dividers
by replacing the lead with a metal

point.
bow
Dividers are available in
Fine (small) measurements can be made very quickly

and accurately if they are stepped
styles.
off with dividers.
accurate
from a
It is
much more
than marking directly

scale.
This
is
because a
pencil cannot be controlled free
Irregular curves.
Dividers.
hand
enough
closely
for very fine
measurements.
When
dividers are used to step
off equal distances both
are never
paper
same
time. Rotate
the divider from one point to the

other. If both points are
removed
from the paper and put back

again, it is no more accurate than
measuring from the scale. It also
makes the job much slower.
320
dividers,
shown
to en-
points
removed from the
at the
Proportional
on page 326, can be used

large and reduce.
Irregular
An
Curve Templates
irregular curve template
is
a clear plastic sheet with curved

line
shapes cut
desired curves
in.
is
pattern of
traced onto the
working drawing. Examples of irregular curves are
accompanying
shown
illustration.
in the
O
Skill
DO
QOO-Ob
~5
O u
OS
aov
o;
Â
_l
iDDDD
WM^l
WtOOW
[=1
k=:
TEMPLATE
ODDDDD.
oddudd:
ODDDDD:
CD
1=]
CD
C>
V\0'07
07
a a =3SioZ) DOf):;'":
oo4 51T0 3 b O
__________________
||
= =L Da"
'
Templates.
321
OOO
ooo
raaJ'SoO O
From Ideas
Part Three:
Other Templates
Much
circles, ellipses,
bols
such
shrubs,
glass
of the drawing of small

as
conventional symdoors,
bath-
appliances,
trees,
room and kitchen
many more,
windows,
that
and
fixtures,
were once
la-
boriously constructed with instru-
now done
ments,
is
plastic
templates.
Examples of
ceding page, 321.

Details that must be repeated,
but are not available on standard
may
draftsman to
be carved by the
fill
his
needed on the spur of
is
moment and no
the
is
is
tem-
sheet plastic
available, the required shape
may be
particular
When
to Reality
Work
For Expert
templates are used with
technical fountain pens, ink
may
seep under the plastic. This can
may
be avoided by placing drafting

tape under the parts or the tem-
also be cut into a soft plastic can
plate near the pattern to be
lid.
traced. This leaves space
carved on the edge of a
standard template. Shapes
and the
the paper
with clear
frequently used architectural

templates are shown on the pre-
templates,
plate
frequently used. If a
Caution About Using Templates
Some
quality
is
usually sacri-
speed when templates

are used because they are not
always smooth and accurate.
However, since most firms are
ficed
for
interested primarily in production, this slight loss
of quality
is
need. Soft vinyl Lucite, or Plexi-
not usually considered important.
Erasers
is
between
plastic.
Inci-
dentally, this practice works

well on triangles and
Other instruments. Note: Highquality, heavyweight templates
frequently have the pattern un-
equally
dercut
are
not
their
to
slightly
problem.
remedy
this
Good
quality templates
brittle
and thus keep
uniform edges longer.
Drawing Aids
Selection of erasers
is
very im-
portant. Pencil erasers are avail-
able in
many
qualities.
poor
quality product tends to leave a

film of the eraser's color
on the
paper. Several should be on hand.
Only trial and error will determine which is most suited for
the job and paper. Ink erasers
have an abrasive added to the
rubber. Care must be exercised
to prevent
damage
removed, thus reducing the

quality of your work.
Both ink and pencil erasers
are available in block form or
are encased in
wooden
holders,
same
ordinary
pencils.
the
as
gum
is
many
The
draftsmen.
chuck on the bottom of the machine allows the draftsman to

select the
proper eraser.
Erasing Shield
Erasing Machines
Erasing machines, as shown,
An
slots
erasing
shield
is
thin
of plastic or metal with
plate
of different sizes and shapes
cut for use

slot is
on limited
areas.
placed over the part to be
erased and the rest of the shield

protects other areas.
to the drafting
Underlays and Tracing Sheets
surface while erasing.
Art
are used by
Drawing
a soft eraser used
intricate details
as section lines
ing and removing light lines.
very time consuming.
It
is
available in solid pieces or as
fine
powder, contained
shaker can. The powder
may
in
repeated constantly.
drafting speed
such
and symbols
primarily for cleaning the draw-
Many
To
is
are
increase
and insure greater
also
accuracy, underlays with typical
be enclosed in a mesh cloth sack

and be used as a cleaning pad.
and parts printed on

paper or plastic film may be positioned beneath the drawing and
used as copying guides.
When
patterns
they are used on pencil
drawings, some of the graphite
Dry cleaning pad.
322
Drawing
set with big
bow compass and beam attachment.
,
Small bow drawing
Ruling pens.
set.
323
Part Three:
324
From Ideas
to Reality
J:
and Techniques
Drafting Tools
for
Developing
r "L.
.J""
i
J
Skill
-v-
y
l
'-
1 \
/
*
ri
1j
lJ
"T.-1
\i
L_T
325
ir
Part Three:
From Ideas
to Reality
Proportional dividers.
Technical fountain pens.
Tracing sheets of specific parts

as doors, windows, struc-
such
metal,
tural
and
others are
without charge
available
if
re-
quested from the manufacturers
of such building items.

Sandpaper pad
for pointing pencils.
Overlays
A
to
draftsman may be required

make temporary suggestions
on
drawing,
show
ideas and proposals, or
of
lationships
alternate
show
traditional
re-
and
materials. Such work imposed on an original drawing can
new
destroy
its
value. Instead, clear
may
be placed over
drawing and the
changes or proposals drawn on
the film. When a copy is reproduced, both drawings (old and
plastic film
the
original
new) appear as one, but the original has not been damaged or
Pencil pointer.
changed.
44-
+_,_r
-^
Slide rule.
326
31: Drafting Tools
and Techniques
for
Developing
Skill
Paper dispenser.
IftlS
'//////Ay/////////////////////;;//////,
Preprinted symbols on pressure-sensitive tape.
Pressure-sensitive overlays.
Symbols on Film
Much
can be stamped instead of drawn
of the tedious work of
drawing symbols, shading, etc.,

can be avoided by purchasing and
applying adhesive backed plastic
film with symbols printed on the
surface. This
especially valu-
is
able for architectural renderings.
on a
Unusual Drafting Equipment
good draftsman needs

he
ingenious;
to
be
often required
is
Notes and individual symbols
draw many unusual shaped

some of which may be
objects,
ent sets of plans
strips
may be
repre-
der, or pieces of string
photographs of drat
of
plastic,
come valuable
in this
tin cans,
hollow core
differ-
sented on rubber stamps so they

(All
such as buttons, washers,
on
sol-
can be-
drafting aids.
chapter courtesy Frederick Post
8.
to
Why
is
cleanliness essential
good drafting?
3.
Do
neat drawings always
produce well? Explain.
When
5.
What
9.
6.
What three
suitable for
Why
are
pads placed be-
10.
When
can they be omitted?
why do board
Vt" grid
1
2.
covers sometimes have

imprinted upon them?
lines
What
the disadvantage of
is
drawing board
Why
a long T square rec-
is
soap and water?
kinds of
wood
drawing surfaces?
327
are
Why?
Why
should a T square have
a plastic edge?
15.
the danger of wash-
ing instruments with

re-
must a drawing board
ommended for architectural drawing?
should drawing equip-
is
Why
surface?
CoJ
ment be cleaned?
of building plans.
2.
4.
con-
tween the board and drawing paper?
14.
Explain the purpose of a set
usually
are they usually cross
be used with care?
13.
Why
plastic laminate as a

1
material are porta-
boards
banded?
to
instruments. Ordinary objects
that are used frequently
Of what
drawing
structed?
quite difficult with conventional
Rubber Stamps
7.
ble
plan.
Why
is
this
not as thick as the

1
6.
What
rangement
blade?
is
strip
sometimes
wood blade?
a satisfactory
for securing the
Why?
ar-
head and
Part Three:
1
7.
Why
necessity for architectural drawing?

1
8.
Why
have a
19.
is
Draw samples
36.
are large triangles a
Object
set of small triangles?
What
an adjustable
is
tri-
Construction line
putting
Hidden
Which
line
are two methods of
graduations on a scale?
is
Why?
best?
52. Describe five kinds of com-
line
Short break
20. Describe the advantages and
to Reality
what three materials
What
51.
line
Long break
angle?
50. From
are scales frequently manufactured?
ing lines:
desirable to also
it
of the follow-
From Ideas
passes.
line
Why may
disadvantages of using a drafting
Leader
machine.
Extension line
a softer lead than a pencil on the
Dimension
line
same drawing?
Equipment
line
21.
What
is
parallel-ruling
straightedge?
22.
ing
Why
Phantom
drawing paper too near the lower
Why
the drawing
is
left
edge of the
how to
position paper
near the
placed
24. Explain
Center
it
25. Describe fastening drawing
cil
recommended?
27. Which pencil
tal lines
the hardest,
is
lines
4H?
a 2H or
may be drawn
softer
30.
31.
with
Why?
How much
harder or
lead should be ex-
pencil
if
the lead shaped to a
Why
ferred by
different
off
Why
after
48.
must the lead be wiped
it
may be done
is
pointed.
What
else
to condition the lead?
and
how
to
draw guide
construction
lines
are
What
What
is
59.
Why
are templates widely
used
is
is
edge of a
drawing?
When drawing
with ink,
why
should the working edge of a template not be touching the paper?
61. Why would a draftsman

make a template himself?
62. What is the disadvantage of
pad on
using a cleaning
63.
an
flat
art
lines
valuable instrument?
how
scribe.
65.
ruler,
What does
remove?
archi-
pencil draw-
66.
Why
gum
usually
an erasing shield a
is
What
is
an underlay? De-
What
is
an overlay? De-
scribe.
scales
some-
67.
Why
are symbols available
printed on adhesive-backed plastic
an
open
full
divided scale?
divided
film?
68.
What
an irregular curve?
architectural
in
64.
why and when
scales are there on
Why
divider.
58.
their
49. You should never draw along

the
"stepping off"
57. Describe
ings?
scale?
of pointing a pencil lead.
35.
pull
times preferred?
47.
methods
tri-
tect's triangular scale?
some draftsmen?
34. Describe
does one always
45. Excluding the foot
46.
are lead holders pre-
the
sometimes cross at corners.
long conical point?
33.
if
proper weight.
many
is
tell
up or upside down?
right side
Why
43. Describe
sharpened
is
can you
44. Describe
with a knife?
Why
direction are vertical
kinds.
the main difference
is
between a compass and a divider?
60.
the pencil or pen?
lines
must care be taken
wood drawing
32.
direction are horizon-
what
How
is
42.
than those discussed
pencil
Why
what
drawn? Along which edge of
angle
posed on a drawing pencil?

a
a drawing pen-
drawn?
In
41.
29. Guide and construction lines
above.
how
the triangle?
28. Which pencil draws the darkest line,
In
40.
4H?
a 2H or
T square and
held during use.
39.
thumbtacks not
are
is
purpose of a
the
is
measurements with a
38. Describe
paper to a drawing board.
Why
how a
lines.
with the T square.
What
56.
line
are held to draw vertical
triangle
What
compass horn? Describe two
line
37. Describe
on the drawing board and align
26.
or alternate position
55.
Section
drawing board?
What shape is recommended

compass lead? Can you think
of a good reason why?
for a
line
paper
a compass require
54.
Cutting plane line
should you avoid plac-
edge of the drawing board?

23.
53.
scale.
From your own
reasoning give reasons why.
328
might
Describe
use
how a draftsman
each
of
the
following
as a drafting aid?
A
A
button
tin
can
Hollow core solder

String
Terms to Spell and
Skill
Know
bow compass
beam compass
technique
pencil pointer
graphite
object line
basswood
construction line
chisel point lead
board cover
hidden
conical point lead
T square
break
30 -60
45
triangle
triangle
line
compass horn
line
leader
irregular curve
dimension
adjustable triangle
equipment
drafting machine
phantom
line
template
line
art
line
gum
cleaning pad
straightedge
section line
erasing machine
drafting tape
guide
erasing shield
drawing pencil
architect's triangular scale
underlay
architect's flat scale
overlay
graduation
printed symbol
series
lead holder
line
329
Drafting
You may have the idea that all
drawing paper is pretty much
This
alike.
literally
is
not true; there are
hundreds of papers to
choose from.
satisfactory fin-
ished drawing depends partially
upon
the selection of the proper
medium for the job to be

done. A medium that is very satisfactory for one use may be topaper
tally
unacceptable for another.
You
are probably already famil-
iar
with
low.
specific job
and personal
be done
Even though heavy papers are

seldom used in a professional
drafting room, their use by be-
signed
is justified because they

seldom complete a drawing without making errors and corrections,
and these are best made on heavyweight stock. After the drawing
is in final form, it may be copied
ginners
is seldom used
drawings even inex-
Since this paper

for finished
schools because of ease in han-
pensive butchers paper, without
wax
in
copy paper is suitable

nary drawings.
sified
as
school
Least
quality.
for prelimi-
Since they are porous,
it
diffi-
is
keep them clean during

have a smooth,
dense surface, suitable for both
cult to
use. Better grades
pencil
and
ink.
Even the
better
papers have a slight surface matte

to
hold lines in shape. This
called tooth. If a surface
smooth, with no tooth,
is
lines
widen
and spread.
Most frequently used paper
colors are white, green, and yel-
Tracing paper
in different
is
also available
weights and qualities.
Inexpensive
sulfite
made of wood
papers
may be
pulp, while better
grades are 100% rag content vel-
lum. The
latter are
more transpar-
ent and so make better copies.

They can also be run at faster
for
ink,
for
pencil,
and others
Analysis of tracing cloth shows
one side
to
be rather dull and the
other glossy.
Draw on
the dull
side.
Note: Manufacturers advertise

on tracing
cloth, and it can, but it is very
difficult to do so without the correction showing.
Tracing Film
for
reproduction
Tracing vellum
have a
may be
work.
white or
slightly blue color.
Tracing Cloth
in
of the toughest substances
330
known
and so is very durable. It is almost impossible to tear this mateAcetate film
is
indestructible, but
rior to
paper or
Both
for use
more permanent, durable
advantages
has
film
no other medium. It is
very durable and its dimensional
stability is excellent. There are
two types of tracing film; one is
acetate and the other is a polyester base film. The latter is one
rial.
speeds
If
cloths are de-
for both.
Plastic
is
very
some only
found
Tracing Paper
expensive varieties are soft and

porous, suitable only for pencil.
Some
specifically
surface, or the back of used
dling.
the poorest sometimes being clas-
tracing cloth.
may
or ink on
in either pencil
that ink can be erased
onto tracing paper.
papers. These are widely used in
Drawing paper is available

many weights and qualities,
drawings are required, they
preference dictates choice.
drawing
heavyweight
The
Mediums
also supe-
cloth.
materials
when
not quite so
it is
are
suitable
a high degree of
permanence or accuracy
is
called
32: Drafting
Mediums
Student rendering combining water color and airbrush techniques on cold press medium surface illustration board.
for.
Both are available
form, or they
clear
in
may have one
or
both surfaces roughened to form

a matte surface.
allows the film
to
matte surface
hold ink or
pencil lines better than a glossy

surface.
The matte causes
material are very abrasive and

wear pencils or other instruments
quickly. Specially hardened or
jewel-tipped pens are sometimes
used for their long wearing
with pre-printed, blue grid
qualities.
Graphite pencil
film
be only translucent, but almost all light from developing
always reproduce well
passes through, so exceptionally
when reduced
fast
developing speeds and very
Objections: Since ink does not
penetrate the material, plastic

difficult to
film.
is
use than other
This
do
and
nomena,
especially true
is
not,
or
the
may
while
metallic
cause
reflec-
These phemust
one draws on
distortions.
called
be avoided.
When
have a tendency to widen

because of a lack of real tooth.
Standard India ink is likely to
film, pencils
with a
wax
core are
should be used because
Matte surfaces on
this
tough
shade of blue,
10
may
be spaced
at
merely as guide
lines that
do not
copy onto reproductions because

they are engulfed by white
light.
Packaging
Paper, cloth, or film
purchased
or sheets
in
rolls,
bound
may
be
loose sheets,
into pads.
Printed Borders
and
Titles
Cut sheets of any of the mate-
The degrees of hardness

same as for the H series.
rials
ders or
of the drafting media pre-
ing time, and have the
Grids
viously
Inter-
per inch. These serve
popular.
Any
they adhere better.
horizontally.
grids, preferably a lighter
are the
chip off the surface. Special acetate inks
mediate
"ghosts,"
media. Even on a matte surface

lines
and
tically
or
lines.
grids are spaced both ver-
to microfilm. Parts
graphite surface
tions
when used
may reproduce
of lines
others
clear prints are obtained.
more
on
do not
lines
to
Major
discussed
331
is
available
can be imprinted with bortitles to fit your requirement. This insures uniform line
and border widths, reduces draftsame pres-
tige
value as a fine letterhead.
Water Color Paper
wet,
Boards are available in a wide
dries they return to
range of colors, some of which
paper also stretch while
Water color paper is relatively

soft, pliable, and usually rough
but
when
it
it is
their original form.
are subtle in tone while others
by the hot or cold press

method. The method used affects
the texture of the surface, as explained later. Most popular colors
are white and parchment (yel-
Poster Board
have much brilliance. Patterned

surfaces such as marble or wood
lowish white), but
Subjects
textured.
It
may be manufactured
either
it
is
available
wide range of other colors.

may be purchased in a great
in a
It
number of
different sheet sizes,
as loose sheets or
bound
into
pads
for greater convenience.
When
water
is
spilled
on an
ordinary sheet of paper, the fibers

stretch
nently.
and wrinkle it permaThe fibers of water color
Poster board
about
/i6
implies
it
is
semi-rigid,
is
" thick.
As
ideally
the
name
suited
for
grain imprints are also available,
on one
side only.
The other
is
unfinished.
posters rather than for drafting.
are
sketched
usually
Illustration
Board
This board
used for a major-
and then painted in with

opaque water color. Board is not
so good for heavy line work because the fibers are loosely
pressed. However, the surface is
very smooth; one can obtain sat-
of plies, or layers of paper pressed
isfactory results with ink provided
together to form the board. Very
lightly
very
little
pressure
is
exerted on
the drawing instrument.
332
ity
of
all
There
ings.
is
architectural
is
render-
thickness
for
almost every requirement. Thickness
is
determined by the number
thin boards
may be
may
or heavyweights
single ply,
be seven or
Mediums
32: Drafting
more
Interior
ply.
inexpensive
ished surface
Of
ity.
are of
plies
but
sulfite
the
fin-
of very high qual-
is
course quality from some
One manufacturing method
ishes.
presses the board while the paper

is
finished board
hot, so the
is
called hoi press illustration board.
more pebbled or textured. It is

used primarily as a base for
mounting other pictures or drawings so they can be stood or hung
is
cut larger than
manufacturers
is better than from

Only experience will determine which is best for your
specific rendering, or you may
rely upon the advice of an ex-
This
sometimes referred
board because
the face is very smooth. The other
method presses the board when
the paper is cold and is called
for viewing.
others.
to as high surface
perienced person.
cold press or, sometimes, regular
wallpaper paste, rubber cement,
Boards
may
be finished with
only one working surface or they
may be double mounted and

have two good surfaces. Generally speaking, boards with cotton
fiber faces are better
made from
than those
board.
illustration
fin-
surface
Its
is
grained or textured.
slightly
White
most frequently used
is
Matte Board
is
similar to
illus-
board except the surface
tration
It
is
make
the original drawing to
backing and border. After constructing guide lines for position-
ing the original
it is
mounted with
or contact cement or laminating
machines.
Renderings on heavy
illustra-
board also look better with

matte borders. Frames are frequently cut from large sheets of
matte board and placed over the
tion
but others are available.
This material
other substances.
There are two standard
also
is
face of the rendering.
Questions To Reinforce Know/edge

Explain the variety of draw-
media available and how one
ing
determines which to use?
What
2.
ing
paper?
is
school quality draw-
How
does
with other qualities?
What
3.
is
compare
this
Why
is
it
used?
tooth on a drawing
Why
expensive materials
for this
What
Why?
7.
is
best?
Why?
Are different thicknesses of
tracing paper available?

8.
9.
Why
is
trac-
0.
How
What
is
it
surface?
21.
tracing
How
tracing cloth
does the translucence

transparency)
than
What
Why?
16. How
is
of
the
happen
some-
one
determine
it?
ments?
How do
22.
What
film
affect
How
is
the
surface
drawing
this
of
instru-
sometimes
Is
using pencil lines on
why do
pencil lines not
always reproduce well?
333
lines
show on
re-
are
reasons
for
the
Is
titles
and bor-
water-color paper smooth
or textured?
it
Why?
available
in
only one or
more than one color?

25.
Why
is
poster
ideally suited for ink
be used
When
these
ders already printed?
23.
does
is
might one purchase
media with blue grid
used on plastic
can the above be rem-
How
called?
productions?
24.
7.
18.
on
Why
purchasing paper with
to
edied?
1
when
shadows,
kind of pencil core
if
likely
is
regular India ink
plastic film,
does
matte
What
or
not,
like
phenomenon
this
is
20.
necessary on plastic film?
is
appear
lines
sometimes used instead of graphite?
matte surface affect reproduction?

15.
some
what
are two kinds avail-
remedied?
times used?
1
What
plastic
Are different colors of
paper available? Explain.
ing
film?
are two kinds of trac-
paper? Which
ing
paper?
materials?
6.
3.
(rather
be substituted
What
by the beginner but
less
What
able? Describe each.
14.
seldom by a professional draftsman?
Can
12.
are heavyweight draw-
ing papers used
5.
plastic tracing film?
Why
medium?
4.
parts of lines repro-
duce and others do
drawing?
1
When
19.
which side of the material to use for
board
not
work? Can
it
for this? Explain.
26. Describe the colors available.

27. Most architectural renderings
are done on what kind of material?
Port Three:
28.
What
determines the thick-
29.
all
Is
illustration
tion
board the same
way through?
30. What is double mounted
31.
is
name
another
34.
its
surface.
What
What
35.
is
for the surface of hot
is
surface.
for the sur-
What
kind of surface does
matte board have?
How may
36. Describe
cold press illustra-
matte board
be
used with architectural renderings?
press illustration board?
32.
its
best boards manufactured?
hot press illustration
board? Describe
name
33. From what materials are the

il-
board?
What
Describe
another
is
face of cold press illustration board?
the
lustration
board?
What
ness of illustration board?
how they are
mounted.
Terms To Spell and
Know
board
drawing paper
tracing film
illustration
tooth
matte surface
hot press
tracing paper
ghosts
high surface paper
tracing vellum
water color paper
cold press
tracing cloth
poster board
matte board
334
From Ideas
fo Reality
Good
Lti rERJNG
is
needed on architectural drawings.
The most important reason
is
such as names, dimensions,
secondary purpose
This
is
is
to include information
or lettered notes.
appearance, to impress the
The
client.
especially true for presentation type drawings
done for public exhibition.
that are
Architectural Lettering
Lettering Styles
Architectural
lettering
is
not
appearance as
the style for ordinary working
drawings. The basic shape of each
letter is the same, but a top-flight
as mechanical in
his own freeYou may see ex-
amples of architectural lettering

and gain the impression that letters can be formed any way you
may choose; this is not true.

To do good lettering you must
develop a permanent visual
draftsman perfects
first
flowing style.
picture of the basic shape of each
and figure. These shapes

shown on the large scale lettering illustrations. To help you
letter
are
achieve
good,
uniform
arrows
indicating
.1
2/
'
Vertical Lettering conventional strokes.
335
suggested
procedure for forming the
KLMNOPQR
J-tj
shapes,
both illustrations have numbered
letters.
Part Three:
From Ideas
to Reality
Inclined Lettering abbreviated strokes.
The
first
illustration,
tical letters,
showing ver-
includes the strokes
recommended for meThe second il-
that are
chanical drawing.
showing inclined
lustration
ters,
let-
presents simplified strokes
recommended for architectural

lettering. The novice should use
the recommended strokes until a
really vertical, or if they are in-
clined they
same
must
angle;
all
slope at the
otherwise,
the
ance. Decide
on an angle such as
60, 67'/2, or 75; then stick to
Large
more
longer and
difficult to
form neatly
are
than small ones; but since
letter is to
look
like, practice until
you can reproduce the

on your drawings.
lettering
Vertical vs. Inclined Lettering
Either vertical or inclined

tering
may be
used.
The
let-
instruc-
sizes are
tering.
You must become
cially proficient at
many
required on a drawing
you must be able to master all.

Practice on %" characters until
you have mastered the strokes
and shape of each letter and figure. Note: Even practice lettering
must be placed between guide
lines.
it
is
sions
on body of drawing
are
each
letter
must be
lettering, practice
336
Vw"
become
used,
V%"
'/<"
Sub-titles
mine the
doing
Vn"
Lettered notes
ing plans
at
of the
size
it
Recommended Heights
Identifying names and dimen-
(rows) of lettering. After you have
are
the
is,
hard to use.
allows personal preference deter-
proficient
size,
must neither
dominate the drawing nor be so
small you must hunt to find it or
the lettering height between lines
choice. If vertical letters
to
drawing; that
Indication of scale used
Leave a minimum space of
because it is most used for names

and dimensions.
Detail lettering height must be
employer and if policy
tor or the
let-
espe-
quick render-
ing of characters about
appropriate
letters take
has been acquired.

ual image of exactly what each
it.
Height of Lettering
satisfactory lettering technique
After you have acquired a vis-
let-
tering will not be neat in appear-
voted to smaller and larger
should be de-
Study samples on actual build-
and note that fractions

about 1% the height of
lettering.
O
33: Architectural Lettering
Width
available
helps determine lettering width.

In a wide space, lettering may be
expanded so it looks appropriate;
or
there
if
is
little
space the
may be condensed
ters
to
fit.
may
men
frequently
drafts-
condensed
lettering but use expanded spaces
between them as shown.
Lower Case
1234^67890
Expanded
use
vertical architectural lettering.
A3 CDEFGH-IJK.LM
NO P QFLST UV WX YZ
234J6 7 8 9
1
Bold expanded inclined architectural lettering
Letters
Lower case
letters are
seldom
used on architectural drawings, so

they are not shown in this book.
Changing Height of Letters

in
OPQR5TUVWXYZ
let-
be adjusted by ex-
panding or condensing.
To add to appearance,
Both
individual letters and spaces be-
tween
ABCDLFGI4IJKLM
of Letters
The amount of space
Words
to set a standard for the
down
strokes.
up-and-
Since guide lines
shadow lines that will not

reproduce when copies are made,
they should not be removed from
ABCDffGrrl
are
J I
the finished drawing.
word or group
of words are normally the same
M
UV
PQ
WXYZ
All letters of a
height because only capitals are

used; however, the
first
letter
of
Consistency
Z 3 4 ^ 6 7 6 ?
As mentioned earlier, lettering

cannot be done any way you
Condensed
lettering with
expanded
space.
words or phrases may be slightly

extended in height. Some drafts-
choose. Be sure individual letters
must be maintained throughout
Some
a set of drawings. For best re-
men
believe this adds to appearance and clarity. Note: Avoid

tendency to broaden the stroke
on extended caps.
should not be done in a straight
sults,
line style while
use
Guide Lines
KITCI4EN
All lettering and dimensions
placed
are
between accurately
measured guide
lines,
so individ-
ual characters can be kept in line,
and
to
keep words parallel
other lettering in the
same
to
direc-
Failure to use guide lines
tion.
will result in lettering that
fit
together appropriately.
elaborate;
tent.
others are very
they must be consis-
The same
lettering
style
it
master one style and then

for all drawings. One must
really
be an expert
satisfactorily in
BEDROOM
to
many
do
lettering
styles.
ENTRY
5TAIR5
BRICK MORTAR
Architectural lettering for
does
titles.
not follow straight rows. If you
have
difficulty
proper
slant,
not
vertical
be,
use
maintaining the
or the letters are
when they should
additional
guide
lines
JERM0P4KE REFRIGERATOR SURFACE UNIT il

CABINET BATHROOM
INEN CLOSET HAMPER QuflRRY TILE JPL
FACE ROCK L ATI-V
MTER\OR EXTERIOR
SHEATHING
ROOFING
LASHING SADDLE HIP
ULUJTER
JTRINGER TREAD
RISER
WEDGE
lOiING
LANDING
LANDING
DISHWASHER.
LAUNDRY FURNACE
WATER HEATER.
:
Rapid free style architectural lettering for notes.
337
From Ideas
Part Three:
paper and makes the pencil hard

to control. An HB or No. 2 writ-
Lettering Hints
Speed of Strokes
While practicing and learning

shapes and strokes, do not hurry.
Strive for perfection; however, if
formed too slowly they

will appear shaky, as shown. After
techniques have been mastered,
gradually increase speed, but do
recommended. The
should be sharpened as
building parts, center the letter-
is
practice before
It
good
takes
much
lettering
ing in the space available. In con-
slightly
it
gested areas
Be sure the point

rounded; this makes
to
Ink for Lettering
difficult
letter
gives
it
if
you
try seriously. It
you professional
prestige.
ink
more
is
than with pencil.
Do
not
has a sharp point and is difficult to guide. It must be held del-
and
it
is
difficult to
obtaining uniform
AN EXAMPLE OF POOR
APCHITECTUP4L LETTEPIN6
THIS
IS
Do not attempt
to
draw each
letter slowly.
round
lines
tip lettering
lines.
Use a
pen, a broad-
dimension
Use
a soft lead pencil so
you
can obtain a firm stroke without

exerting much pressure. Of
course, hard lead requires
Excess
pressure
also
strokes too
dents
the
line
about
'/it.".
vs.
Mechanical Aids
Lettering and dimensioning on
body of
architectural working
is
freehand, so
almost always done

it
can be executed
and delicate; letters with

broader, more positive strokes are
quickly.
easier to read.
ings, title blocks,
and
frequently done
using lettering
fine
much
pressure to obtain an opaque line.
dimensions,
lettering
Freehand Lettering
drawings
Width of Strokes
make
apart,
between
use in
large-size technical fountain pen.
not try to
better
fill
they should be placed above the
point regular fountain pen, or a
Do
symbol
the lettering.
of the drawing.
When
the
Pencil for Lettering
necessary
may be spaced
as said, so they
with an ordinary dip pen;
icately
may be
accommodate
Letters
with
Lettering
it
to omit part of a line or
easier to control.
it
achieve
in
is
can
be done rapidly, but you can
is
for drawing.
letters are
not sacrifice quality.
it
an open space, easy to find

and read. For names of rooms or
ing pencil
pencil
to Reality
drawing. Place the lettering so
Positioning Lettering
Do
not letter over lines of the
Lettering for presentation drawsubtitles
templates or other devices. Speed

is
sacrificed for quality.
Frederick Post Co.
Mechanical lettering
LETTERING
set.
DONE WITH
LETTERING DEVICE
Mechanical lettering sample.
338
is
APPLIQUE LETTERING
iyE*
IAAAAAAAAABBBBBCCCCCCDDIDDEEEEEEEEEEEEFFFFFGGGGHH
mkn
HHHIIIIIIIIIIIJJJKKKLULLLLMMM
MMNNNNNNNNNNOOOOOOOOOOPP
PPPPQQRRRRRRRRRRSSSSSSSSS
TTTTTTT llllllllll VMM \N\N\AI
r
Drawing guide
Positioning the
lines for lettering.
Removing guide
Cutting letters from plastic film.
V^ VV
'^
s^ v^
339
letter.
lines.
Part Three:
From Ideas
to Reality
PRESSURE SENSITIVE LETTERING
Spraying fixative to permanently set
Positioning letter on drawing sheet.
Burnishing the
letter with
letters.
any smooth hard instrument.
PRRR-TIPE
233
pressure lettering
^^
Remove backing sheet and place letter in

rub letter with any
transferring position
smooth instrument. After transferring, place
letter and rub with a
harder pressure. In case of error, letter can
be removed by using any soft pencil eraser.
backing sheet over
ARTWORK
BLUEPRINTS
B "|
COMPS
DISPLAYS
LOGOTYPES
MOCK-UPS
PRINTING
SIGNS
SLIDES
SSebp
340
Sample
4 |
/| J
1
Dm,
V fSfr*
i>
I
ri
and many other uses

of
pressure-sensitive
styles
and uses.
lettering
Questions To Reinforce Knowledge

1
Give two reasons why neat
lettering
important on architectural
is
drawings.
2.
tectural
How does
lettering
freehand
differ
archi-
from other
3.
4.
must you memorize the
letters
Why
5. Will
ing?
you learn the
strokes?
for
6.
mechanical
letter-
How do you determine

or inclined
lettering?
7.
for all
must you use guide
freehand lettering?
Why
is
between rows of
lines
Why
15.
What
a clear space
letters?
must you use a uniform
on a
is
it
is
set of
drawings?
recommended that
same style for all
How should experience affect
6. What
pencils
mended for lettering?
1
7. What kinds
ommended for ink
1
not
meant by the term
to
lettering
8.
Why
are
recom-
of pens are reclettering?
are ordinary dip pens
recommended?
19.
left
lettering?
lettering?
draftsmen ex-
words or notes
done?
are
9. Why should much practice be

done at the Vt" height?
10.
Why
of
speed with which freehand
and-down strokes?
expanded
Why
Why
they also sometimes added for up-
8.
first letter
you follow the
is
vertical
Why do some
your lettering?
Why?
whether to use
3.
14.
your strokes be exactly
same as
the
2.
meant by the term
is
lettering?
lettering style
and figures?
should
recommended
What
above other
1
Why
tend the
types?
shapes of
condensed
How do you
place
required
determine where
lettering
on
drawing? Explain.
20.
Why
lettering
21
most
is
architectural
done freehand?
When
are lettering templates
or other devices
recommended?
341
Orthographic Projection and

the Architectural Drawing
Since most beginning architec-
and
on paper which are discussed

Chapter 36. These methods
have serious drawbacks; they are
either time consuming or, because
of visual distortion, do not give a
their application to architectural
true representation of the object.
jects
drawing students have had

introductory mechanical drawing
tural
courses, this discussion
in
limited
is
to a review of basic principles
When
drawing. If you have not had pre-
vious drawing experience, you

should obtain a good book on be-
ject,
it
is
one views an actual obthree dimensional; that
has thickness, width, and

length. Since a sheet of drawing
is,
ginning mechanical drawing and

study this background material
it
paper is flat and is in one plane,

some method must be employed
further.
This can be considered a review
represent
to
of main points for quick reference.
the
of
sides
this
three-dimensional object on the

flat
Problems of Projection
paper so that each view shows

dimension-
in full, if required for
There are several pictorial

methods of representing solid ob-
ing.
Note: Sometimes
all
Cylinder.
views
are necessary.
one
to
show
its
height and one
its
diameter.
Most
Orthographic Prelection
The
objects
called
The most simple
basis for representing solid

in
working drawings
orthographic
is
projection.
objects,
object to de-
working drawing
a sphere, as shown.
scribe using a
is
require a
minimum
to describe their
Since a simple sphere
projections
side of an object at a time. This
is
may
keeps each surface in the same

plane as the paper. To under-
completely round it
appears the same regardless of
stand orthographic projections

it
is
necessary to learn
how
to
"swing" other sides around so

they are all in the same plane as
the front view.
it
is
viewed. Therefore,
it
of three views
dimensions ade-
quately. Objects with offsets or
Working drawings view only one
how
even the simple
rectangular block shown below,
on several surfaces
require additional views for
clarity.
Sphere,
requires only one view to describe

its
outlined shape.
A simple cylindrical object can

be described with only two views.
342
Rectangular
solid.
34: Orthographic Projection
and the Architectural Drawing
shown on working
shown
The illustrations below show

how the observer must look at
drawings. However, as mentioned,
below, outlines of the views have
each side of an object to obtain
other views
may be needed for

complete description of an object.
The next
individual orthographic views.
On
each of the sides shown, the black

dot farthest from the object represents the viewer's eyes.
The
black
frequently
the center of a glass box as
viewed, you will not see an ortho-
been projected onto the "glass."

illustration shows the
other surfaces and right side
hinged into the same plane as
the front view. See the first draw-
The view observed
ing on the next page. This rotat-
If
your center of vision
is
not
the center of the side being
in
dot on the corresponding surface
graphic plane.
and connected to the first dot by

a hidden line represents the view-
may appear
similar to the one
ing of the views into the
same
color
shown below. Note: An orthographic view cannot show depth;
views.
area on the pictorial drawing rep-
everything must appear in a single
placing dimensions as discussed
resents the only part seen in that
fiat
er's
center of vision.
The
plane.
plane causes space between the
in
The space
Chapter
is
used
for
39.
The color shaded

orthographic view labeled the
same as the pictorial drawingparticular view.
shows the true shape of the
in-
dividual side.
Individual faces of this rectangular solid
Notice that three surfaces are
shown; the front, top, and right

side. These three views are most
do not appear
way
of
in a single
plane (wrong
viewing for orthographic

proiection).
Workmen need
to
know where
to look to find individual views of
an object. Therefore views are

usually arranged following a set
pattern of placement.
A front view is usually the one
that shows the most detail, and is
the key to
all
other views. Also,
Ob|ect suspended inside glass box.
it
usually shows the largest horizontal
dimension. For
part
may
this
reason a
frequently be used as a
front regardless of
when
its
actual posi-
This
is
especially true for small details
on
tion
complicated
constructed.
surfaces.
Building
elevations are usually labeled ac-
cording to their actual position on

the building.
How
Projection
Is
Done
For determining the proper relationship of views, imagine a

rectangular block suspended in
343
Surface outlines projected onto the

"glass".
Very few designs can be repre(The box on the preceding
sented by three
page opened flat.)
objects have holes, offsets, or other
flat
surfaces.
Most
Viewing and draw-
irregularities.
ing irregular shaped objects in

flat
planes
difficult.
considerably more
is
The
object
shown
in the
following illustration has simple
The accompanying draw-
offsets.
how
ing shows
Unfolded glass box shows proper arrange-
ment
of views.
and side
same plane
the top
are rotated into the
as the front view. See illustrations
top of facing page.
Another method of showing

of views is found
the bottom of the page.
relationship
at
When
additional
views
are
Three
pictorial
drawings
of
necessary to describe the object
rectangular objects with simple
they are arranged as shown in
offsets
the following illustrations.
graphic views accompany each
are shown. Three ortho-
Surfaces on each pic-
pictorial.
torial
and
its
orthographic views
have corresponding letters. To

check your knowledge, even if you
have studied drawing, compare
them until you understand why
each individual view appears as
it does. See Figs. 1, 2, and 3.
Foreshortened Lines and Surfaces
When an object has a slanting
surface,
lines
as
on the one shown,
or surfaces on the ortho-
graphic views
may appear shorter
than their true dimensions. Lines

or surfaces that are viewed from
Glass box with more elaborate
object insideand then unfolded
to
show
all six
views.
an angle and appear shorter are

called foreshortened.
The
slanting
"F" is indicated with a

black tint on the pictorial drawing.
The same surface is shown on the
top and right side orthographic
views, and is also indicated with
surface
black
tint.
This surface appears
only slightly foreshortened on the

top view, but has
much
ening on the side view.
344
foreshort-
Projecting
construction
lines
for fore-
shortened lines and surfaces.
Identification of surfaces.
345
Part Three:
The
object lines
shown
in black
a solid portion of the object.
Com-
see
why
From Ideas
to Reality
the hidden lines are lo-
on the orthographic views are also

foreshortened and therefore do
plete description usually requires
cated as they are, and observe
these parts to be shown. Since
that they are
not indicate true length.
they cannot be "seen" but
to the rules discussed earlier.
still
must be represented, they are

cluded as hidden
When
drawn
conform
to
in-
lines.
a hidden line
terminates either per-
pendicular
or
an
at
angle to an object
line,
the hidden line touches

the object line.
When
is
a hidden line
a continuation of an
object line they

Projecting lines to side and top views.
do not
&
touch.
When
two hidden
form a corner
they should meet so
lines
After the angle of the fore-
shortened plane has been meas-
the corner
When
ured and established on the front

view, one can project extension
cross,
from both ends of the foreshortened line to the top and side
views as shown.
is
lines
given as to
Offsets,
closed.
hidden
lines
no consideration
how
they
__L.
sent the offset at the back of the

I
object. Also, the side
Some hidden
lines
if this will
add
may be
to
draw-
line
view shows
lines to represent the out-
of the lower portion of the
Observe also that
all offsets
are visible as object lines on the
surface irregularities,
may not be visible in a

view because they are hidden by
hidden
front.
ing clarity.
or holes
Note: The hidden lines on the

view to repre-
front orthographic
meet.
omitted
Hidden Edge Lines
is
Use of Hidden Lines Example
Study the
illustration until
top view, so no hidden lines are
you
required.
Curved Parts
As mentioned earlier, individdo not always show true
shape. Curved edges cannot be
shown on all three views. The
ual views
illustration describes the true
shape of the front view, but the

top and right side views do not.
The arc at the upper right corner
cannot be described on either
view.
lines
Observe the omission of

on both views. Even though
the surface changes direction, this
cannot be shown because there

is no edge where two planes meet.
The curved
on the
side
front view.
is
described
Without the
front view the object could repre-
sent a rectangle.
Curved surfaces and hidden
346
lines.
and
the Architectural
Drawing
Auxiliary Views
As said, since slanting surfaces
and lines appear foreshortened
on some orthographic views, it is
possible
not
show
for
true shape.
omitted on the auxiliary view
The
shows the
third illustration
every view to
auxiliary view as
To
represented,
clarify the
if
they do not help clarify the shape,
it
frequently
is
shape an auxiliary view may be

used. This view is drawn as
though the draftsman were looking directly toward and in the same
plane as the slanting surface, permitting
it
to
be drawn
true
its
shape.
The
auxiliary
may be
view
included with other views or
it
may
it
replace
makes
them
two
first
that
all
some views
if
unnecessary.
The
indicate
illustrations
surfaces viewed on the
inclined plane are included
may
not be. Surfaces
on the
may
auxiliary view. Yet they
or
in the hori-
may
zontal and vertical plane
showing adjoining surfaces.
Auxiliary view
view with adjoining surfaces
Auxiliary
omitted.
be
Orthographic Views and Building Plans

Even though building plans
show little resemblance to the
multi-view orthographic projections
just
discussed,
they
are
based upon the same drawing

system.
and
Elevations,
details
floor
do not look
plans,
like ortho-
The small
part cannot be drawn.
jections illustrate that these are
simplified
plan
really orthographic drawings.
The drawing
permit
does not
scale
individual
parts
shown on
building parts are so large, and
tions because they are
the
views cannot be placed on
same drawing
buildings
are
sheet.
complex;
views
of individual
parts
are
necessary,
a scale of
Also,
fore the
many
fied
areas
and
but
every
needs to be drawn be-
cause a conventional symbol
floor
graphic drawings partly because
all
If a part
and elevation
drawings with lines showing proscale
floor plans
W W=
or
to
There-
drawing must be simpli-
by the use of conventional

symbols representing materials
and construction methods. Note:
347
it
is
drawn
as
is
of the actual
version
object.
Conventional symbols are
shown
in
Chapter
38.
be
and elevadrawn to
'-0".
not available,
Intricate parts
must be shown
in exact detail, so they are
to a scale of Vi" to
3"=
drawn
l'-O",
de-
pending upon the complexity of

the part. It is sometimes necessary to
draw extremely compli-
cated parts
full size.
Part Three:
From Ideas
to Reality
FLOOR PLAN
Orthographic views of building plan.
Questions To Reinforce Knowledge

1
Why
are pictorial drawings
impractical as working drawings for

building plans?
2.
jection
5.
Describe the method of pro-
most
frequently
used
for
What
is
meant by
the term
orthographic projection?
4.
What shape
drawing?
is
easiest to de-
8.
How many views are required

a cylinder? Why?
How many views are usually
you do not
9.
What
views are
quently shown?
Why?
348
most
fre-
Describe the arrangement of
You may do a sketch.

10. How does one decide which
views.
view
solid?
7.
if
be drawn?
to describe
6.
What happens
view directly toward the surface to
required to describe a rectangular
working drawings.
3.
scribe using orthographic
Why?
is
1
to represent the front?
What
is
foreshortened?
meant by the term

2.
Why
1
What
are
auxiliary
and the
views?
are they used?

3.
Is
an auxiliary view included
with other views or
may
it
14. Explain
den
lines
15.
why and when
an object
line
line,
6.
When
When two
8.
line
is
a con-
how
When
hidden
lines
form
are they drawn?
hidden
lines cross,
how
intersect?
all
lines
always
20. Explain
to
why
it
is
impossible
show curved edges on three views
of a part.
349
Know
orthographic
cylinder
projection
rectangular
pictorial
three
hidden
included? Explain.
does the hidden
a hidden
it
why
or
Terms To Spell and

7.
19. Are
termi-
touch the object line? Explain.
line
do they
a hidden
does
not?
hid-
nates perpendicularly or at an angle

to
line,
Why
a corner,
are used.
When
an object
touch the object line?
tinuation of
substitute
them? Explain.
for
Drawing
Architectural
dimensional
solid
center of vision
flat
planes
single plane
foreshortened
sphere
auxiliary
Sections
In the preceding chapter, details
rowheads
concealed by solid parts were
drawn
as
method
is
hidden
lines.
to indicate
viewing
of the frontal
rection
di-
section.
This
satisfactory if the ob-
is solid or its shape simple.

However, if the object has a complicated shape or is composed of
ject
several individual parts the large
number of hidden
for
lines required
Now
B
complete description becomes
remove the
so the interior
a pictorial
confusing.
front half as at
visible; this
is
The
section.
is
ortho-
some hidden
lines
crosshatching of the cut areas

in
black and
blue. This
Imagine the concrete block in

drawing A as being cut with a
masonry saw at the line where
the grey shade penetrates the
only.
graphic top view of drawing
block;
has a cutting plane line with ar-
is
the cutting plane.
all
On
is done for emphasis

working drawings all
lines are the
same
color.
Mil
Full Section
If the
cutting plane extends
across the entire object as in the

first
two
series
is
other lines
of the front view are drawn in
and
give better shape description.
this
shows the completed

Observe that the
frontal section.
drawn
Interior views, called sections,
eliminate
Drawing
of illustrations,
this indicates a full section.
Full
section A. Cutting plane of object
with offsets. B. Exposed by cutting plane.

C.
Hidden
are
lines
orthographic views
section. D.
are
full
350
when
shown in
required
not
section view.
^^Q^î
35: Sections
Half Section
The following
series of illus-
shows an object
here
trations
with the cutting plane extending
half section.
called
arrowhead or indicator
that the
is
This is
Observe
halfway across.
only
placed only on the end of the
cutting plane line that
shows view-
The opposite end
ing direction.
does not indicate viewing direction, so
no indicator
required.
is
Symmetrical objects are often
drawn as half sections so an outand interior view can both

be included on the same drawing.
Hidden lines need not be included
side
of the view,
in the outside portion
since the interior shape
on the sectioned
If
an object
cutting
plane
central axis.
not
is
^m/s.
is
shown
A. Half section pictorial. B.
Comparison of orthographic drawing with hidden

and a half section.
area.
symmetrical, the
is
Offset Cutting Plane
placed on the
However, if
need
details
to be
shown, the cutting plane may be
offset to include them. The two
illustrations one of a simple obin
the
center
and the other of a more intrishape do not have any

portion of the cutting plane on
ject
cate
the central axis.
Broken Section
If
both exterior and interior

need to be shown, the cut-
details
ting plane can be offset to include
both.
The
first
illustration
on the
next page shows a cutting plane
passing through a square hole;
then
it
is
offset so
crosses out-
it
show
side the front view to
horizontal hole; then
it
is
Complex
offset cutting plane.
the
offset
again to pass through the center
Offset cutting plane.
of the vertical circular hole.
351
lines
From Ideas
Part Three:
to Reality
Observe that the direction of

the cutting plane is indicated on
On
the
top orthographic view.
this
top view the cutting plane
is
I
drawn
beam
revolved section.
one continuous line. It

might also be drawn as two separate offset sections which are not
as
connected outside the view.

On the illustration observe
where the cutting plane extends

through the front surface of the
front view.
line;
shown
It is
hence
as a broken
name broken
the
section.
Opaque
Revolved Section
The
ject
Offset cutting plane with broken section.
illustration
with
three
shows an obunits-
distinct
two end pieces connected by a

center unit. The shape of the
center unit is concealed from view
by the solid ends. Instead of
either including hidden lines on
an end view or drawing a separate complete section to describe
the center part, its shape may be
"revolved" and superimposed
upon an existing view as shown.
Revolved sections are valuable
for showing profiles of round,
elliptical,
or unusual
parts. Since a
may appear
view of
to
shaped
this
nature
be something ex-
tending toward the viewer, the
Window
detail
shaded section.
mm
vyuwvw
J7Tm>,>,
Counter top edge with symbols
When
in
adjacent parts are to be
opaque they are separated

ly so the
section
shape of each
Opaque
sections
is
slight-
defined.
may be
used
part should be labeled as a re-
alone or in combination with con-
volved section.
ventional section drawings.
Opaque
Shaded Section
Section
Small, thin partssuch as alu-
minum
ing,
or steel extrusions, flash-
waterproofing,
or
glazing may become
maze of
lines.
window
ble they
Parts to be emphasized
may be
given a light shade by using very

fine pencil lines
about
apart.
Or an even tone can be obtained
To make them
by darkening freehand with a
lost
stand out or be more clearly
Revolved sections.
section of door detail.
may be drawn
sections similar to
352
in
visi-
opaque
the one shown.
as
blunt
pencil
or
graphite
dust.
must be taken to avoid

unintentional smudging of other
Care
35: Sections
Samples should be made
areas.
included on the same drawing,

the
to insure the effect desired.
first
section
should
Section Lines
placed
different
at
angles or spacing.
Section lines are
fine,
drawn
ken, firm lines
at
unbro-
Because of the large variety of
a 45
materials such as wood, metal,
angle and spaced Vk," apart. They
concrete, stone, glass,
measured with a ruler.

They are estimated by eye or may
be matched to a line drawn on
that
the triangle as described earlier.
as
are not
Examples
each part
for
lines
be
of section
lines
many drawings
included on
and others
must be represented on arch-
itectural drawings,
able to have
diagonal section
are
material has
for
it
When two
more parts are
or
its
can be easily
bols
this chapter.
it
for
lines.
own symbol, so
Sym-
Chapter
in
shown
Each
identified.
materials
architectural
shown
are
not desir-
is
materials
all
38.
What
What
What
What
What
What
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Why
7.
is
a section drawing?
is
a cutting plane?
is
opaque sections drawn as though the

parts were separated by space?
used by themselves? Explain.
a pictorial section?
is
is
a half section?
full
are arrowheads or
8.
all
half section
9.
lines
included on
an
is
typi-
7.
why are
or
offset
draw
to
cal section lines.
parts
drawings? Explain.
What
how
16. Describe
indi-
cutting plane lines?
Are hidden
a shaded section?
is
Describe two techniques for shading.
ends of
What
15.
section?
not always placed on both
cators
Must opaque sections be
14.
a cutting plane line?
is
section
drawn
at
in
lines
on adjacent
different directions
Do you
spacings?
different
cutting
means they can be drawn

angles other than 45?
think this
plane?
at
10.
What
is
a broken section?
What
is
a revolved section?
section lines not used for
What
is
an opaque section?
tectural
12.
Why
1
is
3.
it
used?
Why
Why
18.
are adjacent parts of
9.
are
diagonal
typical
all
What
other methods of show-
ing sectioned materials are
Terms To Spell and
archi-
drawings symbols?
used?
Know
revolved section
cutting plane
half section
pictorial section
interior
frontal section
offset cutting plane
shaded section
crosshatching
central axis
adjacent parts
broken section
section lines
full
section
view
opaque
353
section
Drawings
Pictorial
orthographic
Since
drawings
Non-isometric Lines
do not show a complete picture

on a single view, they are difficult
for the layman without drafting
knowledge to understand. Yet information from drawings must
frequently be conveyed to people
ways at right angles to each other

and cannot be drawn as isometric
isometric
axes
not familiar with drafting. Pic-
isometric
lines.
torial
drawings serve
very well.
As stated
not
in
to
ings are explained briefly.
They
are: (1) isometric, (2) oblique, (3)
and
Drawing
of this
drawn at a
30 angle from horizontal, and of
lines.
isometric.
ing the right end) are
minimum
drafting time, effort,

ence.
all
perpendicular lines are
vertical.
Observe the three
black lines of the drawing, two on
Isometric drawings present a

picture effect with a
The view seems
of
and experistrange be-
the base
and the
vertical line at
These lines
form the isometric axes. Isometric
lines are always parallel to one of
the
closest
corner.
these lines, receding at 30 from
is caused
by the receding lines. When viewing an actual object the eye sees
parallel sides as though they con-
Note the blue isometric background lines on this and suc-
verge
ceeding drawings. They are not
cause visual distortion
in
the
distance.
Parallel
on isometric drawings are

actually drawn parallel; so they
appear to spread apart at the
back of the object.
The illustration shows how a
lines
simple rectangular solid
is
drawn
though
Observe that both

the front and end (in this drawin
drawn
Isometric
non-
called
and
draw the
establish
lines,
first
it
is
a rectangular solid,
shown in the
Along the edges
similar to the ones
course,
(4) perspective.
are
To
object with construction lines as

Isometric axes.
every
drawing problem.
Four kinds of pictorial draw-
al-
Lines not parallel to the
draw these
purpose
Chapter 34,
this
solutions
perfect
cabinet,
lines.
drawing methods are
pictorial
all
Lines of an object are not
horizontal.
part
of the drawing but serve
only as additional guide lines for

the beginner. Paper with 30
sometimes
used, especially when doing isolines, similar to this is
metric sketches.
354
two
illustrations.
solid locate dimension

points for the non-isometric
It
is
necessary
to
locate
end of such
lines. The illustrations show how
they are located and drawn. Observe the construction lines, shown
positions for each
here as fine black lines parallel

to
the
isometric
axes
that
are
superimposed on the rectangular

shape previously drawn. The
ends of the non-isometric lines
are located at the points where
the construction lines cross.
After
all
lines
of the object
have been established, the entire

drawing is given the proper line
weight. Note: If the construction
lines were drawn as light "shadow" lines, they need not be removed from the finished drawing.
36: Pictorial Drawings
Isometric Arcs and

Circles
Carefully study the isometric
an understanding of their construction. An

circle illustrations for
isometric circle
is
really four con-
nected arcs that form an
Each arc
ellipse.
based on the same

principle even though the ones
at 90 angles to each other do not
match.
is
Directions for
Drawing an
Isometric Arc
1.
Using construction
lines,
draw
an isometric solid to the overall

of the desired object.
sizes
Note:
objects,
For irregular shaped

more than one iso-
metric solid will be required.

