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    Natural Gas-A Basic Handbook

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    Natural Gas-A Basic Handbook

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    Natural Gas

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    Natural Gas

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    1K views10 pages

    Natural Gas-A Basic Handbook

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    xion_mew2
    Natural Gas

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    ch00a_FM.

    fm Page iv Thursday, May 17, 2007 8:54 AM

    Natural Gas: A Basic Handbook


    Copyright 2007 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas. All rights
    reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any
    form without the prior written permission of the publisher.
    HOUSTON, TX:
    Gulf Publishing Company
    2 Greenway Plaza, Suite 10120
    Houston, TX 77046
    AUSTIN, TX:
    427 Sterzing St., Suite 101
    Austin, TX 78704
    10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

    Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data


    Speight, J. G.
    Natural gas : a basic handbook / James G. Speight.
    p. cm.
    Includes bibliographical references and index.
    ISBN 1-933762-14-4 (978-1-933762-14-2 : alk. paper)
    1. Natural gas. I. Title.
    TP350.S66 2007
    665.7dc22
    2007013232

    Printed in the United States of America


    Printed on acid-free paper.
    Text design and composition by TIPS Technical Publishing, Inc.

    Speight.book Page v Monday, May 14, 2007 5:28 PM

    Contents

    List of Figures ix
    List of Tables
    Preface

    xi

    xiii

    Part I Origin and Properties


    1

    History and Uses....................................................... 3


    1.1
    1.2
    1.3
    1.4
    1.5

    Introduction 3
    History 7
    Composition and Properties 10
    Reservoirs 11
    Conventional Gas 14
    1.5.1 Associated Gas 14
    1.5.2 Non-Associated Gas 15
    1.6 Unconventional Gas 16
    1.6.1 Coal-Bed Methane (CBM) 16
    1.6.2 Shale Gas 17
    1.6.3 Gas Hydrates 18
    1.7 Reserves 19
    1.8 Uses 20
    1.9 Natural Gas Regulation 27
    1.9.1 Historical Aspects 27
    1.9.2 Federal Regulation of the Industry
    1.10 Natural Gas and the Environment 30
    1.11 References 33
    v

    29

    Speight.book Page vi Monday, May 14, 2007 5:28 PM

    vi

    Contents

    Origin and Production............................................ 35


    2.1 Origin 36
    2.2 Exploration 39
    2.2.1 Geological Survey 40
    2.2.2 Seismic Survey 41
    2.2.3 Magnetometers 45
    2.2.4 Logging 46
    2.3 Reservoirs and Production 48
    2.3.1 Natural Gas Reservoirs 48
    2.3.2 Petroleum Reservoirs 50
    2.4 Production 52
    2.4.1 Well Completion 52
    2.4.2 The Wellhead 57
    2.4.3 Natural Gas Production 57
    2.4.4 Well Treatment 58
    2.5 References 59

    Composition and Properties ................................... 61


    3.1 Composition 61
    3.2 Properties 67
    3.2.1 Density 67
    3.2.2 Heat of Combustion (Energy Content) 71
    3.2.3 Measurement 72
    3.2.4 Volatility, Flammability, and Explosive
    Properties 73
    3.2.5 Behavior 77
    3.2.6 Compression and Expansion 78
    3.2.7 Liquefied Natural Gas 79
    3.2.8 Environmental Properties 80
    3.3 References 82

    Part II Gas Processing


    4

    Recovery, Storage, and Transportation ................... 87


    4.1 Recovery

    87

    Speight.book Page vii Monday, May 14, 2007 5:28 PM

    Contents

    vii

    4.2 Storage 89
    4.2.1 Depleted Gas Reservoirs 93
    4.2.2 Aquifers 93
    4.2.3 Salt Caverns 95
    4.3 Transportation 97
    4.3.1 Pipelines 98
    4.3.2 Liquefied Natural Gas 100
    4.3.3 Liquefied Petroleum Gas 101
    4.3.4 Compressed Natural Gas 103
    4.3.5 Gas-to-Solid 104
    4.3.6 Gas-to-Power 106
    4.3.7 Gas-to-Liquids 107
    4.3.8 Gas-to-Commodity 109
    4.4 References 109

