SPE 132704

Planning, Execution & Surveillance of Enhanced Oil Recovery Projects

B. Sinanan, M. Budri, M.O.R.E Consulting Ltd.
Copyright 2010, Society of Petroleum Engineers
This paper was prepared for presentation at the Trinidad and Tobago Energy Resources Conference held in Port of Spain, Trinidad, 2730 June 2010.
This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been reviewed
by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or
members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is
restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright.

Abstract
Trinidad and Tobagos onshore acreage has seen many stages of development. Currently, most onshore fields are well
into their mature phase with the application of various forms of artificial lift being applied. Secondary recovery, through waterflooding, has been used in some fields with limited success whilst tertiary recovery methods, namely steam injection, have been
more successful. These projects have been few and far between since there is a significant amount of acreage still to be considered
for Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR). An analysis of historical data has suggested that the application of modern day EOR screening,
reservoir characterization tools and simulation would address some of the uncertainties that posed problems in the past.
An increasing number of mature oilfield acreage is being leased out by the state to private investors/operators. These
entities must be prepared to efficiently exploit these mature blocks by optimizing current production operations, performing
recompletions, in-fill drilling but most importantly by adding significant reserves through EOR projects. Many modern
considerations within the feasibility stage through to health, safety and environment application must now be adhered to, for
successful approvals from government regulators.
This paper provides a detailed outline of the different stages and processes that companies can follow or modify, to suit
their reservoir management style, in pursuing successful EOR outcomes. This paper also addresses the importance of EOR
screening, project management and surveillance techniques. Processes and recommendations developed from this work can be
applied by any oilfield company who wishes to begin or expand their EOR project.
Introduction
Trinidad and Tobagos land oil production is primarily derived from its onshore acreage, located in the southern region of
Trinidad. The exploitation of Trinidads onshore acreage for over a century has resulted in many mature fields. Several of these
mature fields have been leased out to private investors/operators by the state since continued production from these fields has been
deemed uneconomical. Many of these fields have the potential to become once again economically viable, once suitable
production optimization strategies and techniques are implemented. Optimization strategies such as performing recompletions, infill drilling and various artificial lift techniques have all been attempted and tested, yielding encouraging results.
Optimization strategies, whilst necessary have become ineffective in adding significant reserves; a more robust approach,
such as EOR needs be considered to fully exploit the remaining hydrocarbons in place. Trinidad & Tobago has implemented many
EOR projects in the past. These include immiscible carbon dioxide floods, steamfloods, cyclic steam stimulation and microbial
enhanced oil recovery (MEOR) methods. The results of various attempted EOR projects have been promising and indicate that
EOR has an important role in the development and production of Trinidads hydrocarbon resources, since the country is currently
seeking a strategy to develop an estimated 1.5 billion barrels of heavy oil reserves.
In 1966, the first EOR project implemented in Trinidad and Tobago was a thermal oil recovery project consisting of a
small cyclic steam stimulation pilot in the Palo Seco Field1. Over the past decades, several steamfloods have been implemented in

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other onshore fields such as Central Los Bajos, Guapo, North Fyzabad and Apex-Quarry/Coora/Quarry. The most recent to be
implemented was the Upper Morne LEnfer thermal recovery project in 2005. Despite its successes, these thermal recovery
projects faced several challenges including:

Injectivity reduction
Heat losses
Injection quality and supply problems
Gravity override of steam
Sand production
Well bore integrity damage
Well spacing and pattern configuration issues

Solvent EOR methods have also been implemented in Trinidad. Four (4) immiscible carbon dioxide (CO2) pilot floods were
implemented by the Petroleum Company of Trinidad and Tobago (Petrotrin) within the Forest Reserve and Oropouche fields2.
Three (3) floods were conducted at Forest Reserve targeting the Upper Cruse Sands, Lower Forest Sands and the Upper Forest
Sands2. One (1) flood was conducted in Oropouche targeting the AO 08 Sand2. Predicted ultimate recoveries at Forest Reserve
ranged from 4.7% - 9% OOIP and 4% at Oropouche2. Despite increases in oil recovery, the projects experienced several
challenges. Some of these included:

Unreliable CO2 Supply

Outdated Equipment
Channeling of Injected Gas
Bypassing of Oil
Limited Pressure Data and Gas Measurements
Corrosion
Sand Production

As more mature onshore oil leases are awarded, operators will quickly come to realize that sustainability means that they must
learn from past experiences and explore their injection options sooner than later. The process from planning to surveillance
involves the project management of many skill sets and liason with the state through the national oil company and the Ministry of
Energy and Energy Industries (MOEEI). This work intends to frame theses skill sets and relationships by the use of tables and
process flowcharts and will work seamlessly if followed.
EOR: A Multidisciplinary Team Effort
The entire EOR process from design to monitoring and surveillance requires input from many skilled individuals across
the entire organization. It involves not only reservoir engineering, but other disciplines (figure 1) including geology, civil, drilling
and completions, utilities, electrical, production, project management, HSE, surveying, legal, inspectorate and finance. The various
disciplines are integrated to form a multidisciplinary team with each member bringing his/her own experience and technical
expertise to achieve the ultimate goal of designing and implementing an economical and effective EOR project. Formation of the
team, selection of team members, appropriate motivational tools and composition of the team should be carefully considered3.
Once a team has been formed and becomes functional, team effort must be sustained. One model of team approach is as follows:

Functional management nominates team members to work on a specific EOR project under consideration
The team selects a team leader whose responsibility is to coordinate all activities and keep the manager informed.
The team consists of representatives from geology and geophysics, various engineering functions, field operations,
drilling, finance etc.
Team members prepare a plan and define their goals and objectives by involving all functional groups. The plan is then
presented to the manager and after receiving the managers feedback, appropriate changes are made. The plan is then
distributed for all members to follow.
The team members performance evaluation is conducted by their functional heads with input from the team leader and
the manager
Teams are rewarded with recognition/cash rewards upon timely and effective completion of their tasks.
As the project goals change, the team composition changes to include members with the required expertise.

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The table below shows the structure of the functional departmental structure required to manage typical EOR projects:

Leads

Production
Operations

Drilling
Operations

Technical
Support

Finance &
Legal

In house
manager

In house or
contracted
services

In house or
consultant
services

In house
managers

Field
Production
Personnel
Contracted Rig
Core
Staff

Rig workover
Supervisors
and Crew
Administrative
Support

Service
Engineers
and
Technicians
HSE

Security

Engineers:
Reservoir
Drilling
Completion
Petrophysicist

Lawyers
Procurement
Specialist
HR

Geologist:
Geophysicist
Model Builders
Ops Geologists

Project
Utilities
Operations
In house or
contracted
services

Accountants

Engineers:
Mechanical
Electrical Civil
Surveyors
Draughting
HSE Specialist

Clerical

HSE
Table 1: Structure of Multidisciplinary Team
Planning of EOR Projects
Planning is the most crucial stage in any EOR project. During this stage important engineering and economic decisions
regarding the selection and profitability of EOR methods are made. There are three (3) major areas of study that should be
incorporated into the planning of any EOR project. These include: the Pre-Feasibility Stage, the Feasibility Stage and the Approval
Stage. Implementation and surveillance follows these stages and are also discussed in this paper.
Pre Feasibility
This stage involves engineering and geological input in selecting the most appropriate EOR method required for a
particular horizon of interest. Upon selecting a horizon, representative data of reservoir fluid and rock properties should be
collected and analyzed if not found in past reports. The data gathered includes, but is not limited to, reservoir fluid and rock fluid
properties such as API gravity, formation type, depth, oil viscosity, thickness, temperature, pressure, oil saturation, composition
and permeability ,which are used in an EOR screening criteria to select the most optimum EOR method.
Several EOR screening criteria are currently available in literature. Many screening criteria are often developed by
companies based on knowledge obtained from past field experiences. However, in instances where this type of knowledge is
unavailable, a popular screening criteria proposed by Taber et al is often used. Taber et al (1997) proposed an EOR screening
criteria for eight (8) methods: gas injection (nitrogen, hydrocarbon and carbon dioxide), water injection (micellar/polymer plus
alkaline/surfactant polymer (ASP), polymer flooding, gel treatments) and thermal/mechanical recovery (combustion, steam,
surface mining) methods4. The EOR screening criteria was developed from analyzing reservoir and fluid characteristics obtained
from several successful EOR projects as well as incorporating the theories involved in oil recovery mechanisms. The proposed
screening criteria identified nine (9) important fluid and reservoir properties required to select the optimum EOR method4. These
included:

Oil Gravity
Viscosity
Composition
Oil Saturation
Formation Type

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Net Thickness
Average Permeability
Depth
Temperature

Today, there are several commercial computer programs available, that can perform EOR screening and forecasting.
SELECTEORTM, developed by the Alberta Research Council and EORgui, from Petroleum Solutions, are just two (2) examples of
EOR screening and analytical forecasting software that are commonly used. These programs are can identify appropriate EOR
methods and rank them. Cumulative production, rates, gas oil ratios and water cuts can also be forecasted. The forecasted
production data is then used to conduct preliminary studies to determine the economic viability of the project. Once the project is
shown to be economical, an application for a certificate environmental clearance (CEC) should be made. A CEC is a certificate
issued to an applicant by the Environmental Management Authority (EMA), which certifies the environmental acceptability of a
proposed project5. Applicants are asked to provide an environmental assessment of the proposed activity, highlighting potential
environmental hazards and to propose mitigation strategies. If all conditions are fulfilled a CEC may be granted allowing work at
the site to commence. If the CEC application has been denied, the applicant should review the environmental assessment of the
project to ensure that all the requirements for the CEC are met, before reapplying. However, if the preliminary studies indicate that
the project will be uneconomical, the project is put on hold, until favorable economic conditions exist. The figure below is a
workflow summarizing the steps involved in the Pre-Feasibility process.

Figure 1: Pre-Feasibility Process

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Feasibility
Once the optimum EOR method is selected, an in depth feasibility analysis is conducted. This stage involves
characterizing the reservoir and modeling the EOR process using a numerical reservoir simulator. Reservoir characterization
integrates all available data to define the geometry, distribution of physical parameters, and flow properties of a petroleum
reservoir. The goal is to accurately and quantitatively model reservoir architecture, connectivity, and flow properties such as
porosity, permeability, and fluid saturations. This may involve expertise in sedimentology to define reservoir lithology and
geometry, definition of flow units and boundaries within the reservoir. A mathematical model of the reservoir is created from this
characterization study. The formulation of this model requires geological, rock properties, fluid properties and well data. Fanchi
(2001) highlighted a comprehensive list of data required, as well as available data sources, for a reservoir simulation study6:

Figure 2: Data Required For a Reservoir Simulation Study6

Today, there are several commercial computer programs available for building reservoir models and conducting numerical
EOR simulation studies. After conducting simulation the simulated reservoir behavior is then compared with the actual past
reservoir behavior. If both are inconsistent the reservoir model is fine tuned by incorporating more acquired data, and the process
is repeated until both appear consistent. Upon developing a representative reservoir model, the EOR process chosen needs to be
modeled. This requires various scenarios and sensitivities to be performed. For the particular EOR method under consideration,
various scenarios are simulated to determine critical parameters such as the optimum number of wells, well placement, well pattern
configurations and injection rates.
For each scenario, the oil production is forecasted at various economic conditions such as the variation in oil prices, to
simulate potential future revenue. For each scenario, a detailed breakdown of the projects capital expenditure (CAPEX) and
operational expenditure (OPEX) costs are determined. The CAPEX and OPEX forecasted revenue, aids in selecting the best
scenario that will allow oil recovery to be economically maximized by the selected EOR method of interest. The workflow shown
below summarizes the entire Feasibility process.