2.
Set the
compass
to the stated
dimension of the
arc.
Note: Two construction

lines
form an angle in which

is to be drawn. If the
the arc
arcs are to be constructed
on
the top view, both lines will be
30 isometrics. If the arc
is
on
the front or side view, one of

the lines will be in isometric
and the other

3.
will
be vertical.
Place the needle point of the
compass
at the vertex (corner)
of the angle where the arc

desired.
is
Isometric arc and circle construction.
Reversed Axes
may show
and bottom (in-
Isometric drawings
the front, end,
stead of the top) as shown. This

is
called a reversed axis isometric.
The procedure
is
the
same
as for
other isometric drawings except

the isometric lines are drawn 30
below horizontal from the isometric axes.
Isometric arc application.
355
Isometric circle application.
Part Three:
TOP VIEW
4.
Using construction lines, draw

an arc so it crosses the two
lines forming the angle. These
are the points of tangency of
From Ideas
to Reality
The third illustration shows

how the finished line should
appear. It appears to be continuous with no splices showing.
the isometric arc to be constructed.
OBLIQUE DRAWING
Note: Place your 30 -60

triangle so the hypotenuse
is
against the blade of your
square,
and
line
it
Oblique drawing
lar to isometric,
up with
of the axes
object previously drawn.
the
at 30. Oblique
drawing has three axes; they are
shown on the illustration as black
lines. This drawing method per-
mits
of the object.
Draw
parallel to the plane
of both receding
right angles with the isometric
5.
very simi-
of the paper as shown, instead
Observe how the T square

forms right angles to the vertical lines of the object and the
60 angle of the triangle forms
lines
is
is
except that one
everything
the
in
plane to be drawn
its
frontal
true shape.
perpendiculars to both
legs of the angle
through the
points of tangency previously

established.
6.
Place the needle point of the
compass where the perpendiculars cross and adjust it so it

touches one of the points of
tangency.
7.
Using an object
line,
draw an
arc to connect the two points
of tangency.
8.
If other arcs are required, re-
lines of the isometric drawing.
On
object lines tangent to the arcs
serve
required to complete the
shape.
Curved Lines
Curved
in
Isometric
Ob-
serve the curved line on the ortho-
graphic drawing. The black lines

superimposed over the object
divide
it
into
many
small squares.
duplicate this curved line in
you must draw the same

grid lines on the isometric layout
as shown in the second illustraisometric
the second illustration ob-
how
indicate
the located points
where the
line
is
to be.
Using construction lines, sketch

the proposed curved line so it
passes through each of the points
lines in isometric are
only a close approximation.
CONNECTING THE POINTS
tion.
Using dividers, calculate
where the curved line crosses each
of the parallel grid lines on the
orthographic drawing and step
these measurements onto the grid
peat the above steps; then draw
as
To
LINE
Plotting curved lines in isometric.
previously located.
Do
not
draw
the curved object line freehand.
The
results will be unsatisfactory.

Find a segment of an irregular
curve that is the same shape as the
freehand line and draw the object

line using the irregular curve as a
guide. If the line cannot be
drawn
as a continuous one, exercise care

to prevent the splice
356
from showing.
Oblique rectangular
solid.
is very good for objects that

have considerable detail on one
face and very little on the others.
It is also very good for objects
having little depth or thickness
because they appear quite realDrawings of objects with
istic.
considerable depth appear too
distorted for the oblique method.
It
The oblique illustrations here

show the sides receding at a 45
angle,
but they
may
recede at
any desired angle.
Two important points to remember when drawing oblique

pictorials are to: (1)
Use the
side
shows the most detail as the

front. (2) Use the longest side as
the front to minimize distortion.
that
Curved surfaces of oblique drawing are

most frequently shown on the frontal
Comparison
oblique
of
and
cabinet
drawing.
plane.
CABINET DRAWING
Cabinet drawing
same
is
exactly the
as oblique except that lines
receding
toward
drawn only
half
the
back
their
are
actual
length.
This
distortion.
helps
is
a close
approximation of what one sees

when viewing an actual object.
It is the most realistic of the pictorial drawing methods. However,
drawing perspectives is more time
consuming, so they are used only
to show what a proposed object
looks like when other details have
been planned.
When
all
viewing an actual object,
horizontal lines, or continua-
tions of them, appear to converge
with
how
done
lines
of the small cabinet the
first
with an oblique and the second
IVr>|M*rli\
Perspective drawing
minimize
illustrations
to
The two
in the distance
the horizon.
The
size
of the ob-
how soon
these
appear to converge.
There are several different
methods of drawing perspectives,
lines
but
all
cussion
are very similar. This disis
limited to the
common
method because it is
most frequently used, and other
methods expand upon it. After
you have mastered the office
method, you may desire further
or
gives
more
the
realistic
latter
drawing a
appearance.
Drawing
and vanish toward
determines
ject
i-
drawing show
cabinet
foreshortening the receding
office
study and experimentation with

others.
The
illusion
problem of drawis
capturing an
of depth and space on
the
plane of the paper.
biggest
perspective
ing
flat
One
must always think of the paper

as having depth, or as space.
problem then
is
to project
The
the
different planes of the object into

their
proper
this space.
tions
tell
relationship
The following
how
with
instruc-
to accomplish this.
Two-point perspective rendering.
357
From Ideas
Part Three:
Items You Will
then,
large
All
drawing surface.
common
all lines
paper
may be
Three thumbtacks
drawing
long straightedge.
to
use
as
lines.
This
be discussed at length
later.
for
radiating
are complete,
paper
be used to cover the back of the
When trans-
ferring the perspective to the final
drawing paper or illustration
sheet a stylus or hard pencil

should be used.
board
may
be used, but very
satis-
may be obtained
by drawing a preliminary per-
Note:
factory results
DIRECTIONS FOR TWO-POINT

EXTERIOR PERSPECTIVE
of
when
number
be
familiar
drawing
with, perhaps the easiest
master perspective
is
way
to
by drawing
It
overhang,
ridges
and
it
will
for your sample

conform exactly to the
illustrated drawing upon which
this problem is based. It is sugessential
to
location
the
valleys,
of
all
chimneys, and
other items on the roof.
An
same
elevation at the
as the floor plan
and heights
to
showing
scale
details
be included on the
perspective.
elevations
accuracy
do
and doors, an outline of the roof
gested
results for
lines
traced.
drawn to an apThe plan should

locations of all windows
learning experience. In order to
check
when
floor plan
one under a carefully controlled
new terms
become
Do not use carbon paper
tracing the perspective.
Since there are a large

to
include
not
may
Any
Tracing or drawing paper.
final
is
readily available a soft pencil
tracing with graphite.
and the
easily
not cover well
propriate scale.
and the
sheet. If this
smudges
between
placed
the tracing paper
will
when
graphite paper similar to carbon
drafting instru-
ments.
points
on tracing paper and
spective
Need
Reality
to
the
floor
shown
in
that
plan and
the
accom-
panying illustration be used for

the initial project. It will be necessary to use a drawing scale of
!4"=r-0",
sample
and
floor plan
the
redraw
and elevations
42'0"
I
Building plan to be used while following

directions for two-point perspective. The
following series of illustrations is marked to indicate which steps of the directions the drawings accompany.
CEILING LINE
The drawing
to the sizes given.
Picture Plane Line. Using a
1.
10%"
and
make a small horizontal dash at
this location. Through this dash
draw a horizontal line all the way
sents a vertical plane, which
across the paper and label
ing through, into space.
for best results. If this proposed
drawing
problem,
stated
V6"=r-0"
ever,
larger
is
it
sizes
all
presents
size
possible to cut
in
all
and use a
half
scale
How-
instead.
directions refer to the
drawing
After
size.
you
have mastered perspective techniques, drawings of your own
the top of the paper
high and 42" wide, to the drawing board.
Be sure
the edges of
the paper are parallel to the edges

of the board.
plete the
is
NOTE: To com-
drawing
satisfactorily,
it
essential that the directions be
followed very carefully.
Steps
pic-
it
is
essential that
it
be remem-
bered.
Horizontal Plane. The area
above the picture plane
line rep-
resents a horizontal plane; that
plane
ground.
a
that
The
is
parallel
section
the
which
is
through
floor plan,
horizontal
to
is,
building, will be located in this
space.
It is
from which
to be used as an area
lines for the
tive picture will
perspec-
be projected.
359
line repre-
must
be considered as having depth.
Imagine the drawing board surface as a
Repeat the name
tun- plane line.
2.
paper, whose dimensions are 30"
it
of this line over and over because
choosing can be done.

Secure a large sheet of drawing
The area be-
low the picture plane
regular ruler, measure
large
Vertical Plane.
3.
down from
should be laid out very accurately
window you
are look-
Positioning Floor Plan on
4.
Horizontal
Plane.
The
illustra-
accompanying these directions show the floor plan positioned at a 30-60 angle to the
tions
picture plane line.
However, any
angle could be used. Because the

helps determine what the
angle
finished perspective will look like,

it
must be selected with care.
It is
draw
sev-
sometimes necessary
eral
partial
to
perspectives
to
de-
termine the best building viewing

angle.
The most
frequently used
From Ideas
Part Three:
angles are 30-60, and 45, be-
may
cause triangles
up the perspective.
show a build-
easily to set
The
then be used
line.
The
have to touch
it
building does not
Therefore
when
but
this line,
does, drawing procedure
plified.
will
tial
sim-
is
beginner
the
probably achieve best results
term
in perspective
Remember
illustrations
ing corner touching the picture
plane
name of this line until you remember it, because it is an essenthe
low the picture plane
may
window
hind
where
to be
line,
the perspective picture
drawn,
drawing.
that the space be-
is
be compared to a
with distance be-
glass
and that the building only
it
touches
plane on the measur-
this
with the floor plan placed in this
ing line. Therefore this line
position.
only place where sizes
Perspectives can be
drawn with
the floor plan behind the picture
plane
line.
This, however,
makes
The
the perspective picture small.
plan can also extend in front

or below, the picture plane
of,
line,
plane
and
line
measure
from the right edge of the paper,

toward the left. Make a dot on the
picture plane line at this location.
Place the lower right-hand floor
plan corner on the picture plane

line
at
location
the
60
angles.
the
adjust the plan lo-
triangle,
cation until
previously
a dot. Using a 30-
marked with
it
conforms
to these
Be extremely accurate in
Tape the floor
positioning.
Station Point.
point
the reverse
covers the picture plane
this
Re-
line.
the picture plane line across
small
portion of the
floor
plan.
viewing. In a
life-
the closer an ob-
is
true.
As
the distance
from the picture plane
line to the
point increases, the pic-
station
becomes
For best
ture
results
the
novice
Measuring Line. From
plane line and measure
the measuring line
17%".
a heavy dot at this location
and label
the
drawing, begin at the
this
it
name
over. It
is
station point.
Repeat
of this dot over and
an important term
in
Cone
should not exceed approximately

30. If a much greater angle is
the
picture
plane
line,
7.
vision
is
of Vision.
the scope of
360
you understand
is.
Now draw
two
lines
connecting
the station point to both the ex-
treme
and
left,
extreme
right,
building floor-plan corners
(not
overhang corners). Notice on the

that these
illustrations
en-
lines
close the cone of vision.
Horizon. The horizon
8.
line
the
in
is
earth seems to meet the sky.
can be located
where the
distance
It
any convenient
at
drawing position below the
On
this
pic-
drawing
place the horizon 9" below the

picture plane line, and extend
from the
it
to the right edge of
left
the paper. Label the line horizon.
Repeat
til
name
this
to yourself un-
you remember
new
projecting
it.
Later,
lines,
when
very
is
it
easy to confuse this line with the

picture plane line.
Locating Vanishing Points.
Beginning
until
line
the
at
the floor plan
For
bottom of the paper, label this

line as the measuring line. Repeat
touches
it
the measuring line.
drop a perpendicular line to the

bottom of the paper. Near the
the
what
illustration in the
sure
draw a
The cone of
what an observer sees without moving his
eyes from side to side. The cone
begins at the station point and
5.
text to be
9.
larger.
perspective technique.
point where the building corner
cone of vision
be
will
Observe the
distorted.
should place the station point on
picture
draw
which
appears. In perspective drawing
down
Make
now
station
an object, the larger
to
is
any of the building corners.

portion of the overhang
is
like situation,
server
The
the location from
is
the observer
it
somewhat
Reality
to
perspective
the
ture plane line.
space.
plan in place, but do not cover
be
measured to their true scale. All

measurements for the entire building must be made on
this line, even though some will
need to be projected back into
6.
10%"
the
vertical
but this creates distortion.

Place the ruler on the picture
is
may
used,
point,
and extend the
near the
Again
station point,
left
edge of the
beginning
draw
at
it
the
a line parallel
to the side of the floor plan
extend
line
meets the picture plane
it
paper.
station
line parallel to the front of
and
to the picture plane line.
Mark two
dots where these di-
agonal lines intersect the picture

plane
From
line.
these two dots
the horizon.
down to
The vanishing points
are located
where these
draw two
lines
vertical lines
cross
the
horizon.
vertical
Make
dots to locate the two vanishing

points.
Then draw
a small free-
hand
left
around them so they
circle
be easy to locate. Label the
will
VPL, and the

point VPR. Re-
vanishing point
right vanishing
peat these
names
permanently
in
On some
they are
until
drawings, the lines
parallel
extend
off the
to
building edges
drawing board be-
fore they intersect with the picture plane line. In such cases
it is
necessary to reposition the floor

plan,
move
the
measuring
and also relocate the station
The
line,
point.
following can be used as a
general guide for determining the
placement of the floor plane on

future drawings: (1) If
floor
When
(2)
plan that touches the
should be
centered
the corner
is
on
at a
it.
30-
60 angle to the picture plane

line,
should be located approxi-
it
mately one-third the board width
mind.
from the station point and those

lines
the
line
it
is
to be
from the edge closest to the 60

angle.
Observe that the
floor plan
of the perspective layout illustration
positioned
is
in this
manner.
Preparing Permanent
10.
Points for Radiating Construction

Lines.
Thumbtacks may be placed
upside
viously
down over
the
two pre-
drawn vanishing points
and the station point, and taped

in place to serve as permanent
positions
for
these
points.
Be-
cause thumbtacks can scratch or
positioned at a 45 angle to the
puncture, they must be used with
picture plane line, the corner of
caution. Small hits of pencil eraser
Steps 9-13
361
may
be placed on the points for
protection.
Map
tacks
also
are
sometimes used. They are pressed

into
the
drawing surface.
How-
ever, such devices leave holes
and
permanently damage the board;

so they are not recommended.
Whether one merely
lines
up
marked
paper or uses some device
with the points previously
on the
as a marking
aid, these points are
very important because they are
used for radiating a large number

of construction lines.
11.
Eye Level. The
illustration
three
in
this
rectangular
eye-level
unit
solids:
above, one below, and one
shows
one
at
eye
level.
The
'round
relationship of eye level to
determines whether one
From Ideas
Part Three:
The ground
looks up, down, or straight at the

perspective
picture.
The
from which the object

viewed
is
to
be
matter of personal
is
angle
below the
?4"=l'-0"
ing the
line
floor
elevations. Label this
way you
near the
the
completed
Assume
when
that,
the perspective
is
horizon,
line.
When
plete, the
on
the
measuring
the drawing
is
com-
viewer would be look-
this
ruler,
This perspective will be accomplished in three stages:
The
so that
The
3" to the right of the

ing point.
Now
building out-
be drawn.
roof and
overhang
its
be laid out.
will
To
complete the picture,
details,
such as window
openings, doorways, and
approximately
is
basic
lines will
the elevation hori-
it
V4"=
vanish-
steps will be added.
carefully tape the
Compare your drawing
left
with
sample drawing, how-
again being certain that no build-
ceeding.
measure-
ing corners are covered by tape.
With an ordimeasure 2Vi" down

from the horizon anywhere along
Then draw a light,
its length.
broken line all the way across the
paper. This is the ground line.
is
nary
zontally until
at the origi-
the one in the text before pro-
ever, a slightly different
ment
Move
from
com-
l'-0", unless otherwise specified.
the ground line of the partial perspective.
is
nal building plans scale of
bottom of the drawing, which

is on
the
drawn
pleted, will be
edge of the paper.
it
drawing
the
elevation to the drawing surface,
ing directly at the building.
On
line,
All measurements,
until
also represents the ground,
to be
exactly at eye level, the ground

line would be placed 5'-6" below
the
ground
viously drawn, position
is
5'-6" above the ground. Thereif
draw-
plan and
now
Using the right side elevation pre-
standing,
the average person's eye level
fore
left
the
12. Positioning an Elevation.
picture to appear.
Note:
lO'-O"
using
scale used for
original
choice, to be determined by the

desire
now
is
horizon,
Reality
to
to be used.
13. Place a small dot
on the
Be sure that everything

drawn up to this time is correct.
Beginning the Building Outlines
drawing paper where the ground

line intersects the
measuring
This intersection
is
14. Using a straightedge, po-
line.
the location
where the building perspective
is
sition
that
it
on
measuring
begun.
the drawing paper so
edge passes through the
its
ground
line at the
and also through the
line,
right vanish-
ing point. Beginning at the
mea-
suring line and drawing from
draw a very
to right,
light
left
con-
struction line to the right vanish-
ing point.
ABOVE HORIZON
15.
Now
position the straight-
edge so that
left
through
passes through the
the
point,
and
intersection
of
also
the
and measuring line.

Drawing from right to left (which
ground
CENTERED
it
vanishing
ON HORIZON
is
line
backwards), make a
light
con-
struction line approximately the
same length
the
floor
as the front wall of
plan
(the
wall
touches the picture plane

16.
The location where
building
BELOW HORIZON
The relationship
of the object to the horizon
Is
ground
a
matter of personal choice.
362
at
now been
that
line).
the
corner touches the

the measuring line has
established.
Make
dot
indicate
to
lines,
where the two
vanishing to the right and
to the
left,
intersect the horizon
These two vanishing lines are

where the building front and right
side touch the ground. Erase the
line.
left
half of the original
line previously
drawn, for
longer needed.
The
which the
vanish
tom of
lines
ground
it
is
no
position from
at the
the building will
bot-
now be
Make
this
a dot on the paper where
cone of vision
line intersects
the picture plane line. Using the

located,
point just
drop a
light
perpendicular construction line to

the
ground
the bottom of the
at
19.
the intersection of
the picture plane line,
drop a
and
light
perpendicular to the ground.

Make a small dot where this perpendicular touches the ground.
20. Position the straightedge
building.
Place the point of a pencil
so that
on the building corner where the
drawn,
18.
From
the inclined construction line
touches
floor
plan
plane
line. Lift
the
picture
the pencil slightly,
it
touches both the dot
just
and the right vanishing

point. Beginning at the dot and
drawing to the left, make another
referred to as the ground, since
following the front wall until the
construction
where the building touches

the ground in the drawing.
corner by the doorway
than the wall containing the door
this
is
Position the straightedge
Make
dot
to
is
reached.
emphasize
this
on the
line
slightly
longer
floor plan.
to pass through the station point
so that
passes through this dot
21. Align the straightedge so

that it passes through the front
and also to touch the
and also through the station point.
corner by the door on the floor
17.
right rear
floor plan building corner. If the
straightedge
rectly,
it
of vision
will
was positioned corbe on the right cone
line
previously drawn.
corner. Position the straightedge

it
through
plan,
and
by the doorway, draw an inclined
point.
Drop an
construction
tion line to the picture plane line,
Beginning
plane
at this
line
building corner
to
the
picture
and make
line.
363
a.
the
station
inclined construc-
dot where the two
Part Three:
lines
intersect.
From
this
inter-
section drop a perpendicular to
drawn,
now
taped to the
left
left
toward the vanishing
point with
another construction
sure 9'-4".
the line that represents the wall
containing the door. This forms a

building corner.
project
From
this
corner
left,
on the measuring
in the perspective, measure
9'-4" and make a dot at
and
height.

so that
it
passes through the
front corner of the floor plan

the station point.
left
the lower build-
ing corner
line.
should
From
now
The
line.
Mark
the
point where this line intersects the

picture plane line
and drop a per-
this
to
pass
Reality
lines to
be drawn are to be pro-
jected
toward
points, the lines
vanishing
the
need to be ex-
tended only to the corner where

they terminate on the building, or
slightly
beyond
an
anticipated
edge.
25. Reposition
this
edge so that
it
the
straight-
passes through the
vanishing point, and also

through the 9'-4" measurement
left
straightedge
be aligned with the
cone of vision
line
to
Note: When any remaining
of
Measure the
distance from the ground line to
the underside of the overhang
where it touches the right building
wall. This distance should meathe drawing paper.
From Ideas
through
the
dot
just
drawn, and through the right vanishing point.
Make
another dot
where the straightedge crosses the
Draw
on
the measuring line.
from
Drawing
right to left, project a con-
struction line
from the measurby the door-
ing line to the wall
pendicular to represent the loca-
right building wall.
tion of the left building corner.
construction line to connect the
Drawing Building Ceiling Lines

23. Use the Va " scale and the
dot on the measuring line with the
to cross the
dot on the right wall (back cor-
also
the
vanishing
point.
ner of the building).
Now
draw a construction
line to
right
side
elevation
previously
Steps 23-27.
a light
way.
doorway corner, and
right

represent the wall above the door-
edge so that
way.
dot on the measuring
27. Place
the straightedge
at
upper right-hand corner of

the wall offset and also on the left
the
vanishing point.
Then draw
a line
point.
If
all
lines
have been drawn
on the perspective
Compare your
drawn with
is
ceiling
drawn
complete.
line
just
the illustration in the
check for accuracy.

Drawing a Roof Outline
text, to
28.
On
the right side elevation,
place a parallel rule, T-square, or
machine at the underside

of the roof overhang peak. Make
a dot on the measuring line at this
drafting
same
hcieht. Position the straight-
Draw
a line
on the measuring
hand wall.
line,
and
from the dot
line to the right-
30. Place the straightedge or

triangle so that
the
dot
ceiling line
it
passes through
drawn,
just
through the
Draw
and
intersection
also
of the
and measuring
line.
between
a construction line
point and the location on the floor
these two points. Repeat this step

by placing the straightedge on
both the dot at the roof peak, and
plan where the roof ridge crosses
on the
29. Position a straightedge to
pass
correctly, the ceiling line
passes through this
also through the right vanishing
connecting the right-hand to the

left-hand corner.
it
through
both
the right-side wall.

s
the
station
NOTE:
This
against the outside wall and not
against the overhang.
Draw
a line
from the intersection of the wall

and roof ridge to the picture plane
ine.
Drop
a perpendicular from
uppermost
on the perspective that vanshes to the right (the line drawn
this intersection to the
ceiling
line
building corner.
at
Draw
the
right
a line be-
tween these two dots.

31.
Darken
The
the following:
wall
on
the front pic-
ture plane line
from the
ceiling line to the ground.
The
rear wall line from
ine
n the preceding step).
ocation with a dot.
Steps 28-45
365
Mark
the
ceiling
line
to
the
ground.
this
The
building ground line
From Ideas
Part Three:
from the measuring
line
to the rear wall.
The two
inclined
procedures were
all
lowed
end of
line for the right
the building
fol-
an out-
correctly,
now com-
is
plete.
Gable
Projecting the Front
placed on this perspective only
suring line.
to enclose the picture and
lines
representing the roof. If
34. Place
from front to back, so

edge is aligned with the
just located
Using
point.
where
the
the
intersection
straightedge
crosses
it
wall.
aligned
If
should pass through
approximately 1"
From
of the measuring line.
the point
on
picture plane
the
until
it
it,
drop a perpendicular
crosses the last vanishing
Mark
drawn.
line
drawn
location
this
the point at which the building
with a dot. Place the straightedge
wall intersects the picture plane
on
line
and measuring
this outside,
it
Extend
line.
end-wall line so that
protrudes into the vertical plane
approximately the length of the

front
building
offset
the doorway. This
is
containing
a distance of
about 2" on an ordinary
On
ruler.
the paper through this dot and
through the
Project
toward the
vanishing point.
left
from
line,
left,
dot
the
past the vertical
wall furthest to the
on the
floor plan, at the intersec-
tion of the front wall containing
the
edge with the front wall containing the windows, and project the
of the front building offset, and
wall
drop a construction
until
it
right-side
wall
projection,
the
intersects
pre-
viously drawn.
and also through and along

ground line where it meets the
point,
windows and roof
also
on the
ridge line
Then
station point.
line
From
picture plane line.
Darken
line.
by the doorway.
Now
37.
edge so
it
and along the

below the doorway,
and darken this short ground line.
To darken the two ceiling lines,
repeat the procedures for the two
vanishing
ground
point
line
steps just completed.
38. Place the straightedge on
to the
this pic-
the left vanishing point.
beyond the
location
From
wall.
through
line.
a dot.
this
from the intersection to the
pic-
ture
plane
line.
around
this
section,
because
Draw
circle
picture plane interthis point will
be
used for dropping the next vertical line.
Now, using
the front ele-
Using
line at
ners,
this dot,
and the
ceiling
both building offset cor-
draw two
inclined lines to
complete the front gable. Now

darken the outlines to enclose this
front gable section.
NOTE:
If
the
measure the distance from

the ground line to the underside
of the roof overhang at the peak.
This distance should measure
building perspective were to im-
12'-5".
at this time.
vation,
Transfer this height di-
mediately include an overhang,
would not be necessary
to
it
com-
plete the steps for the roof outline
These outlines are
366
on the
point.
where
it
it
passes
and the
sta-
Working along
the
this location
drawn (that vanished to the left),

and mark their intersection with
line
building
ridge crosses the left-hand wall,
the point where the two wall pro-
draw a
left
the location
place the straightedge so
straightedge,
Now
where the longest roof
floor plan
a perpendicular to the last line
station point.
on
Draw
vanishing line from the peak to a
33. Align the straightedge with
and with the
passes through the right
tion
intersect,
the ground line from
the measuring line to the corner
ture-plane line intersection, drop
jections
it
vanishing
left
the right roof peak, and also
left.
the floor plan, align the straight-
line
passes through the
building corner at the measuring
line
to a point
around
building
like.
36. Hold the straightedge so
construction
that
right
look
the
draw a light
from right to
line with the small circle
properly,
show
what the basic structure would
the front roof slope,
floor plan
its
and
left
32. Place a straightedge on the
the straightedge
through the point
left,
Wall Outline
Reality
to
mension to the perspective mea-
make
a small dash
crosses the picture plane
only coincidence that
(It is
dash
falls
From
earlier.)
near a line drawn

the dash
on the
picture plane line, drop a perpenit
passes the
roof-ridge
previously
dicular line
vanishing
drawn.
Make
until
a dot at this loca-
tion.
on the
floor plan so
it
follows the
front wall that touches the picture
plane
line.
Observe
that
the
straightedge also touches the lo-

cation where the
crosses
Using
the
wall.
outside
on the left
straightedge
this intersection
the
align
wall,
through
it
Make
station point.
on
roof valley
left
left
the straightedge crosses

this intersection,
it.
to the
crosses the vertical
on the floor plan. Make a dot to

mark this intersection. Place the
straightedge on the perspective
dotted
it
passes through this
and
intersection,
through the
front-wall
and
line
picture to touch the ceiling
doorway
wall ceiling line.
line.
On
darken a
line
ing
line
On
almost straight, be-
is
other drawings, however, the
would not necessarily
ceiling line
appear almost
straight.
In such
cases, the ceiling line that touches
would need
the measuring line
be projected
left,
to
to connect with
The
held so
it
left
vanishing point, and also through

the ceiling
measuring
line
at
the
Make
line.
between these two
it
passes through the left-hand
roof peak, and also through the
vanishing
right
This
point.
is
aligned with the roof ridge line
previously drawn.
Now, darken
form a roof
this line to
ridge.
43. Relocate the straightedge
straightedge should be
passes through the
Then
so
the wall at the valley line.
40.
the
intersections.
close to the horizon.
is
it
also
of the
intersection
ceiling
tive
cause
building
a dot where
the straightedge crosses the last
will
be necessary
associated with these former lines.
the building offset
at
From
this perspective, the ceil-
it
make some
roof ridge
picture, so
perspec-
ened because
con-
line
later to
where
drop a perpen-
down
dicular line
dash
a small
the picture plane line
it
nected to the back corner of the
along the
previously labeled:
line
roof edge at the
left
wall.
Darken
this
building
left
line,
from the
roof ridge of the front building

the
to
offset,
roof
line
of
the
longest roof ridge.
perpendicular line drawn. This
Now
44.
(See
on next
illustration
On
47.
projections
page).
the floor plan, place a
straightedge along the right end
and
wall,
line until
extend the wall
lightly
touches the rear over-
it
hang.
48. Using the right side eleva-
which
tion,
is
attached
to
the
drawing paper, align the instrument used for drawing parallel

lines so
it
touches the top of the
roof peak.
measuring
the
Place
line the
a dot on the
same height as
peak. Using the Va"

and measuring on the mea-
roof
scale,
suring line, this dot is approximately 7" above the dot formerly
made
to locate the original roof
Position the straightedge
height.
through
this
upper dot, and also
through the right vanishing point.
Make
tive
new dot on
directly
the perspec-
above the original
roof peak. This dot will be on a
align the straightedge
perpendicular previously drawn.
dot represents the bottom of the
through both the
vanishing
49. Slide
left-hand roof slope. Position the
point and the right roof peak and
ment down
darken
roof directly above the side walls
straightedge
on the perspective
picture so
passes through this
dot,
it
and also through the point of
intersection of the roof line with
the line previously
dropped down
for the roof ridge at the left build-
ing edge.
Draw
a construction line
45.
Label
roof edge at the
left
this
line
left
building wall.
this roof line.
Draw
a perpendicular for
the inside building corner by the
doorway.
If
the directions have
been followed exactly, the building outline
is
now completed.
The Roof Overhang
connecting the two locations just

determined.
left
46.
The
the
parallel
until
in the elevation.
it
instru-
crosses the
Mark
this loca-
on the measuring line. This

dot should also be 7" above the
corner formed by the original ceiltion
ing
line
and
roof.
Position the
straightedge through this dot, and
original building out-
was previously enclosed with

dark lines. It is suggested that you
line
point,
rectly
and place another dot

above the rear
di-
wall.
it
use a soft eraser to lightly erase
50. Place the straightedge on
passes through the left-hand roof
the roof outline and the upper '/"
the front sloping roof of the right
walls so that they will not
building end of the perspective,
peak
on
the
perspective,
and
of
all
through the right vanishing point.
interfere with subsequent lines to
Draw
be drawn. These
a construction line
from the
roof peak toward the right, until
lines
should not
be completely erased, only
367
light-
and extend the
existing line approximately 1" downward and to
the
left.
This projection
is
in the
Part Three:
space below the ceiling
slide
the
and
measuring
line.
straightedge
up-
to the left of the
Now
line,
the original roof peak.
From
this
new, upper, roof peak extend a

construction line into the space to
the floor plan
the right of the rear wall.
overhang.
ward so it is aligned with the dot

on the measuring line that is 7"
above the ceiling line, and also
it
with the dot at the roof ridge.
and
Project
intersection of the front roof over-
construction
line
passes through the station point

also through the floor plan
through these two dots, extend-
hang and the
ing to the
tension.
line
left
past the
ceiling
approximately \" (the same
the
Make
straightedge
intersects
From
perpendicular until
is
small
dash
picture plane line.
From
this dash,
drop a perpendicular and darken

the distance between the upper
is
the
dash
building
perspective.
This
line,
along with the one that was drawn

at the front of the building, rep-
resent the fascia location, which
roof overhang and
it
Make
drop a
the right building wall.
ing.)
extension crosses the rear
wall
crosses the
tive,
(This
this
line,
it
the rear roof line
1".
on
side-
sloping roof line and the lower
on the picture plane
space approximately
where the rear
sloping roof line at the back of the
viously drawn).
to the right of the existing
Reality
where
picture plane line.
on the perspecand extend the line into
to
right side wall ex-
a small dash
distance as the inclined line pre-
51. Align a straightedge with
From Ideas
also through the intersection
even with
Draw
is
exactly even with the building
end. If these two short, vertical
were drawn with accuracy,
is
vertical construction line to con-
lines
draw-
nect the top sloping roof line to
a straightedge placed at the top
the lower sloping roof line.
of the short vertical line to the
Realign the straightedge so

touching both the dot above
the right wall, and the dot above
Steps 46-53
through
the
station
point,
and
left
and through the
right vanish-
ing point will also pass through
36: Pictorial Drawing*

the top of the vertical line to the
This happens because both
right.
the front and rear overhangs are
same roof
at the
Draw
the
another line approximately
same
line just
length as the vanishing
drawn.
floor plan
Relocate the
slope, equidistant
the station point and the roof

overhang corner that is on the
straightedge
plane
from the ground. The same is

true for the two lower ends of the
through the
and through the top of the short
crosses
short vertical lines.
on the right representing the

back roof edge. Starting at the
end of the sloping roof line, pro-
From
54. Align
through the
vanishing point
and through the top of the short

vertical line closest to the measuring
line.
vanishing point,
line
the straightedge
left
left
ject to the right
light construction line.
Beginning about 1"
on a regular ruler to the right of

the measuring line, project a vanishing line to the left until
it
ex-
about 1" with a
Realign
through the
left
tom
left
vanishing
and also through the bot-
of
the
short
vertical
line.
Steps 54-66
picture
to
on the perspec-
and draw a construction
the
right,
same length
line
approximately the
as the
one previously
drawn.
a small
straightedge
plane
line.
dash, drop a perpen-
dicular to the two lines that vanished
left.
Darken the corner for
the roof overhang.
Now,
with the straightedge
through both the station point and

the rear overhang corner
straightedge
tive,
point,
the
this
short vertical line. Begin at the
corner by the doorway.

passes through the
the
floor plan,
rear building wall
it
vanishing point
Then make
where
and through the lower end of the
tends about Vi" past the building
Realign the straightedge so
dash
56.
straightedge
the
and below the picture
line.
plane
line.
make
a dash
crosses
on the
where the
the
picture
In the space to the
two short
were previously
right of the rear wall,
vanishing
lines
drawn toward the right vanishing

point. Drop a perpendicular from
the last dash placed on the picture
From Ideas
Part Three:
plane
and darken the disthe upper and
line,
making a small dash where
tance
between
straightedge
lower
lines.
plane
Hold the
57.
it
passes through the
vanishing
left
crosses the
til it
point,
and through the uppermost
line
a construction
from the peak to a point ap-
proximately 1" to the
of the
left
existing left roof end. Locate the
straightedge so
it
passes through
both the station point and the

ridge
roof
at
the
a dash on the picture plane line

where the straightedge crosses it.
From this dash, drop a perpen-
new
roof line just
drawn, and make a dot where the
two
lines intersect.
light circle
it
around
Draw
this
can be easily located
a small,
dot so that
edge through
this intersection
and
the upper dot with the small circle
around
it;
This
the roof edge at the left
is
overhang.
so
passes through the station
it
and through the overhang
point,
corner that
way (on
left
van-
closest to the door-
is
the floor plan), near the
front wall that touches the picture
plane
ner
line.
is
Observe that
and with a construction

dropped to the
previously
line
picture plane line.
lar
upper edge of the front fascia line.

Here, the fascia line is near the
ing
this cor-
in line with the right roof
and through the outside
later
on the
offset
straightedge
at the building
(The
plan.
floor
again by coinci-
is
dence placed on the
line repre-
Drop a
senting the offset corner.)
darken
and
perpendicular,
the
end over the doorway.

61. Align the straightedge
left fascia
through the
left
vanishing point,
and also through the upper edge
drawn dark,
of the just
line,
vertical
representing the upper fascia
corner. Beginning Vi" left of the

left
building wall, project a con-
struction line to the left approxi-
A"
mately
Realign
long.
point,
ishing
and
the
left
van-
through
the
straightedge through the
lower fascia corner, and project

another line similar to the vanishing line previously drawn.
perpendicu-
drawn to the buildcorner on the perspective
was
position the straightedge
passes through the station
it
overhang corner
then draw a light con-
struction line to connect the two.
valley,
the drawing through the

ishing point,
new
Align the straight-
later.
Lay the straightedge on
58.
a dot at the
intersection.
building
left
overhang of the floor plan. Place
dicular to the
plane inter-
vanishing line
left
Make
drawn.
just
Draw
roof peak.
so
point,
this picture
drop a perpendicular un-
section,
Now
the
picture
the
line.
From
straightedge so
crosses
Reality
to
through
the
through the
station
left,
point,
and
front overhang
Mark
This is another coincidence due to the floor plan position on the drawing sheet: these
corner on the floor plan.
corners are not always aligned in
From
dicular and darken the distance
earlier
manner.
Using the perpendicular just
referred to, darken a short verti-
to represent the lower edge of the
cal line across the corner to rep-
dark, vertical line represents the
resent the fascia end.
left
this
ceiling line:
is
only coinci-
dence and one should not assume

that the ceiling line always aligns
with the upper fascia
line.
Ob-
serve also that the straightedge
passes below the dot
left
end roof.
representing
drawn
From below
this
lower
the dot
corner,
project a construction line to the

left,
until
it
almost touches the
sloping line for the front gable.
Now, on
the
left
crosses
Using
the
this
roof-overhang
intersection,
this
60.
Hold
the straightedge so
it
passes through the right vanishing

point,
and
through
the
upper
fascia corner just drawn. Project
the floor plan, project
roof-valley line .until
picture.
it
line.
and the
a line
left,
from the corner toward the
until
it
extends past the cor-
where the straightedge
dash
crosses
the
picture
this dash,
plane
line.
drop a perpen-
between the two vanishing lines

most recently drawn. This short,
overhang corner, in space.
A roof peak for the left
63.
building
drawn on
this
offset
was
previously
the perspective.
From
peak on the front building
wall, extend a vertical construc-
tion line
upward
into space (on
ner building wall approximately
x
the drawing) approximately /i".
Vi". Repeat this process for the
Place a small check at the top of
station point, align the straight-
lower fascia edge that
edge through these two points,
doorway.
is
above the
this vertical line so
to identify later.
370
it
will
be easy
Lay your straightedge on

it is on the over-
64.
the floor plan so
hang
line
in
front of the
front
windows, and make a dash on the

line that was projected forward
on the
end
from the
floor plan
Observe
wall.
section
in the
is
plane
picture
right
that this inter-
space below the

Place
line.
straightedge through this intersection,
and
straightedge
plane
through
Make
point.
line.
mark above
station
the
the
both
through
the
the
extend
mately
this
straightedge
right of the
left
vanishing
line
approxi-
" to the right.
floor plan to pass
measuring
through the upper
through
line,
and
line to the right
of the original roof peak, darken

the
distance
short, vertical
on the
straight-
building end
and the upper roof peak,
point
and
at the right
Realign
With the
edge passing through the upper

end of the line immediately to the
" to the right of the right
roof peak
wall.
dashes to the right of the origi-
between these two

lines.
Move
the
straightedge to the lower end of

these two lines, and
draw
a new,
picture
ridge at the right overhang, and
lower corners.
the
crosses
Place a small check

this dash,
so
it
will
be
vanishing point, and with
original
mately
approxi-
line
inclined dark line to connect the
the original long roof line. (This

is
nal roof outline.
this
the intersection of the long roof

left
cal
extend
dash where the
easy to locate for future reference.
the
before the overhang was begun.)
Now
roof
darkened, and then
that
lightly
was
erased
through the station point.
Mark
dash on the picture plane
line

so that
it
is
at the
top of the short,
where the straightedge crosses it.

and drop a perpendicular to the
vertical line at the roof
two extensions of the roof ridges

on the perspective. Darken the
space between these two lines.
67. There are now three verti-
vertical line farthest to the right.
371
peak,
overhang
and the top of the short
Now
the
darken the distance between

two lines. Move the straight-
edge to the bottom of the two
From Ideas
Part Three:
and draw the
short, vertical lines,
drawn.
small check
on the
mark was
bottom edge of the roof overhang.

69. Use the parallel drawing
earlier placed
instrument on the right side ele-
Beginning about Vs" to the
vation and align
with the top
of the vertical line with the check,
of the horizontal roof line of the
project a construction line to the
Make
offset.
suring
it
a dot on the mea-
where the
line
edge crosses
it.
measure down this

7"-distance, and make another
dot on
the
measuring line.
Although the fascia does not
width
7",
is
at the wall offset building
left
peak.
left
about 5/".
so
passes through the
it
and
ishing point,
van-
left
also through the
left
drawn.
and through the upper dot just

Beginning where the
so
straightedge crosses the front roof
of the front building offset,
at the fascia,
left
of
approximately
W.
\"
left
the vertical line with the check,

project to the
through the right vanishing point,
left
until
of
it
the
is
draw
a line to
approximately
measuring
line.
Again place the straightedge on

the right vanishing point, and
through the lower dot that was
previously drawn.
From
the in-

it
passes through the roof ridge
on the
through the station point.
also
Make
a small dash
plane
line,
dicular to
on the picture
and drop a perpenconnect the two van-
ishing lines just drawn.
Darken
hang peak
of the measuring line.
75.
mark was placed above
check
a dash
it
passes through the top
line
just
drawn and the
short, vertical line to the left of
This dash represents the overhang
the left building wall.
corner in space, and
distance between them.
same plane
end.
From
in
the
occur in other drawings.)

the
straightedge
crosses
the picture plane line, drop a per-
Darken the
Move
it
the
crosses the last
cation.
79. Align
the
through the dot
straightedge
just
drawn, and
through the fascia intersection of

the
front,
and
overhang
side
above the doorway. This

dark
is
a val-
be drawn as a
line.
80.
Draw
a dark line following
along the roof ridge of the front

building offset.
81.
small
was
circle
merly drawn around a dot
for-
at the
roof-ridge end. Position your
left
straightedge through this dot, and
and connect the two vanish-
passes through the left van-
the
likely
Where
straightedge to the bottom of the
ishing point,
of
aligned with a line previously
two short vertical lines, and again

darken between them.

it
is
as the right building
ing lines last drawn.
so
the check mark, drop
a perpendicular to the perspective,
Beginning
roof peak, project a 3"
at this
ley line. It should
at the fascia edge.
Now
edge so
of the
upper building over-
that crossed the picture plane line.
is
right vanishing point.
drawn roof ridge on the perspective, and make a dot at this lo-
approximately 1" to the

small
building offset, and through the
pendicular until
and
resents the
floor plan, at its intersection with
this short, vertical line that rep-
71. Earlier,
the
fascia.
the front roof overhang line,
the lower, front fascia line, proleft
of
drawn, an event which would not
tersection of the straightedge with
ject
and
lines,
lower edge
two valleys and roof ridge on the

floor plan, and through the station
point. (Once again, the straightedge
on the perspective). Again beginning about Vs" to the
edge
vertical
the
through the intersection of the
the side elevation at this
the
darken
to the left of the measuring line
does show on the front
two
these
construction line to the right.
show on
elevation.
Reposition the straight-
line.
edge through the lower ends of
lower edge of the short vertical

line last drawn (approximately 1"
peak,
it
dark
through the new roof peak of the
73. Reposition the straightedge
straight-
Since the fascia
vertical line
Reality
to
and through the top
short,
vertical
line
last
76. Place
the
straightedge
also through the right-end building peak.
Draw
a dark line con-
through the upper corner of the
necting these two points, to
highest vertical line, and the verti-
plete the final roof ridge.
cal
line
representing
the
front
82. Beginning at the small dot
overhang corner by the doorway.
with the circle around
Connect between them with a
straightedge
372
com-
with
it,
the
align the
left
roof
overhang. Most of this
line
is
now
covered by building, but a small

portion next to the
remains.
It
left
roof edge
should be darkened
in.

so
it
passes through the right van-
ishing point,
left
lower
fascia
corner
the
at
Working from
of
the
building
left
to right,
front
ing
point,
fascia
lines
Now
wall.
through the
and darken the two

above the doorway
the erasures. These lines should
align the straightedge
stage of the perspective drawing.
left
vanishing point,
and darken the two fascia
that are parallel to the front wall
without
windows.
straightedge
Position
through
the
Outlines
87. Before you begin to

the
window and door
erase
construction lines pre-
all
viously
draw
outlines,
projected
down
to
the
vanishing point, and through the
perspective. Also, erase the con-
darken
bottom of the fascia beyond the
struction lines between the eleva-
and darken from the
left
ing edge.
bottom of the short dark

line, back to the wall.

left
the
right
Window and Door
offset.
a line to connect to the left build-
through the
lines
be redarkened to complete this
vanishing point,
wall,
86.
The
vertical
tion
and the perspective.
88.
The
perspective
original building out-
were darkened during the
and through the lower fascia cor-
lines
ner to the right of the building
early part of this assignment, and
third
stage
of
this
drawing consists of
drawing the window and door

openings.
To
simplify the draw-
the line farthest to
then subsequently lightened with
only the openings are to be

drawn. As you become more pro-
the right that has been drawn.)
an eraser. The upper portion of
ficient,
Now draw
wall lines, and the intersections of
in detail.
end. (This
is
a line connecting to
the right, rear building corner.
85. Vanish to the right vanish-
Steps 87-95
soffits
with building walls, are
still
probably partially visible through
ing,
To
doors,
you can show these items

begin
the
place your
windows and
square or
From Ideas
Part Three:
drafting
machine
position for
in
drawing horizontal
lines.
Project
construction lines from the tops
and bottoms of all windows and

doors shown on the elevation over
Make
the two windows and also the

two outside vertical lines of each
window. Darken each window
the
outline.
measuring
93.
Each window
still
marked on the measuring line and

then remark these locations on
has a
first
wall line to the
Position the straightedge so
new
passes through the
dashes on the measuring line to
not been darkened. These were
just located
indicate these locations.
projected from the floor plan at
right vanishing point.
89.
From
small
dashes
the
just
the locations
marked upper
marked on the measuring line

draw light construction lines van-
edges.
ishing to the right for the top and
passes through the
bottom of the windows on the
point and the lower rear
right building end.
corner.
90.
Align the straightedge
through the station point and the

rear
plan.
window edge on the floor

Drop a construction line to
the picture plane line. Repeat this
straightedge
the
Draw
left
used
for
so
drawing the windows on the
right
it
vanishing
a short dark line
window down
to
To draw
shown on
the last draw-
ing in this series. These
they
were
projected
94.
Align the straightedge
show how
through the inside window cor-
from
ners just
the
windows to the station point.

91. Each of these six inclined
drawn and
also through
the right vanishing point.
two
lines to
show
Draw
the inside lower
diculars onto the right building
window edges.
95. The longest front wall has
no windows or doors. To be able
to draw the windows and doors
end.
in the
two walls of the building
offset,
it
construction
terminates
lines
the picture plane line.
ends of these
92. Locate
lines
the
lines for the top
From
at
the
drop perpen-
construction
and bottom of
left
is
necessary to vanish
from the heights previously

Step 96.
374
the
Then
left
vanishing point and draw con-
process for the other window.
tion lines
this
in
vanish these heights to the
Please observe the six construc-
the
windows
height measurements to the cor-
to
for
the
ner in front of the door.
edge of the window. Repeat
once
were
front building offset, transfer the
each visible window corner.
more times
as
end of the building.
window
window
five
the
same
door, following exactly the
vanishing line previously

drawn. This represents the inside
step
Draw
inside
from the construction line to the

darkened window outline. Now
darken the construction line from
the top of the
it
heights
procedures
Align
of the
left
line.
vertical construction line that has
to the measuring line.
Reality
to
struction lines for the horizontal
be
lines.
These windows are
completed following the
same procedures
that
were used
for the right building end.
96.
The
front step
the final
is
item to be drawn. Position the

straightedge
so
that
it
passes
through the station point and the

front edge of the step
where
it
touches the longest front building
wall.
Make
small
dash

picture plane line.
Drop
pendicular onto the
and draw
a per-
perspective
a lisht construction line
than
longer
slightly
height as
shown on
elevation.
Repeat
the
step
the building
process for
this
Make
the front corner of the step.
horizontal dash on the
a small
measuring
that
line
the same
shown on
is
height as the front step

the elevation drawing.
Position
the
straightedge
through the height just located
Draw
ing point.
left
vanish-
a dark line to
represent the top of the step.
above procedure
Repeat the
end
for the step
that
even with
is
the front building edge.
two
the
Two-point interior perspective.
Darken
vertical lines to the cor-
ners of the step. Vanish to the
and darken the top and

bottom of the step.
right
97. Erase
all
construction lines
PERSPECTIVE FOR ONE-POINT
and touch up any object lines as

needed so that your completed
perspective
is
vanish toward a single van-
line
ishing point.
One-point perspective
is
very
it
is
plan view placed above the picture

tive
side
positioned so one
is
parallel to the line.
is
ing procedure
is
Draw-
simplified
if
The vanishing
can be located
similar to two-point except the
plane line
identical to the last
two-point perspective illustration
in the
in
any position.
If
center of the perspec-
drawing, you are looking di-
rectly
toward the object.
The four
illustrations
the
edge of the plan view is

placed on the picture plane line.
point
interior perspectives
front
illustrations
shown.
If
exactly the
and the four
showing exterior per-
same
is
let you see how objects

would appear when they vanish
spectives
at different angles.
The procedures
for
drawing
one-point perspectives are almost

to those
for two-point
except that only one vanishing

point
is
used.
The most important
thing to be aware of
is
that
This permits the front perspective

outline to be
drawn
at the
same
and
floor
scale as the elevations

plan.
When
the front outline
is
parallel to the picture plane line
and
horizontal lines are
all
parallel,
it
for
tunity
provides
drawn
an oppor-
one to use any horimea-
zontal line in this plane as a
suring
line.
All
vertical
lines are drawn

on one-point perspective.
vertical
All lines of the plan view that are

at right angles to the picture
plane
One-point exterior perspectives.
375
not
as this drawing,
check through the procedures and

make any necessary corrections.
identical
showing
your drawing
One-point interior perspectives.
one
can measure only on the frontal

plane and that all measurements
must be transferred back to their
proper locations.
One-point perspective
cially valuable
sary to
when
it
espe-
is
is
neces-
show an object with three

The accompanying
sides visible.
illustration
ishing
emphasizes the van-
lines.
It
also
shows the
great illusion of depth that

sible with this perspective
is
One-point pen-and-ink perspective.

1
Describe isometric drawing.
2.
What
to isometric
drawing?
4.
5.
draw non-isometric
Why
6.
using
lines?
an object drawn
is
construction
and
lines
first
then
re-drawn with object lines?

7.
Is
necessary
it
to
remove
What
iso-
Draw an example
9.
and explain
metric circle
of an isobriefly
how
was done.
2.
using
13.
in
this
14.
15.
this
are
8.
What
19.
When
five,
what
its
What
to
perspec-
the horizontal plane?

is
Is
necessary
it
floor plan so
22.
the vertical plane?

to
place
touches the picture
it
how
Explain
the angle
de-
is
plan.
What
23.
24.
What
26.
the chief disadvan-
cabinet drawing?
advantages?
is
is
referring
What
is
one-point
a picture plane line?
is
21.
25.
is
and
20.
an oblique drawing?
is
drawing method?
What
are
lines
drawing method?
What
tage of
What
how curved
isometric.
What
What
the major difference
is
two-point
perspective?
Explain
Explain
10.
drawn
What
between
termined when positioning the floor
drawing?
metric
it
a reversed axis
is
drawings
perspective
plane line? Explain.
construction lines? Explain.

8.
Are
16.
used as plans? Explain.

17.
What is an isometric axis?

What are non-isometric lines?
How do you determine where
3.
to
the main objection
is
perspective drawing?
27.
28.
its
is
measuring line?
use.
What
a station point?
is
determines
What
What
What
What
is
its
location?
a cone of vision?
the horizon?
is
are vanishing points?

is
the
relationship
of
the vanishing points to the horizon?
29.
In
two-point perspective,
how
are the vanishing points established?

Explain.
376
pos-
method.
Sketches and Renderings

tative
Preliminary Sketches
As you know, building plans

must be approved by the prospecand verbal discussions
do not always communicate the
tive client,
ideas of
all
persons involved
in
the planning.
While a project
is
in the
forma-
floor
plan
and elevation
sketches are shown.
There
scale that
no specific drawing
must be used; the size
is
be put on public display or for

making reproductions to accompany newspaper or magazine
to
be given
Renderings
articles, or literature to
of the structure determines the
to interested persons.
scale. But for the average

home plan W'=l'-0" is usually
are also usually done for tract or

development homes, or homes
with stock plans, so brochures can
satisfactory.
made
makes
plans based upon
Determining Need for a Rendering
information supplied by the client
decided upon, architectural ren-
homes may have only simple
and through conferences. These
derings of the proposed building
derings, or
tive
stages,
the architect
several tentative
After a tentative plan has been
be
clients.
available to prospective
One-of-a-kind or custom
ren-
combine freehand and quick
structures such as schools,
none at all, if of conventional size and appearance.

On luxury-class homes, the client
instrument sketches. Usually the
churches, hospitals, or office build-
can well afford complete render-
ings require elaborate renderings
ings so as to judge details.
drawings
beginning
will
probably
worked out
and
then principal elevations. During
floor plan
is
first
may
be required. Large, elaborate
formation of the design, floor plan
drawings
may be done
as a
heavy
single line, or wall thickness can
be added
if
desired.
Very little detail is included

walls, door and window openings,
locations of major equipment, and
the name and approximate size
of each room.
Elevations are also sketched or
drawn
in outline
while ideas are
being developed, with very

detail information.
It is
little
frequently
necessary to sketch dozens of pre-
liminary plans before a final design
is
developed. Samples of ten-
Preliminary floor plan pencil sketch.
377
From Ideas
Port Three:
Who
to Reality
Does the Rendering
Renderings
may be done by the

may have them
he
architect, or
done by studios or individual

architectural illustrators specializ-
ing in this work.
Scope of the Chapter
The
discussion of renderings
here does not treat the subject

fully. It serves as
an introduction
to the topic.
Quality of Materials
If
he had to pay for them, the
learning
Pencil sketch with walls
drawn as
solid lines.
student
could
not
al-
ways afford the best equipment

and materials. However, even a
modest school budget should permit stocking of most supplies and
equipment of satisfactory range
and quality. All materials should
then be handled with great care.
Rendering Mediums
Nine
ums
different rendering medi-
are discussed on the follow-
ing pages,
some
in detail while
others are simply identified. Care-
study of the illustrations ac-
ful
companying the discussions will

help show you how to develop
specific skills.
Transparent Water Colors
Transparent water colors are

available in cake or tube form.
Finished preliminary presentation for plan sketch.
Cakes in metal trays are economically packaged and sold as sets,
Pencil sketch of a front elevation.
with color replacements available.
Tube
colors can be purchased in-
dividually or in packaged
You may
feel
sets.
you should use
cake colors because they are
less
expensive. However, they are

harder to tone with water to just
the right mixture, they can ruin
378
37: Sketches
and Renderings
brush, and therefore
a delicate
are less desirable than tube colors.
To
up color from the
pick
and a similar range of conical

shapes.
sive,
so
Good
brushes are expen-
they
must be handled
become sealed on
the cap does

the tube
may be loosened by
warm water. Dried
it
soaking
in
cakes the brush must be dipped
with care. Never allow paint to
water and rubbed on the paint.
dry in them; always wash them
between the cap base and threads
very hard on the brush.
immediately after they are used.