    History of Gas Processing...................................... 113


    5.1 Coal Gas 114
    5.2 Natural Gas 125
    5.3 References 130

    Process Classification ............................................ 131


    6.1 Water Removal 137
    6.2 Liquids Removal 140
    6.2.1 Absorption 141
    6.2.2 Cryogenic Expander Process 142
    6.2.3 Membrane Processes 143
    6.3 Nitrogen Removal 144
    6.4 Acid Gas Removal 146
    6.4.1 Olamine Processes 147
    6.4.2 Carbonate and Water Washing Processes
    6.4.3 Metal Oxide Processes 151
    6.4.4 Catalytic Oxidation Processes 154
    6.4.5 Molecular Sieve Processes 154
    6.5 Fractionation 155
    6.6 Hydrogen Sulfide Conversion 156
    6.7 References 158

    150

    Speight.book Page viii Monday, May 14, 2007 5:28 PM

    viii Contents

    Processes .............................................................. 161


    7.1 Olamine Processes

    162

    7.1.1 Girdler Process

    163

    7.1.2 Flexsorb Process

    167

    7.2 Physical Solvent Processes

    168

    7.2.1 Rectisol Process

    170

    7.2.2 Sulfinol Process

    170

    7.3 Metal Oxide Processes

    172

    7.3.1 Iron Sponge Process


    7.3.2 Other Processes

    172

    175

    7.4 Methanol-Based Processes

    177

    7.5 Carbonate Washing and Water-Washing Processes


    7.6 Sulfur Recovery Processes
    7.6.1 Claus Process

    183

    183

    7.6.2 Redox Process

    185

    7.6.3 Wet Oxidation Processes


    7.6.4 Tail-Gas Treating Processes

    186
    186

    7.6.5 Hydrogenation and Hydrolysis Processes


    7.7 Process Selection
    7.8 References

    179

    187

    189

    189

    Emissions Control and Environmental Aspects ...... 193


    8.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions

    196

    8.2 Air Pollutants and Greenhouse Gases

    198

    8.3 Emissions During Production and Delivery


    8.4 Gas Processing
    8.5 Combustion

    201

    203

    8.6 Industrial Emissions

    203

    8.7 Smog and Acid Rain

    205

    8.8 References

    207

    Conversion Factors
    Glossary
    Index

    211

    233

    209

    200

    Speight.book Page xiii Monday, May 14, 2007 5:28 PM

    Preface

    Gas processing, although generally understandable using chemical and/or


    physical principles, is often confusing because of the frequent changes in
    terminology and the myriad mathematical equations and symbols used
    to describe a process. This renders gas processing a subject that is, at best,
    difficult for the layman to understand and appreciate. This book represents an attempt to alleviate the confusion that arises from mathematical
    relationships and the uncertainties in the terminology. Thus, the book
    falls into two convenient subdivisions: Part One deals with the origin and
    occurrence of natural gas and describes recovery, properties, and composition. Part Two deals with processing methods and explains the principles by which natural gas can be prepared for consumer use by removal of
    unwanted or noxious constituents.
    Although gas processing employs different process types, there is always
    an overlap between the various concepts. In an introductory text such
    as this, repetition is helpful to the reader, and this is achieved by subdividing the subject categories and using cross-referencing so that the
    reader will not miss any particular aspect of the processing operations.
    While every effort is made to ensure adequate cross-referencing, each
    chapter is a stand-alone segment of the book and has sufficient information to give the reader the necessary background.
    In summary, the book describes gas processing for the non-technical
    reader and serves as a handy, easy-to-use source to compare the scientific and technological aspects of gas-processing operations and the
    means by which the environment might be protected. In addition, the
    book is suitable for use in courtrooms and boardrooms as well as for
    junior scientists and first-year engineering students.
    James G. Speight, Ph.D., D.Sc.
    The University of Trinidad and Tobago
    xiii