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Figure 3: Feasibility Process

Approval
Upon fulfillment of the economic criteria, a summary and detailed documention of the project is presented to
management for approval. Once approval has been granted by management, the next step is to seek approval from external
regulatory agencies such as the EMA, state oil company and from the Ministry of Energy and Energy Industries (MOEEI). If the
CEC has been granted from the EMA, the project is then sent to the MOEEI for approval. The MOEEI seeks to assess whether or
not the project is suitable to perform its intended operations in the country7. This assessment focuses on the physical facility to
ensure that the final facility is properly built and requires expert judgment on the civil, mechanical, electrical and processing
infrastructure. It also looks at the adequacy of the systems required to manage and support the human interface with the facility
and includes operating procedures, training and competence, authority and accountability, contingency and emergency response
plans, etc. The following is a list of the MOEEI requirements for approval7:

Design premise and basis for the major project

Codes and standards used to develop the project
Description of the project
Materials used for construction

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Site layout.
Details of fire fighting and gas detection provisions.
Technical integrity report on all infrastructures that are to be reused as part of final project.
Hydro test certificate for tanks, piping and pipelines.
Proof of acceptance of fire plan by fire services and internal HSE department
Bund design and capacity & drainage and storm water management provisions.
Emergency response plan
Oil spill contingency plan
Emergency shutdown provisions
Standard operating procedures for the project
Action plan showing status of all CEC requirements

However, if the project is not approved, it should be documented and placed in storage for later use. The workflow shown below
clearly and concisely reiterates the steps involved in the Approval process.

Figure 4: Approval Process

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Implementation of EOR Projects

Once the bid for approval has been successful, the next step is implemention of the EOR project. This stage involves the
drilling of new wells or conversion of poorly producing wells into injectors and performing workovers on production wells. The
optimum number of wells and well pattern configurations are drilled. New wells may be required or in some cases poorly
producing wells or abandoned wells may be converted to injector wells to minimize costs. Workovers are also performed on
production wells to increase the chance of success for the particular EOR project.Any additional information obtained from the
drilling of new wells and workovers should be incorporated back into the model and the EOR process should be reviewed and
modified accordingly.
In addition to wells, surface facilities responsible for separating and treating the produced hydrocarbons are also installed
to separate and treat the produced hydrocarbons. One consequence of producing hydrocarbons is the large volumes of associated
produced water. The handling and treatment of the large volumes of produced water is one of the most common problems
encountered in EOR projects. Produced water cannot be disposed of in its natural state since it often contains traces of
hydrocarbons that are toxic to the environment. As a result, there are strict environmental regulations that must be adhered to
regarding the proper disposal of produced water. Within recent time, there have been many studies aimed at determining possible
uses for produced water. Some of the more common uses that have been identified include8:

It can be a primary water source for secondary pressure maintenance and flooding.
It can be can be treated and used in steamflooding projects.
It can be treated and used for power generation or refining.
It can be used in dust control and fire control
It can be used treated and used for irrigation

The figure below highlights the major steps involved in the implementation of EOR projects.

Figure 5: Implementation Process

Monitoring & Surveillance of EOR Projects

Monitoring and surveillance of EOR projects involves continually assessing the performance of the operation. Surveillance is a
team effort of management, operations, engineering, geologic and service groups9. It involves the monitoring of the reservoir,
wells, enhanced oil recovery operations as well as the surface operations9. Monitoring and surveillance of these critical areas allow
us:
To determine whether or not the enhanced oil recovery processes are working and also whether they are conforming to
the requirements of the field development plan.
To identify problems that may be encountered throughout the life of the recovery operations.
To collect and analyze data, which gives us a better understanding of the characteristics of the reservoir and the various
processes that are taking place.
To maximize the recovery of hydrocarbons in place
Surveillance is more specifically the use of problem well analysis to define wells or fields that have production and operating
problems9. Once the problems have been identified, appropriate action must be taken9. The conclusion of this effort should result
in one of the following recommendations9:

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Continue to produce the well(s) with no change

Collect additional data
Workover and/or stimulation
Equipment change
Operations procedure change(s)
Recompletion
Implement other recovery techniques
Shut in and abandonment