They must also be washed when
you change colors, so other hues
with a sharp instrument.
do not become discolored.
threads.
in
This
is
Cake
paint
is
convenient for doing
small areas but
is
use
difficult to
even tones.
Standard procedure for using
for large-spread,
tube color:
is
placed
small dab of paint
mixing
in a
tray, dish,
paint can also be picked from
The
do not become bent. They
can either be stored
flat
or in-
the sides
verted with the handles standing
gently.
Mixing
in a tall container.
where
with tight
lids per-
mits storage for future use.
You
Handling color tubes.
If
tubes
to
fill
never to
is
the
cap or
the cap, hold the
tube near the rigid top (where
or jar so water can be added.

in jars
paint
To unscrew
Brushes must be stored so the

bristles
best practice
allow
meet the cap) and turn
Do
hold
not
flexible or
is
it
tube
the
you might
twist the top off.
should mix slightly more color

than you think you will need be-
of water color are to be used they

must be handled with care be-
Use of colors. Water colors are

seldom used full strength, gen-
very difficult and time
cause they are of soft material.
erally,
cause
is
it
consuming
to
match
colors pre-
Don't
squeeze
tube
the
while
viously used.
the cap
You should have two water

containers one for mixing paint,
up pressure. When the cap is removed, more paint than is desired

will come from the tube.
If excess color is taken from
and one
Two
cleaning
for
half-pint
brushes.
or pint jars
are
recommended.
Water color brushes must have
soft,
fine
bristles
for flowing or
washing the paint. One should

have at least three to five sizes
of wide and narrow flat brushes
is
on because
The term
is
flat
wash means
that
deposited uniformly over
an entire area. To do a flat wash,

mix the desired color with water
in the mixing tray or jar. Brush
a sample onto a scrap of the same
kind of paper as being used for the
rendering. This
is
very important
because paint does not look the
same on
all
satisfactory,
papers. If the color
you
apply the wash.
are
ready
is
to
ground
trees are
remove
it
Four
Ways
flat
a strong color
sired, several light
is
wash.
is
de-
washes should
until the right effect
achieved. For best results, a
wash should be dry before another one is placed over it. Also,
if
Graded wash.
Laid-on color.
Wet
into wet.
are to be placed side by side,

one should be dry before the
next one is applied.
Strong colors do not usually
be applied
Flat wash.
Wash
flow on smoothly in a
if
Applying
If
Note: Color on a large finished

rendering will appear darker
than on a small sample.
Therefore,
of
Water Color
difficult to
subsequent uses.
for
sometimes ac-
cented in very intense colors.
it back in by placing the cap over

extended paint. This paint accumulation between the cap and
tube threads makes
For example,
on fore-
shrubs, flowers, or foliage
the tube don't try to hold or force
Flat
color
this builds
only as accents to brighten
the rendering.
two different colored washes
379
Flat washes can be applied to
small or large areas and a smooth

color achieved. If the area
is
large,
the color can be controlled better

if
the area
is
"painted"
first
with
clear water.
Try several sample flat washes

before doing your permanent
rendering.
Part Three:
Diluted water-color
From Ideas
wash rendering.
Strong pigmented water-color wash rendering with accents of flowers, shrubs, and exterior trim of
opaque water
380
color.
to Reality
37: Sketches and Renderings

Steps for Painting a Flat
Wash on
Following the top outline of
a Drawing
the
2.
of the area. Be sure to follow
puddle beneath
the outline very carefully so
until the entire area
the paint covers only the de-
Note:
turn the brush so the tip
washed. Paint with water
With only a little

practice you should be able
to paint up to a line without
only.
leaving
Next, be sure the paint and
over. If the paint consistently
water are mixed thoroughly.
runs over the top
Dip the brush
have too large a puddle.
Lay the drawing
on a
flat
sired area.
space
the
in the
be
to
middle
fill
it.
It
spaces
move
brush,
the
When
the area
of the paint.
barely laps into the wet paint
Regardless
from the
used,
Hold
same
the brush at the
angle as you would hold a
9.
tip
of the brush
in
one of the
up,
this
tray.
You must do
quickly because the
first
stroke cannot be allowed to
dry before the second one
made
or the splice will
is
show
a darker shade.
completely
and then
it
the puddle with the brush.
of the method
do not touch the paper
because this may pick up
more color than desired and
if it is about used
your brush from
refill
your paint
upper corners of the area to

be washed.
Observe the puddle of paint
beneath the brush. To do a
flat wash you must always
have a puddle.
lift
Check the puddle beneath

the brush;
pencil for writing. Place the
and
stroke.
first
is
to partially dry
down
so the tip touches
fol-
paintbrush on a clean cloth
slightly
wipe the brush on the side of

the container to remove part
it
stroke,
last
removed. Either touch a blotter to the puddle or wipe your
Following the side outline of

the area, and without lifting
8.
the
is filled.
washed, you should still have

a puddle at the bottom of the
painted area. This must be
you
line,
brush,
the
lows the area outline.
lapping
or
On
the
moving the
propriate size for the area to
should not be necessary to
6.
across
forth
always
be washed.
of the paint and
5.
and
back
paper,
carefully
4.
Continue making strokes
horizontally to the other side
flat
table. In light pencil, outline
3.
10.
brush
the
brush of an ap-
Select a
stroke
part,
a light area
may
result.
While the color is still damp

it may not appear smooth; this is
no cause for alarm if the surface
is
only slightly uneven.
When
it
dries the paint should level out

to
an even tone.
Graded Wash
A
graded wash
is
shades required. Trying them
very similar
out will help you achieve
to a flat tone except that the color
gradually changes from light to
2.
dark, dark to light, or alternates
from one tone
to another.
The
and how
gradually the tone must change
allover size of the area
determines the number of
Note that
each shade or tint must be mixed
separately and tested before you
4.
area
6.
spaces.
short dashes at
Wash
Determine the number of
cause
it
will
show through
finished wash.
381
the
lightest
color.
apply the second one in the
number of required
Make
the
puddle remains at
the end, pick up most of it.
While the first wash is still wet,
same manner. Lap

the first wash so
Divide the area to be painted

into the
with
If a large
they are correct.
if
Using the same technique as

flat wash, paint the first
for a
7.
both sides of the area. Do not

draw a guide line across be-
start.
1.
Using a mixing tray or a series

of containers prepare the
shades required. Trying them
out will help you achieve this.
Paint samples of each color to
ascertain
differ-
ent shades required.
Steps for Painting a Graded
3.
5.
this.
pronounced line.
Repeat the process
slightly into
there
in
is
no
each suc-
ceeding space, using the color
mixed
8.
for
After the
it.
last
area
is
painted,
remove the excess puddle.
From Ideas
Pari Three:
Laid-On Color
and fences cannot be

added over wash areas or any
short strokes can be formed.
much
water than a wash. The color
other color because the color un-
to
shrubs,
This technique requires

less
much stronger, of
except when very light
tends to be
derneath
course,
is
tints
to Reality
of pigment from the tube
are employed.
show through.
will
It
necessary to leave shapes blank
and unpainted
for
the
laid-on
effect.
outlined very lightly with a pencil
paint, the brush
is
so colors can be confined to their
filled and then laid or touched

onto the paper repeatedly to form
proper areas. Since the paint
a pattern. Also,
is
transparent, items such as trees,
by moving the
brush slightly as
it
is
on.
laid
form
With
lighter accents.
method an uneven
for a shrub,
this
tone, such as
may be
achieved.
Do
not scrub at a spot in an attempt

to
To apply
Areas to be painted should be
The
brush can also be stroked farther
make
the paint smooth.
made
strokes should be
All
with a
flowing motion. Before beginning

a
until you
you have mastered
rendering, practice
are sure that
this technique.
Wet -Into -Wet

This method
is
entirely differ-
ent from those just discussed.
The
should have only a thin film
posited paint without touching
of water washed over
the paper or
medium
dropped into
water on the drawing surface. The
surface must be extremely wet so
colors are literally
For
it.
apply more
spread,
you may
tilt
paper so the paint runs
heavily by using closer pud-
the
to the
desired point.
form designs. By varying

amount of water on the
paper, (2) the quantity and color
For a wide spread, apply

puddles so close they touch
each other. Then smooth lightly. Less water may be applied
close to the edges of an area
where
so the paint won't spread into
bent material. This must be
dropped, and (4) by tilting

drawing slightly, one can
other areas. Note: Prolonged
done with great care
the paint will spread in
dles.
all direc-
tions to
(1) the
of the paint,
it
is
the
(3) the location
may damage
soaking
quickly
Steps for Painting Wet-lnto-Wet

1.
Mix
the color or colors.
plans to do.
The
mix must be stronger than deon the rendering because

the paint is thinned by the
water on the paper.
4. Paint
may be
drawing
sired
It
in
several ways:
Determine how the pattern
loaded brush so
paper. (3)
Using a brush of an appropriate size apply clean water to

the area. (The amount of water
determines how much the

paint will spread.) For only
slight
spreading,
the
surface
it
falls
lightly
It
across
may be brushed
the
it
cess water
surface
edges
at
causes lines of paint
where none are
may
desired.
be
lifted
Ex-
with a
blotter, brush, or other absor-
to prevent
disrupting the paint pattern.

7.
The rendering should remain

stationary until the water dries
and the paint becomes set.

When there is no longer any
water standing on the surface,
may be completed by
drying
applying
into
loaded brush
may be touched lightly to the

water without touching the
is
to appear.
3.
(1)
may be dropped from
the water. (2)

2.
placed on the
water accumulates
of areas
the
paper, so one must work

and know what he
guide the pattern.
6. If
heat
to
speed
the
process.
Note:
board
painted by this meth-
od,
it
water.
is
may
If illustration
buckle from the
The back
surface
may
be pre-dampened to counter-
of
act this.
the water.
5.
To
to
stroke color from one point
another or to spread
designs,
it
into
you may brush de-
382
Note: The clouds for the

opaque water color rendering at
the bottom of page 369 are an
example of this painting method.
14MIH>
Professional opaque water-color rendering.
Opaque Water
Several
different
names
are
used for opaque water colors. The
common
heavy bodied paint similar

pearance
are tempera,
paints.
poster paint, and show-card paint,
This
most
or polymer plastic.
ties
are
available,
Many
quali-
packaged
in
Colors
to
rubber-base
in ap-
wall
life-
small
medium.
ac-
as accents to brighten the render-
many
professionals because
it
Many
water color renderings are mistaken for actual photographs of
makes
realistic
curately duplicates colors that are
a favorite with
quantities in tubes.
color
and the
These are very strong colors,

seldom used full strength except
is
used on building surfaces.
Opaque water
like colors,
details possible with this
medium
graded sizes. Some

manufacturers also package small
glass jars of
a building because of their
times
photographs
of
opaque
Student opaque water-color rendering.
ing.
To
effects,
white.
obtain
natural,
lifelike
they are usually cut with
When
mixing
colors, begin
with the lightest one required.
frwin
Opaque
If
mixing
is
begun
with
water-color rendering
air-tight containers so
in
it
Jomes, Archil
tones of grey.
does not
Note:
If the threads in the lid
difficult to
Paint should be dipped not poured
them it
must be cleaned off so the cap
will screw on properly.
Since this material is heavy
bodied, water must usually be
added so it will spread properly.
However, if good coverage is not
one should prepare

complete the entire
rendering and still have some left
from the original container so the
obtained, too
mouth of the
used.
strong color, an entire jar of white
or on the jar get paint on
dry between uses.
may be needed to lighten it sufficiently! One could add so much
original
white that the rendering might
well stirred, because heavy pig-
become
ors, a
mixture
match,
enough
is
Before removing paint from the
ments
chalky.
As with transparent water

very
col-
so
to
over for touch up.
Mixed paint must be
stored in
opaque
water-color.
container
settle
it
should be
and leave only
ored water at the top of the
coljar.
much water
caked. Always clean the object

being used so colors do not be-
is being
mixing or adding
water use a stiff bristled mixing
brush or a wood paddle; never
come contaminated.
use a paintbrush.
One-point interior kitchen perspective rendered with
004
done
jar will not
become
When
Two-point interior kitchen perspective rendered with
opaque
water-color.
Opaque water
with a
stiff
color
is
applied
brush so paint can be
or shrub
to
is
be painted
in front
may
of a building, the building
and then the area
spread thin. Different sized large
be painted
and small brushes are needed
occupied by trees or shrubs
for
different sized areas to be painted.
moved
Since the paint covers well,
without build-up. Not
it
is
not necessary to have a heavy
Too much
coat.
paint will cause
uneven texture, and

check and flake off. During
air bubbles,
it
will
be spread as
have.
and should
though this is all you
little
paint
painted area should be
smooth with no visible

marks or unevenness in
perfectly
brush
coverage.
in;
Airbrush
An
with
flat,
airbrush
solid colors.
for art
work.
pensive
to
It
expensive,
de-
pending upon the quality of the

equipment. Good equipment is
for school use.
Paint or lacquer
is
placed in a
container attached to the gun and

it
is
forced out and onto the ren-
dering by compressed
air.
The gun
it
is
and then
air pressure
and the
size
nozzle opening (orifice).
of the
The
paint
thin,
is
only a limited
amount can be sprayed onto a

rendering at one time. If a large
quantity
deposited
is
and cause
streaks.
the conventional
but
run
will
Water color
time consuming. The

most important advantage of usit
ing lacquer
is
that
it
dries very
rapidly.
When
using water color
use, but with lacquer
it
is
much
more important. Lacquer should

not be allowed to dry in the gun
because
move.
used,
it
it
is
very difficult to re-
only lacquer
If
is
good idea
is
be
to
to clean
ner in the gun's tank so there
how
no
To prevent paint build-up. a

damp brush may be used to remove paint so a new coat can be
or not
it
tently
fine
applied.
For example,
if a
tree
it
is
sprays and whether
atomized into consisparticles. Generally
it
and then spray lacquer thinner

through the gun to clean the nozzle inside. After cleaning is complete, one may leave a little thin-
consistency also helps determine

well
is
it
important to clean the gun after
them another color without the first one showing through.

repaint
is
material used,
very slow drying, which
is
it
makes
form
will
it
bubbles or drops which
ranges from inex-
very
has adjustments to regulate the
Since colors are opaque,

possible to paint items
a small paint
is
sprayer manufactured exclusively
recommended
but best results are obtained
all
cannot be removed after they

have dried.
After one becomes expert at
using this medium it can be

washed on, graded, or dropped
be painted
opaque
water soluble so some
paints are
application the brush should contain very
so they can
re-
the paint
is
possibility of residual lacquer's
drying and clogging the nozzle.
When
storing, clean all equip-
speaking paint or lacquer must
ment, including hose from the
be very thin to spray well. Since
tank, thoroughly.
air
385
Airbrush rendering.
frwin H. Jomes, Arehit*
From Ideas
Part Three:
to Reality
Items for Consideration in Airbrush Rendering
Before the actual rendering
on inexpensive paper.
Cut exactly on
outlines,
usually a rapidly exe-
is
After all cutting
water colors.
Make a very
the frisket
light pencil
draw-
not cut ends off
items.
all
is
held in a ver-
while
is
it
from the airbrush

is minimized. Most
paint tanks have an air hole
dripping
during use
in the top;
If
is
water color
is
transparent.
used
when
the brush
is
used the paint

If
may be
it
lacquer
is
either trans-
tape
because
orifice
paint,
open, the coverage
is
the
desired,
ment of
brush
the
movehelp
all
is
applied.
The brush should be held

is
used,
flat
do
against
through
this will cut
constant
distance
from
the
rendering and should be

moved across the area at a
uniform rate of speed.
If these
and damage the drawing. Hold tape end clear while

cutting it. Even a small cut is
very pronounced after paint is
are varied the color will not
applied.
ginning on the masking at one
the tape
parts
all
must be masked
be uniform.
Make
the
first
pass or swath
across the top of an area be-
and ending on the mask-
side
some
ing at the other side.
Do
time during the rendering pro-
stop at the edge of the
masked
or have frisket applied at
cess,
is
it
sometimes applied
not
area or a dark spot will result.
After the
upon
strips
of masking tape should
should be
Completely mask off
rate of
determine how much
over painted surfaces. Broad
the quantity sprayed on.
of the
viscosity
and the
parent or opaque depending
first
pass,
the
moved down
gun
so the
never contact painted surfaces.
spray pattern laps about half-
of a rendering that are not to
The paper covering should
be sprayed a given color to
tend almost to the area where
way into the first pattern pass.

Then spray back across onto
prevent them from being tinted
paint
by overspray (paint sprayed

where you do not wish it to be).
Masking: Large areas may be
covered with any paper and
then masking tape used at
edges of the part being
sprayed. Note: Gummed or
the tape lapped onto
plain frisket
all
areas
may be used
in-
stead of masking tape.
the
the surface of the rendering,
Since
paint runs out.
tilted,
complete,
is
area to be sprayed.
the outlines of
rendering
and do
removed from
When masking
tical position
is
ing on drawing paper showing
If a
possible.
not cut past lines at corners.
cuted pencil sketch tinted with
sprayed, the danger of color
Use a
cutting.
when
This
accurate
for
straightedge,
study
is
begun, do a preliminary color
Frisket
is
very thin transparent
or translucent paper or plastic

that
ing.
is
placed over the draw-
The
part to be painted
cut out with a knife while
it
is
to
about a
ex-
be applied, and then
'/i6"
to
it
so only
strip is ex-
posed for adhering to the
important
is
so
previously
not always possible to
the desired density in one ap-
When
new paint are not damaged

when the material is lifted.
Note: Some masking tape has
erage
desired,
a heavy adhesive coat while

others
do
not.
Tape with
is
When
and delicacy
is
plication.
light
applying the color me-
dicate the distance to hold the
requires patience
is filled.
painted surfaces and edges of
adhesive works best.
without
repeated until
It
through
frisket
is
the entire area to be painted
spray enough paint to achieve
is
the rendering. This
at the other side.
Careful tape or frisket removal
dium only experience
the
masking
drawing.
on the drawing. One must cut
damaging
the
This process
air
will in-
brush away from the draw-
ing.
Air pressure,
386
how much the
coats
is
greater cov-
additional
must be applied
in the
same manner as described. For

a more even appearance, the
second coat can be applied up
and down at right angles to
the
first
coat.
Sometimes one desires graded

tones with some areas darker
than others. Instead of moving
constantly back and forth as
previously described, the air-
brush
may be
circular
used
motion
tional paint to
It
is
After
to apply addi-
some
difficult to
how much
in a tight
areas.
judge exactly
paint
masking
applied.
is
is
removed,
colors usually look
much
darker than anticipated.

a
good idea
It
when
experienced person
is
select-
ing the proper pen to use for a
apply only
to
about half as much paint as

one feels necessary, then lift
a corner of the masking and
desired effect.
check the color with areas
straightedge, while irregular lines
Long, straight lines are usually
drawn
al-
or sketched along a
ready rendered before contin-
may be drawn
uing.
hand. Broad areas

in
or sketched free-
may
be
filled
with a brush.
may be
Renderings
either in
the form of very simple line drawIndia Ink
Pens used
There are two different ways

the beginner
( 1 )
for line
may
render with ink,
work or
(2) as a
wash,
or render an entire drawing in a

single color (usually black). Ink
is
applied as solid lines of differ-
ent lengths
and widths
objects, or as shading.
to
form
pens,
may
technical
and crow
either
quill
include ruling
fountain
pens, which are
sharp pointed or
rounded
sizes
or
many
upon
descriptions
the
ings or
cate
may
detail
or
judgment of an
much
include
such
as
intri-
individual
leaves, blades of grass, textures,
and shadows.
Colored inks
kinds
of pens one must check
manufacturer's
rely
flat
in different sizes.
Since there are so
and
pens,
as a
may
wash similar
although
requires
it is
to
also be used
water color,
rather difficult and
much
practice for satis-
factory results.
Pen-and-ink rendering.
Kramer Ond Engstrom,
Architect!. Pork Ridge,
Rendering by Forest Studios, Pork Ridge,
387
III.
III
Part Three:
r*^
EIPJT-LiniT
QUILDIPC
388
PPT
From Ideas
to
Reality
SECOND
FIRST
PLAN
FLOOR
FLOOR
PLAN
LAUNDRY
ll'l
UTILITY
27'
II'
27'
UNEXCAVATEO
UNEXCAVATEO
RECREATION
26' I
69'
BASEMENT
PLAN
Ink line drawings with water-color washes.
389
Part Three:
From Ideas
to Reality
-tf
S^"-
water-color washes.
Pen-and-ink rendering combined with
Pencil rendering.
Erwin H. James, Architect
390
and beautiful
Interesting
sults
re-
can be obtained by combin-
ing the two ink methods, or by
even tones by rubbing the pencil

lightly over the entire area to be
care must be taken while using
colored.
pleted,
substituting water colors or col-
ored pencils for the ink wash.
medium is seldom satiswhen strong or opaque
colors are desired.
Pencil Renderings
When
This
factory
However, some
colored pencils are water soluble.
renderings are done
in
ones from the B series are

normally used; however, for deli-
pencil,
cate lines one
may
drafting pencils.
desire
The
series
After applying color, the drawing
may
be washed with water to dis-
solve
and spread the
tone,
which
them. After a rendering
com-
is
should be sprayed with
it
a lacquer fixative to hold the colors in place.
Scratch Board
This medium produces a rendering with a dark background

and white lines. A finished rendering reminds one of a photographic
gives a water-color effect.
pencil lead
negative or a pen and ink render-
Charcoal and Pastels
ing that has been
shaped depending upon the kind

of line desired. Pressure can be
These two mediums remind

one of blackboard chalk because
to
varied to obtain different degrees
of their soft texture. They are

applied dry by rubbing directly
white paper coated with a chalk-
on
like
may
be pointed,
flat,
or chisel
of shading.
Colored pencil. Colored pencils
can be used
to
add highlights
or small amounts of color to other
mediums such
as
pencil or ink
renderings, or they can be used

for
doing an
Colors
may
entire
rendering.
be shown as distinct
lines or they
can be applied as
the
rendering.
Charcoal
is
black, while pastels are available

in
a wide range of colors.
Very
beautiful results, though not natural
or life-like, can be obtained
with them. Since both
mediums
done in reverse.
With this material, one is able
show very intricate detail.
The
basic
heavy
is
substance and then burnished
to a very
ing
material
is
smooth
about
rendering
is
finish.
The
'A:" thick.
coat-
Before
begun the surface
is
painted with India ink (usually

black) and allowed to dry
The
com-
ink can be spread
are so soft they are difficult to
pletely.
handle and smear
with a paint brush or an airbrush.
easily.
Extreme
Scratch board rendering.
391
Part Three:
Ink rendering
Both methods are satisfactory but

a smoother finish can be obtained
with the
latter.
After the ink
is
avoid damaging the coating. Usa
sharp instrument and a
straightedge where requiredscratch all lines of the subject.
Note:
will
A slight burr on the scriber
make
smoother.
the
Line
line
"peel"
width
can
out
be
Continuous or broken
repetitious
patterns,
lines,
or colored
surfaces need no longer be labori-
drawn or painted. One may
purchase adhesive-backed clear

plastic appliques with lines or pat-
while large pat-
on the scriber. If large areas

must be removed, the ink can be
with either gloss or matte sur-
scraped away with a knife,
faces to
chisel,
Small corrections of errors

scarcely be noticed.
will
keep large corrections from

showing through. To remove un-
to
rolls,
terns or even tones are available
fill
almost any drafting
need.
It is difficult
with
pattern
freehand.
and narrow patterns are
Appliques are easy

only a
little
to use.
With
Rolls
with
from dispensers are
392
laid
to cov-
Curves
sharp knife or
may
instruments
either be cut
as
guides
or
The rest of the sheet is then

removed leaving the cut-out section in place. One must burnish
the surface (rub with a smooth
instrument) to remove air bubbles
and seal the applique to the
drawing.
Entire drawings can be done
practice professional-
looking results can be obtained.
is
any area, the sheet is positioned and partially adhered by

rubbing where the pattern is to
remain. Using a straightedge as
a guide, square-cut around the
er
ors are also available. Individual

lines
instruments as
either with
scriber.
available in
or other suitable instrument.
laid
on them. Both
transparent and opaque solid colterns pre-printed
varied by exerting different pressures
along a straightedge for accurate

straight lines. Curves may be
guides or freehand.
When sheet material
Applique
ously
to Reality
applique'.
wanted lines one must re-coat

them with ink and allow it to dry
before doing them over.
dry, outlines to
be rendered are traced or drawn

onto the inked surface. Do not
exert a great deal of pressure
when penciling the drawing, to
ing
combined with pressure-sensitive
From Ideas
in
this
medium, but
practical as
it
is most
an accessory item.
Procedure for Rendering

There are two opposing views
on the order of rendering a pic-
Some
ture.
ally
render
artists prefer to
the building
because
first
it
Then
after the building
is
rendered the entourage or landscape
is
The reason they
done.
building should be done
feel the
Beginning the Rendering
Decide how the building
usu-
includes the most intricate
detail.
determined by experimentation.
is
to
be viewed; then draw a perspec-
on tracing paper at a suitable

scale. Also draw all required floor
and
sheet,
Other artists feel that best recan be obtained by beginning the rendering at the top and
the most effective layout for the
The
best
is
way
Plan
the composition
of the
draw-
fit upon
you must determine
their titles are to
entire presentation.
For example,
an exterior perspective, interior
the sheet until
views and a floor plan
complete.
included.
for
of several
made up
is
drawings
individual
as described above,
ings
work
composition
long time to complete a render-
one
the entire
If the
plans, interior views, elevations,
important part of the rendering.
down
made.
tions can be
or other items to be included.

entire rendering. If several
progressing
very lightly in pencil so correc-
tive
first is because your most careful

work is done when you begin a
job, and the building is the most
sults
been decided upon, all drawings

must be traced or copied onto
the sheet. This should be done
may be
cleanliness
cover the drawing and then unonly
cover
work
pictorial
where
done. For example,
composition
in
section
the
to be
is
including
view and a
floor plan,
the floor plan should be covered
while the pictorial
is
being done.
Keeping drawing clean
After an arrangement has
you can be
maximum
For
ing.
requires a
it
tant to
its final
is
impor-
appearance.
Introduction to Rendering Details

all
Scope of Discussion
This book does not contain a
lengthy discussion of colors, their
relationships
how
to
colors are
each other, or
mixed
to achieve
additional hues. Neither does
shrubs,
wall
trees,
coverings,
roofs,
and others using
the different media, but rather
For detailed informaconsult a good artist's guide
to include.
or architectural rendering book.
it
as a guide for
Very
shown
in
some
detail be-
the observer, near the front of
frequently
are
later
made to enhance the visual image. The outlines of these items
the plan.
should be exactly as you desire
A SUGGESTED ORDER FOR
do not add inThese are added
to paint them, but

tricate
when
details.
RENDERING
Wall Surfaces
painting.
Remember that
the farther one
from an object the less distinct

it becomes. Trees are a good example of this. Ones in the background will be only general outlines, while ones in the middle
is
and trunk
the entourage.
usually
landscape
distance
able use
Bushes and shrubs are
clusters.
cause they tend to be close to
Perspective Rendering
is
trees,
or others.
Slight changes from the proposed
Planning the Entourage for
If a landscape plan
rocks,
Since most walls have straight
it
gives a broad overview of items
tion
pools,
it
give specific instructions for

painting individual items such as
exterior
landscape items such as
shrubs,
avail-
adding
lightly sketch
show some of
the limb
it is a good idea to outthem with the background
outlines,
line
color of paint to help confine

to the
being used helps
they are outlined but most paint,
Foreground
trees show much trunk and
branch detail and may even in-
straightedge.
clude
frequently used.
structure.
individual
393
leaves or leaf
it
medium
determine how
proper area. The
if
thinned
slightly,
can be used
effectively in a ruling pen, with a
A paintbrush
is
also
Pari Three:
After outlining, the base color
should be applied.
If
you show
details such as individual bricks,
difficult to
drawing
clay
wood grain, texture,

or shadow. Note: Remember that
tails
such as
sometimes paint media require

leaving open spaces so other transparent paints can be used over
the areas later.
If glass
is
to
be transparent
treated as though
exist.
it is
glass. In
paint
in
and ignormal daylight
darker inside a building than

on the outside. When viewing
an exterior
this
causes windows to
and appear dark. They

are usually shown as black, dark
reflect light
grey, dark blue, or dark green.
For very
realistic
renderings,
items such as clouds, trees, peo-
any other object nearby
ple, or
may show
in the glass as reflec-
have a natural finish, grain may

be added by drawing or painting
fine lines using a pencil, colored
pencil, pen. or brush. Glass,
wood
divisions, moldings or
hardware are added when desired.
panels,
Posts, Mullions,
and Beams
These are best added after
them. Their edges are also usually straight and may be ruled
to cover or straighten previous
edges. Since their sides are usually parallel they
should be drawn
or painted using instruments as

guides. After all edges are painted
flat
surfaces should be filled
in.
Since both a face and a side are
shown one will be in

shadow and should be slightly
darker than the other. They may
usually
be wood color, metal (usually silver or shades of grey), or painted

to
tionsnot often required.
match other
trim.
outline of curtains should
are used
for roof surfaces as described for
be sketched lightly with a pencil.

They may be painted with alternate light and dark shades to
walls.
obtain an illusion of folds in the
ent shades to emphasize changes
material.
Folds should be uni-
form and are usually
vertical,
unless the curtains are closed at

the top
and
tied
back near the
bottom. Then the folds follow the

outline of the tieback. It is very
roofing.
roofs, different surfaces
are usually painted slightly differ-
in direction.
may
be
Composition roofing
even or
painted with
graded tones, or horizontal lines

can be added to give an indication
Items such as
if
soil pipes, venti-
and chimneys are shown

drawing scale and the
lators,
the
need
client's
for
detail
warrant
their inclusion.
Medium or dark roof surfaces

highlight and emphasize the
building and make it stand out on
the rendering.
Fascia
and Trim
Like posts and mullions, outlines
of fascias and other trim
done first as straight

and then their surfaces are
painted. Fascias and trim on difare usually
lines
ferent building sides should be in

slightly different tones so corners
are easily recognizable.
They
are
frequently light toned to contrast
with the rest of the rendering.

However, they are seldom painted
is a popuWhite makes them
white, even though this

lar trim color.
appear too brilliant. When they

are to appear white, they are
usually painted a light cream or
Overhangs and Their Shadows
The same techniques
On
frequently used to indi-
light grey.
Roof Surfaces
Curtains
The
match or contrast
is
cate pebbles applied to built-up
with the building. If they are to
it
objects such as draperies
it is
painted a
windows, and doors are

complete because it is very difficult to paint up to or around
did not
it
In other words,
nore the
single color to
may be
walls,
Glass
is
Solid doors
horizontal and
on wood shingles,
slate and others. Stip-
lines
tile,
pling
to Reality
both
simulate
vertical
quite large.
is
Doors
stones, or boards, the base coat
need not be perfectly smooth. If

these are not to be included, walls
should be smooth.
Using a ruling pen or brush,
add lines for mortar or individual
boards as required. Then add de-
add designs unless the
scale
From Ideas
of shingles.
Textures
and
designs are sometimes added to
394
The underside of a roof overhang is usually in shadow and

shows darker than its true color.
Overhangs appear quite small on
a rendering and are usually
painted a uniform color.
ever, if
drawing scale and
Howclient's
needs warrant, individual boards

may be drawn, ruled, or painted.
Since overhangs protrude past
the building, they may cast shad-
Shadows projected 45 from the
left.
ows on walls. A detailed study of

shadows is very complex, so a
simplified method of drawing
sketched
mainder of the entourage is

added. They may be rendered
trees in their natural surroundings
them, suitable for most render-
before or after other items of the
eral characteristics.
discussed briefly:
entourage, depending upon which
ings,
is
lightly
before
the
re-
To determine where shadows

will fall on a wall one must know
others.
the position of the sun in the sky.
dark, varying with the material
Since the sun

the earth,
is
many
miles from
rays are considered
its
For convenience in plotshadows, the sun rays are
items
are
to
show
may
Colors
in
be
front
of
light
or
represented and the desired
frequently
drawn
right or left
of vertical. This simu-
lates
at
45
either
mid-morning or mid-after-
noon in the northern hemisphere,

with the sun midway between
the horizon
and
zenith.
One must know
the overhang
The sky can be rendered
points as the building.

Steps, Sidewalks, Driveways,
and
Streets
These items are usually
his failure
draw more de-
to
than required. Generally, one
in
try to
of the chapter.
unpainted, or
it
first
may remain
may have only
It
planning
other
its
items
it
may
As
be distracting.
stated earlier,
usually
obtain realistic results, one
395
their
the rendering because this leads
background
show general outlines, while some details are included on middle distance trees,
and much detail may be shown
on foreground trees or shrubs.
To
have
finished
mind. If
protrude
Trees and Shrubs
trees
line or
height taper toward the edge of
above the horizon, cloud formations should be planned to fit

with or around them. If trees lap
over clouds,
enough to suggest general shapes.

Background trees should not
the
clouds,
in
intri-
shape and direction.

adding foliage draw only
form a straight
clouds added.
When
capture every
For example, draw
only a few branches to indicate
When
or
Note: Shadows formed by

overhangs radiate either right or
left toward the same vanishing
tail
their general
trees
not.
and a tendency
techniques described at the
Observe the rays

striking the wall and how the
shadow is formed by the overhang. Note also that one wall is
is
makes are
to interpret tree shapes properly,
blue using any of the media or
must be kept
shadow while the
Perhaps the two greatest errors

the beginner
and not
rendering and
in
and gen-
cate detail.
effect
adjoining wall
to ascertain their shapes
of
Sky
total
completely
species
should only suggest their shapes
width so the rays can be plotted

onto the wall. Study the illustration carefully.
many
study
appearance.
parallel.
ting
should
the observer's eyes
away from
the
building, which should be given
the most emphasis.

heights,
or
tall
trees
Uneven
near
the
edge of the rendering, can lead

the eyes back to the building.
Clusters of trees behind and
above the roof near the center of
the
building
can
also
detract.
Foreground trees can add

much interest and give the rendering greater perspective depth.
These should be placed so large

areas of foliage do not block the
view.
Part Three:
Pen and
predominate-
If the building is
ly
straight lined, gently curving
monotony, or
trees help relieve

if
domed
such as a
or arched
roof, straight, tall trees will
phasize
em-
is
two people are included they are
not represented except for very
usually close to the building. Peo-
special renderings.
ple should be
Bare-limbed, winter foliage
Locations of trees and shrubs
Grass
Grass
may be added
before,
or while trees and shrubs
are being done, depending
should balance with and comple-
how
ment the
analysis of the renderings
rest
of the rendering.
an area could
look too vacant without them.
Trees or leafy shrubs are selIn other words,
items
together.
fit
upon
Careful
in this chapter will indicate differ-
they have spaces in them,
and other objects show through.
Contrasting tones with bold, dis-
Small, heavy -needled, evergreen
stinct
That
painted
is.
as
may be
solid
mass.
more solid
form. Except for background
shrubs
trees,
foliage
color.
appear
is
in
seldom a single
edges are also used.
For
realistic
appearance,
to
be very
medium
light.
color
Sides are
and un-
shadow, are dark.

Background trees may have
dersides, in
subdued
color, while those in the
foreground are usually very vivid.
Automobiles
Since automobile styles areconstantlv changing, their inclusion
dates a building. Avoid especially
on an
office
If
that may be hung in the

of a corporation for years.
thev
must be included, use
stvhzed shapes instead of specific

details.
Presentation Elevations
Presentation elevations are

sometimes substituted for per-
People
spective drawings.
Most professional renderings

include drawings of one or more
to create a pictorial effect.
persons to help emphasize per-
drawing
spective
and
to give
an idea of
the drawing scale. If onlv one or
396
mav
trees,
and other items should

have shadows included.
shrubs,
Sunlight makes the tops
usually a
capture minute features: thev
prove to be distracting.
shown
ent ways grass can be represented.

Observe that on some renderings
it appears smooth and flat, while
on others the colors are graded.
dom
engaged in some
and appear to have a reason for being there. Only general
shapes are shown. Do not try to
activity
after,
this.
to Reality
ink presentation elevation.
the building has curved out-
lines
from Ideas
Landscape features are added
The
rendered with any of

the media or techniques used for
is
perspectives.
397
398
/V,
..
*fPI
Growth patterns
for trees
399
and shrubs.
From Ideas
Part Three:
Presentation Floor Plans
Presentation
plans
floor
are
used for illustrative purposes and

not as building plans. They
may
show only wall outlines and major

items plus approximate room
may be
sizes,
or they
tailed
and include
very de-
furniture, floor
coverings, shading in
open closets.
outside details such as garages,

patios, pools, complete landscap-
Any parts may be rendered
in
any
to Reality
laid-on color
is
applied.
32.
or other items as desired.
ing,
how
31. Explain
in
the
Why
should one lightly draw
before
objects
of
outlines
media. The examples here show
painting?
some of
may
33. What is the wet-into-wet

method of applying water color?
397 and 398.)
into-wet.
the different items that
be included and different

ways of rendering them. (See pages
how
34. Explain
35.
to
apply wet-
Why must excess water some-
times be removed?
36.
Questions To Rein force Knowledge

1.
Why are preliminary sketches
2.
How detailed
are these draw-
ings? Describe.
Does an
make
architect ever
need
Who
determines
does
What
scale
the
how
elabo-
be?
9.
is
What does one mean by
What
What
What
are two forms
in
4.
What
When should
washed? Why?
What
drawing surface while applying a
brushes
be
gether
own
your
reasoning,
should a brush be dipped
are these colors seldom
When may
strength?
How
they
does one make a color
When
why
mixing two colors tothe dark color
is
more
Why
is
it
paint than
44.
added
one?
to the lighter
43.
23. From
dry?
is
less intense?
42.
the position of the
is
What
is
advisable to mix
needed?
are two difficulties en-
in
countered
to
wash?
mixed paint
if
is
allowed
accumulate at the top of the
container?
how
to
apply a
flat
wash.
25.
Why
26.
What
is
a puddle necessary?
are two ways
be removed when
it
is
it
may
no longer
needed?
What happens
across an area and

is
28.
What
is
29.
How
is
it
if
Why
is
What
46.
graded wash
laid-on color?
400
tell if
too much
48.
Why
are two devices that

for mixing paint?
should one not use a
regular paintbrush for mixing?
49.
for
What
kind of brush
is
used
applying opaque water color?
Why?
50.
is
can one
47. What
may be used
applied?
a graded wash?
How
water usually added
when stored?
water has been added?
one paints
dries before
applied?
30.
45.
to this paint
the next stroke
are their two recom-
mended shapes?
15.
the size of your
is
if
ex-
professionals?
Why
full
41
How may
moved
be?
brush affect the wash?
27.
kind of bristles should
water color brushes have?

1
24. Explain
Why are two water containers

What
which
recommended?
13.
fore applying a
tube water colors? Disadvantages?

12.
dark colors be ap-
the middle of the diluted color be-
cake water colors? Disadvantages?

1
How may
used
the
available?
0.
20.
40.
best, strong or
Why?
is
before the paint
What
many
with
wash?
Which work
diluted colors?
why
term transparent water color?
it
is
wash?
rendering?
Explain.
8.
9.
22.
rate a rendering should

7.
wash? How
flat
happen
likely to
is
surface
opaque water color?

38. How is opaque water color
usually packaged?
39. Why is this medium a favorite
plied smoothly?
frequently used?
What
is
cessively
37.
What sized areas can be done
18.
does one determine the
drawing scale to use?
6.
What
with a flat
several drawings for one
How
7.
floor
client? Explain.
5.
must water color tubes
applied?
4.
Why
walls
plans?
is
it
3. What are two ways

may be shown on preliminary
to
16.
be handled with care? Explain.
or drawings necessary?
What
the drawing
What
brush to use?
determines the size of
37: Sketches
51.
paint
What happens
if
too much
applied to a surface?
is
52.
and Renderings
Is it
possible to repaint a sur-
opaque water color?

53. How can one prevent paint
from becoming built up when reface with
55.
airbrush rendering?
is
are two kinds of colors
Why?
compressed air
rendering? Which works best?

56.
Why
is
are three factors that
help determine the
amount
of paint
59.
What
What
an
is
tency of the paint?
60.
is
if
are the principal ways
76.
What
is
77.
How
is
scratch board?
color applied to
How
are
lines
scratch board?
Is
81.
Why
82.
Is
beginner to have the rendering

vertical position while
63.
errors?
advisable for the
it
in
must
except the part being rendered, be
84.
What
masked with paper and tape, or
85.
Why
65.
strip
Why
Why
more
66.
are edges masked?

is
adhered
What
is
is
likely to
to
the
happen
is
gers of using this material?
Why
must one remove tape
69. For even tones,
why
moved across
the
drawing at a constant speed? What
happens
if
speed
is
not constant?
times
painted
covering
materials
its
ever indicated?
How?
Why
are roof surfaces some-
ally will
be on the building?
windows or
usually painted
is
Why
why should
are the undersides of
roof overhangs usually darker than
Why
painted a
100.
Is
same color?
are fascias frequently

color?
light
white often used for fascias
101. For adding shadows, why are
Why
102.
45 frequently used
is
for the sun direction?
103.
What
is
the zenith? (This
not answered directly
details?
two methods of
is
in
prog-
parts of the draw-
be protected?
88.
Is
104.
What
in
always exactly
like
the actual
are the vanishing
shadows
that are parallel
are wall outlines some-
drawn with paint before
it
is
ent,
If
how
glass
is
it
is
determine
to
show transpar-
rendered? Explain.
401
106.
How much
detail
does one
render on trees? Explain.
Why
should background
trees not taper to the very
edge of
the rendering?
108.
applied to surfaces?
90.
How does one
which items of the entourage to draw
107.
landscape plan? Explain.
times
105.
is
the book.)
first?
the landscape of a render-
Why
first,
Why?
their trim?
the sun's rays considered parallel?
necessary to plan
are
different
slightly
on renderings? Explain.
the entourage?
it
in
to sides of the building?
ing
same
tones?
ing sheet?
89.
should
are adjoining walls or
points for
ing
or frisket very carefully?
the airbrush be
What
86.
ress,
how frisket may be

and applied. What are the dan-
68.
is
is
87. While rendering
frisket?
Why
94.
transferring drawings to the render-
applied?
What
67. Explain
cut
for en-
rendered
usually
is
dering before any of
only a small edge
masking
of
rendering?
if
be burnished?
the main features of the entire ren-
frisket?
64.
it
a building or the entourage?
first,
always
surfaces
roof surfaces that are to be the
99.
medium used
this
83. Which
Why must the entire drawing,
glass
other sides that are the
renderings? Explain.
tire
spraying?
93. Are
98.
possible to correct small
it
made?
is
on
placed
How?
What is applique?
Why
have
92. Describe the colors suitable
97. Which
80.
62.
light
times painted darker than they actu-
scratch board?
should preliminary color studies be
doing renderings, why
does
for rendering glass in bright sunlight.
96.
pastels?
79.
When
effect
95. Are individual wall or roof
disadvantages of using charcoal or
applied?
61.
in
usually used?
What are the advantages and
78.
too much
is
What
91.
on glass? Explain.
painted perfectly smooth? Explain.
medium?
rendering
Why?
What happens
be
renderings are done

series
What
74.
orifice?
the desired consis-
is
can
detail
medium?
colored pencils can be used as a
deposited on the drawing?

58.
tell
color on the actual building some-
75.
What
to
Why?
necessary?
57.
what
pencil,
are widely used for airbrush
that
difficult
it
this
When
73.
What
What
is
How much
72.
shown using
painting?
54.
Why
70.
how much color is being applied?

71. What are two ways India
ink is used as a rendering medium?
How may
building
shape
affect the shape of foreground trees?

Explain.
09.
Is
way to renhow it may be
there one best
der grass? Describe
0.
Are
shadows
included
Why
is
floor plans.
a person or persons
usually included
perspective
in
2.
in-
cluded? Explain.
it
is
determine
absolutely
necessary to include?
115.
Are automobiles usually
presentation
How does one
what information
renderings?
1
render presen-
on
included
usually
for
items of the entourage?
111.
How may one
3.
114. Describe the amount of detail
done.
1
tation elevations?
terior
Is
information concerning ex-
items
ever
included?
What
kinds of information?
Terms To Spell and
Know
rendering
airbrush
scratch board
transparent water color
lacquer
applique
wash
orifice
burnish
paint puddle
nozzle
entourage
graded wash
color study
media
laid-on color
overspray
stipple
wet-into-wet
frisket
zenith
flat
opaque water
tempera
color
viscosity
background
B series pencil
foreground
middle distance
poster paint
chalky
charcoal
foliage
pigment
pastel
stylized
series pencil
fixative
402
Architectural
Part
Symbols
STRUCTURAL
^
â
7
F^
DETAILS
Variations of earth in section.
Concrete: (A)
in elevation,
(B-C)
Cast stone: (A)
in section.
in
elevation,
(B) in section.
E=
m
Rock
in section.
Concrete block: (A) in elevation,
Cut stone: (A)
(B) in section.
(B-C)
in elevation,
in section.
r^:
pq an
ZZ
c I
I
P
I
bczj ccî
ODD
B_
(A) Small scale concrete block.
Rough
(B) Large scale concrete block.
So??
cut stone: (A) in eleva-
tion, (B-C) in section.
OOO. O
:--;.v.
'
Cinders.
pq
DD
CD
DD
.'
t>
Aggregate
(A) Concrete plank. (B) Rein-
fill.
forced concrete plank.
403
(A)
Random
flagstone. (B) Pat-
terned flagstone.
BB CS
Rubble: (A)
in elevation,
(B) in
(A)
Common
brick in section.
(B) Face brick in section.
section.
Facing
tile:
D&
(A) large scale, (B)
small scale. Structural
tile:
(C)
small scale, (D) large scale.
V/,/,/,/,/,/,/,/,/A
inn in inn
(A) Slate or flagstone in section. (B) Slate or
bluestone
in
Face brick on common: (A)

small scale, (B) large scale.
(A) Glazed or unglazed ceramic

tile in
elevation, (B) large scale,
(C) small scale.
section.
Y///////ZA
o
o
o
o
B
(A) Marble. (B) Terrazzo.
on common. (B)
(C) Fire brick on
(A) Fire brick

Fire
brick.
Lightweight
gypsum
block: (A)
(B) in section.
in elevation,
common.
pi
DIDDOD
c\
A
Brick in elevation.
Terra cotta: (A)
in
elevation,
(B) large scale sect ion, (C) small

scale section.
bC
Plaster: (A) in elevation, (B) in
section.
(C-D-E)
metal lath
Plaster
and
in section.
^^Tol
CL
Itti
Wood:
(A) in elevation, (B) end

edge grain, (D) dimension lumber, end grain.
(A-B) Composition shingles.
Glass: (A) in elevation, (B) large
scale in section. (C) small scale
grain, (C)
in section,
404
(D) structural.
Part
1
J
STRUCTURAL
DETAILS
Glass block: (A) large scale
in
elevation,
in
(B)
large
(CD) small
section,
scale
scale in
section.
B
Horizontal siding in elevation.
Rigid insulation: (A) in eleva-
(A) Steel or iron. (B) Cast iron.
tion, (B) in section.
;,
_
Plywood
in
yv
-J
Small scale metals and
section.
(A)
//////// /A
/////// / /
////// ///
Aluminum. (B) Bronze
a1/>v/V/Jz:
or
brass.
flashings.
-^
7,
Plan view
wood frame
walls.
Masonry
wall:
crete block
and
(A) with
con-
common
brick,
(B) with face brick
and
plaster.
Common
on one
(A)
Frame
phasis.
wall
shaded
(B) Solid
for
em-
Brick wall: (A)
color walls
common,
face.
for presentation.
:
!
^niyy^^
(B)
(A-B) Concrete block with cut

stone.
(C)
Wood frame
with stone veneer.
405
on
two faces, (C) with stucco.
IV
X////////A
13
ZZ2
brick: (A) plastered
face, (B) plastered
wall
& ///////// 3
r V//////////////////X
Poured concrete
wall.
:LH
Wood frame
common
face
M mmmm
bE Wi
M
i*.
ii
with
(A)
wall:
brick veneer, (B) with
brick
veneer,
with
(C)
XAL^lAÂa
Y- { /\.^/y -(Y
:^S 7=Z^
,/
(A)
Common
stone.
(B)
stone.
(C)
with
cut
with
cut
with
cut
stone and plaster.
stucco.
V/,/,/,/,/,/,/,/,A
A/rA
.E
brick
Rubble
Rubble
7y///>//
lV
aE
/ / / / / / / /
wwvvwv
hn*l:1>l1M^
Concrete block: (A) small scale,
(A-B)
(B) large scale, (C) with plaster.
Common and
face brick
wall, (C) with plaster.
(A)
Wood frame
wall with rub-
ble veneer. (B) Concrete block

wall with rubble
(C)
Wood frame
and
plaster.
wall with rub-
ble veneer.
m
B III M
////
ooo
oo ooo o o
Wall section with

(A) plastered
III
sa
oq
I
II
gypsum block
on two faces,
(B) with glazed facing
tile.
(A)
Common
brick with rubble
or rough stone. Structural

(B) with rough stone
ter,
glazed facing
and
(C) with rough stone
tile:
plas-
and
tile.
S/y,
^3
J
(A)
Solid
plaster
wall
with
metal reinforcement. (B) Plaster
wall
with
Structural metal: (A) large

scale, (B) small scale.
channel studs.
c_
(A) Wire
mesh reinforcement.
Reinforcing rods or bars: (B)

large scale, (C) small scale.
(C) Curtain wall with mullions.
Metal: (A) large scale, (B) small

Steel
scale.
406
beams.
Part 2
WINDOW
SYMBOLS
Elevation of double
hung window
In
frame
wall
Elevation
of
double double hung window
frame
(vertical siding).
="
5~
Plan view of double hung window
in
frame
wall.
Plan view of double double hung window
frame
Elevation of double
hung window
in
masonry
masonry
W//////A
3
\////////

veneer
in
brick
in
in
brick veneer wall.
in solid brick
in
solid brick wall.
wall.
hung window
wall.
v/////y
wall.
V///////
in
wall.
Elevation of double double
wall (brick).
in
wall.
'm?7ZK
p^
WZ%
Plan view of double hung metal window with
Plan view of double double hung metal window
plastered returns.
with plastered return.
407
Part 2
WINDOW
SYMBOLS
casement window
Elevation of
in
frame
wall
(shake or shingle siding).
Plan view of casement window
Elevation of double
wall (board
casement window in frame

and batten siding).
frame wal
in
Plan view of double casement window
in
frame
wall.
x^r
-t-~[\ ,1,1
_l
i
,
/
/
/
V\
'
'
Elevation ot
casement window
in
brick wall.
Elevation of double
casement window
in brick
wall.
in brick
veneer
in brick
veneer wal
in solid brick
wa
brick wall.
408
in solid
Part 2
V///////A
V7Z77777fl^
WINDOW
mm
rî
Plan view of metal casement window with plastered returns.
Plan view of metal double casement window

with plastered returns.
SYMBOLS
Elevation of sliding
window
in
frame
wall.
windows
in
frame
Plan view of double sliding windows
in
frame
Elevation of double sliding

wall.
Plan view of sliding window
in
frame
wall.
wall.
s
Elevation of sliding
window
in
masonry
wall
(rubble or rough stone).
Elevation of double sliding
windows
in
masonry
6=2
r^
in
masonry veneer
wa "-
Br^
in
PrÊg
masonry
veneer wall.
in solid
masonry
51
masonry
wall.
409
wall.
in
solid
Part 2
WINDOW
%///////
Y///////L
ULlxif
\\
J///U.
1
}y//x
C^
Plan view of metal sliding window with plas-
Plan view of metal double sliding windows with
tered returns.
plastered returns.
SYMBOLS
/
'
/
/
X
Elevation of awning
'
'
"
/X
'
7X
'
'
window
frame
in
wall.
/v
X.
Elevation of double awning
window
in
frame
wall.
Plan view of awning window
in
frame
wall
!l
Plan view of double awning window
in
frame
wall.
Y~A
Elevation of awning
window
in
masonry
wall
in
Elevation of double awning
window
in
masonry
wall.
(cut stone).
masonry veneer
wall.
410

veneer wall.
in
masonry
3?
Part 2
TT
Jl
in
solid
masonry
WINDOW
masonry
in
solid
wall.
SYMBOLS
II
II
Jl
Plan view of metal awning window with plas-
Plan view of metal double awning window with
tered returns.
plastered returns.
1>
V771
Plan view of fixed picture window with double
hung
side lights in
masonry veneer
wall.
hung
Elevation of fixed picture
hung
side lights in
window with double

frame wall.
side lights in solid
masonry
wall.
Plan view of metal fixed picture window with

side lights and plastered returns.
<=^
hung
side lights in
frame
wall.
Methods of Drawing
Windows in Plan View
Simplified
Single
Multiple
hung
side lights
in
window with double

masonry wall (brick, stack
r///A
Picture
windows
411
in
frame
wall.
frame
wall.
\F=*///A
window
wi,h side M e hts in solid

wal1
bond).
in
windows drawn as presentation.
Multiple
Elevation of fixed picture
window
masonry
Part 3
DOOR
SYMBOLS
1=1
Elevation of exterior panel door
in
wood frame
wall.
Elevation of exterior sliding door
in
wood frame
wall.
in
Elevation of exterior door
wood frame
in
masonry
wall.
wall.
Plan view of exterior sliding door
in
Elevation of exterior sliding door
wood frame
in
masonry
wall.
Y/////////A
V////////X
in
v
masonry veneer
X//////
veneer
wall.
412
wall.
in
masonry
rt 3
Part
DOOR
mm
mtZK
SVM.OLS
in solid
masonry wa
masonry
y////////\
in
solid
Y77?7m
masonry
~y^/\/\/\/
Plan view of interior doors: (A) hinged; (B) dou-
pass
sliding; (E) pocket; (F)
bi-fold;
double pocket; (G)
(H) folding or accordion;
(I)
plastered
or cased opening.
413
solid
W77\
Plan view of exterior sliding door in solid

masonry wall with plastered return.
wall with plastered return.
ble action hinged; (C) double or French; (D) by-
in
wall.
Part
PLUMBING
SYMBOLS
Toilet stools or water closets.
Showers.
^^
T
Shower heads.
Frost free
lar
and regu-
hose
bib.
Corner water
closet.
1
Floor drain and
Floor drains.
backwater valve.
Corner bathtub.
Wall recesses.
Vent pipes.
Built-in bathtub.
Wall
hung
lavatory.
Corner lavatory.
Square corner
Built-in square
bathtub.
bathtub.
414
Part
4
I
PLUMBING
SYMBOLS
c5
I
I
J
Built-in lavatories.
Freestanding and
Built-in lavatories.
Single bowl sink.
Double bowl
built-in
Washer and
L
dishwashers.
dryer.
Laundry tubs.
sink.
Water heater (designate

capacity and fuel).
Double drainboard sink with cabinet.
Shallow bowl sink.
Part 5
RADIATORS
Baseboard radiator.
RAD.
Exposed.
RAD.
Enclosed, flush.
JLAD,.
Enclosed, projecting.
415
Part
SUPPLY PIPES
HOT WATER HEATING SUPPLY
SOIL,
WASTE AND LEADER (ABOVE GRADE)
HOT WATER HEATING RETURN
SOIL,
WASTE AND LEADER (BELOW GRADE)
LOW-PRESSURE STEAM
COLD WATER
LOW-PRESSURE STEAM RETURN
-/
/-
MEDIUM-PRESSURE STEAM
-+
A -h
/-
HOT WATER RETURN
MEDIUM-PRESSURE STEAM RETURN
-#
HIGH-PRESSURE STEAM
-7^
-#
-7^
-#
-ft
HIGH-PRESSURE STEAM RETURN
PNEUMATIC TUBE
AIR-RELIEF LINE
BOILER
SPRINKLER BRANCH
BLOW OFF
AND HEAD
COMPRESSED
SPRINKLER DRAIN
AIR
FOF
FUEL-OIL
FLOW
SPRINKLER SUPPLY LINE
FOR
FUEL-OIL RETURN
FOR
FUEL-OIL
TANK VENT
416
Part 7
Part 8
HEAT DUCTS
AND
ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS
REGISTERS
SINGLE POLE SWITCH
DUCT-NOTE
SIZE
AND
FLOW
AIR
SINGLE POLE SWITCH
THREE
DUCT-NOTE CHANGE
WAY
SWITCH
IN SIZE
FOUR WAY SWITCH
DROP
IN
DUCT
AUTOMATIC DOOR
3E
SWITCH
SWITCH
WITH
PILOT
LIGHT
WEATHERPROOF SWITCH
RETURN OR EXHAUST DUCT
L^
DOUBLE POLE SWITCH
SUPPLY DUCT
SPECIAL DUCTS-STATE SIZE
SWITCH FORLOWVOLTAGE SYSTEM
AND USE
(LABEL)
BATHROOM EXHAUST-
LOW VOLTAGE
1
8"
WIRE
10"
LOW VOLTAGE MASTER

SWITCH
HEAT REGISTER
O'
RELAY EQUIPPED LIGHT-
ING OUTLET
HEAT REGISTER
O-
DUPLEX RECEPTACLE
OUTLET
ING DUCT OUTLET
'
RECEPTACLE OUTLET
OTHER THAN DUPLEX
SPLIT
WIRED RECEPTA-
CLE OUTLET
&
417
GROUNDING
TYPE DU-
PLEX RECEPTACLE OUTLET
Part 8
ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS (continued)

a.
WEATHERPROOF DUPLEX
~~
RECEPTACLE OUTLET
GROUNDING
TYPE
A
A
WEATHERPROOF DUPLEX
RECEPTACLE OUTLET
="
RECEPTACLE OUTLET
WITH SWITCH
(V)
-_-^
RANGE OUTLET
DROP CORD
FAN
FLOOR LIGHTING OUTLET
CLOCK OUTLET
220 VOLT OUTLET
CHIME
SPECIAL-MUST
BE EX-
a
a
PLAINED IN THE KEY TO

THE SYMBOLS
A
A
5
&
'&
JUNCTION BOX
BUZZER
COMBINATION
BELL
AND BUZZER
SQUARE RECESSED LIGHT
(SIZE VARIES)
RECTANGULAR
CESSED
RELIGHT (SIZE
PUSH BUTTON
ELECTRIC
VARIES)
DOOR
OPENER
ROUND RECESSED
LIGHT (SIZE VARIES)
MAID'S SIGNAL PLUG
v
[''
LIGHTING OUTLET
BELL
H HOW-SCENT LIGHT
RECESSED INTERCOM
^^
rf]
4"
(TVJPS
(~ J~
a
|
FLUORESCENT LIGHT
LAMPHOLDER
LAMPHOLDER WITH
PULL SWITCH
PULL SWITCH LIGHT

(SAME AS ABOVE)
418
Part 8
ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS (continued)
INTERCONNECTION
BOX
EXIT LIGHT
ANNUNCIATOR
<
(ADD NOTE TO DESIGNATE JACKS)
REGULAR TELEPHONE
<
ONE SINGLE POLE
SWITCH TO CONTROL ONE LIGHT FIXTURE
INTERPHONE FOR OFFICE
COMMUNICATION
TV. OUTLET
XT.
MASTER POWER
SER-
VICE PANEL
THREE-WAY SWITCHES TO CONTROL ONE LIGHT
LIGHTING DISTRIBUTION PANEL (FUSED OR
CIRCUIT BREAKERS)
SWITCH LEG INDICATOR
CONNECTS LIGHTS TO
SWITCHES
AB
ANY SWITCH, OUTLET,

OR ELECTRICAL DEVICE
AS MOTORS, ELECTRIC
COMPRESSORS, AIR
CONDITIONERS, OR
AB
AB
OTHERS SHOULD BE ASSIGNED A SYMBOL

WITH AN EXPLANATION
GIVEN IN THE KEY TO
THE SYMBOLS.
ONE SINGLE POLE
SWITCH TO CONTROL
THREE-WAY SWITCHES TO CONTROL
419
TWO
TWO
LIGHT FIXTURES
LIGHT FIXTURES
Dimensioning and Notes

Dimensioning
of an object and
states the sizes

its
parts.
This
is
only one end.
The amount of dis-
tance remaining
is
not important.
the only reason dimensions are
Dimensions Based on
must explain all sizes so well there

no chance for mistakes when
Understanding of Construction
interpreting them. In a building
materials, methods, construction,
plan, they should be so complete
and
no additional mathematical
calculations are necessary to
locating dimensions on a drawing.
that
understand the sizes.