    Speight.book Page 3 Monday, May 14, 2007 5:28 PM

    CHAPTER 1

    History and Uses

    1.1

    Introduction

    Natural gas (also called marsh gas and swamp gas in older texts and
    more recently landfill gas) is a gaseous fossil fuel found in oil fields,
    natural gas fields, and coal beds. As one of the cleanest, safest, and
    most useful of all energy sources, it is a vital component of the
    worlds supply of energy. While it is commonly grouped in with other
    fossil fuels and sources of energy, there are many characteristics of
    natural gas that make it unique.
    Natural gas is the result of the decay of animal remains and plant
    remains (organic debris) that has occurred over millions of years. Over
    time, the mud and soil that covered the organic debris changed to
    rock and trapped the debris beneath the newly-formed rock sediments. Pressure and, to some extent, heat (as yet undefined) changed
    some of the organic material into coal, some into oil (petroleum), and
    some into natural gas. Whether or not the debris formed coal, petroleum, or gas depended upon the nature of the debris and the localized
    conditions under which the changes occurred.
    Natural gas is found in reservoirs beneath the surface of the earth (see
    Composition and Properties) and is often associated with petroleum, although gas that is not associated with petroleum is also
    known. Production companies use sophisticated, expensive technology to find and drill into these reservoirs. Once brought from
    underground, the natural gas is refined to remove impurities such as
    water, other gases, sand, and other compounds. Some hydrocarbons,
    such as propane and butane, are removed and sold separately. Other
    3

    Speight.book Page 4 Monday, May 14, 2007 5:28 PM

    4 Chapter 1 History and Uses

    impurities are also removed, such as hydrogen sulfide (the refining of


    which can produce sulfur, which is then also sold separately). After
    refining (Chapter 7), the clean natural gas is transmitted through a
    network of pipelines that deliver natural gas to its point of use.
    Two new and possibly large sources of methane that may extend the
    availability of natural gas are methane hydrates (also called gas
    hydrates) and coal-bed methane (Berecz and Balla-Achs, 1983; Sloan,
    1997; Gudmundsson et al., 1998; Max, 2000; Sloan, 2000). Their production technologies have only recently been developed, and these
    sources are now becoming economically competitive.
    Methane-rich gases are also produced by the anaerobic decay of nonfossil organic material and are referred to as biogas. Sources of biogas
    include swamps, which produce swamp gas; marshes, which produce
    marsh gas; landfills, which produce landfill gas, as well as sewage
    sludge and manure, by way of anaerobic digesters, in addition to
    enteric fermentation, particularly in cattle.
    Although natural gas is a vital component of the worlds supply of
    energy and one of the most useful of all energy sources, it must be
    understood that the word gas has a variety of different uses, and
    meanings. Fuel for automobiles is also called gas (being a shortened
    version of gasoline), but that is a totally different fuel. The gas used in
    a barbecue grill is actually propane (C3H8), which, while closely associated with and commonly found in natural gas and petroleum, is not
    really natural gas.
    Natural gas is the flammable gaseous mixture that occurs alone or
    with petroleum in reservoirs and is predominantly methane (CH4)
    and some of the higher molecular weight paraffins (CnH2n+2) generally
    containing up to five carbon atoms (Table 11). Briefly, methane is
    the simplest member of the hydrocarbon series and has one carbon
    atom and four hydrogen atoms (Figure 11).
    In its purest form, the natural gas delivered to the consumer is almost
    pure methane, and the remaining hydrocarbons and non-hydrocarbons
    have been removed though refining. The non-hydrocarbon constituents include, but are not limited to, carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), nitrogen (N2), and helium (He).
    All of the hydrocarbon constituents of natural gas are combustible,
    but non-flammable non-hydrocarbon components (carbon dioxide,

    Speight.book Page 5 Monday, May 14, 2007 5:28 PM

    1.1 Introduction 5

    (a)

    (b)

    Figure 11 Simplified representation of methane as (a) a two-dimensional


    formula and (b) a three-dimensional formula.
    Table 11

    Range of Composition of Natural Gas


    Gas

    Composition

    Range

    Methane

    CH4

    7090%

    Ethane

    C2H6

    Propane

    C3H8

    Butane

    C4H10

    Pentane and higher hydrocarbons

    C5H12

    010%

    CO2

    08%

    Oxygen

    O2

    00.2%

    Nitrogen

    N2

    05%

    H2S, COS

    05%

    Carbon dioxide

    Hydrogen sulfide, carbonyl sulfide


    Rare gases: Argon, Helium, Neon, Xenon

    020%

    A, He, Ne, Xe trace

    hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, and helium) detract slightly from the


    heating value of natural gas. However, they are valuable, and in certain natural gases where their concentrations are relatively high, they
    may be extracted commercially.

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