Sound reservoir management requires constant monitoring and surveillance of reservoir performance as a whole to determine
whether the performance is conforming to the management plan3. In order to carry out the monitoring and surveillance program
successfully, coordinated efforts of the various functional groups working on the project are needed3.
An integrated and comprehensive program needs to be developed for successful monitoring and surveillance of the project3. The
engineers, geologists, and operations personnel should work together on the program with management support3. The extent of the
surveillance program usually depends on the nature of the project3.
Ordinarily, the major areas of monitoring and surveillance involving data acquisition and management include oil, water and gas
production by wells, gas and water injection by wells, systematic and periodic static and flowing bottom hole pressure testing of
selected wells, production and injection tests, injection and production profiles, recording of workovers and results; and anything
else that aids surveillance3. The table below shows a list of data that is usually obtained during surveillance of EOR projects:

Table 2: Surveillance Data3

The data acquired from surveillance programs can be analyzed using the following tools9:
Production Curves
Flood Front Map or Bubble Maps
Contour Maps
Areal Sweep Efficiency Maps
Cross Plots
Hall Plots

10

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Figure 6: Monitoring & Surveillance Process

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11

Conclusion

A mutidisciplinary team is essential for the various stage completion in any secondary or tertiary project.
The planning stages involves (a) pre-feasability, (b) feasability and (c) approvals which is then followed by the (d)
implementation stage and the (e) surveillance stage.
The simplified process charts can be adopted for use by lease and farmout operators who wish to embark on EOR type
projects.

Nomenclature
BOPD Barrels of Oil per Day
CAPEX Capital Expenditure
CEC
Certificate of Environmental Clearance
Carbon Dioxide
CO2
EMA Environmental Management Authority
EOR
Enhanced Oil Recovery
MEOR Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery
MOEEI Ministry of Energy & Energy Industries
OOIP Oil Originally In Place
OPEX Operating Expenditure
Bibliography/References
1. Khan, J. & Parag, D.: Twenty-Five Years of Oil Recovery by Steam Injection, paper SPE/DOE 24198 presented at the
SPE/DOE Eighth Symposium on Enhanced Oil Recovery held in Tulsa, Oklahoma, April 22-24, 1992
2.

Mohammed-Singh, L. J. & Singhal, A. K.: Lessons from Trinidads CO2 Immiscible Pilot Projects 1973-2003, paper SPE
89364 presented at the 2004 SPE/DOE Fourteenth Symposium on Improved Oil Recovery held in Tulsa, Oklahoma, U.S.A.,
1721 April 2004.

3.

Satter, A. & Thakur, A. G.: Integrated Petroleum Reservoir Management, PennWell Publishing Company, Tulsa, Oklahoma
(1994)

4.

Martin, F. D., Seright, R. S. & Taber, J. J.:EOR Screening Criteria Revisited - Part 1: Introduction to Screening Criteria and
Enhanced Recovery Field Projects, SPE Reservoir Engineering (August 1997) 189.

5.

The Environmental Management Authority: A Guide to the Application for a Certificate of Environmental Clearance. from
http://www.ema.co.tt/docs/appForms/CEC/cec_application_guide.pdf

6.

Fanchi, J. R.: Principles of Applied Reservoir Simulation, second edition, Gulf Professional Publishing, Houston, TX (2001)
169.

7.

Republic of Trinidad & Tobago Ministry of Energy and Energy Industries: Technical Guidance Document GD 05:
Verification
Scheme
for
Hydrocarbon
Production
and
Processing
Facilities,
from
http://www.energy.gov.tt/content/GD_Verification_Scheme_For_Hydrocarbon_Facilities.pdf

8.

Elcock, D., Puder, M. G., Redweik Jr., R. J. & Veil, J. A.: A White Paper Describing Produced Water from Production of
Crude Oil, Natural Gas and Coal Bed Methane, U.S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laoratory (2004).

9.

Allen, T.O. & Roberts, A.P.:Production Operations 2: Well Completions, Workover and Stimulation, fourth edition, Oil and
Gas Consultants International Inc., Tulsa, Oklahoma, U.S.A (2000).

10. Hong, K. C.: Steamflood Reservoir Management, PennWell Publishing Company, Tulsa, Oklahoma (1994)