Dimensions are placed on a
drawing only
if
they are needed
to construct the object.
ample,
if
window
is
For explaced
from one end of a builda dimension is needed from
lO'-O"
ing,
added
is
building shell
after the
complete. Since
is
is added later, an overall dimension from outside edges of the

brick would require calculations
to determine frame length.
it
placed on a drawing. Dimensions
is
brick veneer
An
understanding of building
sizes
of parts
is
important for
Dimensions are placed so they

measure from parts that are completed first to those that are completed later. For example, if one
is dimensioning a floor plan of a
brick veneer building, the dimensions are placed from edge to
edge of the wood frame because
Basis of Dimensioning Rules
There are many

mensioning.
sible to
It is
rules of di-
not always pos-
observe every rule because
following one
may cause a
One must
viola-
tion of another.
select
the best solution for each individ-
ual situation.
rule
The most important
of dimensioning
is
to
use
good judgment.
Extension and Construction Lines
An
dark
extension
line that
line
extends
is
fine,
at a right
angle from the object or part to
be dimensioned.
An
extension line begins about

from the object and extends
about V%" beyond (past) the last
dimension line. One must know
how many dimension lines are
needed before it is possible to
'/ib"
draw an extension line its correct

length, and it is necessary to have
the extension lines before one can
draw the dimension lines their
out applying any pressure. Con-
proper length. Both kinds of lines
Estimating Space
may
be drawn as very
construction
lines;
then darken
removed
from the working drawing.
Since the
fine, light
the portion needed. Construction
drawn by
struction lines are not
the object
is
and
in
Dimensioning
space between
the extension line
estimated rather than measured,
"floating" the
care must be taken to avoid plac-
pencil along the instruments with-
ing the extension line either too
lines are
420
39: Dimensioning and Notes
Extension lines
close to or too far

If
ject.
it
is
from the ob-
too close, the line
appear as an overrun of the

it is too far away, the
will
object. If
connection will not be clear.
Weight
of Extension Lines
variation
of line width
is
necessary to distinguish kinds of

lines.
An
extension line
is
approx-
imately half the width of an object

line
line.
Note the variation of
weight on the
The second
first
illustration.
shows the
and cluttered
appearance caused by using different line weights and poor spacillustration
lack of uniformity
ing at extensions of object lines.
421
Part Three:
Dimension Lines
A
line,
dimension
the
tension
line
is
same width
line.
It
is
a fine
to Reality
drawings
dark
as the ex-
parallel to the
section being measured.

tectural
From Ideas
and Dimensions
this
On
is
archi-
continu-
ous from extension line to extension
line.
Dimension
object
lines
W from
W
%" to
and are %" to
usually spaced
are
the
apart.
Spacing of dimension lines is determined by the size and complexity of the drawing.
They
should not be placed so close
to-
drawing looks
cluttered or dimension figures are
crowded. Dimensions should not
be too far removed from the section measured.
When possible, dimensions are
gether
that
the
placed outside of the views. If
more than one view is shown,

dimensions are placed between
same dimore than
views. This permits the
mension to serve
one view.
for
Poor application of dimension
lines.
Correct application of dimension lines.
422
Kinds of Dimensions
There are two kinds of dimensions.
how
Local ion
far
thing
dimensions
something
else.
Size
is
tell
from some-
dimensions
the actual size of an object.
tell
I
he
same dimension may show both

and a location.
A dimension for
size
a small part
called a detail dimension.
is
dimension showing the

length of an object
overall dimension.
sions are placed
views,
is
Combined
The
size
and location dimensions.
total
called an
When dimen-
above or between
dimension is
the overall
Location dimensions.
placed above detail dimensions.
When
the dimensions are below
the view, the overall dimension
below the detail dimensions.

the dimensions are between
is
When
Detail
dimension
lines.
and side views, the overdimension is often put to the
the front
all
right
of
the
detail
dimension.
Size dimensions.
Overall dimension line.
II
Overall below detail.
Variations of dimension placement.
423
Part Three:
from Ideas
to Reality
^3
1
'
tt~H|
:_
Overall dimension line to
left
of detail
dimension.
Overall dimension line to right of detail dimension.
When
the dimensions are to the
of a view, the overall dimen-
left
sion
usually to the
is
an
dimension
extension
hidden
line,
purpose
its
stand this.
A center
may end
object
or center
in
line,
mension
Relationship of Extension and
line
line,
cross
of the
left
detail dimensions.
dimension can be drawn from

visible parts.
line,
Keep
line.
mind,
hidden
to
at
under-
line, cut-
ting plane line, or object line
may
not be used as a dimension
line.
Dimension Lines
other extension
lines;
di-
dimension lines. If extension lines must

cross dimension lines (no other
way it can be done), one may
break the extension line where it
When two dimension lines join

end to end, they are separated by
an extension line. Even though
both dimension lines may be
drawn at the same time they are
Dimensions for
distinct.
and Voids
The extension line is considered
mar
lines
cross
crosses or the line weight
may
be
varied slightly.
Interior Parts
lines
Dimensions for interior parts

and voids are sometimes placed
these lines which must be kept
rather than crossing a line. If ex-
outside the views. This requires
show other information.

poor practice, and confus-
tension lines were to cross dimen-
the extension line to cross an ob-
sion lines, one would not be able
ject line.
where lines were ending.

However, extension lines may
called for a break in the extension
No
figures
may be
placed upon
clear to
It is
ing to dimension
hidden
This should not be done
parts.
if
the
as passing
between the two
to tell
424
line
Old established
where
it
practice
crossed the object
39: Dimensioning and Nofes
*
|
Crossing extension and dimen-
Extension
sion lines.
lines
crossing ob-
|ect lines.
-<line.
Architectural draftsmen usu-
ally cross the object line with the
extension
line,
leaving no break.
Acceptable arrows.
-<r
Identifying Ends of
Dimension Lines
An
identifying
mark
is
used to
terminate dimension lines

they end
arrow
is
at
extension
when
lines.
An
the conventional symbol.
The arrow may be either the open

or closed type. Arrow size is determined by the size and complexity of the drawing.
It
is
Arrow
size
and shape.
-<
usu-
drawn about
wide and
long. The sides of the arrow
should be symmetrical. However,
ally
one cannot waste time when drawing it. Arrows in architectural

drawing are usually free flowing
in character.
7^
Because of the time required to

form arrows, architectural drafts-
men
frequently replace them with
a diagonal
dash
extension
and dimension
at intersections
of
Diagonal dashes replacing arrows.
lines.
425
Dimensions on symbols.
*
the bottom of the drawing sheet.
All vertical dimensions are read
from the
(I
When
right side of the drawing.
pictorials are used, the di-
mensions are parallel to the dimension lines. Architectural drawI
ings
employ the aligned system.
The unidirectional system
Circles replacing arrows.
places
all
dimension figures so
they are read from the bottom of

the drawing sheet.
Thus all dimenbottom

is used
and some
sions are parallel to the
of the sheet. This system

primarily in the aircraft
and
automotive
building
ship
industries.
Figures for Dimensions
Dimensions show the length of

figures must
not be crossed by other lines.
They must be lettered so well
there is no possibility of workmen
the section. These
Dots replacing arrows.
Modern
practice
sometimes uses
symbol and section
dots or small circles instead of
cross the figure.
arrows. In modular dimensioning,
to
combinations of dots and arrows

are used. The arrows show all
tion lines are placed
modular measurements; all fractions and uneven inch measurements (non-modular) are shown
lines
with dots.
Dimensions on Symbols
and Sections
When a dimension is placed on

symbol or in a sectioned area,
add
all
It is
lines
good
do not
practice
dimensions before
sec-
on the views.
Extension lines and dimension
may
cross a sectioned area.
mis-reading them. Lettering size

is
determined by
of the
plexity
lines are
drawn
and comGuide
for all lettering.
One never becomes
so
experi-
enced that they are no longer

needed. Professionals always use
Dimensioning Systems
them
There are two systems of placing dimensions on a working

drawing. The aligned system
places the dimensions so they are
parallel to the dimension line. All
horizontal figures are read from
only exception
426
size
drawing.
for
standard
plans.
The
one is using
very thin tracing paper placed
is
if
over a grid paper, as described
Chapter
in
heavy guide
lines are on a sheet from which
a tracing is being made.
31,
or
if
M^ ~~
Combining arrows and dots
for
modular dimensioning.
ii
VZZZZZZZZZl
I
1
Y////////Z//
n=i
Aligned dimensioning system.
Unidirectional dimensioning system.
427
From Ideas
Part Three:
8'-0"
*
6'-2"
|
4'-5"
Better placement of dimension figures.
Poor placement of dimension figures.
The lower edge of
to Reality
the figure
is
about '/i6" above the dimension

line. Standard size of dimensions
is
Vt", however, on a complex
working drawing such as a floor
plan, V12" may be more suitable
for crowded areas. Names of
rooms should be at least W. A
beginner may measure these dis-
but
tances,
after
experience
is
acquired they are estimated.
When
two or more dimension

dimen-
lines are closely parallel,
sions are placed so they are not
each other.
directly in line with
This makes them easier to read

and helps avoid reading errors.
As mentioned
dimenon a drawing
earlier,
sions are not placed
Manu-
unless they are needed.
factured and pre-assembled parts

Dimensions
for
an object with one circular
part.
are dimensioned only where
and
when
im-
necessary. If a size
is
portant in relationship to some-
2'/i"
thing to be built, the size
On
added.
is
architectural drawings,
measurements over 12" in length

are shown in feet and inches, as
8'-0"
7'-3'/4",
or 6'-0'/2 ".
measurement
the dimension
(If
Dimensions
for
an object with two circular parts.
space
as O'-iV*".
limited the 0'
dimension
torial
shown
the
12",
may be
on
lines are
iso-
metric, perspective, or other pic-
1V4"
is
If
than
omitted.)
If
2'/2 "
is
less
is
sions
drawings, of course, dimen-
made
are
in
the
same
manner.
Dimensioning Circles
,1
1,
-b- -[)--
When
dimension
given to the center of the
The
"
parts of an object are
circular, the overall
circular part
is
is
circle.
dimensioned
separately.
Location and center-to-center dimensions.
428
Location of
circles
is
also di-
39: Dimensioning
mensioned
to
and Notes
the center of the
When
two or more circular

forms are shown, such as holes,
center-to-center dimensions are
circle.
given.
When
the size of a circle (solid
or void)
ameter
large
dimensioned, the dishown. If the circle is
is
is
enough
to place the
sion inside the circle, the
dimendimen-
sion line should pass through
its
added above
and are read from the
center. Figures are
the line
bottom or right side. If the dimension cannot be placed inside

the circle, outer dimension lines
penetrate toward the center.
If there is more than one circle
on an object and only one is dimensioned, all other circles are
the same size. If there is more
than one circle on an object and
only one location dimension is
given, the other circles are equally
spaced.
fy
7'0
(O
Dimensions
for equally
spaced
4'-0"
Dimensions
for circles.
<T&
429
circles.
From Ideas
Part Three:
to Reality
tween the object and extension

line as on rectangular objects),
and a dimension arc radiating
from the vertex is drawn. Angles

may also be dimensioned to show
the ratio of rise to run. This
is
used to show roof slope.

Leaders and Notes
All information cannot be pre-
sented graphically.
Some must
be
presented as lettered notes and
symbols. If space permits or
if a
note applies at only one location,
may
the note
jfr
to the part.
be placed adjacent
pointer called a
shows
leader
the
being
part
discussed.
There are two kinds of leaders.

is drawn freehand and the
One
other
is
drawn with instruments.
When drawn
all
with
leaders in
drawn
the
at
instruments,
given area are
same
No
angle.
prescribed angle is used; however,

30, 60 and 45 are common be-
cause triangles have these angles.

Lettering from different leaders
is
uniform.
leader
same
is
a fine dark line the
thickness and weight as an
extension or dimension
leader
should
is
line. If a
pointing to a
touch the
pointing to a surface,
line,
If
line.
it
it
it
is
should
end on the surface. The leader is

leading the eye from the note to
the part. The end of the leader
Arcs
(vertex)
An arc is dimensioned
ing
its
radius.
by showThe dimension line
should terminate
at the center
arc.
ter
it
is
placed outside the
must point toward the cen-
of the
arc.
To make
clearly visible,
practice to
it
make an
is
the center
Dimensioning Angles
When
angles are dimensioned,
extension lines are projected from

the angle
('/i6"
space
430
is
left
(at the part)
an arrow
should terminate with
or,
if
dots are being
is no arrow
on the other end. There should
be Vt" to V\b" space between the
leader and the lettering.
used, with a dot. There
crossing the center of the arc.
of
the arc. If the dimension line (or

a "leader")
more
common
be-
Horizontal
drawn
guide
lines
for lettering the note.
are
The
Mechanical
and freehand
leaders.
NOTE ADDED FOR DESCRIPTION
Codes
OMISSION OF
ON
DETAIL
lettering should be of
SYMMETRICAL
DRAWINGS
referring to notes.
priate size.
note
is
The
first
an approletter
of a
frequently capitalized and
other letters are lower case.
all
When
the
all
capital letters are used,
first letter is
sometimes made
For architectural
drawings, neither of the above is
stated as an absolute rule. The
lettering style is determined by
slightly larger.
the individual firm or draftsman.
The same note

Dimensions
for angles.
be used
set
will frequently
at several locations
on a
of drawings (sometimes on
different pages).
When this is true,
one note may be used for all locations by placing a code letter or
figure near the end of the leader.
431
Part Three:
If clearly
may be
understood, the leader
and whether
to use letters or fig-
and the code

placed near the part. These codes
ures,
usually refer to a series of notes
Application of Dimensioning Rules
omitted
that have
all
been grouped
in
building parts,
(styles).
is
sizes,
The code
or patterns
letter or figure
usually placed inside a circle,
This
is
done
rule does
not always insure
its
proper use on a working drawing!

If rules are not followed or if
omissions of dimensions are
made
because of an inadequate under-
triangle.
standing of them, an incomplete
to bring attention to
plan will result. As stated earlier,
rectangle,
square,
the draftsman's decision.
Statement of a dimensioning
one
convenient location, or they may

refer to charts and schedules of
is
or
state
that
dimensions
are placed outside of the views,
However, reason says

that a floor plan must have many
of the dimensions inside the view.
if
It
possible.
is
common
practice to place
dimensions for windows and exterior doors outside the view

(floor plan). These are usually
placed on the first dimension line.
Dimensioning Windows and
Doors on Floor Plan
Wood windows and
doors in
frame construction are dimensioned from an outside wall

to the center of the window or
typical
door.
When
several
windows
make one large unit (as a picture

window with double-hung side
this chapter.
involved.
of working
derstanding of the items being
dimensions or have them wrong,

the work will be in error. This is
discussed, one should study
on a drawing
Rules
A complete set
drawings concludes
you dimensioned
square and it should have been
16" square, the workmen have no
way of knowing this. Extra care
must be taken to be sure that all
sizes are correct and that detail
dimensions, added together, equal
the total or overall dimension
workmen can
For example, if code letters

placed on doors, all door
codes might use letters and all
might be in squares. Or if windows were being coded, all codes
might use figures and be in circles.
Circles are not always used to
code windows and squares are not
always used to code doors, this is
an example. Whether to use a
DIMENSIONING FLOOR PLANS
pier as 24"
build the object. If you omit any
the reason dimensions are placed
square, rectangle or other shape,
to Reality
Each item discussed on the following pages is shown on the

completed plans. To gain an un-
the coded part.
are
From Ideas
so
is
in effect telling
men
to build the
part any size they choose.
men must
Work-
make
and
constant reference to the
completed plans.
It
is
not pos-
sible to cover all situations or all
building
methods of drawing and dimen-
they are not responsible
sioning on one set of plans. Other
for correcting your errors.
plans in the text show additional
Chances are they won't know you

made an error. For example, if
items and other ways parts
plans;
the
or three awning
lights,
in
follow
one
unit), the
windows
dimension
is
to
may
be drawn and dimensioned.
window
or door opening. All wall
and opening
sizes are
dimensioned.
the center of the group. This does
windows or doors may

be placed anywhere one desires.
Pre-planning places one edge of
the window or door on normal
not imply
stud
spacing.
The window and
door manufacturer and specific

units must be selected before the
finished and rough opening sizes
can be determined. For the beginner, an instructor may suggest
approximate window sizes rather
than have you select a specific
window. This saves time and still
teaches the
way
it
is
to
Windows and doors
be done.
modular
construction (solid masonry, masonry veneer, and modular panfrom an
els) are dimensioned
outside wall to the edge of the
432
in
Dimensioning Offsets
in
Exterior Walls
The second
line
exterior dimension
usually shows the irregular
shape of the outside walls. All

offsets must be dimensioned. If
the exterior wall
its
is
straight
for
entire length, of course, a sec-
ond dimension
line
is
not needed.
On
frame construction the first

dimension is drawn from the edge
of the studding and not from the
face of the exterior wall covering.
measured from
Masonry veneer over wood frame is measured from the corner studding.
One may show the distance from
Solid
masonry
is
the outside corner.
the edge of the studding to the
outside face of masonry as a sep-
arate detail dimension.
\////////^
Other Outside Dimension Lines
The
overall dimension line
the
for
from the view).
same
the
is
It
location
mensions of
terminates
as
detail
at
di-
one desires to show overall dimensions

of masonry veneer over wood
frame,
lines
offsets, or if
two
mav
dimension
overall
be used.
Porches or landings, steps, and

areaways may require an additional set of dimension lines.
These are usually placed between
the
window dimension
and
lines
wall dimension lines. Exact location will
depend upon shape.
Floor
plans
usually
reference,
for
Overall dimension lines
mas
workmen time during
construction.
Since
the
scale
small,
tell
it
of
is
exactly
working
where exin a
Then
con-
spicuous place stating where di-
mensions are taken. For example.

on a frame building with masonry
veneer, as described earlier, the
note might read:
paragraph on
elevations. Or. for reference purit
may
be placed in both
This saves estimators
locations.
and workmen from turning pages

necessary
find
same size and style have the

same code number or letter. If a
window or door is the same size
the
as another one,
style, the
code
is
sizes
not a
is
and
manufacturer
is
mation
is
small and
and no
specific
desired, the win-
sizes are sometimes

on the plan. This infor-
is
placed next to the part
and replaces the codes. Details

are
much
better than just putting
the size on the plan.
and exterior doors are

all coded and keyed to the same
door schedule. All doors for all
stories are placed on the same
door schedule. All windows are
Interior
NOTE: ALL DIMENSIONS ARE FROM OUTSIDE EDGE OF STUDS.
Or
it
might read:
NOTE: EXTERIOR DIMENSIONS ARE FROM
433
If
Code and Schedule

an opening
in
masonry
wall has masonry above
it.
lintels
are required. For small structures.
the lintel size
may
be lettered by
the opening as in the illustration.
For larger structures, or
if
several
lintel
sizes are
letter
or figure on each opening
required, a code
A comshown in
refers to a lintel schedule.
plete lintel schedule
Chapter
Interior
is
40.
Dimensions
Every room or enclosed space
dow and door

lettered
in this chapter.
Lintel
must have width and length dimensions. All offsets in rooms

must be dimensioned. The length
large variety of
styles,
schedule.
Use of
shown
building
the
window
Examples of door and window

schedules are shown in Chapter
40 and on the dimensioned plans
but a difTerent
different.
door and window codes is

on the dimensioned floor plan
accompanying this chapter.
there
placed on one
information.
All windows and doors that are
not always
tension lines are pointing.
must be placed
previous
example was
given of placing notes on windows
and doors. A code letter or figure
system to identify each window
may be used on the floor plan or
If
is
possible to
a note
In
for
leaders and notes an
to
four
be placed on each floor plan to
drawings
Code and Code Key

Windows and Doors
require-
overall dimensions arc show n. one

on every side of the floor plan.
This is not to he done unless one
has a good reason for it.
save
OUTSIDE EDGE OF STUDS; INTERIOR DIMENSIONS ARE TO CENTER OF STUDS
poses,
only two overall dimensions, one

for length and one for width. Occasionally,
Application of code notes or figures.
dimension (farthest
last
of
all
stub or partial walls must
be shown. Distances across plastered or cased openings are shown

if
lengths of rooms and stub walls
do not give an adequate

description.
Dimensions for adjoining

rooms or spaces should be kept
in
line
when
(even) with
each other
possible.
The dimen-
it
is
sion lines should be placed in a

relatively
open space. Consider-
able pre-planning and
trial
ment are necessary
avoid con-
to
place-
flict with symbols and names of

rooms and parts.
Part Three: From Ideas to Reality
Dimensioning Interior Doors

If
Dimensioning Equipment
are measured to the door centers,

a center line
sion
Show
dimensions for interior doors
is
is
used. If the dimen-
to the edges of the door, or
the rough opening, a regular ex-
tension line
used.
is
A note should
a//equipment, cabinets, bathroom
any other item to be

dimen-
fixtures, or
installed, unless previous
(as
make
their location obvious.
for
shown only
door openings are measured
on
(rough opening, finished opening,
ble,
One must
re-
member
all
codes,
as
place
to
described earlier.
Dimensioning
in
Since a hall
become
with extension and di-
cluttered
mension
lines
and figures. If at
one row of di-
possible, only
all
mension
lines
Generally
is
it
should be used.
not necessary to
have an overall dimension for the

hall. However, the width must be
shown. Note how dimensioning
has been accomplished on the
sample first-floor plan.
Names
of
Rooms and Spaces
Each room and space (closet,

hall, dining area, etc.) must be
prominently
identified.
This
room
or in the center of
larger
Vt",
may
be Vie" or
permits.
Dimension
but
if space
it
much
is
possi-
indicates the
indicated only once. If they are
not
all
same on each
the
symbols show the

items.
These are not

floor plan. If
the exact location
is
required, or
wiring diagrams are needed, a
separate electrical plan
is
drawn.
is
usually
shown
on the view, rather than outside it.

Illustrations on page 435
show different ways of dimensioning walls. These should be studied
carefully so you can select the
most appropriate method for dimensioning your own plans.
If the
as
lines,
de-
will
fit
into the
Remember
completed
that the part
is
be viewed from the cutting

plane line, toward the arrow or
to
"code key" circle. This same code

key is also placed on the detail or
drawing.
shown on
Examples are
the sample floor plan.
Heat Registers and Radiators
The general
and the
and return
sources are indicated on floor
plans. These are not usually dioutline
of
mensioned.
are
all
location
heat
If complete heat plans
required
they
drawn
are
separately.
Joists
working drawings are
to
include a complete set of framing
diagrams,
show
tails
plan.
section
Wall Thickness
Wall thickness
plane
and shown in Chapter 35,

are drawn on the floor plan to
indicate where sections and described
dimensioned on a
Overhead
story,
every change needs to be noted.

Cutting Plane Lines
general (approximate) location of
if
shows the ceiling

joists over it. If all joists on each
level are the same size, run the
same direction, and have the
same spacing, they need to be
better to prepare
Symbols
all electrical
floor joists;
first
floor plan
first
Cutting
its
open space. Size of lettering depends upon the complexity

of the part. Names of rooms are
largest
usually
When
detail drawings.
is
usually done near the center of

the
they are not given
if
Electrical
quite narrow,
De-
large-scale detail drawings.
Halls
is
walls)
dimensions for the above are
tail
Electrical
the drawing can easily
windowed
sions
be placed on the floor plan to

designate how dimensions for
center of opening).
For example, a basement plan
location dimensions for
it
floor
is
and
the floor plans.
not necessary to
ceiling joists
on
However, since
conventional framing today usu-
does not have framing plans,
Plumbing Lines
Except for very small strucplaced and

dimensioned on a separate plan.
Examples of plumbing lines
shown on the regular working
drawing may be seen on the samtures, these are usually
notes and figures in a small area
ally
may be
outside the object, a leader points
necessary to show joist size

and spacing. The symbol is placed
and noted as shown on the sample floor plans accompanying this
chapter. Each plan shows the
drawing
to
overhead
cated. See plans, pages 499-527.
as small as
'Ab".
Equipment not recognizable by

its shape must have the name
lettered on or near the object. If
it.
it
is
joists.
434
ple footing
and foundation
plan.
Designation of Scale
The name and

must be
scale
of each
clearly
indi-
1
J
"1
1
YA
"
Methods
Kd
..
Different
of
dimensioning to
ways
walls.
of
drawing cutting plane

lines.
435
From Ideas
Part Three:
Title blocks with this information
are included. If not in the
name and
block,
shown on
title
must be
scale
the plan.
DIMENSIONING AND NOTES

FOR ELEVATIONS
dimensions
Overall
shown on
are
not
elevations, since they
on
are given
they
cross a
may
dimension
all
Dimensioning Footings,
When
footings
and founda-
tions are
drawn on
the plan (they
always),
total
footing
depth below grade must be shown.

When the building is to have seveach must be
eral footing depths,
shown.
One must
also
show the
height (depth) and width of

footings. If
same
size
all
most footings are the
but some are different,
the typical size
is
shown and a
note added stating that
all
are
dimensioned difEach foundation thickness (width) must also be shown.

Only one dimension is required
if all are the same size. If more
than one thickness is required,
the typical one is noted and all
different sizes are shown. These
dimensions may be repeated on
two adjoining elevations when
all elevations are not on the same
drawing sheet.
The thickness of a basement or
this size unless
ferently.
crawl space floor
is
for
all
areaways,
all
Height and width (length) of

changes in wall covering ma-
terials
must be shown unless
location
obvious
is
For example,
ends
at the side
their
because of
their relationship to
part.
if
some other
stone veneer
of a door, and
also shown.
is dimensioned
on the floor plan, a dimension is
not needed on the elevation. Vertical location dimensions for parts
may be taken from grade line or
floor line, whichever is more applicable. Horizontal dimensions
are taken from an outside wall or
offset
(not necessarily the
same
one).
The top of foundations or bottom of joists are dimensioned

from grade. Basement or crawl
space height is dimensioned from
the bottom of the floor joists to
the face of the floor below. In
addition, a
floor joist
combined thickness of
and subfloor is shown.
They
ing joists. If
state
this.
require
also
ceiling
joist
and subfloor dimensions.
Window, Door and
Dimensions
Sill
Window and door
heights are
dimensioned from the face of the

subfloor to the top of the sash or
door and not
to the top of the
When the tops of all windows

and doors are a uniform height,
only one height dimension (from
the subfloor) is required. If
heights vary from the standard
used, each window or door that
is not the same height as others
is dimensioned separately.
Actual window height and
distance from the floor to the bottom of the window are not usushown.
ally
are needed
is
usually
mea-
it
is
measured from
point, a note should
Note:
When
tion of stone
436
sills,
and
loca-
they must be
Horizontal location dimensions
windows and doors are not

shown on elevations because this
information can be found on the
for
floor plan.
Glass size may be indicated on

each window. The width is shown
A code
one placed on
the floor plan may also be shown
on the window.
and then the
height.
letter similar to the
A
size
8'-0" ceilings are to be used, the
laying masonry
shown. Height of stone sills and

their distance above the subfloor
are shown.
note
and
typical
measurement is not exactly 8'-0".

Allow also for the finished floor
and ceiling material thickness.
dimensions
If these
when
walls, or to give the size
first
Ceiling height
sured up from the top face of the

subfloor to the bottom of the ceil-
some other
to Reality
Additional stories are dimensioned the same as the first story.
casing.
the door location
Foundations, and Special Details
not
required
exterior parts.
figure,
be omitted until
dimensions and notes are placed

on the drawing. Otherwise considerable pre-planning for dimensions and notes is necessary.
are
are
porches, landings, steps, and other
floor plans.
Since section and symbol lines
do not
measured from
the top of the pier to the bottom
of the footing. Complete sizes are
usually shown on separate details.
If they are not shown elsewhere,
complete sizes must be dimensioned on the elevations.
Location and detail dimensions
Pier heights are
is
style
needed
to
show
the
of window and door
casings unless detailed elsewhere.
Chimney Dimensions
It is
not necessary to
show
hori-
zontal location dimensions for a
and Notes
39: Dimensioning
Name
chimney because these are shown

on floor plans. One must include
detail and overall dimensions for
the chimney.
struction that
Total height
is
shown from
the
ridge to the top of the flue liner.
Notes are placed on roofs to

describe the kind and weight per
features such as ridge finish
and flashing are

If flashing
tions
and
details,
is
is
it is
not
in
other loca-
shown on separate
noted on the elevations.
described in Chapter 51.
Scale used
When
lators are required, these are di-
mensioned or notes are added

not shown on separate details.
if
when
notes,
Size
and
they are applicable:
Notes describing size (diameter), I.D. or O.D.

Location dimensions for heating-cooling source (furnace and
Amount
soffit
materials.
of overhang on each
Name
and notes of
all
wall
covering materials.
Indication of roof pitch. Only
one
is
required unless different
roof slopes are used on the same

building;
then each slope must
Names
masonry bonds
or siding patterns and reference
of
drawings of same.
Height of steps and offsets of
floor
and
ence to
air,
hot water, steam,
for
all
pipes or ducts;
notes stating sizes used.
pipes, ducts, registers, or
radiators
fit
into or pass through
a wall.
Location and size dimensions
may need
and recesses.
shown on
to be
regular floor plans.
Check the plan
sure
ceiling levels, or refer-
details.
Plans for large buildings
all
they do, describe required
vice. If
parts.
of
Location
convenience
all
outlets, boxes for lights
and
switches. All other electrical
equipment such
as motors,
pumps, fans, disposers, and mixers must be shown and dimen
when
required.
Lines (as on a regular floor
plan) connecting switches and

convenience outlets or lighting
outlets
do not describe actual
wire location and are not
When
wires are placed in con-
exact location
One
is
shown
if
the
necessary.
is
should add notes describ-
ing size of
all
wires used,
size,
and location of all junction

boxes, and descriptions of electri-
carefully to be
heating-cooling
cal connections.
Identification
details
Note: Study carefully the
Location of low voltage trans-
Location of door chimes and
transformers.
Telephone or jack locations
plan. Also study the heating dia-
when
Chapter
437
48.
individual
formers and relays.
sample footing and foundation

in
of
circuits.
are fully described.
grams
may
require details of entrance ser-
type,
for all pipe chases
These
manufacturer and
the
duit, its location
Location and size dimensions
where
cir-
One
dimensioned.
in btu's.
Runs
all
to detail
put
be indicated.
name, model, kind of fuel, system
side of each roof.
cooling source. Notes describing
heat pump, or other) and the out-
and kind of downspouts
of
be accommodated.
list
sioned
Information about the heating-
used (forced
required.
Location dimensions for supply
lines.
gutters.
Fascia and
may
Fuel storage size and location,
they apply:
Number
circuit breakers.
Heating plans should include

following dimensions and
air conditioning).
when
Location of entrance service.
Note for voltage, amperage, and

whether the system uses fuses or
not in-
the
and
dimensions
model number.
Dimensions and Notes
inclusion,
is
DIMENSIONING
Other Items Requiring
The following items arc found

on almost every plan. Your elevation should be checked for their
it
when
in the title block.
Heating Plans
louvers or other venti-
when
following
notes
cuits to
when
Louvers or Ventilators
Electrical plans should include
the
cluded
also indicated.
used
may need additional
note on omissions and er-
square of roofing material. Special
Electrical Plans
dimensions.
rors, as
Roof Covering
of each elevation.
Check plan carefully for unusual items and methods of con-
they are to be installed dur-
ing construction.
N
o
Check the plan
sure
all electrical
details are fully
described.
Remember: Only
trical
partial elec-
plans are usually
shown
for
small buildings and the detail in-
formation
is
Remember: Only
carefully to be
information
incorporated with
is
the floor plans.
North point indicators should be attractive but simple.
Dimensioning Details
incorporated with the
Plumbing Plans
Small-scale plans do not ade-
designer or draftsman feels di-
quately describe or allow space
mensions or names of other parts

are necessary for an adequate
description, they are added.
The code key on each detail
for
Plumbing plans should include

following dimensions and
the
when
dimensioning
intricate parts.
Therefore the details are enlarged

separately.
Since
there
are
in-
building. Size of collar required
no attempt
will be made to show where each
dimension on every drawing is to
be placed. One must follow good
dimensioning practice when placing all location and detail dimen-
where
sions.
note
is
used to indicate
di-
and distance from edge of
rection
building to water main and sewer.
Location of water line entering

passes through exterior
it
foundation or basement wall.
Location of water meter.
Location
and
size
finite
of water
and type of fuel

Manufacturer and model
number may be shown.
Indication of size for all water
and drainage lines.
Location and size of soil stacks
and vents.
Sizes of all pipes and kinds of
connections noted on schematic
heater; capacity
is
when
when
drawing. This
con-
crete floors or walls are to be used.
Note
Note, describe, and dimension
size
special traps
and location of
and
drains.
cisterns, dry-
wells, catch basins, or septic tanks.
When
drainage
quired, the size
tile
fields
are re-
and methods
of installation are noted.
usually set in
When
tails,
it
a plan includes
is
Check the plan carefully to be

all plumbing details are fully
sure
described.
438
is
arbitrary. If the
many
de-
necessary to have sev-
eral letters
required. This
especially important
is
code. Notice the
through floors or walls and the

size collars,
detail
Examples of the code on smalldrawings keyed to the detail

are shown in the illustrations.
scale
manufactured parts are

not usually dimensioned unless
size or shape affects other items to
be constructed. Only the actual
part being emphasized, or its
location and relationship to other
parts, is dimensioned and names
of parts lettered or noted on the
pipes passing
all
The
must refer to the location of the

on other parts of the plan.
detail
with adjacent parts. As mentioned
diagram.
Location of
possible details,
earlier,
used.
plumbing plans are usually shown

for small buildings and the detail
floor plans.
notes,
partial
tem on the
and
figures for each
numbering
sys-
illustrations.
Careful study of these
illustra-
and the sample plans will

help you gain an understanding
of dimensioning and coding detions
tails.
the
When
same
studying a detail, find
detail as
shown on
other parts of the plan.
all
and Notes
39: Dimensioning
the metric system
METRIC MEASUREMENT
the
to think in
is
rather than to at-
tempt to equate metric units to
90%
About
new terms
of
customary. However, during the

transition
make
it
be necessary to
will
conversions. This chapter
world's
the
countries have adopted the metric
measurement system (Systeme InMetric Decimal Prefixes
ternational d'Unites), frequently
referred
as
to
much
After
SI.
essary
legislation
establish
to
000 000 000 000
10
000 000 000
10
10-year
metric
conversion pro-
for the United States.
Much headway
has
10
are
now
0.001
0.000 001
=10
and operating manDual dimensioning means

both metric and customary
0.01
0.000 000 001
0.000 000 000 001

0.000 000 000 000 001
0.000 000 000 000 000 001
giga
G
M
kilo
hecto
deka
da
(Units)
working plans,
0.1
firms
specifications,
that
10
using a dual dimension-
ing system for their
uals.
Prefix
tera
mega
= 10
= 10
10
Many
conversion.
already
been made by business and industry toward complete or partial

metric
= 10
000 = 10
100 = 10
000 000
gram
Symbol
Multiplication Factors
study, Congress has initiated nec-
deci
centi
milli
<
micro
'
nano
10
10
pico
= 10
15
femto
18
otto
10
shown. In many businesses the dual system will probably be replaced by complete
units are
Metric
metric conversion.
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
When established ways of doing

new pronew almost
things are discarded and
cedures adopted, the
always appears more

is
difficult.
true that conversion
system to another
the metric system
itself is
Unit
The
metric system
on multiples of
mm
centimetre
cm
cm
decimetre
metre
dm
m
kilometre
km
square centimetre
cm 2
square decimetre
dm 2
square metre
m2
are
hectare
ha
square kilometre
km 2
cubic centimetre
cm 3
Length
but
the
metre
the
is
is
based
basic
Area
of
unit
1/100 of
a metre; a kilometre is 1000 times
a metre. Conversion from one unit
length.
to another
to the
centimetre
is
easy.
is
Compare
customary system,
in
Volume
which
and 1760 yards
method
cubic decimetre
litre
milligram
gram
Mass
best
millilitre
cubic metre
in
a mile.
The
ml
dm
for learning
kilogram
metric ton
439
IcmJ
1ml
dm
mg
kg
=' 00 "
3
(
= ,ooomi
= 1000
mg = 0.001 g
g = 1000 mg
kg = 1000 g
2
2
m'
this
there are 12 inches in a foot, 3

feet in a yard,
(
(
= 0.001
= 10 mm
dm = 10cm
m = 100 cm
km = 1000 m
cm = 100 mm
dm = 100 cm
m = 100 dm
a = 100 m
ha = 100 a
km = 100 ha
much
For example,
10.
Units
mm
simpler than the customary system.
Relationship of
Symbol
millimetre
It
from one
is difficult,
Quantity
t=
1000 kg
From Ideas
Part Three:
includes conversion charts as well
frequently used. These are: milli-
as tables of metric units.
metres
these tables to
Study
(mm) and
metres (m).
become
familiar
(In technical practice, centimetres
As
they re-
are seldom used.)
with the terms used.

late to building
(but not accurate enough to be
construction two
measurements
are
most
list
size
The following
an initial approximate
comparison of these units
gives
Reality
used for calculations).
linear
to
1
1
mm =
approx. 0.04" (3/64")
= approx. 0.4" (13/32")

m = approx. 3.3' (3'-3 3/8")
m = approx.
yd. (39 3/8")
cm
1 .1
Measurement
Metric
AND DERIVED UNITS
BASIC
Quantity
Symbol
Unit
BASIC UNITS
Length
metre
Mass
kilogram
kg
Time
second
Electric current
ampere
Temperature
kelvin
Luminous intensity
candela
cd
Amount of substance
mole
mol
DERIVED UNITS
Area
square metre
Volume
cubic metre
Force
newton
m
m
N
Pressure
pascal
Pa
(N/m 2
Work, energy, quantity of heat

Power
joule
(N -m)
watt
Electric
charge
coulomb
(kg -m/s
)
(J/s)
C
V
(A-s)
Voltage, electromotive force
volt
Electric field strength
volt
Electric resistance
ohm
11
(V/A)
Conductance
siemens
(A/V)
(A -s/V)
Electric
capacitance
per metre
(W/A)
V/m
farad
Luminance
candela per square metre
cd/m 2
Illumination
lux
lx
Thermal conductivity
watt per metre kelvin
W/m
Radiant intensity
watt per steradian
W/sr
Activity (of
a radioactive source)
per second
440
s"
(lm/m
K
2
)
2
)
39 Dimensioning and Notes
Approximate Conversions from Metric Measures

Symbol
When You Know
Multiply By
To Find
Symbol
LENGTH
mm
millimetres
cm
centimetres
m
m
metres
metres
kilometres
km
0.04
0.4
inches
in
inches
in
3.3
feet
ft
1.1
yards
yd
0.6
miles
mi
square inches
square yards
square miles
in 2
0.4
2.5
acres
AREA
cm'
km 2
ha
square centimetres
square metres
square kilometres
hectares (10,000 m 2
0.16
1.2
yd 2
mi 2
MASS (weight)
grams
0.035
ounces
oz
kilograms
tonnes (1000 kg)
2.2
pounds
lb
1.1
short tons
ml
mlllilitres
0.03
fluid
litres
2.1
pints
Pi
litres
1.06
quarts
qi
litres
gallons
gal
cubic feet
cubic yards
yd 3
9
kg
VOLUME
n3
m3
cubic metres
0.26
35
cubic metres
1.3
"c
Celsius
ounces
floz
ft
TEMPERATURE (exact)
temperature
9/5 (then
odd 32)
Approximate Conversions
Symbol
When You Know
to Metric
Fahrenheit
temperature
"F
Measures
Multiply By
To Find
Symbol
LENGTH
in
inches
2.5
centimetres
ft
feet
30
centimetres
cm
cm
yd
yards
0.9
mi
miles
1.6
metres
kilometres
km
in J
square
square
square
square
AREA
ft
yd 2
mi
m2
2.6
hectares
0.09
yards
0.8
miles
cm 2
0.4
6.3
feet
acres
centimetres
metres
metres
kilometres
square
square
square
square
inches
km 2
ha
MASS (weight)
oz
ounces
pounds
lb
short Ions
(2000
28
0.45
0.9
grams
kilograms
tonnes
g
kg
t
1b)
VOLUME
tsp
tbsp
II
oz
teaspoons
tablespoons
fluid ounces
cups
5
15
mlllilitres
ml
millilltres
ml
30
millilitres
ml
1
0.24
litres
pt
pints
quarts
0.47
0.95
litres
qi
litres
gal
gallons
3.8
litres
cubic feet
cubic metres
Yd 3
cubic yards
0.03
0.76
"F
Fahrenheit
temperature
cubic metres
TEMPERATURE (exact)
5/9
(after
subtracting
321
441
Celsius
temperature
WOO
443
wOO 6
-ll-'Mhi.nH^HTri
t^L
~"
444
ZOl
vuOt
446
447
448
39: Dimensioning
and Notes
449
Part Three:
450
From Ideas
to Reality
39: Dimensioning
and Nofes
4
ij
-
S91
1
'
4
z
O
I
08
oc
013
451
Part Three:
From Ideas
to Reality
80
62 mm
POLISHED
PLATE
MIRROR
^r
ie:
.46
.
47
-48
.53m
1.42
SECTION
BATHROOM ELEVATION
Zt^
DRYER VENT
r~r
ii
,
1.55
BATHROOM ELEVATION
SECTION
452
^\
453
Part Three:
From Ideas
FLOOR CONSTRUCTION
ALTERNATE
NAILER
-FLY
RAFTER
NOTCHED SHIM
.20
7x
7mm SQ. WIRE MESH
BEVEL SIDING
LOUVER
DETAIL
SECTION
454
to
Reality
and Notes
39: Dimensioning

1
Why
an understanding of
is
building construction
tant
dimensions on a
placing
for
methods impor-
What
the most important
is
3.
What
4.
How much
is
between the
an extension
space
outline
and the extension
is
allowed
of the object
the length
extension
extend past the outside (overall)
dimension line?
What
7.
it
drawn
same
the
Is
for architectural
and machine drawings?
On
8.
what
drawings,
architectural
adjacent dimension lines?

trols their
What
con-
spacing?
Which
is
Why
drawn
first,
an ex-
are construction
for extension
2.
26. Approximately
how
large
ing
and
construction
lines
re-
line length of
extension and
dimension lines?
What is a location dimenWhat is a size dimension?

15. What is an overall dimension?
14.
sion?
Is
it
is
a detail dimension?
size
or
location
7.
What
May
one use an object
line
8.
Dimension
19.
lines
may end
at
lines?
Are dimensions measured
from hidden parts? Explain.
a leader and
is
What
46. At what angle are leaders

Explain.
How
48.
line
weight used
are leaders terminated?
dimensioning
49. Explain
Do symbol
or
section
lines
the aligned system
is
50.
is
the
In
What dimensions
51.
unidirectional
modular construction, how
dimensioning done?
of placing dimensions?
is
for
wood
in
frame construction.
a dimension figure or note?
What
when
two methods of
are
wood windows and doors
area?
are usually
placed outside the view on a floor
plan?
system of placing dimensions?
system
used
is
What
on
lettering
is
When may this vary?

34. When are guide
for letters
35.
drawing?
is
tween a guide
used
How
it
of
size
is
54.
this
plans
floor
impossible to
tell
line
exactly
pointing.
is
remedied?
What
a code
is
letter or fig-
ure? Explain use.
and a construc-
55.
How many window
schedules
are there on a complete set of work-
tion line?
lettering
makes
where an extension
lines
the difference beline
from the view?
53. Small
and figures?
What
are overall dimension
lines farthest
the standard size of
working
Why
52.
on
architectural drawings?
is
complete?
37. Are dimension figures placed

directly
as a dimension line? Explain.
what kinds of
What
used?
it
for leaders.
36. Are guide lines removed after
dimension?
16.
lines for arcs ter-
47. Describe the
symbol or sectioned
What
is
it
extension or dimen-
33.
Does one measure the spac-
Describe.
is
45.
May an
cross
arc
drawing leaders?
sion line cross a
28.
an
of
lines
and dimension
moved from a drawing?

13.
43. Dimension
drawn?
27. Explain some of the ways
vertex
is
line?
32. Which
Are
out-
is
points toward the
it
minate at the
marking ends of dimension lines?
31.
lines?
1
the dimension line
42. The
44.
methods of
are four
tension line or a dimension line?
drawn
marked with an
Explain.
and outside of the views.
What
30.
Which
above?
preferred?
is
sion lines.
10.
If
side the circle,
24. Explain placement of dimen-
29.
Describe the weight of dimen-
9.
cross
may be drawn.
the approximate spacing of
is
lines
inside
line
of the circle.
an arrow on the end of a dimension

a dimension line?
is
cross
41.
extension
three questions
25.
How much does an
6.
lines
dimension
passes through the
circle
dimension
May
22.
sions inside
of an extension line?
line
May
21.
40.
cross
23. Are there exceptions to the
line?
line?
What determines
5.
lines
dimension lines?
dimensioning?
rule of
extension
dimension lines?
working drawing?
2.
May
20.
extension lines? Explain.
above each other?
38. Circlesaredimensioned show-
ing
56.
What
57.
quired
ing their
39. Arcs are dimensioned show-
455
What
is
information
What
in
many
door
lintel
is
schedule?
included?
dimensions
are
re-
each enclosed space?
58. Explain
doors
ing their
How
drawings?
schedules?
two
ways
may be dimensioned.
interior
Part Three:
59.
What
notes
or
codes
60.
Why
are only minimum
mensions placed
in
66. Are plumbing
are
placed by each door?
first
di-
a hall?
67.
61. Explain lettering sizes to be
62. Are
63.
How
on
are
joists
floor
64.
How
is
What
shown on an
thickness
70. Are
71.
all
shown
ceiling heights
roof
is
Window and door
72. Are vertical
heights
sions usually
window dimen-
shown? When are they?
Terms To Speff and
75.
How
is
How
exterior covering for
is
walls indicated?
in
How
77.
What
chimney
78.
dimensions
roof overhang shown on
79.
How does one
what dimensions
to
80.
How
Know
arc
vertex
leader
building shell
center line
section
note
overrun
hidden
unidirectional
schedule
cutting plane line
grid
sphere
location
code key
perspective
cylinder
dimension
symmetrical
pictorial
rectangular solid
size dimension
arrows
center-to-center
prism
line
weight
456
on
are details coded?
symbol
line
determine
place
dividual detail drawings?
modular construction
dimension
Is
object line
extension line
are changes
materials indicated?
modular dimensioning
line
(slope)
roof covering
overall dimension
dimension
pitch
elevations? Explain.
are dimensioned to what location?
detail
How
are required on elevations?
on elevations? Explain.
and dimensioned on
dimension
or
height?
65. Are heat registers or radia-
a floor plan?
footing
is
infor-
drawn? How are the codes
indicated
Footing
elevation?
glass size indicated
is
indicated?
Why?
times
or foundation width
used with these lines?
tors
How many
Reality
indicated?
76.
a cutting plane line?
is
74.
the scale of a
Are overall dimensions
69.
How
to
on an elevation?
sizes
included?
What
is it
68.
plan?
indicated and
noted on a floor plan?
mation
Where may
placed on elevations?
equipment
exact
shown
73.
placed on
floor plan? Explain.
drawing be shown? Explain.
placed on floor plans.
usually
lines
From Ideas
in-
<a
Organization of Building Plans
Building plans will not always
onto standard
fit
sized
complete,
sheets.
size
Therefore sheets arc sometimes
made
to
fit
the drawings. Natu-
rally, all sheets in a set
are the
same
of plans
it
is
of 8':"xl
trimmed
1".
to a final
All standard un-
later
Borders
standard sheet size
Borders are used to frame the

drawings and give them a finished
twice
is
as
one preceding it. On

the diagram of sheet sizes, the
Use standard sizes if possible.

They permit more economical
purchasing and also aid in handling and filing.
is
trimmed and trimmed sheets are

multiples of these two sizes. Every
large as the
size.
light and fine. The page

trimmed along them.
numbered
rectangles
list
smaller or trimmed sizes

then give the larger,
the
and
untrimmed
first
appearance. Their marginal width

is
variable, but they are usually
drawn between W" and

except for the
W wide,
border which
left
from 1" to /:" wide to permit

binding individual drawings into
1
Trim Lines
Sheet sizes are standardized by
numbers. The smallest
is
a No.
the next larger size a No.
so on.
is
is
SI/CS.
Standard Sheet Sizes
The untrimmed No.
2.
1
sets.
Regardless of which
1,
is
used-
and
standard or non-standard sheets-
size
trim lines must be
9"xl2". After the drawin
the
is
final
size.
added to show
These are drawn
set
Of
course,
8'/2"x 11"
ir
17"
17"x22"
22" x
Border Lines
*~-
12"
12"
18"
18"
24" x 36"
24"
The
ing sheet helps determine

the
sheet
lines
The
line.
are
rally, in a set
all
of plans they should
be the same width.
When one
trim
measures and draws
and border
on each
misjudgment
lines
sheet, the slightest
it.
wider the
that border
the
Note
more prominent than
other lines on the drawing. Natuborder
9"
1
no standard border
size of the draw-
is
line width.
larger
No.
borders in a
ratio.
There
34"
all
of sheets should have the same
can cause them to be different.

For best results, do one sheet lay-
Standard trimmed and untrimmed sheet
sizes.
457
out and then trace

from it.
all
others
STEVEN'S GENERAL HOSPITAL
Titles
Every sheet should have an

appropriate
title.
There
is
way all titles should be

drawn. The information to be included in the title and description
TAMPA, FLORDIA
common
locations for
are:
titles
the lower right-hand corner of
( 1 )
the sheet. (2) across the
JONES, ARCHITECT
A. R.
best
is variable, but some firms use the

same conventional title for all
their drawings. The three most
end of the sheet.

The sample titles show a variety of ways they may be drawn
and information to be included.
The samples with much information are from plans for large
SHEET
AVENUE
TUCSON, ARIZONA
1357 SUNVIEW
PLAN
357
N0.|
NO.
DATE
DRAWN BY
CK'D BY
DATE
DRAWING
THOMAS CAVANAUGH
701 INDEPENDENCE BOULEVARD
NO.
CHICAGO
bottom of
the entire sheet, or (3) at the right
REVISED ON
4423 RIVERSIDE DRIVE
no one
24, ILLINOIS
SHEET
JOHN DUMBKOWSKI, ARCH.
REVISIONS
NO.
2016 HICKORY DR.

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
REVISIONS - DATE
BY
buildings. Plans for small build-
DESCRIPTION
ings frequently have abbreviated
titles
which contain
JOB
little
DR. BY
information.
On
TR
elaborate
large,
sets
plans, each sheet has a full
Simple
sets
may have
of
BY
CH. BY
C.W. HEATH, Assoc.
DATE
title.
216
APPROVED
a formal
on the first sheet only.

Both complex and simple sets
have all their sheets numbered.
NO
SHEET
NO
NORTH PARK
MONTEREY,
AVE.
CALIF.
title
On
cluded in the
sets the
the
number
large sets the

title
numbers
block.
On
is
small
are inserted at
lower right-hand corner of
each sheet, as
HOUSE FOR
in-
in the illustrations
DRAWING NO.
927-43
REVISIONS
on the right.
For a professional appearance,
the main body of a title is seldom
lettered
printed
When
freehand.
titles
able, they
pre-
the individual
drawing such
as
name of the client, his address,

the name of the project may
be lettered freehand.
CK'D BY /f ./*&
%" = r
OATE
PAGE NO.
7 of 12
PLAN SERVICE
HOUSE FOR
MR.
lettered with
template. Information concerning
or
SCALE
are not readily avail-
may be
MAOE BY /?JXr?
FRONT ELEVATION
DELUXE
a MRS.
ARCHITECT
a mechanical lettering device or
the
SAMUAL WARNER
470 61 ST COURT
SAN DIEGO, CALIFORNIA
458
EDWARD P DIETER
370 DATON STREET
ATLANTA, GEORGIA
J.
PRIBBEN
PLAN NO.
56
SHEET
767-0193
9
Titles for building plans.
NO.
40: Organization of Building Plans
Remember that all drawings

have auxiliary information that
must be included. Dimensions,
notes,
titles,
indication of draw-
ing scale, leader lines,
ing
and
letter-
require space, and must
all
be considered when planning the

sheet.
drawing scales are
If different
used on an individual sheet, each
must be indicated near the appropriate drawing.
sheet
If the
contains only one drawing scale,
need be indicated only once.

indication may be in a prominent place on the body of the
drawing or it may be placed in
it
The
the
title
block, but
one should use
same method of indicating

the scale which he is using,
the
throughout the
Arrangement
set
of plans.
of sheets.
Schedules
Arrangement
of the Plan
always placed on separate pages.
There are seldom exactly the

same number and kinds of sheets
in a set of plans, so one cannot
establish an absolute order.
Nevertheless, plans
gorized so
all
may be
cate-
similar information
grouped properly. The illustration showing a set of plans has

is
sheets
numbered
in the following
If these
may
be placed on the
as other drawings.
floor plan sheets
same
sheets
For example,
may
contain
all
related detail drawings, or eleva-
sheets
tion
may
contain details
pertinent to them.
Every drawing sheet must be

make good use of
space, but information should
organized to
plan.
its
2.
Footing and foundation or

basement plan.
be as clear as possible.
sheet contains only one drawing,
3.
Floor plans.
it is
5.
6. Details.
7.
Framing
8.
Mechanical plans.
plans.
and
If
more
one drawing is included,

they should be related. For example, if a front and rear elevation are above one another, their
and
Sections
centered on the page.
When
than
Sections
should be in line.
Spaces above, between, and below
them should be the same.
extremities
details
are
not
to a very small scale
and
most items are only symbolized,

it
is
not possible to include
all
Chapter
39 discusses how to identify and
use code letters and figures. These
necessary
information.
where detailed information

about items such as doors, windows, iintels, room finishes, and
others are organized into lists
ules
Schedule of symbols and plot
4. Elevations.
Since most building plans are
drawn
codes frequently refer to sched-
Sheet Layout
order:
1.
plans are simple, they
459
which give
each item.
When
specific details
about
drawn
for a
plans are
specific building, the items to
be
included determine what sched-
No
two different
would call for
exactly the same schedules or
ules are used.
building
plans
direct information.
Good
tant
schedules are an impor-
part of
any building plan.
From Ideas
Part Three:
PRECAST CONCRETE LINTEL
STEEL LINTELS
CLEAR
SPAN
Binding
SCH EDULE
LINTEL
STEEL LINTEL SIZES

LENGTH "THICK WALL 4" THICK WALL
2'-0"
3'-4"
2-3'/i"x3'/i"x 5/i6"
4'-0"
5'-4"
2-3Vi"x3'/i"x s/i
6'0"
7'-4"
2-3 /7"x3 /!"x 5/is"
8'0"
9'-4"
10' -0"
11 '-4"
12'-0"
13'-4"
8l-18.4
+ 12"xV
14'0"
15'-4"
8l-18.4
+ 12"x>/."
CLEAR
SPAN
building plan should have a
cover page to enclose the
REINFORCING PER 4" WALL
LINTEL
to Reality
protect
LINTEL LINTEL REINF.

LENSTH HEIOHT TOP.BOT.
This
it.
set
and
may be an
ex-
panded version of
may
block or
title
copy of a
3-3'/!x3'/!"x s/u"
2'-0"
3'-4"
7'/i"
l-#3
it
3-3'/ix3'/!"xyi"
4'-0"
S'-4"
7>/"
l-#3
rendering. After necessary prints
3-3'/?x3'/)"xVi6"
6'-0"
7M"
s
7 /."
l-#4
2-5"x3'/i"x s/,"
3-5x3 J4"xi"
8'0"
9'-4"
15 !/i"
l-#4
2-6"x3W"x%"
3-6x3 '/i"x s/,6"
lO'-O"
ll'-4"
15 s/."
l-#5
12'-0"
13'-4"
15V."
!-#
"
reproduced
are
KEY QUAN. SIZE
DESCRIPTION
FRAME
ALUMINUM
EXTRUDED ALUMINUM
ALUMINUM
WOOD
3'0"x7'0"xl V,"
3'-0"x7'-0"xiy."
2'-6"x7'-0"xl J/."
BIRCH
who
Are
1.
LT.
BIRCH SOLID CORE
BIRCH
1A-
are to use them.
Knowledge
MTL.
3'-0"x7'-O"
left
SCHEDULE
bound
or stapled (usually along the
edge) together and distributed to
and assembled
into sets of plans, they are
those
DOOR
also display a
building plans
all
drawn
WHITE PINE
HOLLOW CORE
BIRCH
on standard sized pages?
WHITE PINE
why not?
44-
As a
2.
Why
rule, all sheets in
or
a set
made the same size.

From your own reasoning, do you
of plans are
suppose there
ROOM SCHEDULE
AREA
WALLS
CEILING
FLOOR
BASE
TRIM REMARKS
ENTRY
PLASTER
ACOUST.
ASPHALT
RUBBER
W.P.
BLOCK
RF.
What
3.
DESCRIPTION
CEILING OUTLET
DUPLEX CONVENIENCE OUTLET
TELEPHONE OUTLET
*
Sample schedules.
the size of a No.
may
be shown
on sheets with other
details
they apply, or they
may
when
all
be
grouped in one location. Several

sample schedules are included to
illustrate the
No.
trimmed
sheet?
How
5.
KEY
is
untrimmed sheet?
Like details, they
ELECTRICAL
What
4.
DECK
ever an exception
using standard sized drawing sheets?
CORRIDORS
EQUIP. RM.
is
to this?
kinds of information
found on them. However, they
are other standard sizes
based upon these sizes? Explain.

6. Explain
term trim
Why
7.
same
what
is
meant by
the
line.
size
are
on
all
borders
not
the
four edges of a
sheet?
What
8.
are the minimum and
are to serve only as a guide to
maximum recommended border
formulating necessary schedules
widths?
and information for your plans,

and are not to be considered an
absolute way an individual schedule must be handled.
460
9.
mend
border
Why
that
does the author recom-
you measure
layouts
trim
and
on one sheet and
then trace other pages from
it?
40: Organization of Building Plans

10.
What
are the most frequently
used locations for

1
same way?
From
2.
why must
13.
all
Why
numbered?
List
titles
an order
may appear
more
in
set.
in
desir-
Is
this
to locate
7. Explain
18.
Why
an ab-
changed?
their location?
how one determines

drawings on a sheet.
the
the drawing scale
ways
different
may be
indicated.
are schedules of infor-
mation necessary? Explain

determines
which plans
solute order that cannot be
how one
what schedules
to
in-
clude and what information should
be
in
1
them.
9.
What
are two reasons
why
a bound set of plans should include
Explain.
When
are pre-printed or me-
able than those done freehand?

14.
16. Explain
where
Explain.
sheets be
what determines
ings,
own reasoning
your
chanically lettered
15.
placed on sheets with other draw-
Are they always drawn ex-
actly the
1
strips?
title
sections or details are
a cover page?
The following nine chapters
are designed to serve as a
list
while drawing your building plan.
The chapters do not
give complete step-by-step explana-
guide and check
tions for
drawing
all
items because building plans differ
and do not require exactly the same information. However,

the chapters do set forth procedures to guide you.
Chapters 41 through 48 include very few illustrations
because they are to serve only as a drawing guide and are
not intended for presentation of information relating to
building parts. Such explanations and illustrations are
presented in other chapters.
Chapter 49
is
a set of working plans for a split level
home. It may be used

Another set of plans
as a guide for
is
should also be consulted.
461
drawing your plans.
included in Chapter 39. These
<aa
Drawing Plot Plans
This chapter presents
scription
plains
to
de-
of plot plans and ex-
how
they are drawn.
be used as a check
It
is
and
sumed
Drawing Scale
The
plot-plan drawing scale
determined by the property
is
size
guide for drawing your plot plan.
and building complexity. Plans

for small buildings may be drawn
The chapter cannot be
as large as
inclusive because
it
is
list
all-
concerned
W=V-0"
= 20'
with special factors, only applied
scale of
to plot plans. Likewise
ing sheet size
able that
it
prob-
is
some information
cluded here
may
in-
not be required
but larger
drawn to a
or smaller. Draw-
buildings are usually

1
"
is
also an influenc-
ing factor because each sheet in
must be the same
a set of plans
or supplied by an
instructor.
Positioning a Plot Plan
on a Drawing Sheet
If a plot plan is to be drawn
approximately the same size as a
drawing sheet, it may be centered
on the page. However, if it is to

occupy less space it may be
positioned to one side so other
data, as a key to all symbols used,
can occupy the sheet.
on your plan.
As with other chapters, you
size yet
cannot expect to read the entire

unit and then put it aside and
remember every item to include
or building are extremely large,
Beginning the Drawing
two plot plans may be necessary.

When two are drawn, one is to
a very small scale, showing the
Secure a drawing sheet and

draw the tentative page layout.
Determine the plot plan location
on the sheet and then draw all
on your
at a
plan.
Study small sections
time and then draw each item
you
become proficient you will modify
the procedures to suit your own
required.
Naturally,
after
needs.
property has
and shapes.
many
sizes
property and/
If the
and the building

location upon it. Uniformly
spaced grid lines are drawn and
entire property
identified
to
The second
pinpoint locations.
plan
plot
includes
only those grid sections occupied
The
Plot Plan
by the building.
Plot plans for presentation pur-
poses are discussed elsewhere in
It is
drawn
to a
large scale so detailed information
property
to
lines.
Verify
all
symbols
many could be
Draw all adjoining
use because
new
to you.
streets,
roads, alleys,
and public
draw
lines repre-
sidewalks. Also
senting
draw
all utility
easements.
the center lines of
can be included.
or roads.
Determining Plot Plan Shape
Building Lines (See
Then
all streets
the text. Featured in this chapter

are working drawings and technical information required
during
actual construction. These plans
Plot plan size
and shape can
are aerial-type views showing the
be determined from a legal description or from a plat of the
entire building plot, all building
area.
Note:
may
not have an actual building
to
site,
so specs are frequently as-
and
outlines,
and
related features in-
fluencing construction.
student draftsman
462
page 464)
ordinances frequently
state where a building may be
located on a lot. For example, an
Local
ordinance
be
at
10'
may
require buildings
from a
from side property
least
30'
street
lines.
95.0
^-94.7
-94.0
^-93.0
LOT 17 BLOCK
MANCHESTER GROVE-ELIOT, WISCONSIN

proposed elevations
Plot plan with
These established minimums are

called building lines. Draw them
first
as construction
after
all
drawn
near
lines
show
in,
lines;
building
then
outlines
superimpose
hidden
corners
building
that the building
are
fits
given consideration. After building location
is
determined draw
corners on the plot plan. Then

remove the template and draw all
all
building outlines.
be drawn to show
plot plans.
nesses.
1.
Exterior wall outlines
color.
Building Outlines (See
page 464)
You may draw your
building
to de-
scribe building outline shape:
Such lines
are shown on the accompanying
the prescribed limits.
all
usually
wall thick-
omits
all
outline on scrap paper or card-
overhangs. Note:
board and cut a template to this

shape. The template can then be
influences building location,

as a
hidden
help define building shape.
entire structure
tion.
shaded
This procedure
used as a supplement to other
methods
existing
to distinguish between
and new construction.
If the
roof
overhang
draw
line.
Construction Outside the Building

If
sidewalks, driveways, fences,
carports,
walls,
patios,
are other influencing factors such
scribes roof outlines with object
ner,
as
is
achieved.
Of
contour and other buildings or
obstructions. These
must
also be
lines.
Construction features, such
as ridges, valleys, dormers, chim-
463
outdoor
fireplaces, or other features are to
fluence construction in
tion
as in sec-
frequently
is
course, there
the plot plan until a suitable loca-
also
and the
lines
2. Another frequently used

method describes exterior wall
outlines with hidden lines and de-
positioned and re-positioned on
may
Building outlines
be drawn with object
omitted. This
interior walls are
it
may
These are filled in as solid

Doors, windows, and all
method
neys, and all roof surfaces, are

drawn on the plan. Symbols for
roofing add to appearance and
3.
There are several ways
to
within
at building corners.
be included as part of the building construction,
or
if
they
in-
any manthey should be drawn on the
plot plan. If these items are not
influencing
factors
omit
them.
From Ideas
Port Three:
226.0
EX.
225.8
224.0/EX. 224.0
to Reality
223.6
100
-0'
PROPERTY LINE
r-
223.6
GARAGE
FLOOR
ELEV.
ELEV,
224.0
223.8
17-0
224
-\_
.A
QE
223.5
Tv
LINCOLN
ST.
BLOCK 23
'
HILLSIDE SUBDIVISION
WABASH COUNTY,
Plot plan with existing,
The same
is
true for trees, shrubs,
or other plantings; these
may
ILLINOIS
and proposed, elevations
relations to sea
level
at building corners.
should be
or
indicated. If the terrain changes
may
not
shown depending
elevation abruptly, as at opposite
upon
their relationship to actual
sides of a retaining wall, only the
be
construction.
highest and lowest contour lines
Contour Lines
are drawn. Closely spaced con tour
If the
terrain
is
flat
or has a
gentle slope, contour lines
may
be omitted. However, when the

plot
is
irregular
or
has
steep
hard to read and detract

from the drawing.
lines are
Since buildings require surface
water drainage, the
must be
Observe the
lot
grades, contour lines should be
graded
included. Vertical grades of one
swales shown on the sample plot
foot
when
are
usually
shown.
Later
lettering the plan, vertical
to
provide
it.
plans designed to deflect or guide

water away from the building.
464
Utilities
Each
gas,
utility
sewer,
line for
septic
tank
water.
and
its
and others should be drawn

with their proper symbol. These
lines extend from the building to
field,
the corresponding utility

street,
alley,
in
the
or easement. Exact
locations of all such connections

to public utilities should
be di-
mensioned. Note: The city or

other branch of local government
and public service companies
usually provide connecting points.
41: Drawing Plot Plans
seldom possible
It is
own
to select
your
able
utilities.
addition
In
to
discussed
heights
contour
the
earlier,
cate the elevation at each building
and
curb or crown of the
street at both lot edges.
corner
requires three such elevations.

If
existing grade level
and
both
elevations
shows
elevations
Complete
Name of the
also
that
The drawing
Dimensions
Identification for property
for Plot Plans
overall
lines.
dimensions
for
Place the dimen-
two such dimensions are required.

lot
is
irregular in shape.
each side must be dimensioned.
Dimension the distance from

the street edge or curb to the outside edge of
all
public sidewalks.
Then dimension sidewalk
width.
Also dimension the distance from

the sidewalk to the property line.
Using good dimensioning practices,
describe the building's size,
shape, and position on the property.
Then add dimensions
walks,
driveways,
for side-
patios,
walls,
screens, or other exterior features.
Wells
must
4.
when drawn
Major building parts as
and drainage systems
also
dimensions.
be
described
with
5.
first
Legal description, including
Be
block.
title
your building and the
choose
an
lot;
appropriate
the lower center of the sheet,

the
in
block, letter the
title
when
of the city or town
best loca-
its
tion elsewhere.
lot
6.
name
Using construction
all
appli-
7.
of the county, bor-
parish,
drawing on the
Either center the
sheet or determine
number, block number, name of

the addition or subdivision,
property
Draw
and name of
8.
streets, roads, alleys,
all
Draw a
draw
lines,
lines.
public sidewalks,
the state.
In
or
garage, fence, or terrace.
or
rectangular only
lines.
drawing name and scale used.
ough,
lot is
draw
lines,
Calculate the overall dimensions
then
of streets or roads. (In-
tension and dimension lines for

the
drawing surface.
to a
it
Using construction
drawing scale.
Names
name
If the
3.
on
to the next one.
sure to include the
scale.
Identification for building
cable,
draw
and move on
the item
lightly
it
Secure your drawing sheet and
of
ex-
not necessary to
list
fasten
2.
lines.
sion adjacent to the property line.
this.) If
lines.
floor,
is
the
PLOT
tloor
all
drawn
your border and trim
dicate center lines
heights are shown.
(It
drawing, as
list.
establishing an orderly draw-
After you have
on
as
in
being discussed, check
m.)
Observe
Place
block,
title
at
building corners.
property
serve
PLAN.
both
may
this
in
ing procedure.
other pages in the set of plans.
be
indicated on the plan. Plot plan
#2
list
as a guide for lettering to include:
must
you
fin-
ished grade level are to be different,
The following
not be presented
These statements are only to aid
information frequently included.
other
corner, each property corner,
lot
is
so you should study

samples to observe the kinds of
Level
elevation notes are needed. Indi-
at either the
Information on plot plans

variable,
Above Sea
Elevations
may
Lettering
points of entry into the avail-
and easements.
center line for
all
streets
and roads.
Other technical data unique
this building, if
to
9.
any.
Draw
0.
1.
North Point Indicator
If
building lines as estab-
all
by
lished
local ordinances.
necessary, cut a template to
your building shape.
For orientation purposes draw

in a North point indicator. For
working drawings this should be
functional
Keep
it
rather
than
3.
quired
The following statements present
may
re-
quired items on individual plot plans
prescribed
plot plan.
symbols, roof features,
in
items
to
and other
re-
complete the
Draw outside features that are

part of, or influence,
not apply
some
the
building.
14.
be used when drawing plot plans.
may
Draw
section symbols,
a brief outline or system that
to all plot plans. Likewise,
of
methods, draw building outlines
on the
Condensed Outline to
Reinforce Knowledge
465
one
12. Using
artistic.
in this list
the building's location on
the plot plan.
simple.
Statements
Mark
construction.
15.
If
the terrain
in
contour
is
lines.
irregular,
draw
Drawing Floor Plans

This chapter presents a system
of procedures for drawing floor
surface
parallel
to
cutting through
all
the
to
be used as a guide
windows and doors
and check list

on your plan.
for items to include
half.
plans.
is
It
It
cannot be
all in-
not
features
other
clusive,
dis-
When
building
is
are
the
As
board, draw construction lines for
in
the top half of the
removed, the remain-
lower half will
ing
cut
reveal
how
large the drawing sheet must

Be sure it is large enough to
include an appropriate border
and title block.
After your drawing paper is
positioned and secured to the
ground
walls so the
be.
cussed might be required on some
floor
drawings.
with other orthographic sections
the border
discussed earlier, one must
this
imagine himself directly over the
to refer to sheet layouts
One cannot
expect to read the
chapter and then lay
entire
remember how
aside and
a completed floor plan.
skim-read
of
its
the
to gain
to
it
draw
You may
an overall idea
plan to the observer.
floor plan
sizes
and trim
may be
in
your
lines.
To do
necessary for you
text.
and page
Make
it
a modified orthographic section
point of referring back to find
drawing, with most construction
symbol form
needed information.
Using your rough sketches and
drawn.)
preliminary
is
content. Then, starting at
details
and reading one sentence
rather
first
(A
part being viewed.
it
shown
than
in
fully
It
is
sizes, calculate
exact
at a time,
necessary to draw parts for the
building dimensions and decide

its
ceeding sentence. Note: The be-
upper half of the building even

though it has been removed. All
items above the cutting plane are
shown as hidden lines or symbols.
perform the indicated

operations or simply hold some
information for future use. Repeat this process for each sucadvised to lightly check
ginner
is
off
drafting steps as they are
all
Floor
from becoming
ceed
down
the
lost as
list
Naturally, after you

ficient
you
will
you pro-
of things to do.
become
pro-
modify the pro-
cedures to suit your
own
needs.
homes
plans
W=
ing
is
l'-O".
is
average-size
for
or other small buildings
drawn
are usually
to a scale of
However,
if
larger, a scale of
used.
The
scale
the build-
W=
must be
l'-O"
indi-
cated on the drawing, either be-
How
a "Floor Plan"
Is
Viewed
neath the floor plan or in the

title
block.
Imagine you are observing a

completed one-story building from
the top. Also, imagine a plane
on the drawing
Technical Data
Before you can draw a floor
Drawing Scale
completed. This will prevent you
best location
sheet.
Drawing Page
Your building
size
466
determines
plan you must

walls;
know
that
is,
whether exterior
walls are solid masonry,
veneer,
masonry
frame, post and beam,
curtain, or
also
the con-
method of the outside
struction
know
any other. You must

the construction meth-
od for all interior walls. It is a

good idea to note each wall type
and thickness on the preliminary
sketch or drawing. Determine
exact wall thicknesses so they are
42: Drawing Floor Plans

available
future
for
reference.
These will be required when placing dimensions on the plan.

Many draftsmen allow 10"
(full scale size) when drawing
exterior masonry wall thickness
and 6" for both interior and exterior frame walls. These are not
exact measurements; they repreclose approximates.
sent
rounded-off
If this
thickness
wall
is
must be
compensated for when showing
dimension figures on the plan.
Dimensions must state true sizes
and not these approximates.
used,
the
slight
error
draw construction lines representing all exterior and interior walls.

these as continuous lines;
do not leave spaces for door, window, or other openings. These
drawn
later.
Drawing Door, Window,

and Opening Locations
Select each door,
your
from
window, or
catalogs,
information
manu-
supplied
by
about each item on a separate sheet of paper and keep this.

tion
needed now and will be used

again later. Note: It is a good
idea to keep all information relating to your building plan in
an organized folder so it is readily
It is
Draw
when needed.
Draw
this
and
plan pipe
other items that
all
are to be recessed into walls.
Wall Object Lines
Using good drafting techniques

line weight,
broaden object lines for both faces
and satisfactory
of
on
Do
walls.
all
not
object
door openings. They
be drawn
wall
(he
draw
windows
across
interior
when
walls
to
represent
the middle of the stair

Using actual tread width,
going to be used, or unless the

face
flush with the wall
is
run.
and equipment line weight, draw

in steps from the head of the
stairs to the break line. Then add
an arrow to indicate either up or
down. Using either a very hard
pencil, or a blue one that will
not reproduce, roughly note up
down
or
it
direction.
done
Drawing Window, Door,

and Opening Symbols
The chimney and
fireplace out-
should be completely drawn
lines
All details such as the hearth,
in.
ash
dump,
mon
liners, fire brick,
com-
brick backing, fireplace fac-
and
all
other parts
added. Outlines should be
and
as construction lines
then darkened, but very intricate
of each
them up in
and draw yours exactly
as shown. Beginners should draw
window and door symbols first as
to use. look
the text
construction lines; then,
be
later.
drawn
help you establish an ac-
memory
not letter
Drawing the Chimney or Fireplace
are
visual
Do
at this time. All lettering will
ing material,
exterior.
symbol
in
the
jambs are flush with the wall. Do

not draw object lines across the
window exterior unless the simplified
non-standard symbol is
window
a break line across the stair
all
when required on
when
details
line
may be drawn
weight the
first
their
proper
time.
Information about chimneys

and fireplaces is very technical
and should be studied carefully
before any drawing is begun.
all
are correct, redraw to their proper
Drawing Closet Parts
Be certain doors have

the proper swing for most con-
doors are drawn later with other
line weight.
venient use.
Lap
the door edge
is
sliding doors so
not visible from
the most used portion of the room.
Draw
lines
for
and differences
construction lines across
appropriate
construction lines for
heat registers
chases,
consult
stairs,
data to be sure yours con-
stair
form to one of the accepted types

and that all sizes are satisfactory.
Walls
soil stacks, vents,
To
instructor. List all informa-
available
in
Stairs
Before drawing
well
curate
facturers' literature, the text, or
from
only their locations.
Other Openings
Draw
Drawing
not
as construction lines;
they are not darkened until
opening
each required
draw window or
door symbols at this time; show
ma)
Using the wall thicknesses and

approximate room sizes as noted
on your rough sketch or drawing,
are
sizes for
Do
item.
lines across
Drawing Wall Outlines
Draw
opening
thresholds,
sills,
Closet
wall
outlines
and
all
if
some
are not to be complete, they
may
walls
and doors. However,
be drawn
now. Identify the

shelves, rods, drawers, compartin
materials
ments, or other special features.
when needed. Identify with notes

when lettering the drawing.
Study sample drawings showing
in floor
467
these
drawn
as symbols.
Port Three:
Many
draftsmen make a chart
showing
all
and the
shelf lengths
or other similar items are to be
included
any room
in
their out-
appliance
cial
centers,
built-in
lines
done, a reference must be
plan.
item not of a portable nature.
symbols are not

available, items should be drawn
Each of these is to be identified

by abbreviations or special notes.
Draw in all switches and add
required.
should be drawn on the floor
made
directing attention to the
Such items are usually

drawn using equipment lines. If
chart.
You
conventional
is
to Reality
When
number of each
this
From Ideas
systems, built-in television, spe-
are not to letter the
note at this time. Write yourself

in
your
folder so the note can be
com-
a reminder and put
when
pleted
other
it
lettering
cabi-
and
or
Lighting
any other
electrical
notes to designate special ones.
Draw
Room and Area
Drawing Kitchen Equipment

all
show an orthographic top view.
lines
connecting switches
to their appropriate outlets. Lights
is
done.
Kitchen items such as
to
mixers,
For large buildings, it is customary to draw a separate electrical plan. For the average-size
or switches that have points of
home
continuing from this other plan.
or other small structure, in-
origin or termination
on another
plan should be drawn as
floor
a stairway has
dicate electrical items on the floor
For example,
equipment should be
selected from manufacturers' lit-
plan.
a light in the center of the stair-
erature, catalogs, or other sources,
trance service and the
and the pertinent information
circuits
nets, refrigerator, stove, sink,
special
all
re-
your folder so it can be

added to the drawing later.
corded
in
Draw
amperage
Calculate
of
Add
required.
en-
number of
to
your
folder for inclusion as notes
when doing
the plan
on
the lettering.
and switches both at the top

and bottom, only one switch is
included on this plan. A line con-
well
nects
Draw
bol for the entrance service panel.
the
when
Draw
level
trace as
equipment
Utility or
complete,
are
details
all
lines.
level,
fill
in the electric
in the
meter
symat a
codes to determine the code for
equipment
outlines should be drawn in. A
furnace and its chimney flue may
living
and
all
interior
and
exterior installations.
placement
wiring
Actual
is
usually decided by the electrical

contractor.
Symbols
for receptacle
and fixtures refer only to

approximate location. All
outlets
room. These
are frequently concealed behind
louvered doors for a neat appear-
be located
ance.
in a utility
A ceiling opening
to the attic, or a floor
for access
opening
access to a crawl space,
may
fixtures
draw
items should be drawn
electrical
in.
Do
not
mistake these symbols for actual
shown on
which are not
the floor plans. If selec-
is made,
symbol may be keyed to a
separate schedule, noted on the
tion of individual fixtures

their
study of bath-
and
symbols
their functions
for
each
item
required.
floor plan close to the

electrical fixtures
Storage
If storage cabinets, bookcases.
may
symbol, or
simply be
listed in the specifications.
Draw
Built-in
of
locations
desired
electrical fixtures,
also
Bathrooms
room
their
for
be included.
After careful
break
in
for chimes,
all
special
symbols
chime buttons,
fans,
intercom, stereo or high fidelity
468
of
.to
the
line across the stairs, but
switch
is
on the other
living
not shown.
You must
convenient location. Check local
Laundry Rooms
such rooms are included on
If
this
outlines
with the light
the switch
and then continues on
equipment
using construction lines and then,
kitchen
all
if
electrical
include a schedule
showing
symbols,
those used throughout the plan.
The schedule may be placed on

another page,
to indicate
if
a note
where
Special Note:
it
is
is
added
located.
When work
is
completed to this point, a careful

study of dimensioning is required.
Dimensions should be added to
the drawing, based on the principles set forth in Chapter 39. If
you have already studied dimensioning, the principles should be
reviewed before you proceed.
There are still many symbols
and all lettering, such as names

of rooms, parts, and special notes
to be added to the floor plan.
Their inclusion must not crowd
or make dimensions difficult to
read.

Lettering
Using
cating
lettering of a size appro-
which
priate to the space in
rooms and areas of the
all
it is
names of
to be located, letter the
plan.
all
finishing materials for
tomary
each.
ing
The amount and complexity of

dimensions and linework can give
the drawing a cluttered appear-
home
"maze," masonry
to
plan.
draw
draw a separate heatFor an average-size
or other small structure,

of registers
in the location
or radiators on the floor plan and
(Appropriate lettering sizes are
ance.
established in the chapter on
let-
walls are easily distinguished only
Each room or other space

Abbreviations
because of the addition of appropriate symbols. Frame walls are
and piping to the heating contractor. Use notes to identify the

kind and size of each heat source.
are permitted for small areas such
not as prominent because a sym-
Of
tering.)
is
be
to
identified.
is
sharp pencil to draw a series of
minimum
of an open
example of
difficult to locate the
name
this,
is
area.
in the center
Be sure
for all
draw guide lines

and follow good
to
letters,
Remember that
lettering practice.
the only reason lettering
on
is
placed
drawing is to convey information to others. It must be so

legible that there is no possibility
of
being misread.
it
all
symbols
in
is
the
How-
on the
Symbols for floor materials

have been omitted to this point,
to accommodate equipment and
plan.
resulting lines, dimensioning,
and
It
and
mediothers,
have been omitted for the same

reason. Using the proper symbol
for each material, these must now
be added. Be sure to compare
your symbols very carefully with
necessary to include the
is
ceiling joist size, direction,
Another method of making

walls more clearly identified is to
reverse the plan and coat the wall
spacing on the floor plan. Ex-
with a light application of graph-
joist size is the
on the back of the sheet.

Note: A fixative should be placed
tire
building,
this
same
ite
sent frame walls. This practice

rarely followed today.
consuming and
extras of this
It is
is
nature have been
re-
placed with clean-lined simplicity.

Exterior Items
on Floor Plan
fireplaces, fences, pools,
trees when they affect or
direction, the indicator
once. If the ceiling joist size or

direction
not the same for the
is
symbol and
entire building, the
note
is
repeated for each change.
See page 504.
Access to Attic or Crawl Space

Attic
access
is
placed in an
inconspicuous area.
When
access
by ladder only, hidden lines

are used to outline the opening
is
Add
a note or reference to a
detail to explain actual construc-
Porches, patios, garages, out-
door
same for the enand all joists run
need be shown and noted only
time
Artistic
costly.
amples are shown on the featured

plans in Chapter 49. If the ceiling
and
become
When
tion features.
a disappear-
ing stairway or ladder leads to

this
space
it
a part of the building are to be
on the
included on your floor plan. Be
attention to
should be indicated
floor plan
by a note, calling
it.
sure they are a part of the actual
shown elsewhere in the text.

Symbols for floor finish materials
construction.
Elevation Indicators
may be
Room Heat
plans in Chapter 49 to see
those
rate
omitted, provided a sepa-
room schedule
is
used, indi-
and
page 405.
size.
for recessed items such as
only
furnish
information.
Ceiling Joists
symbols, except
cine cabinets, vents,
do not represent a true
heating plan, but
An
shown in "wall
left column on
ber was formerly used to repre-
drawing.
to be used are included
lettering. All wall
symbols"
this
for all materials
to the
ever, at this time,
sure
parallel lines in the wall area.
you must be
symbols have already
been added
is
over the graphite to prevent

smudging. Pressure-sensitive or
applique line screen may also be
used for wall shading.
The symbol for finished lum-
Symbols
Many
course, these additions to the
in a
bol
prominent position. The favored loca-
tion
placement of heat ducts
leave
floor plan
stairs.
of a room not placed
this
seldom used. To remedy

one may use a very hard,
and
as closets, entries, halls,

It
In
Study
Source
For larger buildings,
469
it
is
cus-
elevation
the
sample
indicators
building
are
how
used.
From ideas
Part Three:
They
are
shown
as triangles with
one obtuse angle slightly

rounded. Each indicator has a
code number that refers to an
elevation elsewhere in the plans
that
similarly
is
marked.
tion
drawing is located in the

Each cutting plane has
a code number or letter and the
corresponding section drawing
the upper half circle refers to the
building.
page number
has the same code. This is shown

on the building plans mentioned
drawing location on the page, as

"A". "B", or "C". Drawings let-
above.
Cutting Planes
Cutting
On
these plans, the code
touching the ends of cutting plane lines are divided into
circle
plane
are
lines
re-
quired to show where each sec-
two equal
parts.
Condensed Outline
8.
Draw
in
drawing building floor plans. Items
stacks;
B,
found on
all
items
this
list
may
not be
is
to aid
you
in
this
list
9.
the part discussed
check
it
and then
it
10.
2.
draw
lines,
lines.
make a
title
layout of your
3. Calculate the overall
Also
dimensions
13.
name
in
in
the
title
on
sheet or determine the best
all
7.
construction
Draw
22.
details
all
lines,
draw
lines,
draw
16.
Draw door and window openings but not their symbols.
Draw
all
26.
7.
as
bathroom
27.
fixtures
and
470
switches and
Draw in all telephone outlets.

Draw hidden lines from switches
Add dimension
figures,
lines,
notes. Follow
good dimen-
your text as a guide.
Draw
symbols for wall ma-
in
Add appropriate
notes for
all
in
the
names of
all
rooms
or other areas.
29. Draw and designate
all
floor
covering materials and finishes.
storage units for
and the
all electrical
to designate special ones.
28. Letter
other accessory
the electrical entrance ser-
vice panel
let-
symbols shown.
rooms, where used.
Draw
special electrical items
terials.
lines.
built-in
lighting
all
sioning practice, using the plans
closets, or others.
wall outlines.
of
and code them.
all
Draw
and
and equiplines
in-
outside
add necessary code
locations
Draw
in
Draw
weatherproof
to lights.
of
items as mirror, screens, linen
lo-
Draw
code
indicate up
Broaden these
in
gas
all
ters.
and
sills,
kitchen cabinets
cabinets.
the
cation elsewhere.
6. Using
for
or fireplace out-
construction
equipment
15.
drawing
21.
25.
in
and
required.
receptacle outlets,
all
outlets
and roughly
ment.
the lower
block.
your
20.
steps
fill
Draw
if
letters to identify special outlets.
24.
and
the gas meter
ones. Then
23.
Draw chimney
Draw
cluding
floor coverings.
in all
center of the drawing sheet, or
Center
19.
the symbol for stairs or
in
plans.
outlets,
construction.
of the drawing,
and the scale used,
8.
Draw
14. Using
scale.
4. Letter the
symbol
thresholds,
lines
appropriate floor plan drawing
5.
Draw
below or to
is
and add appropriate code
proper
the
both
for
lines
or down.
block.
and choose an
of your building
Draw
changes
to the board.
Using construction
walls.
all
each window or door.
when drawn.
lightly

fasten
2.
faces of
are at the tops of the
ample on
Excluding door openings,

broaden object
most effectively,
letter in
the right. See Chapter 39 for ex-
medi-
that must be recessed into walls.
establishing an
draw
F,
"A"
pages, while "B"
and other items
cine cabinets,
orderly drawing procedure.
To use
tered
soil
exhaust
C,
vents;
The
the lower half circle refers to the
Knowledge
A,
walls:
ators; E, pipe chases;
may be
required on other floor plans. The

list
the
in the set of plans,
as "1", "2", or "3".
fans; D, heat registers or radi-
Likewise,
floor plans.
not mentioned here
in
construction lines for items
located
in
The number
to Reinforce
a condensed order or system for
presented
to Reality
electric meter.
30. Shade frame walls.
31.
Draw
all
porches, patios, ga-
rages, carports, or other exterior items to
be constructed.

32.
If
a furnace, water heater,
washer, dryer, and other
38. Unless a separate ceiling framing plan
utility
items are to be included on this

living level,
33.
Draw
draw them
propriate notes for
is
to
35.
If
drawings.
section
all
to identify.
your building
has
required
items that are not included
and add appropriate
notes.
this list,
Draw
in
hidden
lines for
access
and add appropriate
notes or codes.
Add code
doors,
letters or figures for
windows,
Add hidden
lines
41. Check
lintels,
and
and a
special
your
in
identify.
drawing carefully
and
make
errors;
necessary corrections.
42. Clean your drawing.

43. Broaden border and
lines
note for plastered openings.
draw each and
for omissions
all
header schedules.
37.
to
Code
40.
posts.
cutting plane lines to re-
direc-
to the attic
36.
fer
a sepa-
be drawn.
Draw
joist
34. Indicate the ceiling

tion
39.
heat regis-
all
ters or radiators unless
rate heat plan
and necessary supporting
in.
and add ap-
the locations
be drawn, draw
to
is
overhead beams or girders
in all
and
trim the
your trim
lines.
formation
in
the
471
title
strip
drawing on
Letter
title
in
all
block.
in-
Drawing Basement or
Footing and Foundation Plans
This chapter
is
guide and check
to serve as a
list
of items to
draw on your plan. All building

plans do not include the same
items,
so
information
the
here
can serve only as a general guide.

To make most effective use of
this
chapter, draw
a building part
and then check off each item from

the list as you proceed. This will
let you know when all items have
been drawn.
Basement, footing, and foundation plans are viewed the same
way
as a
that
when
first
floor plan, except
walls are visually cut
halfway between the bottom and

top some features are hidden below the ground. All such are
drawn
hidden
with
lines
or
symbols.
These plans should be drawn
same
scale as the floor plan
your building. That is, if the

floor plan was drawn to a scale of
V4"=l'-0", then this plan should
for
be drawn to that
Drawing Sheet
Draw on
construction lines.
Before you can draw the plan

you must know all required building materials and their sizes.
Note: For convenience, begin-
ning draftsmen
mate
sizes
may
scale.
all
as
For conventional construction,

exterior walls and each load-
bearing interior wall require a

footing.
supplied by
others.
draw them
Drawing Wall Footings
use approxi-
Using data obtained
in
other parts of the text, calculate
and then draw

show all footing widths. Note: The sample
building plans in the text show
these as hidden lines, but you are
not to broaden them in this man-
the size of each,
construction lines to
Re-position and fasten your

first floor plan to the drawing
board. Be sure it is aligned
perfectly.
Place a new sheet of tracing

paper or vellum over the floor
plan and fasten it to the drawing
surface. This permits
you
to see
through and trace from the
first
floor plan.
struction
lines
outlines. (That
for
is,
all
building
draw only
the
outside face of each exterior wall.)
Then
calculate all foundation or
basement wall thicknesses and

draw them to their proper size.
When
a garage
is
attached to the
Size
building draw a foundation wall
same size sheet

same set of plans.
between the main structure and

the garage. If interior basement
the
as others in the
walls are required,
and Methods
Using building outlines shown

on the first floor plan, draw con-
Drawing Scale
to the
Construction Materials
472
ner until after other construction

features are
drawn
in.
Wall Openings
Draw the location of each window, door, foundation vent, or

other wall openings. Then look up
the appropriate symbol for the
item and draw
it
in
its
proper
Broaden symbols to the

breadth of equipment lines to
make them clearly visible. Then
draw a code symbol near each
opening. Be sure that code letters,
figures, or their enclosures do not
interfere with proposed extension
and dimension line locations, to
be added later.
location.
43: Drawing Basement or Footing and Foundation Plans
While searching through manufacturers' or other literature for
and then complete the stairs to

the bottom of their run. You must
about
then indicate stair direction in the
information
dows,
other
or
building
parts.
information
pertinent
record
win-
doors,
in
your notebook for inclusion on
schedules and specifications.
When
arranging schedules, infor-
mation about doors from

is
on
cluded
Information
window
done
liv-
all
combined and inthe same schedule.
levels
ing
be included on
to
or other schedules
in this
also
is
manner.
Pilasters
and
their footings,
draw them
proper locations.
in their
design and draw them
their
in
proper sizes and locations.
ings, be sure they are properly

drawn.
fireplaces;
about
through the
first
with hidden
lines.
If
and
chimneys
outline
to
fireplace.
the
Also draw
footing or foundation outlines.
If descriptive
notes are needed,
Lines may be
broadened as object, equipment,
or hidden lines; use the plans in
them
in.
an access door
the text as a guide.
stairway
is
needed draw
proper location. The
floor plan, previously
cluded several steps
first
drawn,
(if a
in-
base-
ment was required) leading down

to the
lower
drawn only
Copy
to
men
literature
an appropriate one.
it
Add
and
you
should refer to detail drawings or

its
construction with notes.
notes to describe each part,
urally,
tural
interfere
level,
to
but they were
the
break
line.
more prominent.
drawn are broadened
in the text
the break line onto this plan
extension
line locations.
If you specify a
the
in
drawn
furnace located
basement, be sure
proper size
the
to
location.
Draw
lines
it
is
and
to connect
the
furnace and chimney.
fuel
supply pipe or fuel vent
If a
is
needed, draw them as pipe symbols. If the
furnace requires foot-
a raised concrete base, or
lines
when
floor level or
parts
and use them
parts are below

hidden from view.
have visible outlines,

as equipment lines.
draw them
Add
a descriptive note to de-
scribe the furnace type, size, fuel
required,
and
the
number of
as
British thermal units the furnace
your guide.
will
produce.
This
information
can be obtained from manufacturers' literature.
basement has a masonry wall below a bearing wall

on the first floor level, supporting
beams, girders, or posts are seldom required. Bearing walls on
upper living levels that are not
supported on basement or crawl
space masonry walls usually report.
future
letter-
do not
Furnace
as object,
equipment, or hidden lines. Be

sure to study the sample building
quire
with
and dimension
den
outlines
When
notes, be sure they
walls or other struc-
construction lines previously
plans
several identical parts
used only once.)
If
all
if
are required, the descriptive note
other concrete work, draw as hid-
Broaden Wall Outlines
To make
and draw
proper locations.
their
in
or refer to detail drawings. (Nat-
open
If work-
are to build this door,
When
If a
is
draw
Floor Supports
Stairway
in its
floor,
through a foundation wall, draw

it using equipment lines. Consult
explain
Then draw con-
lines
chimney or
it
the sizes of these parts
them
ing
If your plan is to include an

access door to crawl space,
be sure yours are prop-
designed.
struction
letter
or supplied by others, calculate
is
Access to Crawl Space
or Fireplace
Study
all
floor
enclosed
foundation walls.
Using data found in your text,
pilasters, or
ings,
Chimney
erly
first
is
and they were not previously drawn, do this now. If

your stair design requires foot-
select
areaways are required.
on the
b\ walls
manufacturers'
Areaways
When
as
plan. If the stairwell
require pilas-
If exterior walls
ters
same manner
then be supported by posts, piers,
beams or girders for supEach beam or girder must

473
Water Heater
your water heater is in the
its outlines should be
drawn as equipment lines. Obtain
If
basement,
descriptive information from

manufacturers' literature and note
it
on the plans. Be sure to include

and the tank's
the fuel required
capacity in gallons.
From Ideas
Port Three:
Draw
heaters
fuel.
When
exhaust vents on water
burn
that
combustible
Vents extending through the
local building codes re-
quire catch basins, grease traps,
them
ing codes. Air venting into chim-
tion outside the building.
nevs used for other purposes
lines lead to
is
seldom permitted. Include notes

to describe vent material and size.
Facilities
an inconspicuous loca-
in
Waste
and through these
items and then continue to city

sewers,
Drains
for
heavy
wastes
fre-
lo-
quently bypass catch basins and
cated in the basement, draw out-
connect to the sewerage system
laundry equipment
If
is
each required item, such
lines for
or tubs, cabinets, water softeners,
If your
or others. If the
identifiable
scriptive
items are not
by shape, include deor explanations.
notes
thetical
building plan
is
hypo-
problem and you have no
place, then sewer
utility locations
and other
must be assumed.
discussed in earlier chapters
plumbing
If
fixtures
such as
be required.
If so,
draw
it
on your
showers, lavatories,
hidden lines. Draw them about

6" outside the footing line so they
be drawn in their proper size and

location. Vents for fixtures should
be drawn inside the walls in the

same manner as on your first floor
plan. Drains or vents from upper
will
be clearly
visible.
ings
are also
drawn
draw
lines,
(approx.
levels
extending below- the
first
different
floor
should be drawn on
this
drawn.
Since footas
hidden
these double length

long) so they will be
from those previously
Damp
locations requir-
around
plan.
ing foundation drain
your building needs floor

drains (in the basement or crawl
the inside perimeter or beneath
sump
be drawn when needed.

Manv building codes do not
If
water
space)
meters,
or
pumps, they should be drawn

and identified by notes.
If you are to draw a separate
plumbing plan, no additional
plumbing information is required
here. However, if this plan must
also serve as a plumbing plan
(and
it
does for small

waste lines should
usually
buildings),
all
be drawn as symbols and identified
with notes as described in
Chapter
48.
the floor or crawl
tile
space should
permit a person to connect foundation and floor drains to a city

sewer.
If city
and pipe movement.
All
collar sizes should be noted
on
the plan.
Electrical Outlets
shown in
on first floor
add notes or
Electrical items are
same manner
the
plans.
code
Be sure
to
to
letters
as
special
indicate
equipment. Also, specify
individual circuits for items re-
quiring large power loads, such
heaters, or
heavy power
tools.
Lighting and receptacle outlets
or others are desired, they should
closets,
permit expansion, con-
to
traction,
should be provided in crawl
tile
may
footing and foundation plan with
water
around
all utili-
Perimeter foundation drain
Plumbing
have
collar
as clothes dryers, furnaces, water
actual building lot with

ties in
them
diameter
electrical
beyond them.
as a washer, dryer, laundry sink
larger
to Reality
should
walls
drainage
tanks,
septic
or other disposal systems.
fields,
Laundry
draw
or other special equipment,
roof are usually required by build-
masonry
storm sewers are
spaces so the area can be illumi-
nated
if
repairs are necessary.
Indicate on your plan whether

flush or surface
mounted
recep-
tacles or lighting outlets are

required.
If
telephones, telephone exten-
sions,
intercom
electrical
devices
units,
are
other
or
to
be
in-
drawn
in their proper location and that
appropriate notes or code sym-
cluded, be sure they are
bols are added.
Dimensioning
Dimensioning
practices
for
footing and foundation or base-
ment plans
followed
are similar to those
for
other
floor
plans.
(lined pits to contain water), or
However, there are slight differences, so you should review dimensioning procedures and study
sample plans in the text. Be sure
to include detail and overall di-
lead into drain fields similar to
mensions
available, connect your drain
tile
them. Foundation drain tile

may also terminate at dry wells
to
for all structural parts.
those used for septic systems.

All supply or drain pipes pass-
ing
through concrete
474
floors
or
Lettering
Use the same procedures
for
43: Drawing Basement or Footing and Foundation Plans

lettering this plan that
you used
on the floor plan. Include names

of rooms or other areas, and all
equipment and special features
such as closets, shelves, or others.
Throughout this chapter many

notes have been mentioned; hesure each of these
lettered
is
on
the drawing as needed.
Code and
drawings.
fer to section
identify these to correspond with
same ones shown on
the
drawings
of plans.
in the set
the
Draw
show
plans or elevations.
floor
to individual elevation
elevation indicators to
where and how elevation detail
drawings are viewed. Chapter 49
shows elevation indicators numbered and lettered to key them
Drawing
Finishing the
Clean your drawing and

broaden
the
title
border
all
lines. Fill in
name
block; letter in the
of the drawing and the scale used.
Then
trim your drawing to size.
Symbols
Draw
wall symbols, using the
sample plans as your guide. Then

draw symbols for floor covering
and/or the surface
materials
finish. If a vapor barrier is to
cover the earth
in a
crawl space.
indicate the material used.
Room Heat
all
have a separate
heat registers or radiators.

notes
Include
type and
to
to
indicate
size. It is
their
not necessary
draw steam or hot water
list
lines
this
in
may
list
discussed
in
list
an
establishing
the
floor
and
add notes to indicate joist size
and spacing. Note: If your set
joist direction (or directions)
of plans
floor
is
to
include separate
floor
joist
direction
orderly
this
on the
2.
in
to
the
dation
Study your drawing carefully
basement or foun-
first
5.
shown.
cutting plane lines to re-
Copy
6.
lines,
draw
interior
and garage walls
Draw
2.
width of
475
appropriate
in
pilasters
all
When areaways
draw
13.
them
Draw
all
outlines
If
in
and
their
are necessary,
their
proper
chimney or fireplace
and
their footings.
a stairway to
this level
is
re-
quired,
draw
Include
surrounding walls and
all
it
on
the
plan.
necessary footings.
15. Foundation or floor access doors
opening
into
crawl
space
with notes.
drawn should be broadened as

object,
as required.
7. Calculate the
fill
16. All construction lines previously
wall thicknesses.
Draw
Draw a code symbol near each
should be drawn and identified
floor plan.
Using construction
in
Codes
thicknesses.
wall
exterior wall outlines from your
to
Add
first
and fasten the new tracing
Checking the Plan
Cutting Planes and
drawing
sheet over the floor plan.
be sure special items not included in the discussion are
14.
4. Calculate all
draw
weight,
locations.
surface.
3. Align
line
identifying letters or figures.
size as other
and fasten your
plan
door,
all
Using the proper symbol and
opening and
the set of plans.
Re-position
floor
same
locate
footings.
Obtain a sheet of tracing paper
sheets
tion plan.
Identifying
and
list,
to
other openings.
drawing
or items mentioned,
lightly
just
symbols for door, window, or
most effectively,
list
or vellum the
on
basement or footing and founda-
in
construction lines across
walls
appropriate
then proceed to the next item.
framing diagrams, do not
indicate
you
aid
9.
10.
check them
show
re-
procedure.
draw the item

should
to
is
may be
Draw
window, or other openings.
not be required on
the chapter
The
quired.
To use
Floor Joists
8.
presented
Items
draw them as con-
struction lines.
every plan. Likewise, other items not
or air ducts on this plan.
You
of procedures for
plans.
Knowledge
footings and
a condensed
foundation
heating plan, draw the locations
of
to Reinforce
drawing basement or footing and
Source
Unless you
Condensed Outline
all
wall
lines.
equipment,
or
hidden
Part Three:
draw
17. Using the proper symbol,

all
beams or
their
8.
all
and show where changes
Draw each post
in
29.
or pier required
beam. Then draw
in
If
beam ends
pockets
in
30.
If
the floor
indicate
omitted
Draw furnace outlines; then

show necessary footings or other
plans
to
or
If
level,
water
heater
draw
it
on
to size
identify
and
32.
all
Draw
direction
joist
24.
If
draw a
separate plumbing plan, draw
you do not intend
or
and connect them
to
Add
electrical items as defirst
floor plan.
all
necessary
cutting plane lines for ref-
Draw elevation indicators to

show how elevation detail draw-
36.
Add border
ings are viewed.

lines,
and complete
scribed for the
carefully for er-
35.
system.
all
it
make
erence to section drawings.
floor
storm sewer or other disposal
26. Draw
34.
using appropri-
foundation
and
corrections.
to
ate symbols.
drains,
joist size
other items requiring inclusion.
laundry
rors
all
indicators
show
33. Check your plan carefully for
all
Also, check
Draw
to
and spacing.
and add
other plumbing fixtures.
lines,
sheet.)
room heat sources
other
Draw
waste
of
identify with notes.
23.
all
set
radiators, heat regis-
equipment.
all
the
if
include a concrete
and add notes
this
appropriate lettering.
Draw and
Draw
ters, or
other
for furnace
is
is
item
(This
this.
reinforcement detailing
31.
operation, and identify each.
25.
be of reinforced
to
is
may be
vents,
identify-
concrete, or has a vapor bar-
the
rier,
pipes,
Add
materials occur.
ing lettering or notes.
shown.
Draw
ma-
covering
floor
foundations, be sure these are
equipment necessary
22.
of the necessary letter-
all
ing to the drawing.
Draw
required concrete work.
21.
Add
terials
are recessed
20.
28.
addi-
If
drawings are neces-
footings for each.
9.
27. Dimension the entire drawing.
sary, refer to these.
to support the
and indicate
sizes with notes.
tional detail
girders
all
title
blocks,
lettering.
37. Clean your drawing and trim

to size.
476
it
From Ideas
to Reality
441
Drawing Exterior Elevations
This chapter presents a system
of !4"=l'-0"
large, a scale
may
of procedures for drawing build-
be used. The scale must be indi-
ing
cated on the drawing in the
elevations.
presented
Also,
may be
the
topics
used as a check
of items to include on your
list
manner
When
as on the floor plan.

drawings of different scale
are located on the
plan.
What Are
Elevations?
same
same
sheet, the
ified
orthographic drawings with

of the details shown
in
sym-
bol forms.
simple house plan usually
requires four elevations, one for
However,
depends
upon the building's shape and
opening arrangements in exterior
each
side.
walls.
All exterior wall surfaces
must be shown on
set
this
completed
building
sides.
Then,
they do not require duplication.
The
fact that they are identical
should be clearly stated on the

plans.
As with
are usually
drawn
W"=l'-0", or
if
it
is
is
drawn
to the left. If the right
is drawn with the

drawn to the right. If
the left side is drawn with the
rear elevation it is drawn to the
right. If the right side is drawn
Locating Elevations on
side elevation
Drawing Sheet
front,
If your drawing board is large

enough, the floor plan may be
positioned above the elevation
drawing sheet. This permits con-
struction
lines
be
to
projected
from the Moor plan onto the extra

drawing sheet. Lines for building
edges, offsets, windows, doors, or
it
is
by the rear elevation,

to the left.
will
it
The reasons
be clear
if
is
placed
for this
you study a
set
of drawings.
the extra sheet without measuring.
If elevations are placed on

more than one sheet, the drawings
on any one sheet may be aligned
plan
too large to
either vertically or horizontally.
above the elevation drawing

sheet, lines must be transferred
with dividers or by measuring.
Naturally, sizes shown on an individual drawing must correspond
Adequate space must be allowed

between views and adjoining
borders to prevent the sheet from
other parts
may be
If the floor
projected onto
is
fit
in
the plans.
Always
keep a close check.
to a scale of
the building
be
drawn stacked and in line with

each other. The same is true of the
side elevations, which are also in
line with the front and rear elevais
elsewhere
floor plans, elevations
the front
should
placed with the front elevation,
with those of the same item shown
Drawing Scale
Then
elevations
tions. If the left side elevation
of plans, unless there are two
identical
sheet.
rear
each.
ings of each exterior building side.
many
same
and
scale should be indicated beneath
Elevations are separate draw-
Like those described in the two

preceding chapters, they are mod-
the
If
all
drawing sheet
elevations
Note: Remember, the title

which is added later, occupies space at the bottom or lower
block,
right-hand corner of the sheet.

size permits,
may be
477
having a cluttered appearance.
placed on
Allowance should be made

this
when spacing
the views.
for
Part Three:
When
and
front
and
Grade
side, or rear
elevations are placed
side,
same
horizontally in line at the

time, drafting procedure
is
sim-
Measurements and con-
plified.
struction points can be transferred
from one elevation
directly
to the
other.
hidden
Determine the distance from

lower edge of the floor joists to
the finished grade (ground).
Note: Minimum standards and
elements of good design discussed
previous chapters should be
in
the determining factors for this

height.
Floor Line
The
floor line at the
foundation
good reference point

from which drawing may proceed.
level
Line
is
Drawn
as a center line,
extends
it
past the edges of each elevation.
If the ground is irregularrough or sloping the grade line

may be drawn with instruments,
as a construction line. Then, when
broadening lines, draw this free-
hand
to
show
tend the line past the walls similar
should be labeled F.L. on each.

This line ordinarily represents
to a floor line,
the top surface of the subfloor.
Footings
It
Ex-
irregularities.
and
desired ceiling
all
lines to the
edge of the first floor joists. Lines

showing footing widths are drawn
beneath all bearing walls.
Areaways, piers, posts, pilasters, chimney and fireplace foun-
and their footdrawn on the nearest
dations, stairways,
ings
are
two elevations. For example,

building
is
is
shown on the elevation
next to the stairway land-
when
the observer
all
using directions given
run of
lines
stairs are
Determining Which Roof
the actual distance from your sub-
depths or local codes will govern.
Elevation to
bottom of the
floor to the
joists.
Draw
resent
label
a center line to rep-
the
it
ceiling
finished
C.L.
The
ceiling
and
ceiling line ex-
in
ment
cent views are
first
floor to the
floor joists.
bottom of the
Then draw con-
struction
lines
representing
basement
bottom of
floor
and the top and
First
all
Using the predetermined floor

was decided when
developing the floor plan), draw
joist size (this
the
footings. If footings
are at different depths, or
Floor Joists
if
they
must be stepped to conform with

uneven terrain, drawings of these
must be included on the appropriate elevation.
Walls
in
Elevation
is
simplified
Draw
Location of construction lines

representing visible outside walls
outside walls.
determined from the floor

plan and placed vertically on the
ward the
is shown. Label the end

of the line with a descriptive ab-
sure this
breviation.
For example, for a
basement,
this
B.C.L. because
basement
line
it
ceiling.
is
labeled
represents the
are
appropriate
elevation.
grade,
visible
only
Above
edges
are
shown for wall corners, except

that basement and foundation
wall thicknesses are drawn as
478
same
the Gable End
Locate and mark the points

where the ceiling line meets the
joist height
spans, be
at the
done.
required be-
different joist
drawn
Layout work should begin

on the largest gable end, if you
have a choice. Gable ends must
be drawn on elevations before
roof height can be determined
on adjacent views. Study the illustration showing how this is
If different sizes are
to
drawing eleif two adja-
time.
cause of changes in
due
First
stated earlier,
Beginning to
a horizontal center line to repre-
sent the lower edge of the joists.
Draw
vations
tends past the edges of the eleva-
described earlier.
As
For a basement, determine the

desired clearance from the base-
tions, similarly to the
floor line
facing
on one adjacent elevation.
Chapter 3. If no basement is
planned, standard minimum
they vary.
if
is
The rise and

shown as hidden
Calculate
heights,
stairway in the exact center of a
the stair opening.

footings,
Determine
lower edge of
Below grade, hidden
lines are placed on the drawing
to show the foundation width and
the interior basement walls. These
too, are drawn to meet the lower
ing
Determine the depth of

Ceiling Line
to Reality
floor joists.
which
label G.L.
From Ideas
the width
Then measure
to-
inside of the building
of the bird's mouth
(notch) in the rafter that permits

it
to rest on the top plate. For
example, on a frame building,
stud width is 3%", sheathing
might measure
thickness, and
Projecting lines from gable end to
show
roof height
on an ad|oining elevation.
'4"
overhang width. The opposite end
surfaces
thickness. If building parts equal-
of the line should extend past the
same
building center.
gle
Repeat the above procedure

for the bottom edge of the rafter
on the opposite side of the building. N011: These lines do nor
whether
ing
might
covering
exterior
these
used,
are
sizes
be
their
dimensions would be 5'/s",

so measure from the outside walls
toward the center of the building
total
this distance and mark the points

on the ceiling line.
The lower edge of the rafters
pass
will
through these points.
Using each point established,

measure along the ceiling line
toward the building center
Do
tance of 12'-0".
the building
is
less
this
a dis-
even
if
than 24' wide.
This represents the proportion of

the run. At these points, construct
a perpendicular
line
above the
equal to the
of run.
(If
rise
ceiling
per 12'-0"
you do not understand
these terms consult the chapter
on Roof Construction where

drawing examples are shown.)
For example, if the roof pitch is
5/12,
5'-0"
make perpendicular lines

high. Draw the bottom edge
represent roof lines. Calculate the
combined thickness for the rafters, sheathing, and roofing. Then

draw lines parallel to those just
amount of
rafter intersection. Ex-
tend the line past the outside wall

slightly
more than
the anticipated
cannot
tell
a gable or a hip.
views are required to show
that roof surfaces are slanted in
Note: A hip
roof for an irregular shaped
building requires more than four
different directions.
surfaces.
All
roof outlines
on the adjacent
draw construction
lines for roof height. If more than
one gable is required, locate and
draw additional construction lines
and transfer heights to adjacent
as
should
construction
lines
be
on
the roof height
elevation and
elevations.
If
the gable
to the
drawn complete
gable
sure
is
perpendicular
ground, the outlines just
is
the roof. If the
meaoverhang at
not perpendicular,
the additional
the ridge
simple hip roof
Using
mended
local
codes or recom-
upon
chimney height including
liner or pot and draw horizontal
construction lines on each elevation. On views showing gable
ends, draw your chimney sides
as shown in the illustration. Obstandards, decide
the
serve that one
chimney face
touches the roof before the other
because the roof
slants.
edge of the chimney onto the adelevation, as shown, to
Hip Roof
four slopes and one
Drawing a Chimney
Terminating on the Roof
Transfer a line from the lower
senting the inside edge of the top
and
one
is
the
sin-
each of your elevations before

continuing toother building parts.
elevation, repeat the
the lower roof edge.
plate
Two
a roof
at
per roof edge. Using the gable
passes through the point repre-
touches the up-
elevation
slant
viewing a
drawn
per end of the perpendicular and
it
When
established, to represent the up-
and connect this with

the outer edge of the overhang at
of the rafter so
normally
angle.
joining
is
one with
ridge.
All
find
where the chimney passes
through the roof surface.
Projecting lines for chimney layout.
479
From Ideas
Pari Three:
Chimney
Pot, Liner, or
The chimney
resent
its
Cap
height must rephighest
actual
including a liner or pot.
point,
The chim-
below the liner. Construction lines are added to all

ney cap
is
downspouts, they must not interfere with a window or door

opening.
Object Lines for Parts
Previously
It
elevations for these parts.
broaden object
Saddle
previously
As previously
like a
Drawn
well for the beginner to
is
in the
vertical wall lines. This will help
acute
eliminate later confusion of lines
angle formed by the main roof
and chimney.
It
leads water
away
and
Flashing details at the chimney

and roof intersection must be
drawn on each elevation.
parts.
Determine the size, material,

and style required. Then
location,
draw
the layout with construction
lines
equipment
and broaden
Other Items on the Roof
description and
Dormers, ventilators, and soil

stacks should be drawn as construction lines simultaneously on
accurately
adjacent elevations.
ample, the
size
style
cate low points.
Draw
Then
is
used the gutter
the tops
may
extend
around the return.

Downspouts are angled from
the gutter to the face of the building.
Then they
follow the wall to
grade. If a splash block
is
all
used,
downspout ends at the grade

line. If the downspout drains into
the
of
fins
drawings
will
be
needed when doing the building

Study the sample illustrations to see how these are drawn.
Window and Door
used to show the below-
grade drain. Note:
mold
at
the
openings;
sills
added. Casare usually
and above
drawn below.
sides
are
drip cap or flashing
If a
quired above, draw
is
re-
Note:
in.
it
Glass block windows do not normally have the
wood
trim de-
scribed above.
Small details such as width of

stiles,
and
in
rails,
glass are
muntins,
drawn
manufacturers'
literature.
you do not understand

cal
mullions,
as described
all
If
techni-
terms consult the index at the
back of this book, and then look

them up in their appropriate
Since most framing methods

place tops of
at the
same
secure
to
make
windows and doors

way
height, the easiest

this
alignment
horizontal
line across
desired height.
is
to
construction
each elevation
The lower
at the
face of
head jamb is considered the

window or door height. (Do not
a
use
the
top of casing as your
height.) All casings
trim are above the
When locating
chapter.
Templates are frequently used

drawing doors and windows.
Caution: One cannot copy blindly from a template, but must keep
the object's shape clearly in mind.
Since much detail must be
for
Line
and exterior
window
or
door line. This line is sometimes

broadened as a center line.
drawn
in a relatively
broaden
lines as
all
small space,
window and door
equipment
lines.
Object Lines for Walls and
Construction
lines
for
Sills
walls
and all other parts previously

drawn should be broadened as
object or equipment lines. All
other
structural
parts,
such
as
covered patios, terraces, or posts
a sewer pipe or dry well, hidden

lines are
units, are then
ings or brick
parts as
For exand sur-
lo-
and bottoms of gutters through

these points. Gutters extend
around some roofs. For example,
a hip roof might have a gutter
around the entire perimeter. Also,
on gable roofs, when a cornice return
tween
details.
Locate high points of
the gutter on the fascia.
size
Additional
and
draw
possible.
as
rounding trim should be drawn

to an accurate scale.
Gutters and Downspouts
Determine the
as
Follow the manufacturer's
lines.
show only visible window

and door parts; do not draw hidden parts. Study sample window
elevations before drawing yours.
Indicate the finished opening size
of the door or window sash by
drawing a rectangle at the correct scale. Individual door and
window parts, and mullions bevation,
placed
Gable Louver or Ventilator
from the chimney. Study the illustration to see how it is drawn.
required.
except
is
said, a saddle
miniature roof
lines for all parts
constructed,
to Realify
Door and Window Openings
When you
are drawing an ele-
480
should be drawn as construction

and then broadened to de-
lines
44: Drawing Exterior Elevations

width.
sired
Add
and
footings
foundations for the above,
when
required.
Draw
in the
appropriate s\m-
Note:
Be sure to provide open space in
the symbol for adding a note to
Dimensions
Only
minimum number
of
Eliminate unnecessary du-
Follow good dimen-
plications.
practice
discussed
in
as
shown and
Chapter
39.
Also,
study the building plans following

these chapters.
Place a dimension on at least
one elevation
to
show each
Of
differ-
ent
ceiling
if all
ceiling heights are the same,
height.
only one dimension
is
course,
required.
Letter a note stating points used
your measurements. For example, the note might read:
for
CEILING HEIGHTS MEASURED
FROM
SUB-
FLOOR TO BOTTOM OF CEILING
JOISTS.
Or
might
it
applies, the note
read:
CEILING HEIGHTS MEASURED
FROM
FIN-
ISHED FLOOR TO FINISHED CEILING.
floor line. If a wall
has no
Basement ceiling height is dimenand noted in the same

manner. When both dimensions
are on the same elevation, place
them in line with each other,
to follow good practice. Note:
One dimension may be used to
denote combined thickness of
floors and joists.
sioned

the grade line to the finished floor
the ground
is
is
described
and
earlier,
If steps in footings
required,
are
Basement
another
not level.
or foundations
dimension
thickness
floor
these.
must
also be dimensioned.
Areaways,
piers,
posts,
pilas-
chimney and fireplace foundations, and their footings, are

dimensioned only if not detailed
ters,
elsewhere in the
Show
set
line
dicated on at
of plans.
Place the appropriate symbol

on each surface or item shown
on the drawing. Note: These are
usually drawn as a finished symbol the first time you draw them.
It is not necessary to draw each
minute detail as a construction
line and then be required to draw
them again. Use the symbols in
the text, and the sample plans, as
your guide. Add notes for each
material symbolized. If a note
The amount of
and run is indicated as shown
on the sample elevations.
the floor line to the lower edge of
the head jambs of doors and
windows.
Indicate overhang width and
is
a note to specify the
its size and shape. Also,

add a note to describe the shape
and size of downspouts.
Chimney height is dimensioned from the highest roof
ridge. Both width and depth of
the chimney are indicated. Dimension the amount of exposed
flue liner height and the thickness of the chimney cap. The
amount of wash on the chimney
cap should be shown.
material,
481
ma-
a leader line pointing to the
described.
Cutting Planes
cutting planes to corre-
spond with those on the
floor
plan.
using the symbol.
thickness of fascia. If a gutter
is
not on the surface of a part, add
Add
must also be inleast one elevation,
rise
add
the
Symbols of Wall Materials
terial
location dimensions for
pitch
from the floor

bottom of sill may
distance
be shown.
louvers or ventilators.
Roof
to
long but
place dimensions
offsets,
both ends of the building as
at
used,
line. (If
wall off-
all
The depth and size of footings

and foundations are dimensioned.
for Elevations
dimensions are drawn on eleva-
if
required.) At
near the building center.
describe the roofing material.
sioning
is
dimension the distance between the grade line and finished
bol for your roof covering.
tions.
sion
sets,
Roofing Symbol
The
of course, more than one dimen-
Check your drawings carefully

and errors; make
for omissions
all
Reinforce Knowledge
a condensed check
for
list
use
in
drawing building elevations. Items

presented
in
found on
all
this
may
list
elevations.
not be
Likewise,
other items not mentioned here
may
be required on a specific elevation.

The
list
is
to aid
you
in
establishing
an orderly drawing procedure.

To use
this
draw the item
list
most
effectively,
or items discussed
then lightly check them off the
and
list
as you complete them.

1

fasten
it
to the board.
From Ideas to Reality
Part Three:
2.
Using construction
make a
3.
draw
lines,
block.
title
scale for your elevations.
name
9.
20.
in
21.
block.
how many
Decide
elevations
the
22.
elevation,
place
or
on the
show
elevation to
edges,
door and window
tion;
floor lines
sides.
breviation
each
Letter the ab-
an end of
at
and
ceiling lines,
and
the roof overhang on ap-
Draw
and
with
an
identify
construction lines for the
steps
dations
in
when
the
all
footings.
footings and founrequired.
basement
floor,
if
all
all
plus
re-
42.
Draw
the roof pitch symbol
and
line
from where the
43.
Add
flashings
the proper symbol for the
roof covering.
44.
Add
dimension
all
and
in
lines, figures,
good
Follow
notes.
the chimney liner, cap,
di-
mensioning practice and use the

or pot,
if
required.
plans
30.
Draw chimney
31.
Draw
saddles.
in
Chapter 49 as a guide.
45. Draw symbols for
wall
all
ma-
roof dormers.
terials.
32.
Draw
roof ventilators
for
ex-
46. Letter the notes for
Draw
all
items
protruding
pipes
soil
other
or
through
the
If
35.
If
47.
If
your building
your
building
has
gutters,
identify
48. Draw cutting plane
in
window openings
list,
lines to cor-
still
tops;
your drawing
and
for omissions
all
50. Clean your drawing.
parts
whose
lines
and
shapes are completely defined
final size.
to
equipment, or hidden
482
lines,
make
51. Broaden border and
all
carefully
errors;
form completed parts. Broaden
ject,
this
each one.
other construction lines should
for
required
the floor plan.
49. Check
do not have bottoms or
outlines
symbols
respond with those shown on
in.
you have gutters, draw down-
36. Door and
has
items not included
draw and
draw them
all
used.
with construction lines. Use ob-
areaways.
completed.
and drip caps,
when
Draw
for all
object or equipment
sills
their
your building has one.

footings and foundations
manufacturers'
quired.
spouts for them.
bottoms and tops of
Draw
41. Draw
the chimney on elevations
roof.
ele-
window and door de-
lines not previously
letter
abbreviation.
Draw
40. Broaden
letter
on each
following
to adjacent elevations.
34.
lines
tails
literature or other information.
chimney passes through the roof
33.
floor joists
all
indicate the pitch.
center line for the bot-
Draw grade
vation
7.
roof gable ends.
are drawn.
all
Draw
needed.
haust fans or attic ventilation.

all
Draw a
Draw
39.
other elevations.
on each eleva-
W.
F.L.
Draw
29. Draw
to identify.
if
their
in
Draw a center line to establish

window and door heights. If
some heights are different, be
sure
line.
Draw
tom of the
16.
as
on two adja-
are
louvers
draw them
all
showing gable ends.
kinds of items
to identify.
5.
Draw
fireplace
foundations
stairways
28. Transfer a
extend them past building
edges about
and
and
or
ventilators
proper location.
38.
27. Transfer the chimney height to
offsets,
on the other elevations.
14.
chimney
Draw
If
propriate elevations.
your floor plan and
draw the same
Draw
25.
it
draw
lines,
first
building
9. Re-position
13.
foot-
their
elevations.
26.
construction
lines
2.
Draw
cent elevations
above
plan
floor
nearby.
and
24. Transfer roof heights onto other
proposed location of the
37.
build-
Chapter 49.
in
required,
23.
8. Using
as
Determine the best location for
first
posts
each elevation.
the
and
pilasters
required.
7. Position
10.
Draw
footings
title
and draw as shown on the
as
ing plans
footings
sheet or
the
piers
ings as required.
can be drawn on each sheet.

6.
Draw
the lower center of the drawing

in
and
footings
required.
drawing scale and the
of the drawing either
Draw
required.
Choose an appropriate drawing
4. Letter the
5.
8.
Also,
lines.
layout of your
be sure
tered.
trim
Check the
it
is
strip
title
the drawing to
title
block
completely
let-
Drawing Building Sections

Methods of viewing and drawing
were discussed
sections
in
Chapter 35. This chapter does

not attempt to describe how building parts are drawn, but rather it
prescribes
include.
necessary
Of course,
draw building
sections
construction methods. If you are

not so informed, specific infor-
mation may be obtained from

earlier chapters or other reference
sources.
Drawing Scale
There
ing scale for
all
building sections.
Each section through a building

shows the arrangement of many
building parts. The size and complexity of these parts help deter-
mine
the
Each drawing
scale.
should describe the parts

tion
and make
understood.
may
ques-
their construction
The drawing
scale
'-0",
ever,
is
larger
scale
scale
for
how-
usually
include.
to
be required.
If
any wall
is
to
be constructed
The drawing should show
typical one, each variation
items
from
the
all
bottom of the
a different
manner from
be drawn. For example,
if
the
must
part of
footing to the upper face of the
a dwelling
However, a large scale

drawing that presents entire walls
may extend higher than the draw-
construction and another section
roof.
It
is
permissible to use
is
to
is
to
be entirely frame
be covered with brick ve-
neer, then
required.
two wall sections are

If this
same dwelling
break lines and omit middle por-
has an attached garage with foot-
Drawings in the
in Chapter 49
are done in this manner.
If drawing size permits, include the proper symbol for each
material used. Major building
ings, floors, or
tions of walls.
set
of plans shown
parts,
ing, joists, or
tified
with
others may be idenleaders
items,
and
notes.
such as flashings,
floor coverings, interior trim,
may
is
be identified
and
if their
deemed necessary for

Some sys-
other construction
from those of the house,

additional section drawings are
different
required.
Sections for Different Levels
such as studding, sheath-
inclusion
Minimum drawing
most sections is %" =
to
in
others
scale or larger.
ones
Other Wall Sections
building plan should include
you have learned, and in

may be drawn full
l'-O" to 1"
which
mines
a section through a typical wall.
Minor
rare instances
with the section drawing deter-
Study the sample set of plans to

see the kinds of dimensions likely
SECTIONS TO INCLUDE
vary from 14"
l'-0", as
in
maximum
%"=l'-0".
is
ing sheet.
no one suitable draw-
is
For
a suggested size for wall
Section Through a Typical Wall
you must
materials and
desirable.
sections
before you can
sections
be familiar with
to
more
clarity
If a
structure contains
more
than one living level or a differ-
ence in floor level between the

home and a garage, then additional
section
quired to show
at
drawings are
how
re-
the materials
each level change are joined
the specific situation.
or assembled. If footings are re-
tem of dimensions is recommended. The story you are telling
quired below walls joining differ-
483
ent levels they should be
drawn
in.
From Ideas
Part Three:
Sections for a Finished Attic
A
attic
section through a finished
should
include
locations,
and methods of joining knee walls
from the bottom of the footing

to the top of the chimney. The
drawing should include adjoining
framing for floors, ceilings, and
to other structural parts. Floors,
the roof. Indicate materials used
coverings, and in-
and show methods of joinery.

The plan should include the
ceilings, wall
drawn in. Include dimensions to show size

and locations of all walls and
sulation should be
complete
hearth,
with
all
its
dimensions.
other parts.
Stairwell
Chapter
15
presents detailed
section
of stairways and their construc-
called for
Your plan should include

pertinent
to
your
section
through the
it is
eral
be included.
cabinets
or other special features
shelving.
Be sure to include
Dimensions for all
All other cabinets or shelving
building should be drawn
in the
described
as
all
in-
Closets
Draw
between upper and lower cabinets, and soffit heights should be

shown. Dimension all shelf spacings. Note: This plan should also
include an overall floor-to-ceiling
cal closet to
dimension.
ticle
the stairs or at side walls, be sure
the inclusion of
they are included on the plan.
details,
custom-built
for,
they
cabinets
are
usually require
all
construction
such as for face frames,
a section
height of
through a typi-
show
all
and dimension the clothes pole

location. Letter a note describing
the materials to use, such as par-
board shelving or iron pipe
for the clothes pole.
Then draw
members
for shelves
in
support
and rods and
Show
identify the parts.
clothes hooks
when they
are to be included.
doors, drawers, toe boards, and
include dimensions to show the

amount of head room. Note: Be
all
other parts. These require
complete dimensioning. Custom
Sections Through Doors and
kitchen cabinets usually require
Windows
minimum
stan-
when designing such
parts.
sure to consult
dards
When
landings are required, be
drawn
and dimensioned. Also, draw and
dimension the stair rail (bannister). A second duplicate rail need
not be drawn in detail.
certain they are properly
additional section views because
and
draw
the width
shelves. Also,
above and
a ceiling line
and
kitchens
for
bathrooms.
dividual cabinet heights, distances
If
in cross-section.
Other Cabinet Work
are
outline shapes need to be
called
Draw
Built-in bathtubs requiring

door enclosures, drop ceilings,
typical
unnecessary to show
showing structural framing plus rise and run of individual

steps. Dimensioning should include both total rise and run as
well as individual step rise and
run. But since all steps in a typical
set are the same size, you need to
dimension only one.
If footings are required below
stairwell
construction details; only gen-
drawn.
stairway.
Draw
all
to
is
manufactured
If
information
show mirror or
medicine cabinet locations.
cabinets should
should be shown
through
kitchen cabinet
information about different kinds
tion.
of lavatory cabinets, built-in

clothes hampers, linen cabinets,
dividers, or any other special
items. Sections through lavatory
soffits,
Kitchen Cabinets
to Reality
kitchens. Include section drawings
Plans for large buildings
al-
in-
most always include sections
volved. For example, in addition
through each different type of

door and window. Little information except general shape and an
several
different
items
are
to the typical cross-section, plans
may
also be required for the sink
cabinet, oven cabinet, surface unit
identifying
and hood arrangement, drawer
cluded.
number is usually inDoor and window types
may be
omitted from plans for
units, or others.
Fireplace
small structures unless the infor-
Your plan should include
section through the fireplace,
if
you have one. This plan extends
Bathroom Cabinets
mation
bathroom cabinets should

be drawn as was explained for
construction.
All
484
shown,
is
necessary
for
actual
When these must be

one may copy their shapes
45: Drawing Building Sections
from the manufacturers' detailing
beams,
sheets which are supplied for this
posts,
purpose.
other basic structural part.
Miscellaneous Section Drawings
cludes large scale section draw-
A
Working plans should include
construction details
impor-
o{~ all
tant or critical framing members.

showing how thev arc joined to
oilier building parts. These ma)
box
girders,
built-up
include
Condensed Outline
The
presents
following
resume of section drawings

clude on a
Every item
of working
set
the
in
list
may
to all plans. Likewise,
quired on a specific plan

included
1.
It
is
the
in
and window
8.
items re-
9.
not be
10.
exterior wall. (Most are
specified.
if
is
different
an
Draw
each
through
sections
cabinet
special
or
If
the building contains cabinets
other rooms,
in
draw
sections through these.

12.
drawn
Draw a
cal
section through a typi-
closet
include
to
clothes poles,
shelves,
and other special
features.
sections through each ex-
terior wall that
is
Draw
through
sections
and windows when
different from
struction
the typical one.
their
doors
con-
needs to be shown.
Draw
sections
in
floor levels, as for
critical
construction point, such
split levels,
garages, or second
as built-up girders, framed
Draw
wall
changes
sections
through
14
openings,
stories.
Draw a
wall section through a
finished attic.
Draw
stair well,
section
showing
all
Draw
post
and
each
beam
Draw
sections through millwork
items such as baseboards, mold-
the
construc-
a section through the
fireplace.
or
through
connections.
1
through
tion features.
7.
sections through each
or shelving
roof slope.)
6.
soffit
Draw
feature.
11.
as longitudinal sections showing
5.
including
and a
bathroom
and dimension a
typical cross-section through
4.
cabinet,
kitchen cabinet that
to
keep as many drawings the

same scale as you can.
Draw
section through a typi-
kitchen
from the typical one.
each section to be done. Try
3.
and exterior
lower cabinets, upper cabinets,
list.
letter,
Draw a
cal
in-
necessary to determine an
Draw,
trim,
Know/edge
to Reinforce
appropriate drawing scale for
2.
The ones
moldings.
plans.
may
in-
most frequently shown are baseboards, base shoe, ceiling molding, moldings at soffits, all door
not apply
some
working plan frequently
ings of millwork items.
brief
to
steel beams, supporting

framed openings, or any
ings,
1
and other
Include
scale used,
code
for
trim.
name, the drawing
and an
identifying
each section drawn.
485
Drawing Elevation Details

Elevation details are similar to
building elevations ex-
exterior
show features
They show facings.
They are drawn to a larger scale
than exterior elevations so more
cept they usually

inside rooms.
can
information
Since
it
impossible to give
is
instructions
for
drawing
in
the pre-
them. As discussed
appearance. For a better understanding of appropriate eleva-
Include only information necessary for construction; do not clut-
page layout requires more
ly
tion sizes
shown
in
and scale, study those

Chapter 49.
WHAT TO
describe
an individual
items in
building
windows, but having no cabinets,

are seldom drawn in elevation.
not,
included.
elevations
these
specific
exact
be
careful planning to give an order-
Plans for large buildings have

elevation drawings; almost
is
drawing with
trivia.
Bathroom Elevations
Smooth walls with nothing on

them need not be shown. All
INCLUDE
many
every detail
ter the
drawn. However,
walls requiring cabinets, fixtures,

mirrors, medicine cabinets, wall
tile,
or
should
accessories
be
vious chapter, one must be famil-
plans for small structures such

as homes frequently include only
with building materials and
drawn and dimensioned. Be sure

to include heights and locations
a few elevation detail drawings.
of accessories such as soap dishes,
Kitchen Elevations
towel
iar
construction methods. There are
many
the
elevation details
sample
set
shown
in
of plans: study
them before drawing
A working plan should contain

elevation drawings of each wall
yours.
Drawing Scale
or
cabinets
containing
kitchen
appliances.
Manufactured cabi-
paper
bars,
holders,
or
others.
Shelves or Cabinets
Every wall requiring shelves or

drawn and di-
cabinets should be
no one suitable draw-
nets require only general outlines
mensioned.
elevation details.
plus those for shelves, drawers,
cludes closet shelves and walls
Each drawing must be large
and doors. Custom cabinets are

drawn in detail.
because
There
is
ing scale for
enough
all
to give
a complete de-
scription. Elevations with
uncom-
may
be drawn to
a small scale but those with in-
plicated parts
tricate construction features
be
usually
must
The scale is
between A"=\'-0" and
drawn
larger.
l"=l'-0". For best appearance,

all
drawings on a sheet should
have a uniform
scale. If they
do
If
appliances are to be included
as part of the construction, their
outlines should be
drawn and
If they are to be supby others, their outlines

should not be drawn, but rather
the space they are to occupy should
be shown and dimensioned.
plied
containing
486
doors
these
statement
are
not
ex-
always
drawn. The closet cross-section

usually supplies adequate infor-
mation for
their construction.
di-
mensioned.
Walls
This
and
Fireplace Walls
Fireplace walls usually include

detailed information. In
much
addition
to
showing
all
visible
construction features, fireplace or
chimney elevations
also include
46: Drawing Elevation Details
hidden
lines
to
outline
shapes. If a fireplace
more than one
face,
flue
all
open on
each must
is
drawn
as elevation details.
These
how framing mem-
should show
bers are fitted
and connected
to-
be shown.
gether.
Special Construction Features
used for joining structural parts,

large scale drawings showing their
Each wall containing
special
features such as planters, screens,

dividers, soffits, alcoves, or similar
items must be fully
drawn and
shape
sions
metal connectors are
If
may be
included.
Dimen-
and technical data neces-
sary for construction should be
roof framing and other structural
Exterior Elevation Details
Chapter 44 discussed exterior

building
As
elevations.
stated,
most of these are drawn to a small

scale. This cannot include intriof complicated
struction
Structural Elevation Details
Therefore
Working plans should include
A working plan should contain
be shown with
cate detail necessary for the con-
given.
dimensioned.
Roof Framing
may
parts
section views.
elevation
of
details
all
critical
how
essary to
it
parts.
sometimes nec-
is
draw special items to a

show their construc-
large scale to
an elevation detail showing truss

design and construction, if these
they are joined to other building
entrance door details, outside
are to be used. Conventional roof
parts.
and similar items are frequently done in this manner.
framing systems should also be
framing members, showing
Condensed Outline
to give
details of
to Reinforce
a complete description
of work to be
be included on building plans. Some
necessary dimensions and tech-
may
not be re-
quired on every plan. Likewise,

plans
the
in
may
nical
some
require items not included
notes
Draw
It
necessary to determine an
each elevation to be included.

Try to keep the scale consistent
if
similar
drawings.
That
required,
draw them
to the
same
scale.
2.
Remember
each drawing
is
or
Island
7.
utility
fixtures
room
8.
or
cabinets
structure
(in-
cabinets,
Blank walls
or
may be
487
accessories.
omitted.
Draw
hidden
show
lines.
elevations of
all
special
ers, screens, or similar items.

9.
are required,
taining cabinets, fixtures, medi-
fireplace elevations;
flues as
features such as dividers, plant-
cabi-
all walls to show these.

Draw each bathroom wall con-
Draw
all
peninsula
draw
5.
cine
that
or
the
details.
laundry or
nets
is,
several kitchen elevations are
If
shelves
are to be shown as elevation
im-
require elevation drawings.

4.
fire-
cluding the basement and attic)
cabinets not fitted to walls also
appropriate drawing scale for
for
are extremely
other
throughout
wall containing cabinets or ap-
list.
is
6. All
that
elevations of each kitchen
pliances.
1
done and
portant.
3.
planters,
fences,
Knowledge
a reminder of elevation drawings to
elevations called for
Screens,
places,
Note: The elevation
The following statements serve as
tion.
Draw
details
to
describe roof
framing or truss systems.

10.
Draw
elevations of
all
critical
construction features.
1
Draw necessary
exterior eleva-
tions of items not fully described
by other views.
m)
Drawing Framing Plans
This chapter describes framing plans frequently included in

a set of
working drawings.
It
does
not attempt to describe construction
methods; construction details
are discussed in other chapters.

Sets of plans for large structures almost always include fram-
ing plans (or diagrams, as they
sometimes called) but they

are frequently omitted from plans
for small buildings. Note: Their
inclusion is always an asset to
are
plans in the
preliminary line-
set,
work can be copied from a finished basement or footing plan.

Naturally, if it is to be drawn
new
to a different scale, a
layout
must be made.
Using construction lines, first
draw all exterior walls; then draw
bearing walls,
interior
hidden
shown
be
as
lines, or
they
equipment
may
These drawings, as the term

framing plan implies, simply describe the shape, location, and
resent walls, they are usually not
added
until
framing
is
after
drawn
used to rep-
all
in.
structural
This permits
omission of wall lines through
members.
Using recommended spacings
for framing (as 16" o.c), draw
all structural members. These may
be shown with heavy center lines
Framing plans may be drawn

same scale as the building
to the
floor plan or, if little detail
is
to
be included, they can be drawn

to a smaller scale.
Drawing Sheet Size

These plans should be drawn
on the same size sheets as others
or, if the scale is large
permit
it,
drawn
in.
is
used,
When
all
Floor Framing Plan
framing diagram
and
is
at
to
may be
method
double framing must
the
first
be indicated with notes.
double
If a floor
their thickness
the second
in the set.
enough
method
framing
is
When
used,
beneath
all
walls
openings should be drawn
openings, and their
488
sizes,
should
also be dimensioned.
Ceiling Joist Framing Plan
ceiling joist
drawn
framing plan
in exactly the
is
same manner
as a floor framing plan. In addiit
is
also necessary to
show
non-bearing walls when they require special framing to hold
them
in position.
Roof Framing Plan
The major
a
difference between
roof framing plan and those
previously discussed
is
that the
roof overhang must be shown as

a solid
plan
to
line. If the
is
show
When
this
lines
thickness, then the roof
be shown
beam
framing on
drawn with double
edge framing
(fascia)
should also
same manner.
describing post and
in this
roof construction, both the
beams and their supporting posts

and all roof planks should be
shown.
to
of
dimensioned. Locations of framed
structural
Drawing Scale
critical
positions
as
double framing that must fit beneath walls from above, should be
tion,
solid lines are
such
locations,
lines.
When
structural parts.
few dimensions. However,
all
Broaden wall out-
posts or piers.
lines as
plus
construction.
method of joining
Framing plans include very
be the same scale as other floor
Plank and
beam
roof framing
diagram
for a transverse
beam
system.
""""'
-'wrjsiT'b
i^:i 7 zi 7 z: 7
^: ^z"^
7
7 z.Z 7
~~^VJIZ 7
Y~7T7 S.JS SS SJ\
1"7A\'-
Hi
i iv
~'Yi
Plank and
beam
roof framing
diagram
IZ
JY."/y\
$tA
'7i%
for a longitudinal b(
/
'V/././.l
489
V//
//
:._._.__.! .-
4f":
From Ideas
Part Three:
f
_J
10 WF. 33
to Reality
~l
h
mj
DO.
%
8 WF.
T
SI
--|
40
p-
10 WF. 33
10_WF._33
S-2
S-3
p-
*i
0WFJ3
S-3
'0 WF. 33
rn
S-l
DP,_11-
DO.
|
_l
S-2
<
S-2
DO
DO.
'n
17'-0"
pg__
_DO-_
floor
lines at
When
any of the above are to

be of metal or concrete, or a combination of both, the framing plan
is
slightly different.
this difference, a
To
illustrate
sample framing
plan showing steel beams with

concrete fireproofing
shown.
is
framing plan with beams encased
Steel or Concrete Framing Plans
all
S-2
DO.
DO.
beam edges
|!
because of
in
concrete for fireproofing. Addition of hidden
indicates concrete fireproofing.
costs,
complete fram-
frequently included on working draw-
ing plans for such buildings are
ings.
seldom drawn. Persons experienced in building framing can do
ing
is
It
improbable that
all
fram-
plans mentioned would be
in-
cluded on any one set of drawings.
studding layouts without them.
Use only those needed and omit
Only walls requiring
all
special fram-
ing are usually included in a set
of plans.
others.
Determine an appropriate drawing
2.
Reinforce Knowledge
scale for each framing dia-
gram to be included.
Remember that each diagram
to give
work
members
are a defi-
The following statements are
However,
serve as a reminder of framing plans
490
to
is
a complete description of
to
be done or parts
assembled
construction aid.
structural
nite
i_-2P-_
S-2
Wall Framing Diagrams
Wall framing diagrams of conventionally framed buildings as

shown in Chapter 7 that include
J!ll
r^ r
\~
beam
:_
Tl!
Tl
Steel
T*"
S-2
S-2
j_-3l
7-0'
\m.
Ir-fl
and
that
to
be
necessary
dimensions and notes are very

important.
47: Drawing Framing Plans

3. Floor
framing plan
Draw
exterior
all
and
bearing
walls as construction lines.
Draw
all
posts, piers, or other
make
layouts for
all
Be sure to include
tural parts.
Draw
all
Broaden
equipment
name
5.
the
lines.
extension and
Draw
used and
using
Indicate
the
scale
bearing
Draw
other walls
if
they
fluence roof construction.
With construction
lines,
7.
When
concrete framing plans
in
framing
their
draw
to
all
proper
notes, lettering,
draw
used and
as described
wall framing diagrams are
required,
in-
fig-
Using the proper symbol for
for other plans.
and
extension and
the drawing.
structural
exterior
required,
Add necessary dimension
Roof framing plan
Draw
are
each material required, draw
floor
walls with construction lines.
center
lines.
framing plans.
either
planks
roof
6. Steel or
for
framing including the
Add necessary
name
framing
as described
structural
ures, notes, or other lettering.
fig-
the drawing.
If
dimension
scale
all
showing framing thickness.
draw them.
lines.
4. Ceiling joist
all
edge,
Add necessary dimension

Indicate
Draw
lines or
ures, notes, or other lettering.
layouts of
framing.
Add necessary
dimension
Make
lines for walls, using
either hidden or
When roof beams are required,
roof
center lines for, or out-
lines of, all
and
framing.
struc-
double framing.
ridges, gables,
draw them.
Using suitable framing spac-
ing,
all
valleys with construction lines.
supports.
outlines of the roof overhang.
Draw
structural parts
locations.
Use
and dimensioning
give a complete description.
491
Mechanical Plans
Mechanical plans are drawings
ELECTRICAL PLANS
presenting information and instalinstructions for electrical,
lation
plumbing, heating,
ing, ventilating,
air condition-
vacuum cleaning
system, compressed
or other
contains drawings
usually
relating to only
tion;
air.
Each mechanical
similar needs.
plan
Electrical
one such
however, such plans
installa-
may
combined if space permits.

As stated elsewhere in the
be
text,
comprehensive mechanical plans

are very specific and complex.
Drawing each one requires a
thorough knowledge about the
information
sented in Chapter
is
pre-
and sym-
17,
bols for individual electrical items
are
42
shown
in
Chapter
38.
Chapter
sets forth electrical items that
may be
included on a floor plan.
This discussion
is
to serve as a
reminder for including electrical

items on your plan. There are
three
different
information
ways
may be
house plans. The
electrical
presented in
first
two are
widely used, but the third
is sel-
dom
used for homes and
is
most
often reserved for use on plans

for large buildings.
1
Electrical
information
is
most often included on regular

house floor plans as described in
Chapter 42 and shown in Chapter
49. (The lower level floor plan has
electrical items
shown
ventional way.) Study
in this conit
carefully
drawing your own

plan if you are includ-
as a guide for
electrical
ing electrical information.
specific trades involved.
Mechanical plans for each type

always drawn for
installation are
large structures, but only limited
mechanical plans are drawn for

homes. General information is
most often shown on other drawings already included in the set;
then technical problems are solved
by the contractor responsible for
each installation. Yet, even

though only limited mechanical
information
is
included, specific
information
is
always more de-
sirable because
chance
for
it
leaves less
mistakes
understandings.
and mis-
EE
Electrical wiring circuits.
492
Wires leading from switches represent individual
circuits.
48: Mechanical Plans

1.
Floor plans often become
plumbing
that such
extend (usually in walls)

from one living level to another,
living
note this on the plan. If shutofls
lines serve.
pipes
understand when
much information is drawn in a
small space. To remedy this it is
That
level.
are to be provided at fixtures, in-
permissible to trace the original
dicate this
wall out-
Plumbing information may be

drawn on footing and foundation,
and then
basement, or floor plans. Or
and
difficult to
show only
floor plan to
lines
add
and major
features,
electrical
all
information to
Chapter 49. the

middle and upper level floor plans
were traced and electrical information added. Compare the two
drawing methods to determine
which is best for your plan. Regardless of the one chosen, follow the steps for items to include
as outlined in Chapter 42.
3. Also as described in Chapter
42. lines connecting switches and
outlets indicate only which switch
tracing.
this
In
controls a given fixture; they
do
not actually show wire placement.

If your electrical system is quite
complex, complete diagrams for
each
electrical
drawn on
circuit
traced
may
floor
be
plan.
Such a partial plan is shown.

Note: This method is almost always required for large buildings
but seldom for homes.
Electrical
step-by-step
items to include. Since
procedures
for
in-
cluding electrical information on

floor plans are given in
42,
Chapter
and the same information is

all three methods
included with
described earlier, the steps are not

restated in this chapter.
lines are
most often
if
more
the plan and
overcrowding,
desirable to trace
it
is
add plumbing information.

Drawing
Tips
Notes.
on the plan.
Add
drain
notes to
a note to describe. If the gas line
terminates at this point with a
information and Chapter 38
valve and supply to an appliance,
18 presents
shows pipe symbols
for different
uses.
Plumbing
fixtures, such as
bathtubs, sinks, or lavatories,

need not be drawn. NaturalK. if
any plumbing fixture diagrams
drawn on an
are
symbol
indicate this with the gas
rather than a circle.
existing floor
plan, they will remain.
Water heater. Draw a top view

of the water heater
to
If
draw and
or
plumbing
quired,
if
nec-
essary, for this.
Indicating drains through floors.
its
vents are required for combustible

fuels,
crowding. Trace the plans,
appro-
describe
Study each plan in your set to

determine if the inclusion of
lines will result in over-
in its
and add a note

fuel and capacity.
priate location,
Sillcock or
in
their
bib. If standard
hose
frost-free
draw
describe.
hose
the
bibs
symbol
proper
are
re-
for these
Add
locations.
explanatory notes when necessary.

Sprinkler systems. If outside
For each footing and foundation,

basement, or floor plan, draw
stationary sprinklers are to be in-
pipe size circles (approximately
scale plot plan.
same diameter
to scale as the pipe
required for the drain) at

tions
where
through
loca-
all
vertical drains extend
floors.
Draw
pipe size circles in walls for

or vent stacks.
all
Examine each
its
thickness
accommodate
pipe diameter.
Branch supply
large-
Floor drains. If floor drains for
basement or garage are
quired,
draw them
in their
is
the
Sump pump.
pump, draw
re-
proper
For each
location
if
one
is
pit.
floors.
493
When
such
Describe the
required. Unless
your specifications contain a denotes to describe.
pipe size circles where they
and sump
Both size and

dimensions should be
scription of the
extend through
your building
these.
given for the
cover
lines.
If
requires a concrete pit
serving all fixtures, draw vertical
location.
Indicating drains in walls.
to
draw these on
stalled,
between
Plumbing information (called a plumbing diagram) is drawn on the floor plan
diameters
and materials used.

Gas pipe. If a vertical gas pipe
extends through a floor, draw an
appropriate sized circle and add
hot and cold branch supply line
floors.
supply
indicated
earlier, to describe their
stalled beneath a building or

its
all
as
pipes,
plumbing
Chapter
designed
in-
this
inclusion of such information will

result in
wall to be certain
As you know, horizontal
are beneath
lines
floor they serve
first
soil
PLUMBING PLANS
plumbing
if
is,
sump pump, add
Water meter. Draw the water

meter and/or shutoff valve.
Part Three:
Water softeners.
ening equipment
it
is
water
soft-
required,
draw
If
and add notes
in
to describe or
refer to specifications.
Pressure reduction or booster
Plumbing
the city sewer main, water main,
lines.
Study the symbols of plumbing

lines in Chapter 38. Study your
how
plan to determine
to
conform
manuand add
to
plumbing
appropriate notes.
Protective devices. If your plan
requires
catch
draw
it
on your footing
and foundation plan

in
its
to local
to
construction lines to conhot water supply pipes.

to con-
cold water supply pipes.
all
Draw construction
all
all
in
this
its
chosen location and
connect to distribution boxes and

the absorption
field.
lines to con-
lines
dation drain
this
tile
as required. If
connects to a dry well, storm
sewer, or sanitary sewer,
connecting
draw the
lines.
Check your plans
with their
Using the
tile.
appropriate symbol, draw foun-
building drains.
Broaden
required. If your
if
plan requires a septic tank, draw
Perimeter drain
appropriate symbol.
code requirements.
and gas main,
practices.
all
nect
conform
lines
all
Draw construction lines

nect
(or tracing)
proper location
Draw
nect
dry well, or similar
trap, cistern,
device,
grease
basin,
lines
connected to supply or drain
can best be located to use a minimum of pipe and conform to good
descriptions
your plot plan draw
connecting from the building to
booster devices are to be installed,
facturers'
to Reality
items previously drawn must be
devices. If pressure reduction or
draw these
On
Each of the
lines.
From Ideas
carefully for
make
omissions and errors and

corrections as needed.
Heating and Air Conditioning Plans

Heating and
information
is
air
conditioning
presented
in
Chap-
and symbols for individual

items are shown in Chapter 38.
As was true for electrical plans,
heating and air conditioning plans
ter 19,
for
homes may be
limited,
may
Chapter 43 and is mentioned

here as a reminder for its inclusion
the heating plan
if
drawn on
is
being
be
size. If
draw
all
may
be a separate
Window
On
each
floor plan requiring registers or
radiators,
it
such items to
chases or recesses are re-
unit. Include
descriptive information.
a tracing.
Radiators or registers.
or
either be a part of the furnace or
conditioners.
air
If
these are to be installed perma-
nently through walls,

outlines
and
add
draw
their
appropriate
notes. If they are window
mounted
elaborate
information
presented.
The information may
quired in walls, draw and dimen-
but not permanently installed do
be added to regular footing and

foundation, basement, or floor
sion these. Location dimensions
not draw them
for radiators or registers are not
as
plans. If existing plans are too
required unless their exact place-
note stating that they are sup-
congested to permit inclusion of
ment
plied by the owner. (Be sure elec-
additional
may be
information,
plan
traced and the informa-
tion included
on the
tracing.
formation almost always included

plans.
Then
detailed
to other construc-
tion features. Either notes, code

letters,
at
First this discussion covers in-
on house
is critical
or figures
may be added
are
included
electrical plan.)
If fuel
lines
connecting to a
supply source were not drawn
central air conditioner
is
with the plumbing plans, draw
planned, draw the outline of the

desired location. Letter descrip-
given.
connections
If
on house plans, but almost always included on plans for large

is
on the
or draw them
and include a
in,
lines
Air conditioning condenser.
condensing unit on the plot
The furnace. Drawing the furnace outline was described in
trical
each to describe.
information sometimes included
buildings,
hidden
in
code letters, or figures.

Air conditioner evaporator.
tive notes,
Draw
the outline of the air con-
ditioner
evaporator.
494
This
them now.
Thermostats. For each heating
its
may
draw a thermostat
an appropriate location. Add
descriptive notes, model numbers,
or cooling zone
in
or identifying codes.
Other items. As stated
earlier,
48: Mechanical Plans

all air
ducts or supply pipes
Condensed Outline to Reinforce Knowledge
may
drawn on house plans if

deemed necessary, and they are
almost always drawn on plans
for large buildings. Symbols for
these items are shown in Chapter
be
The following statements review
7.
items to include on mechanical plans.
Even though discussions of
how
soil
8.
to
draw furnaces, water heaters, electrical symbols, and other mechanical
38. If all required valves, fittings,
items
were presented
in
to
of
study
ters,
technical
books
9.
manufacturers' descriptive
ture
is
mechanical plans.
litera-
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS
2.
is
Determine the scope of the
3.
For detailed information to
to
of plans.
5.
Trace sheets as required.
6.
Draw pipe
schematic diagrams in the form
in
your
set
require
size
circles
drains through floors.
structural building parts

sys-
Schematic diagram of
plumbing
a hot-water heating
Draw gas pipe extending
15.
Draw the water heater.

Draw sillcocks or hose bibs.
Draw heads for sprinkler systems when required.
Draw floor drains as required.
Draw sump pit and pump.
Draw the water meter and/or
shutoff valve.
Draw water
softening
equip-
ment.
1
7.
Draw
all
other
pumps
or
mo-
tored apparatus related to the
systems are often drawn. These

all
in-
plans.
of individual building mechanical
more clearly describe the

tem being explained.
3.
Determine which drawing sheets
of simplified pictorial drawings
to
16.
this relationship clearly,
omit
12.
14.
Chapter 42.
4.
set
clude on electrical plans, refer
mine how such information shown

on separate sheets fits with or is
a part of similar information on
To show
in-
formation to be included.
often difficult to deter-
other sheets in the
are required for your building.
Since separate mechanical

plans are drawn for footing and
foundation, basement, and floor
it
Decide what mechanical plans
all
extending
symbol.
10.
plans,
when you
wish to include them on separate
necessary.
pipe size circles for

lines
all
walls.
through floors or use gas outlet
they are restated briefly here
to help avoid omissions
and
Draw
in
through floors.
other chap-
the plan, further
pipe size circles for
or vent stacks
branch supply
or mechanical accessories are also
be shown on
Draw
system
495
for
plumbing system.
all
18. Using the appropriate symbols,
draw
all
drain and supply lines.
19.
If
your system requires a septic
27.
Draw
draw
28.
If
tank and absorption
field,
them.
20.
tile
and related
sewer connections, or
lines
all
necessary
30.
31.
descriptive
notes to describe the system.
errors,
32.
in
26.
Draw
all
outline
and
line to its source.
chases or recesses for
radiators or registers.
air conditioners,
specified.
Draw symbols
for
thermo-
all
Draw
all
ducts or hot water sup-
Add necessary
descriptive notes
34. Check your drawing for omissions or errors,
24. Trace the sheets as required.
Draw your furnace
Draw window
and code designations.
air conditioning information.
connect supply
the air condi-
plan.
your
set of plans require heating or
draw
required,
ply pipes to be included on your
33.
23. Determine which sheets
25.
the air con-
stats.
and make necessary
corrections.
If
if
22. Check your plan for omissions
and
draw
tioner evaporator.
to
the sanitary sewer.
Add
29.
items, such
as catch basins, cisterns, storm
21.
radiators or registers.
ditioning condenser.
Draw perimeter foundation

drain
all
required,
and make
all
35.
Draw
schematic
diagrams
of
plumbing, heating, or other sys-
tems
if
clarifications
essary.
496
are nec-
AUt
LWorking
Plans for a Contemporary
Much
Home
book has been devoted to information necessary

and design. Construction features have also
been discussed and drawn as they should appear on working plans.
Additional emphasis has been placed upon methods of communicatof
this
for building planning
ing ideas to others through working plans.
Such verbal descriptions,
or drawings of individual construction features of items requiring

inclusion
on working plans may not always be
the novice.
He may
not
know how
clearly understood
to visually
show
by
the required
and notes. A set of plans

contemporary home (the same home shown and described in
Chapter 53, Architectural Models) therefore is included in this chapter.
These plans are to supplement the printed text and individual drawings in the book to help clarify by illustration the separate drawings
technical information by lines, symbols,
for a
required,
information to be included, and to show
the
how
the
finished drawings should appear.
This set of plans is not exactly the same as any you may draw
because each building requires plans different from others. Yet these
plans can be used as a general guide for information or kinds of
on yours. Careful analysis of the plans may also

you may judge the quality of your
work. Compare this set to those shown at the end of Chapter 39.
Observe that the plans here are much more elaborate in detail than
lines to include
serve as a standard by which
the previous
amount of
portant
set.
Naturally, the building complexity determines the
detail required.
detail
is
On
small structures, only the most im-
shown, but on large commercial structures or
expensive, custom-built
homes almost every

497
detail
is
included.
498
m
b
>'
CM
PLOT PLAN
SCALE VM "= l'-O"
499
---=fc4--j--
r=Tfp
1,8^
-t
fl f4--
Ht
4.
tir.d
Uh'-8"
-ti
r-
u
LE\
l"
48"
"3
f 10"
I
U^
J_l
-?l
L~
10"
r:
5 '-4'
TTT
FOOTING AND FOUNDATION PLAN
SCALE V"= t'-O"
NOTE: VERIFY ALL DIMENSIONS
MATCH
DURING CONSTRUCTION
LINE
500
--=4-
ft
j-*@
4-
1X7
FIREPLACE
FOOTING
U,
-i
-T-
I-
1i
t
UNEXCAVATED
LEVEL
L""
8"
AND TAMP
"
:__J
5 '
UNEXCAVATED
-^
rLEVEL
AND TAMP
MATCH
LINE
Ui
501
__ _^ __
-^-
_^
^-A;
II
BASEMENT PLAN
SCALE '/."= l'-O"
WINDOW
KEY
A
MODEL NO.
1N4
REMARKS
DESCRIPTION
CASEMENT W/AL STORM & SCREENS
D/S GLASS
2N4
D/S GLASS
W3N5
CASEMENT W/AL STORM
D/S GLASS
W4N5
D/S GLASS
W5N4
D/S GLASS
G
H
502
QUAN.
SCHEDULE
8.
SCREENS
CUSTOM-SEE PLANS
CUSTOM-SEE PLANS
/a" INS.
CUSTOM-SEE PLANS
1" INS.
INS.
GLASS
GLASS
GLASS
DOOR SCHEDULE
KEY
1
QUAN.
3
2-6"x6'-8"x 1%"
10
2'6"x6'-8"x 1H"
2'-2"x6'-8"x 1%"
2'0"x6-8"x 1%"
l'-6
3'0"x6'-8"x
P/i"
2'-6"x6'-8"x 1%"
"x 6-8"x 1%"
2'10"x6'-8"x7%"
10
5'-0"
11
\W
x6-8"x
l'-10"x6'-8"x
!'/"
\W
WOOD
WOOD
WOOD
WOOD
WOOD
WOOD
WOOD
WOOD
WOOD
WOOD
WOOD
WOOD
SOLID CORE BIRCH
WHITE PINE
SOLID CORE BIRCH
WHITE PINE
HOLLOW CORE
BIRCH
WHITE PINE
HOLLOW CORE
BIRCH
WHITE PINE
HOLLOW CORE WALNUT
WHITE PINE
HOLLOW CORE
BIRCH
WHITE PINE
HOLLOW CORE
BIRCH
WHITE PINE
HOLLOW CORE
BIRCH
WHITE PINE
HOLLOW CORE BIRCH-FOLDING
WHITE PINE
HOLLOW CORE
WHITE PINE
BIRCH-BI-FOLD
HOLLOW CORE WALNUT-CUSTOM
WHITE PINE
PANEL FIXED-RIGHT
PANEL SLIDING. '/. CRYSTAL
ALUMINUM
6'0'x 6'-8"x
13
6-0"x6'-8"x 1H"
ALUM.
WOOD
WOOD
WOOD
LAMINATE COVERED
GLASS
FROSTED GLASS SHOWER
7-0'; x 6'-8"
18'0"x7'-0"
16
4-0"
17
2'0"
x 6'-8"
8'0"
LEFT
3
PANEL OVERHEAD
PANEL OVERHEAD
WHITE PINE
WHITE PINE
POCKET ASSY.
NO FRAME
PARTICAL BOARD-PLASTIC
DOOR
LINTEL SCHEDULE
PRECAST CONCRETE LINTELS
KEY
QUAN.
LINTEL
REINF.
LENGTH
TOP & BOT.
CLEAR
LINTEL
LINTEL
SPAN
WIDTH
HEIGHT
7%"
7'-4"
7W
7W
7W
4'-2"
1-Jt4
3'-10"
l-#4
3'10"
1-^4
6'0"
4"
2'10"
4"
2'-6"
4"
2'-6"
6"
STEEL LINTELS
LINTEL
CLEAR
KEY
QUAN.
SIZE
SPAN
LENGTH
3"x 3"
3/16"
2'-2"
r-6"
r-8"
3"
3"
3/16"
2'-4"
3'-6"
3"
3"
%"
4'-2"
2'3"
2Vi"x P/i"
WHITE PINE
LOUVER-BI-FOLD
12
15
FRAME
DESCRIPTION
MATERIAL
SIZE
2'-6"x7'-0"x 1%"
503
3/16"
2'-3"
\-4
ALUMINUM
NOTE: OUTSIDE WALL DIMENSIONS

LEFT LIVING
AND
ROOM WALL
INDICATE EDGE OF STUDS.

OTHERS ARE TO CENTER
OF WALLS.
504
>
EDGE OF STUDS
18-8'
2" x 6"
CEILING JOISTS
LIVING
SEE
SEE DETAIL 28
ROOM
ROOF FRAMING DIAGRAM
DINING
ROOM
BEDROOM 9 3
NOTE: SEE ROOF TRUSS

DETAIL.
ENTRANCE
<g
SERVICE
PANEL
505
ELECTRICAL FLOOR PLAN

SCALE '/,"= l'-O"
506
507
SEE SECT. 27-B
_,
[ 1'-4"
'
r-8"-
REAR ELEVATION
NO
'I
SCALE AFTER REDUCTION
508
SEE SECT. 27-A
ik = = = = =
= = = ==
8"
-J
RIGHT ELEVATION
509
LA L>Ut
~24
2"
FILLER STRIP
II
2"
6" RAFTERS
16"O.C.
10" RAFTERS
T)
|r-9
_il
4"
12"
'-7.",
PLYWOOD BOX
BEAM
"
2"
10" RIDGE
BOARD!
'
II
L/
2"
DDER FRA MING

6"
1" O. C.
DIA G R> \M
ROC }F FRA Mir

SCAL :
'/b"
= r- 0"
510
MATCt 1
LINE
"
LADDER FRAMING 2"

24"
6"
O.C.
^3
2"
10" RAFTERS
16" O.C.
QI
I
BUILT UP GIRDER
SEE
MATCH
LINE
511
GARAGE TRUSS
DETAIL 29-A
BUILT-UP
ROOF
WITH GRAVEL
512
1" x 8" W.P.
JAMB
%" PLYWOOD DOOR
SIDE SPRING
W.P.
HINGE
DOOR STOP
SCALE
W=V-0"
513
BASEMENT LAUNDRY
CHUTE DOOR DETAIL
SCALE
514
W' =
l'-O"
SCALE
%" =
'-0"
1
515
SCALE Vi"
'-0
Vi" LEAD
516
EXPANDERS
SUPPORT FOR PAN
SECT
iy2 "=r-0"
SCALE
SCALE
Vi"
-0"
\W
517
2"
x V*" T
5% ^
6'- 7'h"
0"
FORMICA DIAMONDS
3'
W/ BLACK
GROUT
PLASTIC
MIRROR
o
^
vvKAA/
^j
1
ii
L-Jl-J
CO
(25\
3'-0"
3'-5'/."
3'-7'/j"
10'-0 3A"
zd\
ELEV
r -11"
"
i"
'
p'A",
PLYWD.-x
\_
o
I"
___
1
r
p>FL. LT.&
RROF
o
>
00
__
1
1
*o
Tj
CO
CN
'-2"
1'-3"
SCALE
5' '
8"
'/2"=1'-0"
518
SECT
SEE
WIRING PLAN
-,,
4V4"
CERAMIC
x 4'/4"
TILE
SEE TYPICAL
CLOSET SHELF
AND ROD
DETAIL
^
CHANGE
Ll
TO
CERAMIC
COVE BASE
3_t
12-6%"
ELEV.Z2\
SEE LIGHT
TROUGH
DETAIL
ALL MIRRORS
'/,
POLISHED PLATE
Do
M\
-^f^J
l
:
'2
ELEV./3\
SCALE
W=
is:
l'-O"
o
u
<
>
SCALE 3A"
5
>
O
gss
3 s
519
l'-O"
,.
B.
;;::
5\
^\
ELEV. /
SCALE
%"=
i'-o"
//
520
/4\
ELEV.
'.z\ SCALE %"=
l'-O"
2"
4" NAILERS
KITCHEN CEILING
AND
SCALE
W=
SOFFIT
l'-0"
CLOSET DETAIL
SCALE
MOLDING
W=
DETAIL
'0"
TYPICAL CLO. DETAIL

521
ELEV .z\
SCALE
%" =
'-0"
lO'-O"
3"
S
522
WALNUT VALANCE
m
=n=
.J
I
'
ELEV
.^\
ALL SOFFITS EXTS.
-I
;=oi
</,"
WALNUT
/K
FIFV
SCALE
PLY PANELS
>/"
= 1-0"
2'-3"
8 -0"
h
CORK BOARD
D
S.
GLASS
A
v
ro
- %"
CM
1
UJ
1
CO
1'.7"
2'-4"
4'0"
FIFV
/K
2'-0"
523
im
ELEV.
SCALE
Ê
/fo\
W=
'-0"
7'-8'A"
i
T
CUSTOM
HOOD
'-7W
524
ELEV.ZlK
SCALE
/a"
'-0"
2'-7"
?w^
r-0"
-9
"
'
/l
.1
t.
i
'
A.
'
1-8
8"
2'J
LINER
SCALE
W=
'
<
'-0"
525
NOTE: ALL CABINET FACE

FRAMES V*" x Vt" EXCEPT
1
BOnOM
RAIL
%"
x 1"
FIREPLACE
DETAIL 28
SCALE
526
%" =
'-0
ALL
IS
BRACING
2"
4"
%" PLYWOOD
GUSSETS
"A"
ALUMINUM BACKED
BOARD
PLASTER
1
UUA BtAM
CONSTRUCTION DETAIL
%" scale
HOUR
FIRE
RATING
TYPICAL
GARAGE
ROOF TRUSS
STAIR DETAIL
SCALE %"= l'-0"
SCALE
'/."
'-0"
527
many
Since
different people are involved in
the
planning, bidding on, and constructing a building,

copies of plans must be reproduced from the original
drawings.
Reproduction of Drawings
and Semi-dry
Blueprints
was for many
method of repro-
Blueprinting
years the only
ducing working drawings.
came such
an
important
widely used process that
be-
It
and
when
other systems were later devel-
oped many people called every

drawing reproduction a blueprint,
even though some other reproduction method was used. Although this is not technically correct,
is
it
The
accepted practice.
quality of a blueprint
very satisfactory but
is
has dis-
it
advantages that frequently make

it
less
desirable
than newer
methods.
About the
treated,
print.
Chemically
light-sensitive
paper
is
After exposure, the blueprint
paper must be developed

the
in
prevent
years.
Semi-dry
print.
Introduction of
method made
dried prints are always wrinkled
immersed
and must be flattened before use.

Automatic machine drying may
other roller
be employed. However the
with developer; the exposed, sen-
size,
making much
and
in the
rollers,
blueprint
is
The background
a reverse print.
is
roller
in
is
a long tray
with
is fed between the

and the solution is de-
paper
posited onto the paper, thus de-
veloping
The paper
it.
dampened
slightly so
The
wrinkle as
it
is
only
does not
it
dries.
This method
on the
blue background makes them very
can produce
clear,
sharp prints
easy to read.
yellow and the lines fade with
and
lettering are white.
Blueprints have permanent

quality, so they are very
good
for
but they have a tendency to turn
age.
Aging
is
gradual and does
not interfere with
legibility
from passing through the

tracing, so areas under them are
prints that
long period of time. If they are
a dark place
not exposed.
handled with care they may
should be legible for years.
light
it.
becomes coated
all
blue and
is
and an-
in contact
roller
the de-
greatly simpli-
is
in the solution
The lower
sitized
tracing
same manner, but
machines has led to

widespread use of other methods.
blueprint
The
sensitized paper are exposed
veloping process
fied.
print-
easier than by the
method.
blueprint
complexity, and cost, of automatic
intensity of the white lines
trolled. Pencil or ink lines
more
the semi-dry
lines
Most exposures are

made by machine so the intensity
and exposure time can be con-
be satisfactory after twenty or
development the paper

must be washed with water and
dried. Older methods relied upon
hanging the copy and air-drying
This is very time consuming
it.
and not in keeping with today's
ideas of speed and progress. AirAfter
posed
artificial.
much
same manner as a photograph.
placed beneath a tracing and exto light, either natural or
Prints
must be used over a
528
still
for
several months. Prints stored in
when
not in use,
50: Reproduction of Drawings
A 111 111 on in Vapor

Machines
The ammonia vapor process is
method of
the most widely used
reproducing
The
tracing
working drawings.
and sensitized paper
are exposed to an ultraviolet light
source
paper
is
and then the sensitized

developed with ammonia
vapor.
The
of the
versatility
many
machines designed to use this

process, and the relatively low
cost of basic models, make them
available for any business establishment.
Simple machines consist
oi'
source and a metal container
light
with a heating element to vaporize
ammonia and develop
the
the
machines permit
very rapid development. Some
machines automatically develop
Larger
print.
any specified number of prints

from one original tracing.
These machines have many desirable
features.
The
prints
are
dry and are ready to use as soon

as they are ejected.
rolls
Use of
large
of developing paper permit
any sheet length. New copies are

and sharp, and lines are inDeveloping papers are
tense.
-'
clear
available in
many
colors.
Some
I266T
of
more common are blue, black,

red, brown, and green. Prints can
the
be developed onto
mediums such
many
DEVELOPING TUBE
Frederick Post
A developing tube and separate
different
light
tity
Co
source can be used when only a limited quan-
of prints
is
required.
as different weights
of paper, transparent paper, plastic
coated paper, transparent and
opaque
plastic. Beautiful
overlays
There are two principal objections
to
human
this
process.
One
Many
is
persons
too, these prints tend to discolor
and fade with continual exposure

to light. However, they can be
can be obtained by printing parts

of a drawing on different sheets
of plastic with different colored
familiar with
blueprints simply
preserved for several years
cannot or
not change to the
are stored in a dark place
lines.
use of the newer method. Then,
objection.
will
529
not
is
use.
if
they
when
Frederic* Pes,
This white printer
is
'^^^M
Co
number
ideal for offices or other institutions that require a small
of large size
prints.
ing plans for them.
They
sell
these
plans to individual builders. Fre-
quently a builder desires to have

the
name of his own company on
all
the drawings. Instead of buy-
regular
ing
own
his
titles
prints
masters and
sepia
business
he
then
obtains
inserts
name on
the
before having them printed.
Plastic Film
Sometimes sepia masters cannot produce the quality of print

that
is
desired.
There are many

produce photo-
plastic films that
graphic
making
negatives
prints.
On
suitable
for
some, the lines
are permanent, while on others
they can be removed or washed

off so changes or corrections
Frederick Post
An automatic white
printer
can produce
Co
letter or legal size prints in
may
be made.
any desired
Some
films
must be exposed
in
quantity.
direct
Sepia Masters
An
intermediate print called
master which is a brown

line print on a special translucent
paper can be developed and
a sepia
used as a tracing instead of the

original. Sometimes so many
prints
must be made from one
original tracing that the excessive
handling could damage
ment
is
sold by
it.
Equip-
many companies
under various trade names. Sepia

masters are also very useful
when
must be forwarded to
other departments or companies.
For example, there are several
large companies that specialize
in designing homes and developtracings
530
contact
the
to
original,
while others permit reductions or
enlargements.
Some
are transpar-
ent while others have a matte or

frosted surface to
make
addition
of lines easier.
Films are especially useful for
combining information from several drawing sheets. Information

can be assembled and photo-
ChoHes Sruning Co
A production machine
then when printed

appears as one drawing.
graphed:
it
When
is
tine quality
very
copying
documents and other imis
frequently used. This process
is
similar
to
film
the
copies just
described except the copy
produced
Since
the
it is
copy
original;
is
that
print,
from the
everything on
reversed
is
is,
is
white
is
black
and everything
black on the original
on the
re-
a one-exposure process,
the original that
on the
is
upon opaque paper.
print. If the final
is
that
white
copy must
look exactly like the original,

is
necessary
print
to
They
spraying a light-sensitive solution
graphs or other materials produced by similar methods. In
onto the item and then placing a
other words, you cannot always
tracing over
from the reproduction.
Printing
on Anything
Sometimes it is necessary to
prints on unusual materials
make
it
can
be
to be
exposed. Ap-
of developing solution
then completes the print.
also
make
a copy of a copy. Printed
drawn subject matter in both

pencil and ink reproduces well.
or
Some machines will make spirit

Electrostatic
Machines
machines are very popular for a

wide variety of reproduction jobs.
Sheet size
width
is
is
limited.
Maximum
usually about 9".
machines are
belt driven
is
that almost
for overlays
are often not as
ammonia vapor
any drawn
Temporary
drawings
duces
machines
lines,
as
However, many
will not
from a
531
reproduce blue
ball point pen.
good
as
when
used.
prints such as
may be produced
shop
with-
out developers. Exposure of special
on.
is
Copying
Direct
regardless of the kind of paper

is
and projection.
Line quality and permanence
or printed matter can be copied,
the original
reproduce on plastic film
ing, or
Some
posure over a glass plate. The

biggest advantage of these ma-
duplicator
for
copying, masters for offset print-
which
permits additional sheet length,

while others require a fixed ex-
chines
masters
process
Small electrostatic copying
it
make another
not copy photo-
or
by
This
plication
portant papers, photo-copying
may
glass,
wood, metal,
as
required, as for reproduction of
legal
capable of high volume output.
done
such
plastic.
Photo-copying
is
paper through a tracing pro-
print
the
is
is, it is
finished
print.
This
a kind of blueprint; that
a reverse print with a blue
background and white
lines.
From Ideas
Part Three:
to Reality
Storage and Retrieval

When
many
an organization needs
tracings, their storage for
future use becomes a problem.

They occupy considerable space;
and they must be accessible for
use without being damaged.
Rolling
them
tracings
and storing
makes them very

but it damages the
in tubes
accessible
fibers
When
of the paper.
tically.
Storage on Film
Tray Storage
out damaging them, other stor-
age-and-use systems have been
stored in
flat
trays or drawers. This preserves
them in good condition if the

compartments are kept orderly.
Trays are not always orderly, especially if several people must use
them; then it is necessary to hunt

through many drawings to find the
on
firms
record
and then
film
use the film for reproduction pur-
There are several film
poses.
size folders are frequent-
used for storing tracings ver-
Some of the more sophis-
viewing.
machines are combination reader-printers. If a copy is

desired the machine will automatically reproduce one.
ticated
earlier,
There are two basic systems.
which makes the negative the
In one system using roll film in
same size as the original tracing,

but more durable and easier to
store and use.
cartridges,
film,
described
as
non-contact system copies
the tracing so the film
is
only
Vi
the film is passed

through a projector until the desired frame (individual picture)
is
The other system has

mounted in key punch
called aperture cards. They
reached.
negatives
the original size. Copies are the
cards,
same
are run through a sorter for re-
size as the negative.
Miniaturization
Folders
sys-
tems in general use.

Very simple systems use con-
one desired.
ly
Many
developed.
tact
Giant
large
and use with-
difficult to store
their tracings
are unrolled, they wrinkle easily
may be
may be
Since tracings
and
photographed onto a very small

sometimes less than Vi"
square. When it is to be used, an
image is projected onto a screen
or a large size copy is made. There
are automatic machines available
that project the desired image
onto a TV-like screen for easy
is
film,
they
which reduces their quality. They

soon become unsuitable for use.
Tracings
These protect the tracings
but are cumbersome to handle.
is
also being
used for copying and reproducing

drawings. The best known system
is
called microfilm.
The
tracing
trieval,
projection,
and copying.
Many companies have
developed
systems that are variations of the

above.

1
ing
Why must many
sets of build-
plans be reproduced from the
6.
7.
original tracings?
2. For
best
many
years what was the
print
method of reproducing working
Why
4.
feel this
What
is
are
name?
permissible?
some
of the disad-
vantages of blueprints?
5.
8.
are some prints that are
not blueprints called by this
Do you
is
What
blueprints wrinkle
flattening before use?

is
meant when a
blue-
What advantages does
What
are
some
vantages of blueprints?
9.
this
method produce
0. Describe the
permanence
of
What
is
What
the most widely used
14.
the capacity of
How much
quired for
15.
Is
drying time
ammonia vapor
it
amam-
is
re-
prints?
true that only blue
made on
and
these
machines? Explain.
7.
What
What
reproduction process for making
objections to
copies of building plans?
ductions?
532
is
13. Describe a very simple
16.
these prints.
1
2.
white prints can be
clear prints? Explain.
of the ad-
Does
monia vapor machines?

monia vapor machine.
called a reverse print?
semi-dry print have over a blueprint?
drawings?
3.
Why do
and require
is
an overlay print?
are the two principal
ammonia vapor
repro-
50: Reproduction of Drawings

18.
Why
What
are sepia masters?
are they used?
19. Describe
some of
the
ways
that plastic films can be used as
termediate prints.
What
an
is
may be made and
of rolling tracings for storage?
in-
27.
inter-
What
20.
is
photo-copying?
How
can a print be
wood, metal,
28.
Is
29.
glass, or plastic?
30.
What
are some of the advan-
tages of these machines?
24.
What
are
some
of the dis-
roll-
are two disadvantages

in
large trays or
Why
many
are
firms record-
31.
What
What
on film?
is
miniaturization?
is
microfilm?
32. How may it be projected for

viewing?
33. What is a reader-printer?
34.
advantages?
25. Explain
What
ing copies of their tracings
machines.
23.
an advantage of
drawers? Any advantage?
made on
22. Describe two kinds of heatlight
is
of storing tracings
Why?
an important process?
2
What
ing tracings for storage?
mediate print?
this
finished without
being developed.
26. What are the disadvantages
how a reproduction
How
are
key punch
cards
used for reproductions?
Terms to Spell and
Know
copy or reproduct on
sepia master
light sensitive
blueprint
intermediate print
electrostatic
photographic negative
storage and retrieval
reverse print
sensitized
paper
developer
wash-off film
miniaturization
contact negative
microfilm
ammonia vapor
matte
reader-printer
ultraviolet light
photo-copying
aperture card
533
Specifications
A
of building plans cannot
set
communicate
all
and materials such
as
nails
or
paints required for the construction of a building. This additional
information
included
Title
page
(Name
Titled as: Specifications for
kind of building as school, church, residence, or factory.)

Name of owner.
in
the
Complete address of the proposed building.
Specifications
are
Name
is
specifications.
SPECIFICATIONS GENERAL COVERAGE
incidental ideas,
detail analysis, quality conditions,
of architect.
seldom written by the professional draftsman but he must be ac-
Official title of architect.
quainted with them.
Seal of official registration of qualifications.
Every
of building
set
set
of specifications. Large architec-
have employees
devote
their time
all
who
to writing
them. In small firms the architect

is
responsible for their compila-
tion.
Large firms frequently have
them compiled, and then printed

by a
spirit
duplicator or office
Small firms may

on 8':"xll" tracing
size offset press.
type them
architect.
plans
should be accompanied by a
tural firms
Complete address of
paper and then print them with

the same process as used for the
They are bound

in booklets and accompany the
working drawings. They are a
Table of contents
This
is
usually quite specific as to where items appear in
the specifications.
Instructions to bidders
Location of building to be constructed.
Explanation of how bid is to be made and presented.

Allowances for alternate materials or methods of construction.
Qualifications of bidders.
Time
for receiving bids.
Responsibility of successful bidder for insurance, social security,
workman's compensation,
fees,
taxes,
bonds, labor, and
materials.
Proof of payment of the above items from successful bidder.
building plans.
legal part of a contract, as are the

official
upon
plans,
all
and are binding
Contract between owner and contractor(s)
Scope of work included.
The
contract price.
Signed, sealed, and witnessed.
parties involved.
Specifications for large,
com-
plicated structures include
much
General specifications applying

Explanation of
how
to all trades
detailed specifications for individual
trades are subdivided into different groupings.
534
Specif/cations
Specifications (continued)
detailed information.
have 75
They may
to 100 typewritten pages.
For small, simple structures the
much
are
specifications
briefer,
containing only "stock" information.

is
However,
disagreement
for
information
if full
included, there
chance
misunder-
less
is
or
Statement that a contractor
may
or
may
not subcontract part
of the construction.
Responsibility of a contractor for the
work he subcontracts.
State the necessity of consultation with the architect
if
there
are errors or omissions from the plans or specifications.
Statement that the architect
owner and the contractor

Statement that
all
is
is
the legal representative of the
responsible to him.
manufactured items are
to be installed
standing between the owner and
according to the manufacturers' specifications. They automatically
contractor as to exactly what
become
to
is
Many
firms use standard
printed forms,
filling in
the blank
spaces with the appropriate

Space does not permit a book
this
nature to include a com-
plete set of long, involved specifications.
covers
The
outline given
many of
here
the key details
that are a general coverageusually
included
may
not substitute materials or
construction methods other than those specified, without a written

request and approval.
Statement that damaged work must be repaired.

payments for labor and materials will be made.
Shop drawings to be furnished by the contractor and approved
by the architect before any work is begun.
Construction schedule:
Amount of time allowed.
How
information.
of
a part of this contract.
Statement that the contractor
be done.
in a
standard form:
Penalties for failure to maintain schedule.
Amount
of cleanup required.
Guarantees on work performed.
Detailed Specifications
Work
Short Form
performed by each contractor or subcontractor is outlined in the

detailed specifications. So you can see how they are written, an excerpt from a set
to be
of specifications for a small residence follows:
Excavating and grading

This contractor shall excavate for all work as required
by the plans, and shall keep all excavations dry during
progress of the work. Bottoms of all trenches are to be
kept level and free from loose earth. Scrape away all
topsoil from the area to be excavated and pile separately
for use in grading. All earth is to be piled so it does
not interfere with material deliveries or construction.
535
Part Three:
From Ideas
to Reality
Concrete
This contractor shall install all footings, foundation
walls, concrete floors, sidewalks, and driveway to street.
Shall waterproof outside of all basement and foundation
walls from the grade line to the bottom of the footing
using sprayed-on asphalt waterproofing.
All concrete floors must have a trowel smooth finish.
Driveway and walks are to have a broom finish and are to be
finished with an edger at all joints and edges. Basement
side of the foundation is to be dampened and smoothed
with a cement and sand mix using a wood float finish.
All concrete to be ready-mix 1:3:5.
Basement and garage floors are to be poured on 4" of
gravel fill.
Visqueen film with sealed joints and all damaged areas
repaired shall be placed over the gravel fill.
Masonry
This contractor shall furnish and install all masonry.
Construct fireplace as shown with
No.
liner. Install all flue liners and flues as shown.
Structural steel contractor shall furnish all steel angle
lintels but this contractor shall install same above
each opening.
Face brick: Entire building to be faced with $65.00 M,
face brick, color and pattern to be selected by architect.
Backup for all stone and face brick is concrete block.
Overhead doors: Set f" x 8" threaded bolts 24" o.c. on
each side of door for wood plate.
Sash: This contractor shall furnish and install all
aluminum casements.
aluminum or equal.
Plate anchors: Install j" x 18" anchor bolts around
perimeter of building, spaced 8'-0" o.c. All sill plates
shall have at least two anchor bolts regardless of
their length.
Cleaning: All stone and face brick are to be washed
with diluted acid or cleaning solution. No discoloration
of the cut stone is permitted.
536
1 :
Specifications
Carpentry
This contractor shall do all wood framing. All framing
lumber shall be #2 Southern Yellow Pine or Douglas Fir.
Wall sheathing is to be bituminous coated, 25/32" insulating
board siding. Roof sheathing is to be " sheathing grade,
unsanded fir plywood. Subfloor is to be f" sheathing grade,
unsanded fir plywood, of
quality.
Install all necessary ground and furring strips. Install
3" wood bridging following F.H.A. recommendations.
This contractor shall install all millwork, wood frames,
windows, doors, and trim. Furnish and install 1|" thick
white pine overhead garage door as shown on the plans
complete with necessary hardware.
All floors are to have |" BD fir plywood on saturated
felt, nailed securely with ringed nails to subfloor,
except where composition floors are required; these are to
be screwed with 1^" #8 flat head steel wood screws spaced
6" o.c. except at edges of sheets, where the screws are to
be spaced 3" o.c.
Insulation: Furnish and install 4" full-thick rockwool
bats on all ceilings. All exterior walls are to have 2"
half-thick bats.
Caulking: Caulk all steel and wood frames at all exterior
openings
Closets: Install 1" steel pipe for clothes pole in all
quality.
closets. All closet shelves are to be f" of
All edges are to be filled and sanded. Linen closet shelves
and divisions in double closets are to be of f" AA fir
plywood, all edges are to be veneered with Weldwood wood
trim, secured with one coat of contact cement on the tape
and two coats on all plywood edges.
Doors and trim: All inside doors are to be Weldwood white
birch. Stay Straight, book matched, hollow core, flush
doors. All baseboards, jambs, and other trim are to be
select white birch. Front door is to be solid core white
birch. Kitchen cabinets are to be select white birch,
prefinished with frost white lacquer. Counter top is to be
White Spindrift, postformed Formica.
537
Part Three:
From Ideas
to Reality
Bathroom vanity is to be select white birch, prefinished

with smoke grey lacquer. Counter top is to be Pink Nassau
Formica with self edge.
Hardware: Install aluminum interlocking thresholds on
front and rear doors. Allow $200.00 for finish hardware,
not including the above items. Use sterling track for
all sliding doors.
Windows: Windows are to be Pella casements with wood
brick molding, complete with screens and storm panels.
Window and door openings on inside of building are to be
finished with metal corner bead.
Structural Metal
This contractor shall carefully examine the General
Conditions
This contractor shall furnish and erect all structural
beams and columns.
Furnish all steel angle lintels for window and door
openings. Masonry contractor will set all angle lintels.
All steel must be primed with red lead or equal.
This contractor is to furnish the fireplace liner.
Sheet metal
This contractor shall furnish and install all sheet metal
work as shown on the plans. All sheet metal work is to be
26 gauge galvanized iron. All gutters and downspouts are
to be aluminum. Furnish and install galvanized duct for
kitchen hood as shown on plans.
Install metal roof vents as shown.
Install metal vent in basement for clothes dryer.
36" exhaust fan with motorized
Install
louvers in bedroom hall.
Roofing
All roofing is to be 235 lb. 3 tab, self sealing, asphalt
shingles installed over 15 lb. felt, with Boston ridge
and hips.
All shingles are to be white, of
quality.
538
Specifications
Lathing and Plastering

This contractor shall check all grounds and furring
strips before lathing.
All ceilings on first floor are to have rocklath and
three-coat plaster.
All walls on first floor to have rocklath and three-coat
plaster.
Garage ceiling to have metal lath and three-coat plaster,
with one hour fire rating.
All inside corners are to have 9" wide metal lath
reinforcing bent to lay flat in the corner.
All arches or outside corners are to have Expanded
Cornerite, metal corner bead.
Expanded metal lath is to be applied diagonally above
each corner of all windows and doors. Expanded metal lath
stripping is to be nailed to the ceiling, centered under
all beams and built-up girders.
All doors are to have metal bull nose trim, mitered and
soldered at corners.
All windows are to have corner bead on three sides.
Glazing
This contractor shall furnish and install all glass as
required on the plans. All glass shall be D.S.A., except
glass areas larger than 24" x 30" are to be Thermopane
or equal.
Glazing compound must be the best for metal or wood sash.

Replace all broken glass after construction work is
completed.
Ceramic tile
Install 4" x 4" ceramic tile in master bath as shown on
the plans. Install ceramic mosaic tile floor in master bath
All colors and patterns are to be selected by the
architect.
Composition floors
Kitchen is to have vinyl tile, of
539
quality. Stairs
Part Three:
From Ideas
to Reality
to basement are to have standard grade linoleum treads

and risers, edged with aluminum bullnosing.
All colors and patterns to be selected by the architect.
Plumbing
This contractor is to install complete plumbing, sewer,
water, and gas services in the building. Install 1^-" water
service to the building. All sewer lines are to be
cast iron.
This contractor is to install and connect the clothes
washer and dishwasher.
Install 4" field tile around the perimeter of the
building leaving f" joints between each tile. Joints are
to be covered with 15 lb. saturated felt strips 4" x 12"
and covered with 8" of clean washed gravel.
Gas service is to be provided at two locations in the
basement
All bathroom fixtures and kitchen sink are to be of
quality.
Electrical
This contractor shall install a complete electrical
system as per these plans and specifications.
All receptacles as shown shall be duplex. Install
telephone outlets and television jacks as shown. Connect
dishwasher, surface unit burners, built-in oven, clothes
dryer, clothes washer, exhaust fan, furnace, and others
as shown.
Furnish and install 16 circuit, circuit breaker box. All

equipment described above, and the refrigerator, deep
freeze in the basement, air conditioning unit, and
calcinator, are to be on separate circuits.
Each room shall have receptacles and lights on at least
two separate circuits.
All switches are to be of the mercury, silent type.
Provide 100 amp., 230-115 volt entrance service.
Make alternate bid for underground neoprene entrance
service
Allow $300.00 for electrical fixtures, excluding
installation
All fixtures to be selected by the architect.
540
1 :
Specifications
Heating
Install electric radiant heat in ceilings of all rooms
and basement according to Westinghouse layout. Each room
is to have an individual thermostat.
Contractor must guarantee system to heat all rooms to
75 when the outside temperature is -10.
NOTE: The
following specifications are of the long-form type, used
when you wish
to
be quite
specific.
Painting and decorating

Scope of work: A finish is to be applied to all surfaces
not factory pre-finished, throughout the building.
This contractor shall supply all labor, materials, tools,
scaffolding, and other equipment necessary for completion
of this work.
Materials used are to be exactly as hereinafter specified
in brand and quality. No claims by the painting contractor
as to the unsuitability or unavailability of any material
specified, or his unwillingness to use the same, or his
ability to produce first class work with them will be
entertained unless such claims are made in writing and
submitted with his bid.
Paints, enamels, and similar materials must be delivered
in the original containers, with seals unbroken'and
labels intact.
Use materials only as specified by the manufacturer's
directions on the container.
Do all necessary puttying of nail holes and cracks after
the first coat, with Swedish putty of a color to match
the finish. Strike putty flush with adjoining surfaces in
a neat and workmanlike manner.
Tint priming coat on plaster to approximate shade of final
coat. Touch up suction spots or ''hot spots'' on plaster
or cement after application of first coat to produce an
even result in the finish coat.
Tint undercoats of paint and enamel to the approximate
shade of the finish coat; each coat is to be slightly
darker than the preceding one unless otherwise directed.
Each coat must be inspected and approved by the architect
before application of the next coat; otherwise no credit
541
Part Three:
From Ideas
to Reality
for the coat applied will be given and the contractor

automatically assumes responsibility to recoat the work
in question. The architect is to be notified when each
coat is applied.
Clean all paint or other finishing materials from
other finished surfaces.
Before painting, remove all hardware, accessories, plates,
lighting fixtures, and similar items or provide ample
protection of these items.
Secure color schedules for rooms from the architect
before priming the walls. All colors are to be selected
and approved by the architect.
Why
1.
are building specifica-
tions necessary?
What
2.
have a
3.
building plans should
set of specifications?
Who writes the building specAre printed and bound spec-
5.
why
What
the
meant when one
is
specifications
6. Explain
are
why some
legal?
sets
of
detailed specification?
is
necessity
building even a small
What
3.
when
home?
tions,
why
are the detailed specifi-
cations subdivided according to the

different trades?
are general specifica-
16.
From your study of the sam-
ple specifications, try writing a spec-
What
are detailed specifica-
ification for
one of the trades using
a building plan you have developed
tions?
14.
reasoning and
your study of the sample specifica-
a contract between the owner
contractor
12.
own
15. From your
tions?
Discuss.
tween a long form and a short form
the bidders?
and
ifications superior to simpler kinds?
says
ifications? Explain.
4.
0. What kinds of information

may be found in the instructions to
What
is
the difference be-
or
one provided by the
instructor.
specifications are written to include
much
detail
and others may contain
only limited information.

7.
How may
standard printed
specifications be used for different
Terms to Spell and
Know
buildings?
8.
cluded
What
on
information
the
title
is
to
be
specifications
subcontract
contract
construction schedule
in-
page of the
general specifications
short form detailed specifications
specifications?
9.
Why
long form detailed specifications

is
the table of contents
usually quite specific?
542
Estimating
The term estimating is used

book to mean an organized
come
proficient at
it,
one must
method-is based upon the small

plan is Chapter 39. This
in this
be thoroughly familiar with build-
home
method of determining required

amounts of materials, labor, or
ing materials and their costs.
One
house
money
necessary to construct a
building.
Construction estimating can be

a full-time
occupation.
To
be-
must also be familiar with different construction methods and the

labor required. This book can
summary
onl) give a
to
show
the
problems of estimating.
Observe that the
it
estimated price
There are two quick methods

s
its
ft
Low-cost economy
$10.00
building
Square foot method. The methrelies upon

number of square feet of floor
area. To find an approximate
building cost, multiply the num-
od most often used

the
ber of square feet by the
mated
esti-
cost per square foot.
carport
has 330
price,
pe
Good, sturdy
is
sq.
which
ft.
is
price
total
is
At A the regular
l
$2.50 per sq.

$825.00.
is
ft.,
The
combined cost then is $14,825.00.

The lot. its preparation, and landscaping
is
about 20% of the home

which gives a
combined
total cost
of $17,790.00.
Variation of square foot
Many
High quality
$20.00
construction
Maximum
varies with the construction meth-
features
extension of this method. They

determine a price based upon the
number of square
luxury
$25.00
method
appraisal agents use an
tional
feet
and a na-
average price per square
foot as scaled earlier. Then, since
od and degree of luxury desired.

To use this method effectively
one must base the square foot
price upon known local costs for
buildings that have used similar
garage, or carport with storage

fourth the square foot cost used
norm. For example,
construction.
for the living area.
building
Example: The following estimating example using the above
the national average, this
scale:
used.
$14,000.00.
15'-0" x 22'-0" so
is
$15.00
construction
Of
use the following
in-
cost, or $2,965.00,
course, the cost per square foot
One might
is
room
areas. If $10.00 per square foot
The
ing costs.
area
total
economy construction
Approximate Methods
has
it
cluded, not just the actual
its
of estimating approximate build-
28'-0" x 50'-0", so
is
1,400 square feet of floor area.
If the
shelter,
building has a basement,
calculate
543
them
at
one
building costs vary in different

localities,
they add or deduct the
percentage
variance
costs
must be added
are
to the
from
if
the
a city's
10% above
amount
base price.
MDDKtVIMMUINi OT
AD
Air-dried.
AST
Anti-stain treated.
BIS
B2S
Beaded one
Beaded two
bd
LUfVIDCK
Board
ft.
bdl
Bundle.
Bev.
Bevelled.
81
Bill
of Lading.
Board
m.
b.
(foot)
i.
c.
i.
f.
Ceiling.
Clr
Clear. Also CI.
Com
Hrt.
Heart.
Kiln-dried. Also
Less than carload.
I.
Length.
Igth.
piece.
Lineal foot;
ft
lin.
i.
e., the tongue and groove joints
are worked along the center of the edges of the
Thousand
m.
b.
Merchantable.
Molding.
Pat.
Pattern,
rdm.
Random.
Ctg.
Crating,
Rfg.
Roofing.
cu.
Cubic foot.
r.
Random
Dressed (one or two sides) and center matched.
D&SM
D2S&CM
D2S&M
D2S&Sm
Dressed (one or two
Dressed two
sides),
sides, center
S&E
S1E
S2E
SIS
S2S
S1S1E
Dressed and matched; i. e., dressed one or two sides

and tongued and grooved on the edges. The match
may be center or standard.
standard matched.
matched.
Dressed two sides and (center or standard) matched.

Dressed two sides and standard matched.
e.,
(feet)
Merch
Mldg.
Casing.
D&CM
D&M
i.
12
inches.
Thousand.
Csg.
ft
K/D.
Lumber.
c.
M
M
Common.
... Center matched;
CM.
Feet board measure.
Grooved roofing,
Hardwood.
I.
Cost, insurance, freight and exchange.
e.
Clg.
Foot or feet.
G. R.
hdwd.
Ibr.
Cost, insurance and freight.
c.
...
m.
b.
KD
measure.
Better.
Btr
o. b.
f.
ft.
Also slosh grain and plain sawed.
Flooring.
Free on board.
ft.
foot.
CKIVI9
Flat grain.
Fig.
sides.
Board.
bd.
G.
F.
side.
Factory (lumber). Also Fact, and Fcty.
Fac.
board measure.
lengths. Also R/L.
Surfaced one side and edge.

Surfaced one edge.
Surfaced two edges.

Surfaced one side.
Surfaced two sides.
Surfaced one side and one edge.
S2S1E
S1S2E
S4S
Surfaced two sides and one edge.
S2S&CM
S2S&SM
S2S&CG2E
Surfaced two sides and center matched.
Sdg.
Siding. Also Sidg.
Sel.
Select.
S. E.
Square-edge.
Surfaced one side and two edges.
Den
Dim
D/Sdg.
Drop
Edge. Also Ed. and Edg.
EB1S
Str
Structural.
EV1S
Edge bead one side.

Edge and center bead one side;
e., surfaced one or
two sides with a longitudinal edge and center bead
on a surfaced face. Also B&CB1S.
e., all four sides
Edge and center bead two sides;
surfaced and with a longitudinal edge and center
bead on the two faces. Also B&CB2S.
Edge and center V one side. Also V&CV1S.
Edge and center V two sides. Also V&CV2S.
Edge Grain. Also VG (Vertical grain), rift-sawed;
comb grain and quarter-sawed.
End Matched.
Edge V one side.
T&G
Tongued and grooved.
exp.
Export (lumber or timber)
V.
Dense.
Dimension.
E&CB1S
siding. Also
D/S and
D. S.
Surfaced four sides.
Surfaced two sides and standard matched.

Surfaced two sides and center grooved two
and S/G.
i.
Shiplop. Also Ship.
S/lap.
i.
E&CV1S
E&CV2S
EG
EM
f.
SM
Standard matched.
snd.
Sound.
sq.
Square.
SE&S
Square edge and sound. Also Sq.E&S.
Std.
Standard.
Stained.
stnd.
G.
(See
E.
G.)
Weight.
wt
a. s
Free along side vessel.
Abbreviation indefinite either as to surfaces dressed
to type of matching.
Use other abbreviations which are more
specific.
Courtesy, Southern Pine Assoac
LUMBER TERMS
BOARDS Yard
inches wide.
lumber
of
is,
than
Narrower material
DIMENSION All
that
less
is
inches thick
and 8 or more
bark, which contains living elements, usually lighter
yard lumber except boards,
strips,
SOFTWOOD The
and timbers;
thick, and
yard lumber 2 inches to but not including 5 inches
like
any width.
HARDWOOD The
outer
layers
of growth
in
tree,
color than
group of trees which have needle-like or
to the softness of the
STRUCTURAL LUMBER Lumber

4
exclusive of
or
wood.
that
more inches wide, intended
are required.
544
scale-
leaves, often referred to as conifers. The term softwood has
no reference
botanical group of trees that are broad-leaved.
The term has no reference to the actual hardness of the wood.
SAPWOOD The
in
heartwood.
usually referred to as "strips."
is
for
2 or more inches thick and
use where working stresses
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
MENSURATION
Area of a square
length
Area of o rectangle
APOTHECARIES WEIGHT
breadth or height.
length x breadth or height.
20
Area of a triangle = base x Vi attitude.

Area of parallelogram = base x altitude.
Area of trapezoid = altitude x Vi the sum of parallel sides.
Area of trapezium = divide into two triangles, total their areas.
Circumference of circle = diameter x 3.1416.
Circumference of
circle
circle
circle
= circumference x .3183.
= square root of area x 1.12838.
Radius of a
circle
circle
of a circle
of a circle
half
square of diameter x .7854.
diameter
when
segment
Area of
is
27
1
area of sector of equal radius area of
segment
the
circular ring
is
and
less,
= sum
of the diameter of the
two
and
circles
centimeter
0.1550 sq. in.

0.1076 sq. feet
sq.
meter
1.196 sq. yds.

3.954 sq. rods.
2.47 acres
0.386 sq. mile
SQUARE MEASURE
drarr
Side of inscribed square

Side of inscribed square
=
=
two
Solidity of sphere
of radius x
its
acre
pint
quart
gallon
barrel
hogshead
2 inches
CUBIC MEASURE
s
27
cubic feet.
40
cubic feet
2,150.42
268.8 cu
231 cu. h
1
cu.
Perch
1
1
144
9 sq
30V.
sq.
40
1.2407.
sq. inches
sq.
4 roods
acres
yard
rod
rood
acre
sq.
sq. rods
640
cube root of
solidity x
3.8978.
sq. mile
7.92 inches
25
links
10
sq. chain s or
radius K 1.1547.
Side of inscribed cube of sphere
square root of diameter.
Surface of pyramid or cone

plus area of base.
stere, or c
liter
1
640
36
meter
.06 qt
Courteiy, A.
0.9
qt.
Co., Inc
2.2 pounds
2,200 pounds
160
sq.
rod
chain
rods
acres
sq. miles or
miles sq.
METRIC EQUIVALENTSLINEAR MEASURE

centimeter
3937
decimeter 3.937 in. or 0.328
gram
kilogram
0.03527 ounce
2.204622 lbs.
1
1
Mile
Aae
Kilowatt
Horsepower
Gallon
Gallon Water
Cubic Foot Woter
Bushel
1
1
kilometer
inch
rod
mile
1,760 Yards
4,840
Sq. Yds.
66.0
73.8
85.2
104.4
120.5
147.6
180.8
208.7
255.6
295.2
330.0
361.5
466.7
Cement
94-Lb. Sock
7.48 Gallon*
1,728 Cubic Inches
5,280 Feet
43,560
Sq.
Ft.
1.34 Horsepower
0.746
1.24 Cu. H.
Kilowatt
231 Cubic Inches

8.35 lbs.
62.52 Lbs.
2,150 Cubic Inches
545
ft.
One
Cubic Foot
Cubic Foot
Cubic Foot
in.
meter
39.37 in. or .0936 yords
dekameter
.... 1.9884 rods
0.62137
mile
2.54 centimeters
3.048 decimeters
0.9144 meter
0.5028 dekameter
1
6093
kilometers
Side
Square Tract
FREQUENTLY USED CONVERSIONS

1
dry
2 8 bushels
kilogram
metric ton
ACREAGE AND AREAS

SQUARE TRACTS OF LAND
Vi altitude.
C Horn
'/.
liquid or
VI, acres
of a cord
hektoliter
WEIGHTS
Contents of frustum of pyramid or cone = sum of circumference at both

ends x Vj slant height plus area of both ends.
of base
yards
1.1
Vs of mile
area of bose x Vi altitude
Contents of frustum of pyramid or cone = multiply areas of two ends together and extract square root. Add to this root the two areas x '/ altitude.
wedge = area
link
circumference of bose x Vi of the skint height
decimeter
meter
Contents of o
diameter x .5236.
Side of inscribed cube of sphere
Contents of pyramid or cone
ft.
SURVEYOR'S MEASURE
Contents of segment of sphere = {height squared plus three times the tquore
of radius of base) x (height x .5236).
Contents of a sphere
kilometer
hectare
in.
ft.
sq.
in. 1 standard bushel

1
standard gallon dry
standard gallon liquid
about 4/5 of a bushel
A mass 1 6'A ft. long, 1 ft.
high and 1 '/i ft. wide, con-
cu.
yds
wood
ton shpg.
taining 24V. cu.
league
SQUARE MEASURE
.5236.
4 1888.
yard
rod
sto. mile
corcf
furlong
3 miles
ft.
cubic foot
V"",
foot
8 furlongs
Diameter of sphere = square root of surface x .56419.

Circumference of sphere = square root of surface x 1.772454
Circumference of sphere
sq. kilometers
peck
I
bushel
chaldron
40
solidity x
2.59
sq
3 feet
5'/) yords
rods
center
of circumference x .016887.
cube root of
yard
long ton
LONG MEASURE
1
area of both ends plus length x circumference.
cube of diameter
sq. foot
sq.
LIQUID MEASURE
circumference x .225.
6.452 sq. centimeters

9.2903 sq. decimeters
0.8361 sq. meter
0.259 acre
0.4047 hectare
sq. inch
4 gills
2 pints
4 quarts
31 V, gallons
2 barrels
diameter x .7071.
= diameter x circumference.
= surface x 1/6 diameter.
sq. kilometer
short ton
1
36 bushels
diameter x .86.
Solidity of sphere
= cube
= cube
lbs.
4 pecks
circles x difference
Areo of ellipse = product of the two diameters x .7854.

Area of a parabola = base x 7h of altitude.
Areo of a regular polygon = sum of its sides x perpendicular from
to one of its sides divided by 2.
Surface of cylinder or prism
hectai
cwt.
lbs
diameter x .8862.
1.1284
Side of inscribed equilateral triangle
quarter
DRY MEASURE
that product x .7854.
contain area of a
circle that shall
sphere
sq.
8 quarts
= circumference x .2821.
given square = side of square
Diameter of sphere
28.35 grams
0.4536 kilogram
1.0160 metric tons
area of triongle, when
plus
Side of square that shall equal area of circle
Solidity of sphere
grains
Vjj
'
tri-
Solidity of
English ton
the
6 drams
2,000
2,240
.07958
greater than the semi-circle.
Surface of sphere
ounce
pound
an
Troy Weight
in this
25 pounds
length of arc x Vi radius.
circle
of the diameter of the
ounce
pound
4 quarters
Side of square that shall equal area of circle
Diameter of
in
English ton
dram
and pound
e as
half circumference.
square of circumference
segment of
angle,
0.9842
metric ton
scruple
1
circumference x .0159155.
=
=
of a sector of circle
of o
AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT
Diameter of
Area
Area
Area
Area
The
283185
radius x 6
Diameter of
Area of o
grains
3 scruples
8 drams
12 c
lin.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
ft.
4,356
5,445
7,260
10,890
14,520
21,780
32,670
43,560
65,340
87,120
108,900
130,680
217,800
From Ideas
Part Three:
Appraisals are also adjusted to
compensate
for items that
add
to
the building's value, such as builtin kitchen
equipment, hot water
heat, extra fireplace, full insulation,
and many
others. In addition
velopments.
FHA
appraisers look
ing
for standard qualities.
Cubic
foot
method of securing
estimate
of similar structures.
costs
Another
Note: An average
tentative
per cu.
method.
cost of $1.75
can be used for pre-
ft.
determine the buildand mul-
liminary estimation in lieu of an
by an approximate cost
similar construction. This rough
is
to
ing's cubic foot content
estimate based
to such considerations, appraisals
tiply this
of older buildings must also allow
per cubic foot. As with the square
approximation
neighborhood de-
foot method, the approximation
learning
for age or for
to Reality
must be based upon known build-
how
upon buildings of
is
suitable only in
to estimate.
Estimating by Determining Exact Quantities

The most
mate
is
to
accurate
list
way
know how
In addition, one must
much
to esti-
every item needed.
the actual sizes will vary
from the stated dimensions, the

percentage of each material to be
allowed for waste, shrinkage, or
cutting.
One must
also
know the
num-
unit cost of each item, the
ber of labor hours required for
and the labor costs

per hour. One must determine
the amount and cost of supervision and allowances for overhead expenses. After each item is
calculated and recorded, the results must be totaled to determine
their combined costs.
To select materials and determine their cost, use catalogues,
manufacturers' specifications, and
current price lists. For labor estimating, secure charts and tables
that show labor requirements for
installation,
individual jobs.
know
all
prevailing
trades
It is
necessary to
wage
involved.
scales for
Since
they
vary in different
rate results
localities,
demand
cured for a specific
accu-
they be se-
Tables
locality.
showing labor requirements are

available in books or magazines
devoted to estimating. Individual
manufacturers also describe methods of estimating materials and
labor for their products. For your
use, if you do not have the information described above, you may
material
secure
building
logues
from large
catafirms,
retail
especially those that call themselves discount houses.
If these
are not available in your locality,
general
merchandise
firms
fre-
quently include building material
of recording detailed estimates,

with
many
variations of each. All
labor and materials can be rein one listing; or material

and labor can be compiled into
separate lists. Sample estimating
sheets done both ways are shown
here to illustrate what information
is frequently included and how it
corded
is
compiled.
The
first
excerpt
from an estimate combines labor

and materials, while the second
one is for materials only. The
titles at the top of each sheet
help you identify them. The company name and address is usually
placed in this location.
Quick
pre-estimate
of
labor
ex-
above method is
so detailed and must rely upon
labor tables, an abbreviated form
for pre-estimating is handy. It
then
consists of estimating all materials
footings, foundation, floor fram-
and then doubling the sum to

compensate for labor. Of course,
costs. Since the
listings in their catalogues.
Estimating procedure
usually
follows or approximates the construction sequence.
That
cavations are estimated
ing, subfloor,
is,
first,
and so on
until all
items are calculated.
There are two different ways
546
this
is
not as reliable as estimating
actual labor requirements.
52: Estimating
PHEPAIED
ESTIMATING
& LABOR
BT
APPBOVEO
MATERIALS
NAME
NO. QUAN.
258
258
go
1
Lin
Ft
DESCRIPTION
Hours Req
Per 100 Lin Ft
Hours Req.
Per 100 Lin Ft
Machine Excav
for footing
Hd Labor Excav
for footing
JOB HOURS
1/3
5
UNIT OR
MR.
WAGE
COST
.85
12 00
10 20
12.90
2 50
32 20
42 40
Total Footing Excav
258
258
Lin
Ft
Lin
pt
Wood Forms for No Purchase Use Framing Lumber

footing
Labor for Wood Hours Req
Per 100 Lin Ft
Forms
Skilled Labor Hours Req.
||Per 100 fin Ft
Wood Forms
Lin
Reinforcing
5.16
2 50
12 90
5.16
4 00
20 64
33 54
Total Form Labor

516
Ft
Lin
Bars
#4 Deformed
Cone Footing
Hours Req
Per 100 Lin Ft
Total
Rein Mat & Labor
8" x 16"
206
Ft
206
206
Ft
Lin
skilled
Ft
[Labor
138
Lin
Ft
Field Tile
138
Ft
Labor
Hours Req
Per 100 Lin Ft
Cu
Yd
Gravel Fill
Washed
15 lb Felt
Cover Joints
Labor
Hours Req Per Yard
Lin
Hours Req
Per 100 Lin Ft
Hours Req
Per 100 Lin Ft
Labor
11
iA
1.29
2 50
56 76
3
63
60 39
7 Yd
15 00
105 00
8.24
2 50
20 60
1/2
1.03
4 00
k 12
Total Cone Footing
Lin
129 72
1.38
2 50
2 00
iA
1.25
2 50
1*5
10 CO
1
00
13
Total Found Drain
390
390
96
sq
Ft
Sq
Ft
Wood Forms for No Purchase

Foundation
Use Roof Sheath
Hours Req
Labor
Per 100 Sq Ft
!|Hours Req
-. j-.-. j , -u
Skilled
Labor L,, 100
Sq
Wood Forms
Heat Registers & Furn
Skilled Labor
Heat
Registers and Planter
Ft
^n
COMBINED
COSTS
31 38
7.80
2 3/4 10.72
10.00
2 50
19 50
98
00
42
25
2k 00
4 00
4c 00
It
126 48
ilCdvID
ir
547
PIEPAIID
IT
tPMovEO
NO.
QUAN.
ESTIMATING
MATERIALS
NAME
DESCRIPTION
SIZE
UNIT COST EXTENSION
137 Ea
Lin
4ll Ft
Studs
2" x 4" x 8'
Outside Walls
15 00
105 46
Plates
2" x 4" x
Outside Walls
15 00
4C 84
144 Ea
Lin
U32 Ft
Studs
2" x 4" x 8
Inside Walls
15 00
115 20
Plates
2" x 4" x
Inside Walls
15 00
22 00
96 Ft
Lin
96 Ft
Headers
2 x 10
Outside Walls
15 00
24 00
Headers
2x6
15 00
14 40
66 Ea
Clg Joists
2" x 6" x 14'
15 00
128 60
1 Ea
Porch Post
6" x 6" x 8'
Const. Grade
22 00
5 18
Built Up
16 20
6 48
Lin
2 Ea
Lin
44 Ft
Beam
2 x 10 x 12"
Ridge Board
2x8
15 00
8 78
66 Ea
Rafters
2" x 6" x 18'
16 20
192 46
24 Ea
Studs
2" x 4" x 12*
2,000
Roof Sheathing 5/8" x 48" x 96"
15 00
38 80
19
380 00
Wall Sheathing 25/32" x 48" x 96" Fiberboard
13 75
150 70
1 Ea
Door Frame
3/0 x 6/8
1-3/4
0. S.
Wp.
18 00
18 00
1 Ea
Door Frame
2/8 x 6/8
I-3/8
0. S.
Wp.
17 40
17 40
Fascia
1" x 8" w.P.
Rip to size
30 00
32 10
10
9 00
35 94
35 94
Si
1,096 Ft
Lin
160 Ft
Lin
90 Ft
1 Ea
GI Starter Stp
Windov
#C-13
Single Alum Awning
1 Ea
Window
#C-24
Triple Alum Awning
152 36
152 36
3 Ea
Window
#C-24
Twin Alum Awning
100 10
300 30
Rock Lath
3/8
6 00
240 00
1 82
118 30
4,000 Ft
16 x 48
65 Bags
Plaster
35 Bags
Finish Lime
1 05
36 75
Gauging Plast
3 00
24 00
8 Bags
aiciivto ar
548
Sheathing
Grade Plywood
Lite Mix
COST
52: Estimating

1
What
construction estimat-
is
Describe the cubic-foot ap-
proximate method of estimating.
ing?
Why
2.
must one have much
information to do
From
3.
12. Explain
own reasoning
your
difference
3.
When
estimating
can you define when estimating
why must one
might be a full-time occupation, and
larger
when
size of the
might be only part-time?
it
4. Since this chapter
cover the subject
fully,
does not
how
explain
How
7.
mated
Is
this
method?
a garage or carport
at the
same square
esti-
own reasoning, why or why not?

8. What is the approximate re-
lationship of
garage cost
to
house
16.
appraisal agents
elaborate upon the square-foot
esti-
mating method.
10.
What
tion to the cost
feet
do
other items
addi-
and number of square
they consider?
7.
Where may one
secure data
How may
general merchan-
be of value when
from the sample estimating sheets
for
How
are
they?
long must one allow for
foundation reinforcing
all
bars?
What
22.
its
is
measure
What
What
23.
are the dimensions of
required?
rial is
What grade mateWhat is its cost per
How
does
this
compare
price with other dimension lumber?
What
is
the price of a
bag
How much
will
of gauging plaster?
be needed?
the chapter.
8.
How much
time
is
required
machine excavating the footings
of this house?
for
How much
excavating
time
100
is
re-
lineal
feet?
19.
Terms to Spell and
the trencher
the hourly cost of
is
and
its
549
operator?
What
Know
construction estimating
square foot method

cubic foot
What
is
cost per yard?
the porch post?
in
the unit of
purchasing concrete?
24.
The following questions are taken
in
size
their price per foot?
board foot?
Describe a logical order for
estimating.
quired
in
in-
doing estimating?
how
secure
for
dise catalogues
cost?
9. Explain
is
installing
pertaining to labor requirements?
foot price
as the rest of the building? From
your
15.
can one be reasonably
accurate when using
Where may one
lineal feet of re-
What
foundation?
What
formation concerning manufactured
Describe the square-foot ap-
proximate method of estimating.

6.
area involved?
How many
20.
inforcing bars are required for the
than needed for the actual
products?
to get additional information.

5.
14.
materials,
a quantity
specify
the total cost for machine exca-
between
approximate and detailed estimating.
it?
is
vation?
appraisal
method
Method of
assembly. Small models may be glued

Larger ones are usually fastened with glue
and modelmakers' pins. Pins permanently secure
together.
parts and also simulate nailing.
Architectural
Architectural models are small

scale
structures
features
duplicate
that
of proposed buildings.
There are three general types:

small scale solid models, structural
models, and presentation models.
Each type shows different kinds

and amounts of detail.
Models are usually constructed
prior to the
final
actual building so
form can be previewed and
analyzed before construction begins.
as
Models may
sales
tools
also be used
for
securing
an
Roof overhangs,
Models
balconies,
ter-
and similar items help make

appearance more lifelike. Landscape features give the model
group a finished appearance.
Solid model scale. The size of
a proposed building or complex
determines model scale. Solid
models are seldom larger than
Vi"=\'-0", and many are '/i6" =
and makes the assembled

easy to handle. Models are
proposed structure
show
sections of a
will
They may
into a total group.
city
(as
campus, a factory complex, or

of detail. Since solid
built to a scale
model
is
of detail
of Vi"=\'-0" or
The appropriate
scale
is
by how large the

to be and the amount
to be included.
Scope of the Discussion
fre-
This chapter discusses the plan-
quently attached directly to table
ning and procedures necessary for
which can have folding
constructing one featured model

which is the presentation type
with some structural features
shown. The front, both sides,
and landscaping are done as
presentation. The back portions
of the roof, and some interior
tops,
to
make them
legs
portable.
models
Structural
Structural models
show fram-
ing features, and frequently in-
similar areas.
Amount
unit
an
area to be redeveloped), a college
Presentation model scale. Presentation models are frequently
determined
holds individual pieces in position
fit
ance to their counterpart.
model base. All parts are

mounted on a rigid base such as
plywood or particle board. This
Small Scale Solid Models
how
appearing of any
type. Therefore all materials selected must be similar in appearrealistic
smaller.
Solid
models are the
Presentation
most
l'-0" or less.
architectural commission.
Small scale solid models show
Presentation Models
races,
clude
all
such building parts. All
models are small they usually include only general shapes and
show little intricate detail. Models
may be rectangular blocks, painted
materials are cut to scale size and
a solid color. Simplified outlines
a rigid base.
featured in the house plans of
of doors, windows, and other fea-
Structural model scale. The

most frequently used scales are
i/
2 "=l'_0" and l" = l'-0".
this
tures
add
to
and create an
their
appearance
illustion
of
reality.
assembled
full-size
in the
same order
building.
Like
as a
solid
models, these are assembled upon
550
finishing
materials
are
omitted
show structural parts.

The model featured in this
chapter is of the same building
to
book.
home.
of
'/2
It is
It is
a split three-level
constructed to a scale
"=l'-0".
Presentation model of a light
company
Forest Studios, Park Ridge,
Residence
Determining Suitable Base Size

Careful study of the prelimi-
nary
color
rendering
and
the
working drawings indicate a base

size of 36" x 56" as suitable for
the
model and
Location of
its
landscape.
Model on Base
With the long dimension of

the base as the front, the model
is centered in this space. However,
the back wall is only 5" from the
hall
complex,
Illinois
State University, Normal,
Floor finishes are exposed con-
workshop and tile in

and recreation rooms.
To prevent plywood grain pattern
from showing through the floor
finish, poster board that conformed to lower level outlines
was contact-cemented to the base.
All wall outlines were then drawn
on the poster board.
The workshop floor was painted
crete in the
the laundry
light
grey to simulate concrete.
rear edge of the base, to permit
Latex paint was applied with a
maximum
stiff bristled
landscaping
in
the
brush for a textured
appearance.
front yard.
The lower living level uses the

plywood base as the house floor;
on the laundry and recreation room floors was painted light

beige. Floor tiles were drawn
9" x 9" with a 4H pencil and
therefore no foundations are re-
drafting
quired. Building outlines for this
were then sealed with a clear
Tile
Building the
level are
Lower Level
drawn on
the plywood.
Illinois
Illinois
fixative
instruments.
to
protect
552
All
the
floors
coating.
Note: Floor areas were covered

temporarily to prevent
damage
during model construction.
The working plans
specify con-
crete block for lower level walls,
covered on the exterior with cut

stone. The plans also show
stepped footings and foundations
with
stone
tion
the
on the
model construc-
positioned
steps; to simplify
stone
covering begins
at floor level.
Wall heights and lengths were

determined from the working
plans and individual walls drawn
on heavy illustration board. Openings for doors and windows were
drawn in their proper location.
Walls and all openings were then
cut to size.
tW
floors
screws.
were also secured with wood
553
walls.
mortar joints o. concrete oloc,
shows the scribed and P a,ned
This photograph c enlargement
,
From Ideas
Part Three:
Illustration
may be
board
cut
from
cut
and then
Doors may be
basswood,
with a knife, paper cutter, or small
given a clear
table saw. Since all lower level
secured in place with cellophane
model are the same

height, these were cut quickly on
a table saw. Window and door
openings were cut with a knife.
tape or,
walls on this
One may purchase paper or

wood with concrete block
thin
pattern printed on
it
orative wall finish.
However, for
more
realistic
tar joints
on
for a dec-
appearance, mor-
this
model were cut
into the illustration board. This
produced a shadow
line
if
finish.
more elaborate
ar-
rangement is desired, small hinges

can be used.
laundry sink.
as guides for construction. Cabi-
was cut to size

and all edges filed and sanded.
Cabinets and equipment were
bases were cut from
birch
lumber. All cabinets were
made
net
sections so toe boards could
in
room doors required much pa-
work and furnace

had been
sealer to prevent paint absorption.
sanded, sealed, and sanded again,
All lower level walls were
the toe boards were painted black.
green
light
latex
Next, outlines for
all
drawers were
color scheme. Before assembling
on cabinet faces. Stiles, rails, and

louvers were then drawn on furnace room doors. To make frame-
the model, fine dark green lines
then glued into position.
Close study of the accompanying photographs will
in
pencil
Middle Level Floors

This house was designed to be
built
upon
level
is
so the second
hill,
the lower one. This
tograph of the block walls.
were exposed. These were then
Floor outlines
were drawn on
wall
intersections
were secured
with modelmakers' pins to hold
them in position while

was drying.
After
assembly,
all
sprayed with color tinted clear
Masking was removed
cut to size.
resenting
Modelmakers' pins were used

door and drawer hardware to
give the cabinets a realistic
as
exposed
appearance.
surfaces were given an additional
coat of latex paint for a
final
finish.
the counter top
cabinet, the cabinet interior
Door and window frames
for
the lower level were constructed
cut
away
to
accommodate
Outlines of the laundry
and
was
it.
room
for
this
level
"Lumber"
the
strips rep-
foundation
walls
were ripped to width to bring

floors to the proper height. These
were cut to proper lengths and
The entire
was then fastened to the
fastened to the floor.

unit
Since the laundry sink required

fitting into
above
shown on
W plywood and
exposed parts given a
the glue
is
the right half of the working plans.
and
clear, three-coat finish.
4'
approximately
lacquer.
all
show each
detail described.
work more clearly defined, all

faces were masked so only frames
drawn on the floor, all walls were

glued to it and to each other. All
wood
manner described above.
were drawn in each mortar joint

to further emphasize the shadow
effect. Note the effect in the pho-
Using outlines previously
its
top were completed in the same
doors and
paint to blend with the overall
drawn
backsplash for
The work bench and
Finishing procedures for lower
tience. After all items
the counter top
be easily cut on each base.
walls.
with
into the counter top cutout.
to a scale of '/4"=l'-0" to serve
level cabinet
painted
coppertone laundry sink made of

sheet metal and paper was glued
workshop cabinets were drawn
effect
a coat of
cut to receive the sink. Next, a
A washer and dryer were also

formed from sheet metal and
painted coppertone to match the
Floor plans of laundry and
similar to actual concrete block
Each wall was given
to Reality
on the counter top and a hole
original base.
Floor coverings for each room
on
this level
surfaced
were
floors
Hard
powder
and bath-
selected.
in
the
room, foyer, kitchen,
of basswood and glued in place.
counter top were drawn on pat-
room
(More
terned plastic laminate and cut
small mosaic pattern was used in
information
concerning
doors and windows will be given

later).
Doors were
required
openings.
fitted
for all
These were
to size. All
filed
ish.
exposed edges were
smooth finThe sink cutout was drawn

and sanded
to a
554
are
the kitchen
composition
tile.
and bathroom, and a
pebbled pattern was used in the

powder room. These finished
Floor framing
floors
were cut
mented
to
the
to
shape and ce-
raised
plywood
manner
secured to lower
is
as for the
level walls.
middle
level
Since part of the foundation
base.
and
hearth were cut from
Slate floors for the foyer

fireplace
embossed vinyl asbestos tile. Individual stone shapes and mortar

joints were cut into the surface
and filled with light grey paint.
For color variation, some stones
were tinted slightly different
tones. This color variation
can be
seen in the early model photographs.
wall
is
above grade
of the garage floor
is
level
and
all
visible, these
were painted light grey

those done earlier.
to
match
Upper Level Floors
floor
framing diagram of the
was drawn on paper

W'= l'-0" and taped
to a plywood work surface. The
framing diagram was covered
upper
level
to a scale of
with transparent plastic film to
Garage and Walk Level
The garage
floor
protect
and outside
walk of the actual structure

4" lower than the kitchen
front
are
floor.
Bases for these were con-
structed
and fastened
to the origi-
nal plywood base in the
same
sills
were glued into shape. These
parts were held together with tape
floors.
it
members
while gluing framing

together.
Box sills. Box sills, consisting of

bed plates and headers, were the
first floor
framing members
needed, so small scale lumber
was cut
to length
555
and the box
while the glue was drying. After
removing the tape, the box sills

were temporarily pinned to the
floor framing diagram so other
structural parts could be positioned and secured to them. Interior wall plates were cut to
length and pinned to the framing
diagram. Next, all floor joists were
cut to length and glued and
pinned to the box sills and wall
plates.
Naturally,
formed
to the
spacing con-
framing diagram.
Next, floor bridging was cut to

size,
glued and pinned in place.
The
entire floor framing system
was then removed from the diagram and glued and pinned to
lower level walls. See the
tion above.
illustra-
Cutouts
Subfloor.
level
is
The
in
the plywood subfloor permit one to view floor framing construction.
subfloor for this
constructed of %"x48"x96"
plywood panels. To simulate fullsize panels, these were cut to scale

from birch veneer. All panels
were contact-cemented to the
floor
the
framing diagram. This

entire
made
subfloor a one-piece
unit for easier handling. All panels
terminate above
joists, with no
two adjoining ones ending on the
same joist, as on a full-size
building.
Outlines of upper level walls
were drawn on the finished subfloor. Lines for the cutaway sections, to permit viewing the lower
level were also drawn in. Subfloor
cutouts were made on a jigsaw.
unit
was then glued and pinned
ding could be aligned. However,
to the floor framing.
walls
Determining Wall System to Use
independently as an aid to con-
On
this
model
all
walls indi-
cated on the plans as "frame"

were constructed as the plans
prescribed. However, this
is not
always necessary. Other wall materials, such as sheathing, and
interior wall coverings
may
ob-
scure the framework; so presentation
models that do not show

most easily
structural parts are
constructed with solid walls.
Wall Framing Diagrams
The model featured in this

chapter required separate fram-
Next, the entire subfloor was then
ing diagrams for each wall. Walls

with gable ends above them were
sanded and sealed. This finished
drawn
as
one
single unit so stud-
556
and gables were constructed
struction.
studding
sole
Each diagram indicated

placement,
and top
framing
at
splices
plates, plus all
in
double
doors and windows.
Building
Frame Walls
Each
model wall was constructed individually as on an

actual building and then set or
"raised" into position and secured
to the floor and other walls.
Framing diagrams were fastened to a plywood work surface
and then covered with transparent
plastic film. Walls were temporarily
attached to these during
assembly.
All floor
and
wall
framing required framing diagrams.
557
This model wall
is
an exact duplicate
of the
framing diagram.
Part Three:
Straightedges about
Vk," thick,
wide, and slightly longer than

the wall being framed were fas-
From Ideas
to Reality
ings to complete the frame wall.
sparingly to the outside face of
After the glue had dried,
one wall frame and lay the sheath-
all
pins
were removed, excess glue
ing in
proper location. Place
its
upper top plate was not fastened
trimmed away, and the completed

wall frame put aside for future
use. Caution: Do not remove
the bottom plate at the door open-
works well.) Apply sufficient
to the wall at this time so wall
ings
weight to press
corners could be lapped to
place. This plate gives the wall
tened above and below the diagram to hold plates and studding
in
alignment while gluing. The
tie
the walls
until
are set in
while applying interior
adjoining ones together.
rigidity
Before construction began, all

small scale framing lumber was
and exterior coverings.
cut to proper length, sealed,
Note: Before constructing
For display purposes, some

model walls show exposed sheathing. The rear wall on this model
model walls, review information

on wall framing, as corner stud-
does not require sheathing since

only structural parts are to be
window
openings, or door openings. Consult the Index for reference to
shown. All other walls are covered on the outside with heavy
black paper to simulate wall
appropriate pages.
sheathing.
and
sanded.
ding, wall intersections,
Assembling frame walls. Sole

and lower top plate members were positioned onto the
framing diagram and pinned to
plate
the
plywood work surface and
straightedges
described
earlier.
From
the working plans, cal-
exact
and
height
length of each wall that requires
Then check the measurements of the small scale walls

just assembled and compare them
sheathing.
Built-up corner studs were pre-
with
assembled and secured in their

proper locations. Studs for wall
intersections were then con-
discrepancies exist between
working drawings.
If
the
and actual sizes, make the

necessary corrections. Using
drafting instruments and proper
techniques, draw the outlines of
stated
and added where required.

Headers were placed
above all door, window, or other
openings and glued to the top
plate. Double studding was then
positioned, glued, and pinned
in place to complete rough
to the wall frame. Sheathing will
openings.
conform more
Studding locations shown on

the diagram that were not occupied by corner studs, wall in-
openings
structed
tersections,
were
filled in
or framed openings
with single studs and
each sheathed wall onto the black

paper and cut to size. Note: Do
not cut door or
window
until after all sheathing
if
tact
all
and permit
position
to
parts into con-
remain in
glue
the
until
is
this
dry.
have been completed. Then
it
make
necessary cutouts for
all
door, window, or other openings.

Interior
Wall Coverings
After
selecting
interior
coverings, they are cut
wall
and ap-
same manner as
Most walls on the midand upper levels of the model
plied
the
in
closely to
outlines
is
glued
framed
dle
were covered to simulate plaster;

a lightweight cardboard was used.
Three walls on the lower level
required
wood
paneling; this was
cut from walnut veneer. Veneers
were measured, cut, and fitted to

each wall. Then they were glued
in place and weights applied to
insure perfect contact at
all
points.
After the glue had dried, door
and window openings were cut

out as described for sheathing
openings.
Cased Openings
Door and window jambs were

cut to size,
finish
applied,
and
then glued into their openings.
cut with a knife after
the sheathing
is
Wall Installation
applied.
Before gluing the sheathing to

the wall frame, pin the upper top
plates
surface
sheathing.
the
the
flat
and put another flat surface over

it. (Scrap plywood or a large book
Continue applying sheathing to

walls until all those requiring
Wall Sheathing
culate
the sheathed wall on a
temporarily
secured in place. Crippled studs
sheathing can
were added below window open-
their
in
place
so
be aligned with
upper edges. Apply glue
558
Individual walls, complete with

their coverings applied
and all
door and window trim installed,
were then glued and pinned to
the subfloor
and
to
each other.
After wall frames were assembled they were covered with sheathing and exposed coverings.
559
A center bearing
wall, with a "let-in"
ribbon across the studs, supports ceiling joists and
K
Wj
roof rafters.
ZTntT^^
--:
ll iliU3
:
(Hi
!*
î^r
1^^
hû^
Gable framing and roof trusses, a part of wall installation, bring the model one step closer to
completion.
Walls were permitted to remain
to achieve a
upper level stairs require carpet,

both were formed of lightweight
cardboard rather than wood. All
risers and treads were made from
one cardboard section. Lines were
so
scored
undisturbed until the glue was
thoroughly cured. Wall intersections required additional finishing
all
smooth appearance;
joints were filled and
smoothed with white
plastic putty.
were fitted and

glued in place. Walls were masked
along all floors and around door
and window trim to minimize
painting effort. Each wall was
Closet
shelves
given three coats of colored latex
were then
glued in place and hinged doors
were hung in their openings with
transparent tape. Doors were left
paint.
Sliding doors
with a knife
to
aid
in
bending the steps to shape.

Formed risers and treads were
glued to a rigid backing to hold
their shapes. Lower level ones
were painted concrete color while
upper level stairs were completed
by contact-cementing carpet to all

steps. Each stairway was then
glued into its stairwell.
walls. Soffits above the mirrors

were fashioned from cardboard
and pre-painted before installation. Joints at wall intersections
were
filled
and smoothed with

The soffits and put-
plastic putty.
tied areas
were then painted
to
match existing surfaces.

Water closets and the bathtub
were shaped from potters' clay
and finished with colored lacquer.
They were glued in place.
Fireplace
and Chimney
Fireplace and chimney parts
were shaped from heavyweight

illustration board and glued into
Bathroom Fixtures
The
a finished rectangular unit.
the door jambs.
Bathroom cabinets and counter

same
manner as those for the laundry
room. After completion they were
glued in place. Mirrors behind
ance.
Stairways
the lavatory cabinets were cut to
simulate cut stone. Each surface
partially
open and tape applied

each door and to
to the face of
Since the stairway to the lower

level
simulates
concrete
while
tops were constructed in the
size
and contact-cemented
560
to the
fireplace interior was painted

black to simulate a used appearAll exposed surfaces were to
was coated with contact cement
53: Architectural Models
and covered with
putty. Stone outlines
of plastic
were cut into
was
the surfaces while the putty
Stone surfaces were

then painted with a solid color
latex paint to give a uniform back-
still
pliable.
ground
color.
Mortar
joints
were
painted a contrasting color. Tints
of different colors were brushed
onto individual stones to give variation in appearance of cut stone.
The
chimney was sprayed
entire
The chimney cap was shaped

from potters' clay and glued onto
the chimney. Cardboard flue liners were constructed, painted, and
glued to the chimney cap. The
completed chimney unit was then
glued to the house floor and to
wall.
wood
locations.
framing.
with contact cement, plastic putty,
and
fixative, as
Exterior Trim
Clear plexiglass was
laundry room cabinets. All soffits

were pre-assembled and installed
same time as other cabinet

The range hood was made
unit,
the
oven,
doors were
glued
in
and refrigerator were also
Each item was coated with colored

lacquer. Outlines for doors, moldings, and surface unit burners
were drawn with India ink. Each
completed item was then glued
into
the
finished
fitted,
cabinet work.
Ceiling Joists
Ceiling joist spacing was laid
out on the top wall plates. All
painted, and
Remaining win-
place.
trim and
all
and glued
fitted
sills
in
Roof Construction
garage roof trusses were
pre-assembled, using the working

plans as a guide. Each truss was
constructed from the same dia-
gram
so that
all
would be
parts
The
was
cutout. Rafter spacing
out on the board, and this
spacing
or
was
duplicated
laid
same
along
the lower roof edge. Rafters were
and
conform to the
and pinned
in place. The entire unit was glued
to the model walls. While drying,
weights were applied to insure
cut
fitted to
spacing, then glued
perfect contact of
A
roof,
plywood
all parts.
and
cardboard
comwas con-
as described earlier,
plete with cutout spaces,
structed
and glued over the
rest
of the model. Girders and headers
were constructed and installed as

shown on the roof framing diagram. Individual rafters were cut
and fitted to their proper locations.
Garage roof truss spacing was
marked on the roof surface; then
pre-assembled trusses were cut
and fitted into the plywood opening.
Each
pinned
identical.
truss
was glued and
in place.
serve as the finished lower face
Cardboard roof surfaces meetand

smoothed with plastic putty to
obscure the joint. The entire roof
surface was given two coats of
of the overhang. Most of the ply-
colored latex paint.
basic roof structure con-
of two pieces of A"

l
wood. These were cut
surface
cut from lightweight cardboard.
and
garage door and other exterior
sists
entirely of cardboard. Rectangles
fitted
window openings. The
glued into
All
representing
described for the
Windows, Doors, and
wall paneling previously installed.
parts.
cov-
board to give a smooth joint free

surface. They were then finished
place.
at the
first
ered with heavyweight illustration
were then
for
left-hand
the
fastened across the plywood
first
ing stone veneer were
All kitchen cabinets were

shaped from solid walnut to match
were done the same way as
ply-
smaller roof, a ridge board was

Exterior wall surfaces requir-
Kitchen Equipment
Finishing procedures, counter top
on the
permit gluing of roof
to
To frame
Exterior Stone Walls
dow and door
construction, and installation
are smaller than those
and pinned
chimney.
with fixative.
an adjoining
were then cut to size, glued,

in their proper
joists
to
the
overall
wood over
away
to
fir
ply-
conform
and
roof shape
the house itself
was
ing at the ridge were filled
The painted roof
surface
was
structural
coated with clear adhesive and
framing. (The roof cutouts are
small crushed-stone chips sprin-
shown
kled onto
cut
in
reveal
to
photographs of the com-
The plywood was
pleted model.)
it.
After brushing the
excess stone from the dry roof
then covered on the top face with
surface, all
thin cardboard to serve as a
bers were covered with masking
smooth base
tape.
for the roof covering.
Note: Cutouts
in the
561
cardboard
exposed framing
mem-
The stone roof was then
sprayed with colored lacquer.
Part Three:
This lacquer
is
the base coat color. This final coat

also serves as a sealer
and
and
To complete
the
the fascia,
terior
wood
soffit,
Exterior Trim
model, two
and
all
ex-
trim.
The Base
A wood
frame conforming to
the land contour as described in
the working plans was cut, fitted,
and fastened around the plywood
base. The frame was then sanded,
sealed,
and coated with
finishing materials.
The Entourage
Early model photographs show
coats of latex paint were applied

to
fo Reality
affords
additional durability.
Painting Fascia
From Ideas
match
tinted to
clear
to
the foundation walls and to
the foundation walls protruding
the finishing boards around the
above the plywood base. The finished grade had to be raised to

conform to the level shown on the
working plans.
The rear terrace and all side-
plywood base. Two wood strips

%" thick were shaped to the driveway contour but were cut V\t"
walks were raised to their proper
of the
levels
work
by building a wood frame-
and covering it
with plywood and cardboard as
described for the garage and midfor this use
dle level floors.
Wood
nailer strips
to the finished
conforming
grade were fastened
less
than the
total finished height.
A line was drawn down the center

be
edge.
middle could
strip so the
aligned
with
the
driveway
This alignment also per-
mitted the strips to serve as a
edge for the lawn. Driveway

width and length were drawn on
solid
Vt"
untempered hardboard and
the piece cut to size.
Views of the finished model with entourage. (Also see next page.)
A cardboard
53: Architectural Models
finishing
was cut and
surface
contact-cemented
to
hard-
the
The
thin coating of plaster
plied to the screen.
board base.
driveway,
walks were painted
terrace,
light
and
grey to
paint was dry, the area was coated
was ap-
with clear adhesive and model-
contact with the nailer strips.
When
dry,
was applied.
Papier mache or other
makers' grass sprinkled on. For
a second thin coating
greater coverage and a
Note:
like
more
life-
appearance, a second coat of
match other concrete surfaces.

Screen wire was cut and stapled
wet covering materials may also

be used and still maintain the
adhesive and grass was applied.
to the nailer strips to cover the
same
automobiles were purchased from
entire
lawn.
driven about
The
%"
staples
were
apart to prevent
buckling and to hold the screen in
finished appearance. Since
plaster
is
porous, the entire lawn
surface was coated with sealer.
was then painted green.

563
It
When the
Trees,
shrubs,
hobby shop
flowers,
and
(in kit form), as-
sembled, and fastened in their

appropriate positions.
INDEX
Chimney
Beam
Abstract, 14
Adjustable triangle, 31
Adulterants, 44
Aggregate, exposed, 30
plywood box, 84, 85

sizes (table), 129, 130
cap, 221
supports, steel posts, 61
elevation,
319, 323
Beauty and design, elements
249-252
corbel,
prefabricated,
Beam compass,
Aggregates, lightweight, 26
Airbrush, 385
Air conditioning, central, window,
216
Aligned dimensioning, 426, 427
American Standard I Beams, 55
Ammonia vapor machines, 529
of,
Bedroom requirements, 268

Bench mark (See Grade line)
Climate control, 202-218
Client's financial ability,
requirements for
section,
43
fiber,
Arch, three-hinged, 132
528
Boards and battens, 237
Bond beams, 92, 93
Architect, the, 244-246
Bonds for
Blueprints,
Bow
brick, 95,
96
compass, 319
Architect's scales, 317
Box cornice (See Closed cornice)

Box sill, 71
Architectural beauty, 248
Brick, 94-96
335-341
symbols, 403-419
lettering,
Architecture, three obligations of, 248

Areaways, drawing, 44, 457
Art
gum
erasers,
Ash chamber,
322
222
fireplace,
Ashlar, 98
Atrium, 255
mold, 163
Bridging-spacing (chart), 69
British thermal units (BTU), 21
Building
code, 15
material sizes, 137
paper, 119
plans, organization of, 457-461
span, 105, 107
Attic
opening framing, 104
FHA,
264, 268
484
Cloth, tracing, 330

Codes, building, 15
Column caps, 63
Columns as beam
supports, 61, 62
Communities, kinds
Community
of,
293
factors to be considered,
293-297
Compass
beam, 319, 323
bow, 319
combination, 319
horn, 319
Concrete, 26-35
blocks, 34
(illustrations), 32, 33
expansion joints, 30
floors, crawl spaces for pipes, 52
monolithic beam and floor, 50
suspended, 49-52
ingredients of, 26
mixing and pouring, 29-31
stone, 96-98
484
section,
256
Closet
Bevel siding, 235, 236

"Bird's mouth," 107
Bituminous
245
244
219
plate, 71
Bedrock, 22
Bed
Blocks, concrete (illustration) 32, 33
training,
219
fireplaces,
Circuit requirements, 186
Ampere, 184
duties,
Chimneys and
Churches, 295
Angles
equal, elements of (table), 64
unequal, elements of (table), 65
225
479
116
47
roof, advantage of,

slab, definition of,
B
Backfill,
surfaces, 30
Balusters, 171
Banister, 171
Base blocks, 84
Basements, 285, 286
Bathrooms, 269-273
cabinets, section, 271,
doors,
484
270
273
and number
floors,
size
factor, 211
Cabinet drawing, 357
Cap, chimney, 221
Casing, 153, 163
temperature, 26
Conduit, 186
Ceiling joists
Conversion
Coping, 99
"C"
22
Balloon framing, 71, 72, 84
of,
269
Bathtubs, 271
Batter board, 20
Battered stone foundation, 42, 43
and fascia, relationship of, 229

and roof construction, 101-115
plans for, 469
sizes and spacing (chart), 103
spacing, 104
splices, 102
Cement (See Concrete)

Channels American Standard
(chart), 67
565
Cone
of vision,
Contour
lines,
360
18
tables, 441,
545
Copper roofing (See Roofing)

Corbel, chimney, 225
Corner bracing, 84
Cornice, 226, 228, 230
siding, 237
Crack method, 213
Crawl space, 52
Crippled studs, 84
Cove
General Architectural Drafting
Door
Curtain wall, 135, 141

(illustration), 142
Curved
surfaces, projections of,
Damper,
346
223
fireplace,
Damp-proofing, 94
Deed, 15
Dehumidification, 217
Den
254, 255
for today's living, 248-260
temperatures, 213
Dimensioning
430
chimney, 436
428, 429
423, 438
circles,
electrical plans,
437
48
equipment, 434
footing foundations and special
details,
436
lines outside,
430
433
location of, 423

rules, application of,
432
systems, 426
427
window, door and sill, 436
windows and doors, 432
Dining room requirements, 265
Direct copying, 531
Dividers, 320
unidirectional, 426,
Door
applications, 147
classification of,
interior,
145
434
jamb, 151
pocket, 148, 149
sills,
sizes,
Downspouts, 232
Drafter, the, 247
Drafting
Estimating, 543-549
434
146
instruments, 310, 319
machines,
mediums, 330-334
and techniques for developing
skill, 308-329
Drain tile, 43
Drawing
aids, 322
basement or footing and
foundation^ plans, 472-476
beginning, 314-317
building sections, 483-485
elevation details, 486, 487
checklist,
leaders and notes,
480
section, 484
Door types
150
bypass sliding, 147
double-action hinged, 148, 149
bi-fold,
planning the, 258, 259

trim, 153
259
361,362
wall coverings,
Eye
level,
Face brick, 89, 94

fireplace, position of,
223
Facing
masonry, 90
stone, 98
Fascia, 227,
228
Federal Housing Administration,
Fiber glass bathtub, 271

Fieldstone (See Rubble)
Filler strips,
278
Film, tracing, 330

Fireplaces, 222-225
flues, effects of (diagram), 224
opening and liner dimensions
(table), 223
484
Fire protection,
294
Earth base, prepared, 47
Firestop and nailers, 84
Electrical
Flashing, 92, 123, 124, 221
abbreviations, 185
Flat wash, 379-381
plans, 191, 192
Floor joists, 73-78

framing, 488
requirements, 184-193
symbols, 417-419, 434
Electricity, distribution,
Electric service, 184
566
185
IS
Fees, architect's, 245
section,
146
line,
Exterior
481,482
477-482
floor plans, 466-47
488-491
plans,
framing
pad, 309
paper, 330
paper borders, 457
size, 457
trim line, 457
pencils and lead holders, 313
pictorial, 354-376
plot plans, 462-465
printed borders and titles, 331
reproduction of, 528-533
tables and boards, 309
titles and title blocks, 458
Drip cap, 153, 163
Drop siding, 237
swing, 147
Door and window
approximate methods, 543

by determining exact quantities,
546
materials and labor (sample), 547
square foot method, 543
Excavating, 22, 23
Expansion joints, concrete, 30
Extension and construction lines, 420
exterior,
153, 154
symbols, 412, 413
469
487
interior, 486,
tools
arrows, 425
elevations,
indicators,
special-purpose, 151
applications of, 252-255
detail,
above sea level, 465

dimensioning notes, 436
drawing, 477
End-matched lumber, 117

Engine divided scale, 318
Entries and halls, 263
Erasers, 322
Erasing shield, 322
interior, 147,
Design
angles,
Elevations, 343
147
folding, 150
garage, 155
hinged, 147
hollow core, 145, 146
exterior,
solid core, 145,
or study requirements, 267
flexibility of,
Electrostatic copying machines, 531
types (continued)
entrance, 155
supports, 473
Floor plans
bathroom, 468
Index
Floor Plans (continued)
chimney of
defined,
Gable and overhang, 230
470
Gang
466
development of
(illustration),
253
466
symbols, 469
scale,
utility or laundry rooms, 468

Flue liners, 219
Footing
foundation and reinforcement, 41
definition of,
36
requirements
of, 36,
94
line, 18
Grade, wood parts, height above, 45

Granite, 96
Greek golden rectangle, 249
Grey glass, 164
478
Forms, 27
Ground
Foundations, 40-45
Guide
45
battered, 42, 43
bituminous fiber, 43
bolts,
line,
lines,
356
354
curved lines, 356

drawing, 354
wall construction, 79-87
"H"
69
Half-bath, 269
Halls, 258
joists,
"J"
Head jamb (See Door jamb)
82,83
Hearth, fireplace, 222
490
gable (illustration), 105

roof (illustration), 108
floor, 71
for masonry, 77
fiat
ladder (illustration), 105
488
bar,
distribution methods,
202
and gain, 211-215
methods of transfer, 179
Heating
circuit, 207
conduction, 179, 211
roof lookout, 230
102-104
lapped and spiked ceiling, 102
precast,
steel (illustrations),
212
radiation, 179
western floor, 7
source,
386
shown
in floor plans,
K
Kilowatt, 184
King-post truss, 114

Kitchen, 274-284
designing, 278
layouts,
274-276
Home,
sizes
Furniture, sizes and illustrations,
work, 257
Horizon, 360
Horizontal siding, 235, 237
Hose bib, 195
567
277
equipment, plans for, 468
469
systems, 203, 206-209

areas of private, public,
Frost line (depths), 40
48
appliances, traditional,
requirements, 210
Frieze board, 230
50
spacing, 69
204
infiltration,
systems, 126
69
ceiling,
loss
ducts and registers symbols, 417

duct work (illustration), 205
hydronic, 206
488
platform, 71
Furnace capacities and

(table), 215
Joists
Heat
ducting,
drawing, 488-491
69
head (See Door jamb)

width, 152
Joining inside and outside walls,
courses, 88
balloon, 71, 72, 84
joists,
Jamb
dimensioning, 434
Header, 71,84
diagrams, 85
289-292
directions for drawing, 355,
42
Framing, 74
attic, 104
Frisket,
487
Intermediate grid (See Paper grid)

Isometric
arcs and circles, 355
downspouts, 480
waterproofing foundation walls, 44

Foyer, 264
floor,
Interior elevation, outline,
axes,
36
longitudinal, 126
plan, ceiling joists,
Insulating glass, 164

Insulation, 179-183
Gutters, 232
brick, concrete block, stone,
53
utilities, provisions for, 133

weight calculation sample, 58
Illustration board, 332
India ink, 387
Ink erasers, 322
362
316
wall materials, 41
wall,
size factors that influence,
166
brick,
beam
kinds and uses of, 55-69
shape, 127
165
Grade
39
foundations, 36-46
Frame
insulating, standard size (chart),
structural,
Footings, 22
definition of,
Girder (See Post-and-beam)

Glass
block, 166
installation, 163
Glazed
(illustrations), 38,
anchor
boxes, 187
Garage or carport, 285, 286
patterned, 166
37
shapes, 37-39
in elevations,
Housed stringer, 169

Humidity control, 217
467
fireplace,
cutting planes,
"L"
stairs, 171, 172

Laid-on color, 382
Genera/ Architectural Drafting

Landing,
(illustrations), 16, 17
siding,
voltage systems, 191
Nailers for
strength and span (chart), 75
235
Leaders or downspouts, 232
Lead
Low
Lumber
requirements, 300
Lap
Louvers, 230
176
stair,
Landscape
544
terms, abbreviations of,
314
holders,
soffit
materials,
228
228
Nailer
strip,
Newel
North
point indicators, 438, 465
post, 171
Nosing, 170
Legal description (See Property

boundaries)
Lettering, 335-338
Major and minor modules, 137

Major grid (See Paper grid)
Marble, 96
Masonry
469
465
floor plan,
plot plan,
"Letting in," 71
Lighting
fixtures (illustration),
construction, 88
190
requirements, 187
shown
in floor plans,
fireplace (illustration),
468
Lightweight aggregates for floor and

roof construction, 52
Limestone, 96
Line
with clay flue chimney lining, 219

(illustrations), 221
veneer, 90
walls, weep holes, 91
wall construction, 88-99
thickness and height, 91
478
construction, 317
Master builder, 244
contour, 464
Materials, estimating of (sample),
434
dimension, 422
direction, 316
548
Matte
cutting plane,
board, 333
surface, 331
extension, 346, 421

floor,
478
Measuring
grade, 18, 478
object, for walls
and
sills,
480
picture plane, 359
types and weights (illustration),
315
314
window and door, 480
weights,
Lines
foreshortened, 344
Opaque, 383
Open
cornice,
226
"Organic" architecture, 258

Orthographic projection, 342
Outlet
boxes, 186
requirements, 187
Overlays, 326
Panel doors (See
360
line,
of rafter, 107
ground, 362
measuring, 360
Ohm, 184
One-point perspective, 375, 376
materials, 88
special requirements, 191
ceiling,
220
Oakum, 166
Object lines, 467
Oblique drawing, 356
Offset cutting plane, 351
Mechanical plans, outline for, 495,

496
Mensuration table, 545
Metric house plans, 442-454
Metric measurement, 439-441
Microfilm, 532
Model assembly,
presentation,
550-563
Models, architecture, 550-563
Modular
Door
classifications)
Paper and pencil handling, 312-314

Paper, drafting, 330-332
Parallel ruling straightedges, 312
Parapet, 99
Parging, 91
Parks, recreation, culture, 295
Pencil,
314
322
erasers,
Perspective
drawing, 357
office
method, 357
one-point, 375, 376
guide, 316
construction, 135-144
hidden edge, 346
components, 135
"filler" panels, 139
standardization, 136
coordination, 137
design and drafting, 143
house elements (illustration), 138
Photo-copying, 531
Pictorial drawings, 354-376
Picture plane line, 359
Pilasters, 41
panels, 81
Pipe, 63
non-isometric, 354
Lintel
blocks, 93
(illustrations), 33
code and schedule, 433
definition of, 93
fireplace, 223
size, 67
spans, 64
Live load, 67
Living
Load
room
table,
requirements, 265
55
Local ordinances, 15
window panel
construction
(illustration),
140
Module, major, minor, 137

Mortar joints, 99
Mullions, 162
Multi-purpose rooms, 284
Muntins, 162
568
two-point, 358-375
drawing
of,
473
steel filled with concrete, 63

Pipe columns, standard steel
(chart), 62
Pitch, 108
Plan
binding,
460
492
electrical,
Index
Plan (continued)
Polymer
462
plot,
vertical, 359
Planned obsolescence, 277
Planning, considerations
Plans
of,
256
arrangement of, 459

complete house, 442-454
heating and air conditioning, 494
mechanical, 492-496
working plans for a contemporary
home, 497-527
basement plan, 502
door schedule, 503
electrical floor plan, 506, 507
elevations, 518-520, 522-524
fireplace detail, 526
floor plan, 504, 505
footing and foundation plan,
500, 501
front elevation, 508, 509
kitchen ceiling and soffit
detail,
521
509
lintel schedule, 503
outdoor fireplace and patio
detail, 516
plot plan, 499
rear elevation, 508
removable fire plan detail, 517
right elevation, 509
roof framing diagram, 510, 51
roof truss, 527
stair detail, 527
left
Rendering (continued)
Poster
board, 332
paint,
383
Prefabricated metal showers, 272

Prefabrication, 135
typical closet detail, 521
window
schedule, 502
Plaster, sprayed,
530
Plate glass, polished, 166
(See L stairs)
Plot plan, 18, 19
information given on, 465
shape, 462
stairs
Plot plans, 302-305
Plumbing, 194-201
absorption trench, 199, 200
drawing, 474
percolation
test,
199
symbols, 414, 415
Plywood box beam,

siding, 238
84, 85
386
Resolved sections, 366
Reversed axes, isometric, 369
Ribbon, 71
Rigid insulation, 180
Rise, 108, 170, 175
Riser, stair, 170
Risers, water pipes, 195
Roof
coverings,
Prints
elevation, hip,
originals, storage of,
of,
problems
19
elevations,
semi-dry, 528
sepia masters, 530
Projection
method
decking, 131
479
478
gable, 478, 479
532
framing, 101-104, 488

lookout, 230
plank and beam (illustration),
343
342
489
of,
Property boundaries, 14
Proportional dividers, 320
gable, 105
gypsum, advantages of, 116

overhang and exterior trim,
226-233
Protractor, 319
Purlins, 132
Pythagorean theorem, 20
plank insulation, 3
requirements (chart), 118
shapes (illustration), 106
sheathing, definition of, 116
1
slope, 126, 258,
Rafter
trusses, 101,
angle, 108
molding for
types,
fly,
wood
230
run, 107
(chart), 112
sizes
and spacing (chart), 10

and spacing for low slope
1
span, 107
107,
shingles, 121
226
176
Receptacle outlets, 187
Reflective insulation, 181
Reinforcement (concrete slabs), 47
Reinforcing
bar size (chart), 55
Rail, stair, 171,
shingles,
clay
roll,
tile,
121
corrugated or ribbed, galvanized,

122
slate,
121
translucent panels, 123
Room-by-room planning, 263-288

Rooms and spaces, names of, 434
Rubber stamps, 327
Rubble, 96
Run, 107, 170, 175

Rural community, 293
concrete, 27, 28
Relative humidity, 217
Rendering, 377
applique, 392
charcoal and pastel, 391
393-400
391
details of,
pencil,
569
122
120
built-up, 116, 119
asphalt
(chart), 109
tail,
259
113
105-110
aluminum
Rafters, 104
sizes
Roofing, 116-125
conversion (chart), 111
82
Plastic film negative,
points of consideration, airbrush,
procedure, 393
Preservatives for floor framing, 72

Printing on anything, 531
elevation,
wall sections, 512-515
Platform
383
126-134
wood, 126
Post-and-beam, 101
350
horizontal and
cutting,
molding
plastic,
Post
kinds of steel, 63
plank and beam construction,
plumbing, 493
Planes
Saddle, chimney, 221
Safety glass, 166
Sandstone, 96
Scab, 102

Tile facing, 98
Specifications (continued)
Scale
building sections, 483
318
"open divided," 318
flat,
reading of architect's, 317

Schedules, 459, 460
Schools, 295
Scratch board (See Rendering)
Screeding, 31
general coverage, 534, 535

plaster (See Plaster, sprayed)
Sprayed
headroom, 176
Trap, 196
Tread, 170
Treads and risers, number and size,
176
Trees and shrubs, growth pattern of
main, 175
string,
in floor plans, 467

open and closed, 171
structural details, 175
350
Semi-dry print, 528
257
Transportation, 294
Transverse framing, 126
service or basement, 175
353
22
Transom, 151
shown
pictorial,
soil,
Tracing paper, 330
"L", 171
"U", 173
framing, 169-178
Sections, 350-353
lines,
plate, 81
Traffic pattern,
Stairs
shaded, 352
Section of land, 14
broken, 351
Top
Top
short form, 535-541
(illustrations),
winders, 174
499
Triangle
Stairwell section,
484
adjustable, 3
holding of, 314

Triangular scale, 317
Trim, doors, 153
Truss spacing, 114
T-square, blade, head, 310
Sepia masters prints, 530
Staking out, 20
98
Service companies, public, 293
S4S, 117
Station point,
Shakes, wood, 121
Stories,
Sheathing
concrete of gypsum base, 116
Stringer, plain, 169
Tub and
Structural
Two-point perspective, 358-375
Septic systems,
fiberboard,
234
plywood, 118, 234

solid, 117
360
Stone, purchasing, 98
Stores and shopping centers,
number
Stratified
steel
member joining, 63
tiles,
98, 99
120
wood, 117
Shoring, 50
Show-card paint, 383
Shower, luxury, 273
Side
jamb (See Door jamb)
Siding,
Sill
Sill
235-238
and floor construction, 71-78

cock, 195
71,99
window, 163
Sills,
Site
300
planning, 298-307
(illustration and table), 301
Sketches and renderings, 377-402
Small town, community, 293
Soffit, 176, 228, 283
molding, 230
Sole plate, 79, 80
Solid masonry, 88
chimney, 219
Sound conditioning, 182
Specifications, 534-542
detailed, long form, 542
314
shower, 27
models, 550
Shingles
asphalt,
holding,
metal, 53-70
Shield, grout or mortar, 73
asbestos cement, 120
294
256
stone (See Rubble)
of,
Stucco, 238, 241

Studding, 82
212
factor,
stairs,
173, 174
Under-floor
Stud intersections, 83
Subfloor, diagonal, tongue and
groove, 76
Subsill,
u
"U"
"U"
fill,
47
Underlays and tracing sheets, 322

Unidirectional dimensioning, 426,
427
162
Suburban community, 293

Supply pipes, symbols, 416
Surface, foreshortened, 344
Switching diagram, 188
Symbols used in architecture,
Urban community, 293

Utilities, 464
government supplied, 293
rooms or laundries, 284
Utility services, 293
Utility
403-419
window and door
openings, 467
Vanishing points, 360, 361

Vapor barriers, 47
orientation,
Ventilation,
217
230
Tangency, 356
attic,
Taxes, real estate, 294

Tempera paint, 383
Temperature design, inside, outside,
213
Templates (illustration), 321
irregular curve, 320
Termite shield, 73
Terne (See Roofing)
Thermal resistance, 212
Thresholds, 154
of roof spaces (illustration), 231
570
Vents, drainage, 196

foundation, 45
Vertex, 369, 430
Vertical lines, 316
Views
auxiliary,
347
interior (See Sections)
orthographic and building plans,

347, 348
Index
Water (continued)
space, 270
360
Visqueen film, 536
Volt, 184
Vision, cone of,
383
transparent, 378
wet-into-wet, 382
colors, opaque,
w
"W"
truss,
distribution system, 194
14
lines,
supply, 194
Wall
Watt, 184
curtain, 135, 141, 142

footing, drawing,
472
Weather
load bearing, 102

materials, combination of,
outlines in floor plans,
258
467
Wall board, 181

Wall coverings, exterior, 259,
234-241
Wall materials, symbols of, 481
Wall section, 483
for different levels,
483
Wall sheathing, 234

Walls
478
masonry (See Masonry walls)
Wash, graded, 381
Waste removal, 196
Water
closets, 270
in elevation,
branch, 195
boarding, 235
proofing, 155
Weep
holes in walls, 91
Weights and measures (table), 545

Welded wire fabric, 53, 54
Window and door
code and code key, 433
line,
480
484
Windows (continued)
plastic,
157
requirements, 167
157
symbols, 407-41
steel,
trim, exterior, 163

types, 157-160
wood, 157
Windows and glass, 157-168
Window symbols, 407-411
Wiring, 186
Wood float (See Concrete troweling)
Wood piles, 42
shakes, 121
shingles,
17
siding, patterns of,
237
Wright, Frank Lloyd, 249, 255

Wythes, 88, 89
section,
Windows
aluminum, 157
bars or muntins, 162
descriptions, 163
Zone
hardware, 164
parts, sizes, and elevations,
Zone, heat, 207

Zoning and building codes, 297
classification, 15
Zoning laws, 15
Zoning request (public), 15
160, 161
picture, 162
571
Tables and Charts

Abbreviations of lumber terms, 544
Acreage and areas of square tracts of land, 545
Bridging-spacing, 69
B.T.U./H Furnace
capacities
and
sizes,
215
Ceiling joist sizes and spacings, 103
Conversions, 441, 545
Elements of equal angles, 64

Elements of unequal angles, 65
Measurements, 545
Metric
Metric
Metric
Metric
conversions, 441
decimal prefixes, 439

measurement: basic and derived
units of measurement, 439
Rafter run, 112

Rafter sizes and spacings, 1 10
Rafter span conversion diagram,
Reinforcing bar sizes, 55
Roof overhang, 301
Roofs minimum
Fireplace opening and liner dimensions, 223
Floor
joist sizes
and
their spans,
Glued laminated beam and
75
purlin sizes, 130
Header schedule, S7
Header size and span, 86
Heat loss data, 21
I
beam
load distribution, 60
units,
440
1 1
thickness, spans, and nailing
schedules for plywood, 1 1

Room heat loss schedule, 215
Spans for floor beams using 2" plank subfloor, 129

Spans for roof beams using 2" plank decking, 129
Standards for individual sewage disposal system,
198, 199
Standard steel pipe columns, safe load, 62
Structural metal shapes, 58
Truss chord,
14
Insulating glass standard sizes, 165
Load bearing
Loads
Loads
ability of soils,
beams
36
57
in kips for channels laterally supported, 67
Load tables for open web-steel joints, 68
Low-slope rafter sizes and spacings, 109
in kips for
laterally supported, 56,
Weights and measures, 545

Weights, dimensions, and data of standard
angles, 66
Weights, dimensions, and data of standard
I beams, 63
Wire size, 54
572
steel
steel
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THIS BOOK

THE PROPERT YOF:

Teachers should see thai the pupil's

clearly written in ink in the spaces

Practical Arts Division

Morton High School

Peoria, Illinois 61614

Copyright 1969, 1976

All rights reserved.

the United States of America

Kroehler Mfg. Co.

International Paper Co.

been of assistance during preparation of this book. When drawings

or photographs supplied by others

Morgan Sash and Door Co.

presented, a credit line ac-

based upon infor-

Steel Products Co.

Mosaic Tile Co.

mation supplied by others and

American Plywood Association

Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co.

Artcrest Products Co., Inc.

M. Bolton and Associates

Charles Bruning Co.

Rohm and Haas

Simpson Logging Co.

Commonwealth Edison Co.

Steel City Electric Co.

Steel Joist Institute

Symons Mfg. Co.

United States Plywood Co.

Frederick Post Co.

General Electric Co.

The author wishes

Kueffel and Esser Co.

Hagood, Mr. Patrick McFall, and

Knape and Vogt Mfg. Co.

Joseph T. Ryerson and Son,

necessary for building planning

working plan. Pictorial drawand working plans illustrat-

ing specific points are often multi-

and are not intended

use on building plans exactly as

printed entirely in blue,

Part I describes building materials and explains construction

shown. Naturally, any applicable

will generally require

the smallest scale

for a given item.

nical plans requiring such infor-

illustrations are related to

the size most often

drawings. Individual drawings for

the building plans in Chapter 49

to their smallest allow-

able size for working drawings.

struction are the

used on floor plan and elevation

buildings of heavy construction.